title: University of York

text: York is a founding member of the Worldwide Universities Network which supports worldwide collaboration in teaching and research. The university has been awarded the Queen's Anniversary Prize five times – in 1997 for the work of the Department of Computer Science; in 2005 for the work of the Centre for Novel Agricultural products, in 2007 for the work of the Centre for Health Economics, in 2009 for the work of Social Policy Research Unit of the Department of Social Policy and Social Work, and in 2011 for the Department of Archaeology's influential role in broadening the scope of archaeology.


title: University of York

text: Health economics was pioneered at York and the university leads the world in the methodological development of cost-effectiveness analysis of health care technologies. It is home to two prominent health economics journals and has been home to many prominent names in health economics (including current Lead Health Economist at the World Bank Adam Wagstaff, ex-deputy chair of NICE Tony Culyer, current ISPOR director Paul Kind, ex-ISPOR president Mike Drummond, former chairman of York Primary Care Trust Alan Maynard).


title: University of York

text: In 2007, York became the only British University to have an academic department – Chemistry – win the Gold Athena Swan Award for its commitment to the careers of women in science. In 2014, the Department of Biology also received a Gold Athena Swan Award. The Department of Psychology has won a Silver Athena Swan Award, the first in the country to do so. The Department of Physics also holds a silver award. The university's departments share 13 separate awards, and the university as a whole holds the Athena Swan bronze award.


title: University of York

text: The students' union is the University of York Students' Union and is referred to as YUSU. Its membership is currently the entire student population of the university. In 2008 YUSU was able to open its first Union-run licensed venue The Courtyard. In addition to the students' union, there is the Graduate Students' Association (GSA) the Students' Union for postgraduate students, which follows normal SU functions such as representing postgraduates on university committees and Council.


title: University of York

text: Each College has its own JCRC or students' association which provide a variety of services, including college events and student welfare services; they also organise the Freshers' Fortnight activities in their College.


title: University of York

text: Non-partisan political societies are well represented at the university, with the York Student Think Tank – which produces research in collaboration with national policy organisations such as IPPR, New Generation Society – an informal debating society, and The York Union Society – which competes in inter-varsity debating tournaments against other universities. There are also very active party political societies on campus with the University of York Labour Club, the University of York Liberal Democrat Society, the University of York Conservative and Unionist Association and the University of York Green group; campaigning on issues both on and off campus, as well as organising debates and talks by high-profile speakers. There is also a branch of People and Planet, which campaigns on environmental and ethical issues.


title: University of York

text: Provisions for lesbian, gay, bisexual, trans and queer (LGBT) students at the university are divided among two distinct organisations. YUSU LGBTQ+ is a liberation network built into the students' union, which represents LGBTQ+ students by campaigning for issues on campus, offering welfare & support and running events for all LGBTQ+ students to attend, such as cabaret evenings and chilled mixers. The LGBTQ Social Society also organises social events aimed at LGBTQ+ students and their friends. While remaining separate, these two groups generally have strong links to each other as well as links from the student network to the Staff LGBTI+ Matters Forum, which offers largely similar provision to staff members of the university.


title: University of York

text: The University's Students' Union run a number of bars and venues across both campuses, namely The Courtyard, The Kitchen, The Glasshouse, The Lounge and Vanbrugh Arms. Additionally, the Union also ran a venue known as D-Bar (located in Derwent College) but had to temporarily close it due to the Covid-19 pandemic. D-Bar later reopened as a cafe during refurbishments of Derwent, before fully reopening in 2022. Shortly after reopening as a bar, D-Bar was hosting an LGBTQ+ event when it was gate crashed by Derwent College Rugby team.


title: University of York

text: In 2020, Patrick O'Donnell, the president of YUSU, unveiled a new, purpose built venue named The Forest which would be used for a wide variety of events. Later that year, Brian Terry, the then Student Activities Officer, had the venue used as part of a week long Freshers Fair, advertising societies and clubs to students in a Covid-safe environment.


title: University of York

text: York Student Television (YSTV) was founded at the university in 1967 and is England's oldest student television station. YSTV once held the world record for longest continuous television broadcast under a single director. It was named the best student television station at the 2012, 2014 and 2019 NaSTA Awards. The University of York Filmmaking Society was a student-run filmmaking group; between 1999 and 2014 its members made two feature films and many shorts, some of which were shown at national film festivals.


title: University of York

text: University Radio York (URY) is the oldest independent radio station in the United Kingdom and winner of the Student Radio Awards Best Station Award 2020.


title: University of York

text: Nouse was established in 1964 and was 2005 NUS/Mirror Student paper of the year and 2009 NUS Best Student Media. It has also won multiple Guardian Student Newspaper awards throughout the past decade, for both its pioneering website and outstanding individual journalists. Its rival newspaper, Vision, was named Guardian Student Newspaper of the Year for three consecutive years between 2002 and 2004—the only time this has occurred in the 27-year history of the prestigious awards—and won it again in 2007. In 2011, it won the award for a fifth time, making it the most awarded student newspaper in the United Kingdom. It also won Best Small Budget Publication at the 2006 NUS/Mirror National Student Media Awards.


title: University of York

text: The Lemon Press, York's satire magazine, was launched in 2009, in both print and online formats. In 2010 it won the NUS Award for Best Student Media. The Yorker is an online publication set up by students as an independent company in 2007; it was nominated for the Guardian Student media awards after running for only a few months.


title: University of York

text: York Student Cinema (YSC), operating since the late 1960s, show around 30 films a term using a professional 35 mm projector, an industry standard Christie CP2000 digital projector, and a full size CinemaScope screen in one of the largest rooms on campus. It has won the BFFS film society of the year award several times and celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2016.


title: University of York

text: In 2019, the History of Art department began publishing "Aspectus", an annual research journal edited by current postgraduates within the department.


title: University of York

text: The university teams play in black-and-gold colours. York is a member of British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) and has 65 teams participating. At the end of the 2013/14 BUCS season York came 38th out of 145 participating institutions.


title: University of York

text: As well as BUCS every summer term the university take part in the Roses Tournament, a sports competition against Lancaster University, which is the largest inter-university tournament in Europe. The venue of the event alternates each year between York and Lancaster, and involves numerous sports clubs, including the conventional (football, hockey) and the more unusual (octopush, ultimate frisbee). York are leading Lancaster with 27 wins to 26, with one draw in 1974.


title: University of York

text: The university has also previously also been in the White Rose Varsity Tournament, this started in 2005 against York's other university York St John, York won all six of the tournaments held. In 2011 attempts to try and increase the competitiveness of the competition resulted in York St John being replaced by the University of Hull. York won all 3 tournaments against Hull, which resulted in it being scrapped in 2013.


title: University of York

text: In 2014 a new tournament was created "College Varsity" which was held between the Colleges of the University of York and the Colleges of Durham University.


title: University of York

text: The University of York Music Society and the University of York Drama Society are two of the largest student societies on campus; with each having performances and/or concerts every week during term. Central Hall Musical Society performs a number of shows and showcases every year.


title: University of York

text: Other performing societies include the Gilbert and Sullivan Society, PantSoc who stage a student-written pantomime three times a year, and York ComedySoc, one of the most active comedy societies in the UK, putting on a show every week along with workshops in stand-up, improv and sketch writing/acting. ComedySoc sends two shows to the Edinburgh Fringe each year: The Shambles, ComedySoc's in-house improv comedy troupe and The Dead Ducks, ComedySoc's in-house sketch comedy troupe. Both troupes perform throughout the year on campus and in/around York and have received critical acclaim for their shows at the Edinburgh Fringe.


title: University of York

text: Long Boi is an Indian Runner-Mallard Duck cross that lives in Derwent College, and has become an unofficial mascot to the university. In 2022 a student campaign to erect a 1:1 scale statue of Longboi due to his 'cultural significance' and 'contribution to student life'. In response, the union president said that he would explore possible options to construct a statue.


title: University of York

text: Fusion was recently founded to promote the ever-growing urban music scene and to raise money for charity.


title: University of York

text: In 2004 a student at the university established York Carnival—a day celebrating music and the arts in the centre of York. Its original aim was to encourage links between the University of York and the residents of the historic city and to encourage participation in the arts. It has grown into a large annual event, attracting crowds of up to 5,000.


title: University of York

text: York has a large number of alumni who have been active in politics, including at least fifteen Members of the United Kingdom Parliament, five members of the House of Lords, two Members of the Scottish Parliament, one Member of the European Parliament and several ministers of other governments around the world. The former President and former Prime Minister of Portugal Aníbal Cavaco Silva, completed his doctorate in economics at York. The incumbent Governor-General of Belize Colville Young holds a doctorate in linguistics from York. The Senior Vice President of the World Bank Group Dr Mahmoud Mohieldin holds a master's degree in Economic and Social Policy Analysis from York.


title: University of York

text: The university is also represented by alumni educated in the liberal arts such as English literature, social sciences, economics, philosophy, medieval history, and music. The author Anthony Horowitz attended York and graduated in 1973 with a degree in English literature and art history. Greg Dyke, Chair of the Football Association and British Film Institute, is a former student, and graduated in 1974 with a BA in Politics, returning to York as university Chancellor from 2004 to 2015. The current Director of the Natural History Museum, Sir Michael Dixon, has a PhD in Zoology from York.


title: University of York

text: More recently, due to expansion into areas of technology, it has also produced notable computer scientists, such as the Ethereum co-founder Gavin Wood, computer scientist Chris Lilley, and computational biologist Sue Jones.


title: University of York

text: Prominent academics associated with the University of York include the distinguished literary teacher F. R. Leavis and anti-apartheid activist Adrian Leftwich, and York doctorate, Professor Jennifer Smith (sociolinguist), FRSE, now at the University of Glasgow studying Scottish dialects.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: The third season of "Teen Wolf", an American supernatural drama created by Jeff Davis and to some extent, based on the 1985 film of the same name, premiered on June 3, 2013. The series was renewed for a third season of 24 episodes on July 12, 2012.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: Jackson Whittemore (Colton Haynes) has moved to London. A new teacher, Jennifer Blake (Haley Webb), has joined Beacon Hills High school with a keen eye for Derek. While infiltrating the Alpha Pack who have taken refuge in a bank, they discover that Erica Reyes (Gage Golightly) is dead and Derek's sister Cora Hale (Adelaide Kane) is a prisoner and free them.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: Scott McCall (Tyler Posey), Allison Argent (Crystal Reed), Derek Hale (Tyler Hoechlin) and the rest of the gang find themselves up against a new enemy: the lethal Alpha pack that has come to Beacon Hills, who have kidnapped Vernon Boyd (Sinqua Walls). Not only that but a mysterious, threatening, supernatural Druid has been taking categorized people as sacrifices, killing them and absorbing their power to go against the Alpha pack.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: While Scott (Tyler Posey) struggles to find his place as an Alpha, he, Allison (Crystal Reed) and Stiles (Dylan O'Brien) begin to experience strange side effects as a result of reigniting the power within Beacon Hills. Scott loses his ability to control his werewolf shift, Allison sees visions of her dead aunt, Kate, and Stiles believes he is awake while dreaming and dreaming while awake. They soon discover that the answer to their problems may be found in a new student named Kira Yukimura (Arden Cho), a girl with remarkable powers of her own.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: The pack is threatened by the Nogitsune, a spirit which possesses Stiles, forcing him to complete tasks meant to cause chaos and strife, which the Nogitsune feeds off of. Scott struggles to find a way to save Stiles without killing him. They also encounter the Oni, spirits summoned by Kira's mother, Noshiko, to defeat the Nogitsune.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: Season 3 was filmed in two parts. Part 1 (or Season 3A) was filmed from December 3, 2012 and wrapped up on May 5, 2013. Part 2 (Season 3B) began filming on July 29, 2013, and wrapped up on December 19, 2013. Unlike the previous two seasons, which were shot in Atlanta, Georgia, this season was shot in Los Angeles, California.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: Colton Haynes left the show, taking a role on the CW series "Arrow". MTV also released the first page of the first episode from season three, which is set about four months after the end of season two, and Jackson's absence was addressed within the context of the beginning of the season. On October 2, 2012 an open casting call website was set up to cast identical twins to play the identical twin alpha werewolves, Ethan and Aiden.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: On November 28, 2012, Teen Wolf announced five new additions to the cast for season 3. Former "Desperate Housewives" stars Charlie and Max Carver have been cast as twin alpha werewolves Ethan and Aiden. They are described as being "dangerous charmers with brilliant minds". Australian actress Adelaide Kane has been cast as Cora, Derek Hale's younger sister, a mysterious and beautiful young woman toughened by a life on her own after surviving the Hale House fire. Felisha Terrell from "Days of Our Lives" has been cast as female alpha Kali, while Gideon Emery has been cast as Deucalion, the leader of the Alpha pack. Described as having "an eloquent, cutting intelligence", the new werewolf will set a plan in motion to turn Derek and Scott against each other, ripping the Beacon Hills supernatural community apart at the seams. Brian Patrick Wade has been cast as Ennis, an alpha werewolf who is described as a "force of pure brutality". Haley Webb has been cast as Jennifer Blake, an English teacher at Beacon Hills High School and a new love interest of Derek Hale's.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: Teen Wolf announced three new recurring characters for the second half of season 3. Arden Cho has been cast as Kira, an Asian-American character who has been described as a "new student and possible threat to Beacon Hills". Her character is confirmed to be a kitsune. Doug Jones has been cast as Barrow, a mass murderer, who made his appearance in episode "Galvanize". Ryan Kelley will be the newest member of the Beacon County Sheriff's Department in Teen Wolf Season 3 Part 2, he will assist Sheriff Stilinski in uncovering the mysterious supernatural occurrences that plague the murder-prone Northern California town before becoming part of the mystery himself. Additionally, Shelley Hennig was cast, with her role being kept secret until the winter season premiere.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: Linden Ashby has stated that for the second part of Season 3, "This is a season of consequence. That every action has a reaction, has a consequence. And it's not always what you "think" it's gonna be."


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: During Season 3B production, Crystal Reed decided she "wanted to explore other avenues of film and TV" and move on from the show, and her character Allison Argent was killed off in the penultimate episode.


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 88% and an average rating of 7.97/10 for the third season, based on 17 reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, "Beautifully shot and crafted, "Teen Wolf" delves into intellectual horror themes while staying true to the movie's original mythology."


title: Teen Wolf (season 3)

text: The third season was released in two parts: 3A was released on December 10, 2013, and 3B was released on June 17, 2014.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The Collingwood Football Club, nicknamed the Magpies or colloquially the Pies, is a professional Australian rules football club based in Melbourne that competes in the Australian Football League (AFL), the sport's elite competition. The club was formed in 1892 in the suburb of Collingwood and played in the Victorian Football Association (VFA) before joining seven other teams in 1896 to found the breakaway Victorian Football League, today known as the AFL. Originally based at Victoria Park, Collingwood now plays home games at the Melbourne Cricket Ground and has its training and administrative headquarters at Olympic Park Oval and the AIA Centre.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood has played in a record 44 VFL/AFL Grand Finals (including rematches), winning 15, drawing two and losing 27 (also a record). Regarded as one of Australia's most popular sports clubs, Collingwood has attracted the second-highest attendance figures and television ratings of any professional football team in the nation.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The club's song, "Good Old Collingwood Forever", dates back to 1906, making it the oldest song currently used in the AFL. Its home guernsey consists of black and white stripes, matching the colours of the Australian magpie. Historically, the club's biggest rivals have been cross-town clubs Carlton, Melbourne and Richmond. Collingwood has also enjoyed a healthy Anzac Day rivalry with Essendon since 1995 and smaller rivalries with West Coast and Brisbane since the turn of the millennium.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood fields a reserves team in the Victorian Football League (formerly the VFA) and women's teams in the AFL Women's and VFL Women's competitions. It also owns and operates a netball team in the National Netball League.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood played its first game in the Victorian Football Association (VFA) against Carlton on 7 May 1892. The club won the VFA Premiership in 1896.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In 1897, Collingwood, along with fellow VFA clubs Fitzroy, Melbourne, St Kilda, Carlton, Essendon, South Melbourne and Geelong split from the VFA and formed the Victorian Football League (VFL). Collingwood won its first premiership in 1902, defeating Essendon by 33 points in the 1902 VFL Grand Final.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood was the most successful Victorian club of the 1920s and 1930s, appearing in 13 out of a possible 20 Grand Finals during the period. Collingwood were premiers six times during this time, including four consecutive premierships between 1927 and 1930, a VFL record, and two consecutive premierships in 1935 and 1936. The club's coach during this period was Jock McHale, who served as coach from 1912 to 1949. Collingwood also had three Brownlow Medallists during the period, with Syd Coventry winning in 1927, Albert Collier in 1929 and Harry Collier in 1930. The club's ruthlessly successful period later earned the club the nickname "The Machine". American journalist and author Sam Walker included the Machine team in his book "The Captain Class", which listed some the author's greatest teams in the history of world sport.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The Collingwood team of 1927–30 not only achieved four straight premierships, but did so with a winning percentage of around 86% across the four seasons, and an average winning margin of about five goals. In 1929 they also became the only team in history to go through a home-and-away season undefeated. Collingwood remains the only club in the history of the VFL/AFL to have been declared premiers on four successive occasions.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In the 1950s, rival club Melbourne enjoyed an era of unprecedented success, winning five premierships in six years (the last coming in 1960, and having been runner up in 1954). Collingwood lost two Grand Finals to Melbourne in this decade, but bounced back to win premierships in 1953 and 1958. Collingwood's 1958 premiership is much cherished by the club as it prevented Melbourne from equalling Collingwood's record four premierships in a row.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The 1958 premiership was however to be Collingwood's last for 32 years, as the club was to suffer a string of Grand Final defeats in coming decades.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: A string of eight Grand Final losses, often by narrow margins, between 1960 and 1981 gave rise to a perception that the club was prone to "choking", a phenomenon wittily dubbed "Colliwobbles". Whether this perception is accurate remains a subject of debate; having only won one and drawn one of its last six Grand Finals. Lou Richards ceremoniously buried the Colliwobbles at Victoria Park after the club's 1990 premiership.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The 1990 premiership team, coached by Leigh Matthews and captained by Tony Shaw, had a one-sided grand final win against Essendon, the Magpies recording a 48-point victory and ending a 32-year premiership drought which included eight grand final losses and one draw. The sight of club great Darren Millane, who died in a car-crash one year later, holding the ball aloft in triumph at the final siren is one of the indelible images of the match.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: After the drought-breaking premiership, the club lapsed into a state of decline for the remainder of the decade, culminating with the club's second wooden spoon in 1999. The Magpies returned to finals, though were quickly eliminated, in the 1992 season against St Kilda and in the 1994 AFL season against West Coast. Matthews left as head coach at the end of the 1995 season and was replaced at the start of the following year by 1990 premiership captain Tony Shaw, who had only retired from football 18 months earlier. Mid-table finishes under Shaw were achieved for the next two seasons, before poor results in 1998 and 1999 saw Shaw announce his resignation.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Media personality, sports journalist and administrator Eddie McGuire was elected President in October 1998. He oversaw the installation of new head coach Michael Malthouse in October 1999, whose appointment proved to be a masterstroke in reviving the club on-field. Under Malthouse, the acquisition and emergence of players such as Paul Licuria, Alan Didak, Anthony Rocca and Nathan Buckley resulted in Collingwood quickly moving up the ladder in the 2000 AFL season and in the 2001 AFL season, only narrowly missing the finals in the latter year. Collingwood met reigning premiers Brisbane in the 2002 Grand Final and were regarded as massive underdogs, eventually falling just 9 points short of an improbable premiership. Buckley, the captain, became just the third player to win the Norm Smith Medal as best afield in the Grand Final despite being a member of the losing side. Despite a very successful home-and-away next season, they were again defeated by the Lions in the 2003 Grand Final, this time in thoroughly convincingly fashion.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Following those Grand Final losses, Collingwood struggled for the next two years, finishing 13th in 2004 and second-last in 2005; the latter meant Collingwood was eligible for a priority pick which the club used to recruit Dale Thomas. Collingwood made a return to the finals in 2006, finishing fifth, but were defeated by the Western Bulldogs by 41 points in its elimination final. A loss to late in the season was to cost them the double chance. The 2007 season saw them finish sixth on the ladder at season's conclusion, and in the finals they knocked out the grand finalists of the past two years, Sydney, in the elimination final and then West Coast in overtime at Subiaco Oval in the semi-final. Having earned a preliminary final against , Collingwood lost to the eventual premiers, by five points in one of the most memorable preliminary finals in over a decade. Nathan Buckley would announce his retirement at season's end after playing just five games in 2007 due to injury.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood finished eighth in the 2008 AFL season and were assigned an away final against at AAMI Stadium. After at one point trailing in the match, Collingwood went on to end Adelaide's season and earn a semi-final meeting against . Having defeated the Saints in both their regular season meetings, Collingwood lost convincingly, ending their 2008 season. The 2009 season saw Collingwood finish inside the top-four for the first time since 2003, but in the qualifying final were beaten by minor premiers St Kilda convincingly. Having won a second chance, Collingwood struggled against Adelaide for the second year in a row before John Anthony kicked the match-winning goal with a minute left to send them into another preliminary final meeting with Geelong. But the season ended abruptly for the Magpies, with a 73-point loss to Geelong.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In 2010, Collingwood finished as minor premiers, and after wins in the qualifying and preliminary finals, reached the first Grand Final against . The match finished as a draw, forcing the first grand final replay in 33 years. Collingwood won the replay by 56 points. Key defensive player Nick Maxwell captained the club to victory and midfielder Scott Pendlebury (who had already won his first of eventually three Anzac medals earlier in the year) was awarded the Norm Smith Medal. The club won a second consecutive minor premiership in 2011, and qualified for the Grand Final after a three-point victory against Hawthorn in the preliminary final. However, Collingwood was then beaten by Geelong by 38 points in the decider, after trailing by seven points at three-quarter time. Following the Grand Final loss, which also marked the end of the club's 2011 AFL season, Malthouse left Collingwood after deciding not to stay on as "director of coaching". Star midfielder Dane Swan won the 2011 Brownlow Medal with a then-record 34 votes. Malthouse would leave having coached the club to eight finals series and four grand finals in 12 years.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Nathan Buckley, regarded as one of Collingwood's greatest players, was appointed assistant coach under Malthouse for the 2010 and 2011 seasons, before assuming the head coaching position at the start of the 2012 season. Malthouse, who had been contracted to take on a "head of coaching" role, elected to leave the club rather than put Buckley in what he regarded as an awkward position. Under Buckley, Collingwood continued to be successful in the short term, qualifying inside the top-four in the 2012 season, before falling 26 points short in a preliminary final to eventual premiers the Sydney Swans at ANZ Stadium. The club qualified for finals once more in 2013, though were surprisingly eliminated in the first week by underdogs Port Adelaide at home. The result prompted the Magpies coaching staff to begin making radical changes to the club's playing list, which saw premiership players Heath Shaw, Sharrod Wellingham, Heritier Lumumba among others leave for other clubs or retire. Over the next four years, younger talent was drafted but the club's win–loss recorded continued to deteriorate. Collingwood failed to make finals from 2014 through to the end of the 2017 season, progressively sliding down the ladder each year. Buckley came under intense media pressure to resign or be sacked from his position, though club administrators elected to grant him a two-year extension to his contract in October 2017 after a broad-ranging internal review.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The emergence of new-generation players such as Taylor Adams, Adam Treloar and Jordan De Goey, alongside key talls Brodie Grundy and Mason Cox mixed well with veterans Pendlebury and Steele Sidebottom. Collingwood jumped from 13th in 2017 to 3rd in 2018, sensationally knocking out reigning premiers in the preliminary final before falling five points short after leading for most of the match against West Coast in the 2018 Grand Final, the senior team's 27th defeat in a Grand Final. Buckley's growth as a coach was partially credited for the rapid improvement. In 2019, Collingwood had another strong season, finishing fourth on the ladder, but they were unable to return to the Grand Final after a shattering four-point defeat to in the first preliminary final. In 2020, Collingwood finished 8th at the end of the home-and-away season.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The club made significant on-field and administrative changes in the late 2010s. It was a foundation member of the inaugural AFL Women's competition in 2017 and in the same year established the Collingwood Magpies Netball team, a division of the club competing in the professional National Netball League. Collingwood unveiled a new permanent logo at the end of the 2017 season, which was the club's 125th anniversary year.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In 2020, the club commissioned an independent review into claims of racism at the club. In February 2021, the report was leaked to journalists and revealed that "while claims of racism have been made across the AFL, there is something distinct and egregious about Collingwood’s history" and that "what is clear is that racism at the club has resulted in profound and enduring harm to First Nations and African players. The racism affected them, their communities, and set dangerous norms for the public." Collingwood President Eddie McGuire suggested that the report signalled "A historic and proud day" for the media and club which was working towards addressing racism and that it "was not a racist club". Many criticised McGuire's response, including AFL CEO Gillon McLachlan, Héritier Lumumba, former Indigenous Collingwood player Tony Armstrong and a Victorian Senator, among others. McGuire later apologised for the remarks. On 4 February, 150 Collingwood players from the men's and women's teams penned an open letter apologising "to anyone who, through their association with our club, has been marginalised, hurt or discriminated against due to their race." First-grade footballer Darcy Moore said that the players were "humiliated and shocked" by the report's findings. McGuire stood down as President of the Collingwood Football Club on 9 February 2021, although he had initially wanted to see the year through for a seamless transition until being compelled to step down.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Buckley stepped down after Round 13 of the 2021 AFL season, and assistant coach Robert Harvey took over as the caretaker coach until the end of the season. Harvey focused on developing youth and letting them play, with Collingwood winning 2 out of their 9 remaining games.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In September 2021, Craig McRae was appointed as head coach of the club for the 2022 season and onwards. In his first season as Senior Coach, McRae has led the club from 17th place in 2021 to 4th place on the ladder at the conclusion of the regular season, which included an 11 game winning streak. They were then knocked out by 1 point against Sydney in the Preliminary Final.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Throughout the club's history, Collingwood has worn a guernsey of black and white vertical stripes. The all white jumper, with the three black vertical stripes is the iconic strip that the club is most associated with. The current incarnation of the guernsey is mostly black, with white stripes on the front and lower half of the back, and white numbers. The main clash guernsey is the reverse of this: mostly white, with black stripes and black numbers, worn in away matches against clubs with a predominantly dark guernsey such as Fremantle and Port Adelaide. A secondary clash guernsey was introduced in 2011 and is used only in matches against North Melbourne due to similarity between the two uniforms. The alternate uniform is black with only two white stripes on each side instead of three.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Traditionally, Collingwood has worn a white guernsey with black stripes. The club switched to the black guernsey with white stripes in 2001.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwoods cultural reach and impact is far reaching as evidence by memberships, crowds, broadcast ratings and more recently, the emergence of influential digital media, such as the Pie Hard podcast.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: "Good Old Collingwood Forever" is the team song of the Collingwood Football Club. The lyrics were written by player Tom Nelson during Collingwood's 1906 tour of Tasmania, making it the oldest of the team songs currently used in the AFL. It is sung to the tune of "Goodbye, Dolly Gray", originally a song written in connection with the Spanish–American War, then a popular Boer War and First World War anthem. It is the only AFL team song to reference the barracker, an Australian rules football term for fan.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The current version of the song played at the ground during game day was recorded in 1972 by the Fable Singers. The lyrics are as follows:


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Carlton is considered to be the club's most bitter arch-rival (for full details see Carlton–Collingwood AFL rivalry), with Richmond, Essendon and more recently Brisbane close behind. Collingwood's two opponents in the themed Rivalry Rounds staged to date have been Carlton (2005–2006, 2009) and Richmond (2007–2008).


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The rivalry between Collingwood and Melbourne was at its peak between 1955 and 1964, when the two played off in the grand final on five occasions. This included the 1958 Grand Final where Collingwood's victory prevented Melbourne from equalling Collingwood's record of four premierships in succession (1927–1930). The old rivalry with Melbourne has faded in recent decades due to Melbourne not enjoying the same level of on-field success, however, it remains strong and is an annual scheduled fixture on the Queens Birthday public holiday.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood's rivalry with Essendon has become more significant since 1995, when the first Anzac Day clash took place. After the 2021 match, Collingwood have won this contest 15 times and Essendon 11 times, with the first match being drawn.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Games between Collingwood and Geelong have become highly anticipated since 2007. In Round 15 Geelong beat Collingwood by 16 points in a high-quality match. In the Preliminary final Collingwood surprised many when they came within 5 points of the eventual premiers. In 2008 Collingwood thrashed Geelong by 86 points—20.14 (134)- 7.6 (48) causing Geelong's only loss of the 2008 home-and-away season. In 2009, the sides again met in the preliminary final, but despite high hopes the Cats, who would again win the premiership, won by 73 points in front of another massive crowd of 87,258. In 2010, the two sides emerged as the favourites for the flag and twice met in front of blockbuster crowds at the MCG when they were placed 1st and 2nd on the ladder—with the results evenly split. They again met in a Preliminary final, this time a resounding win to Collingwood by 41 points. In 2011, both teams were undefeated going into their round eight 'blockbuster' at the 'G. Geelong won by three points, after a controversial advantage was not paid to Magpie Scott Pendlebury in the dying minutes. Pendlebury kicked a goal and would have put the Pies in front, but the free kick was contentiously called back and Geelong managed to whisk the ball away. In the round 24 match, Geelong thumped the Magpies by a record margin of 96 points, which was also Collingwood's biggest ever loss at the MCG. The 2011 Grand Final against the Cats concluded with a 38-point loss for the Pies.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood Football Club had its original training and administration base at Victoria Park from 1892 until 2004. In 2004, Collingwood Football Club moved its primary administrative and training base to the purpose-built Melbourne Sports and Entertainment Centre at the Olympic Park Complex. The Collingwood Football Club also used Olympic Park Stadium being adjacent to Melbourne Sports and Entertainment Centre as its outdoor training ground from 2004 until 2012, when it was demolished. After this occurred, Collingwood Football Club moved its outdoor training ground to the newly developed Olympic Park Oval that replaced the space of the stadium after demolition.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: from 1892 until 1999. Since 2000, The club's primary home ground has been the Melbourne Cricket Ground, even though the club had already experimented playing home games at the venue since 1993, where in the period between 1994 and 1999, the club would play seven of its home games at the MCG, while retaining three at Victoria Park.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood is a working-class suburb and the Collingwood Football Club supporter base traditionally came from the working class (though its supporter base today goes far beyond). Many of the club's supporters who regularly attend games still come from the working class or from lower socio-economic groups, leading to jokes from supporters of other clubs which typically stereotype their Collingwood counterparts as poor, crude and ignorant.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood is traditionally reviled by non-Collingwood supporters ("You either love 'em or you hate 'em"). The dislike of the club by outsiders is said to have originated during the 1920s and 1930s, a period of great success for the club which drew the envy and resentment of other clubs. In this period, Collingwood was also perceived as a Catholic and Irish club, at a time when these groups were looked down upon by the rest of Australian society and subjected to a considerable degree of social exclusion.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: According to a 2001 study, Collingwoods old home ground of Victoria Park had a reputation as one of the worst venues for racial vilification, though it has also been said that the problem was similar at all grounds. Collingwood has however been involved in several high-profile incidents of this type, such as those involving indigenous players Nicky Winmar in 1993 and Adam Goodes in 2013. Michael Longs accusation of racial vilification against Collingwood ruckman Damian Monkhorst in 1995 also led directly to the establishment of the AFL's racial vilification regulations. In support of more inclusive sporting cultures, in 2010 the Australian fashion designer Shanaaz Copeland developed a Collingwood-inspired hijab for Muslim women. (See also: The "Do Better" Report)


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood’s cultural reach on the Australian sporting landscape is far-reaching, as evident by attendance figures, memberships, TV ratings, and, more recently, the emergence of digital media such as the "Pie Hard" podcast.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In 2011, Collingwood reached 70,000 members for the first time, creating a new AFL record, beating their own previous record of 58,249 set in 2010.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The club's extensive membership base tends to be a large crowd-pulling power, which has caused the AFL to be accused of favouring Collingwood when scheduling to maximise the league's attendance figures. However, the AFL states that this is due to other clubs requesting home games at the MCG against Collingwood.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood was one of the last clubs to abandon its traditional stadium, the famous inner-city Victoria Park. Collingwood now plays home games at the MCG. It now also has its headquarters situated in the former Glasshouse Entertainment Centre. Due to a sponsorship deal, this facility is known as 'The AIA Centre', and has been previously known by other names such as 'The Lexus Centre', 'The Westpac Centre' and 'The Holden Centre', all due to sponsorship agreements.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood continues to be financially viable through the loyal support of its huge following and numerous sponsors. After finishing 2nd in 2002 and 2003 the team fell to 13th and 15th (out of 16) in 2004 and 2005 respectively. This trend has plagued the club since the glory days of pre-World War II VFL football. Since 1958, the club has won only two VFL/AFL Premiership (the inaugural AFL Premiership in 1990, and in 2010). Despite this, the club still has won more individual games, more finals and made more grand final appearances than any other club.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: On 9 March 2007, former Collingwood and Fitzroy defender Gary Pert was appointed the Magpies' CEO, seven weeks after Greg Swann departed for Carlton. In accepting the key Magpie post, Pert quit as a club director and as managing director of Channel 9 in Melbourne. In a press conference, it was stated that Collingwood has budgeted to turn over about $50 million this year. McGuire hopes the new administration will soon double that figure. "A finance administration review has come up with how we are going to turn Collingwood in to its next phase of its life", McGuire said. "What do we do to make ourselves go from a $45 million a year turnover business to a $100 million turnover business? "They sound like big figures but in 1999 we turned over $13 million, so that is where we are heading as a football club."


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The club made an operating profit of $5.23 million for the 2013 season, revenue increased from $2.6 million to more than $75 million.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: On 24 July 2017, Pert resigned from his position as CEO of the club, with Peter Murphy replacing him as an interim CEO.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The Collingwood guernsey is the most valuable sports sponsorship in Australia. Collingwood has different guernsey sponsors for home and away matches, generating an estimated $6.3 million worth of media exposure for the primary sponsor and $5.7 million for the secondary sponsor. These sponsorships are ranked first and second in Australia. High-profile sponsors have included Emirates, Holden, CGU Insurance, and Westpac.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood announced its team of the century on 14 June 1997, celebrating 100 years since the beginning of the VFL. Gavin Brown was added as the fourth interchange player in 2002, as, when the team was named in 1997, only three interchange players were permitted on a team.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: This list comprises every captain of the club. This list does not include deputy captains filling in due to an injury to the named captain, but does include captains named after a player retires or steps down during the season.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: There have been twelve presidents of the Collingwood Football Club. The first and founding president of Collingwood was former Collingwood Mayor and Victorian MP William Beazley. Beazley was president of Collingwood from the founding of the club in 1892 until 1911. The second president of Collingwood was Alfred Cross. However, Cross was only president for a brief period of time. Third was former Fitzroy and Collingwood player Jim Sharp. Sharp was president for ten years (1913–1923). The fourth president of Collingwood was another former player, Harry Curtis. Curtis currently is the longest serving president of Collingwood. Curtis served as president for twenty-six years. Another former player of Collingwood, Syd Coventry was the fifth president for Collingwood, serving twelve years between 1950 and 1962.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Tom Sherrin was the sixth president of Collingwood, serving from 1963 to 1974. Ern Clarke, president for one year, was the seventh president. John Hickey, Ranald Macdonald and Allan MacAlister all served as president during 1977 through to 1995. Eleventh president and former player, Kevin Rose, was the second most recent president of Collingwood. The twelfth, and second-longest serving president of Collingwood, is radio and television presenter, commentator and journalist Eddie McGuire. McGuire was president of Collingwood between 1998 and 2021. Club board members Mark Korda and Peter Murphy were interim co-presidents, following McGuire's tenure. In April 2021, Korda was appointed the thirteenth president of Collingwood.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The Collingwood Reserves are the reserves team of the club. The latest iteration of the Collingwood Reserves was created in 2008, and are yet to win a Victorian Football League (VFL) premiership.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The VFL/AFL operated a reserves competition from 1919 to 1991, and a "de facto" AFL reserves competition was run by the Victorian State Football League from 1992 to 1999. Collingwood fielded a reserves team in both of these competitions, allowing players who were not selected for the senior team to play for Collingwood in the lower grade. The team won seven reserves premierships during this period, including four in the first seven years between 1919 and 1925, but only three thereafter. After the AFL reserves competition was disbanded at the end of 1999, the club fielded its reserves team in the Victorian Football League during the 2000 season.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In 2001, Collingwood reserves team was dissolved and the club entered into an affiliation with the VFL's Williamstown Football Club, such that Williamstown served as a feeder team and reserves players for Collingwood played senior football for Williamstown. Williamstown won one VFL premiership during this time, in 2003.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Collingwood ended its affiliation with Williamstown after the 2007 season. The reserves team was re-established, and has competed in the VFL since 2008. Collingwood's standalone reserves team's best VFL result to date was a preliminary final appearance in the 2016 VFL season, in which it lost to eventual premiers Footscray by 119 points.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The reserves team currently splits home games between Olympic Park Oval and Victoria Park, although they do occasionally play at the MCG as a curtain raiser to Collingwood home matches, and uses the AFL team's clash guernsey as its primary guernsey. The Collingwood VFL team is composed of both reserves players from the club's primary and rookie AFL lists, and a separately maintained list of players eligible only for VFL matches.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In April 2016, the club launched a bid to enter a team in the inaugural AFL Women's season in 2017. Meg Hutchins was appointed Women's Football Operations Manager some weeks prior, and given the responsibility of crafting the bid.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The club was granted a license in June 2016, becoming one of eight teams to compete in the league's first season.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: In addition to her role off-field, Hutchins would become one of the club's first players, along with marquees Moana Hope and Emma King. Collingwood selected a further 19 players in October's inaugural draft as well as three non-drafted players and two first time footballing rookies. Dandenong Stingrays assistant and Victorian Metro Youth Girls head coach Wayne Siekman was appointed the team's inaugural head coach in July 2016.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The AFL Women's team is based at the club's training and administration at Olympic Park, though often shares matches between the venue and the club's spiritual home Victoria Park.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: The club began fielding its own team in the revamped VFL Women's league from the start of the 2018 season. Many of the club's AFLW athletes play for the VFLW team, though the majority of the team is made up of players who haven't been drafted to an AFLW club. The VFL Women's competition runs from May to September (after the AFL Women's season has concluded) and Collingwood achieved success quickly in the league, claiming their first VFLW premiership in 2019.


title: Collingwood Football Club

text: Instituted in 1981, retrospective awards were dated back to 1955; prior to that, the League awarded the Leading Goalkicker Medal


title: Patrick Page

text: John Patrick Page was born in Spokane, Washington, and raised primarily in Monmouth, Oregon. His father, Robert Page, was a theatre educator at Western Oregon University (then named Oregon College of Education). Page's early love of Shakespeare took hold when his father performed with the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in Ashland, Oregon, in 1964–1965. His mother, Geri, was an administrator at Oregon State University. Patrick has two brothers, Robert and Michael, and one sister, Gayle.


title: Patrick Page

text: In his teens, he developed an interest in magic and illusion. In 1978 he won the Pacific Coast Association of Magicians Stage Competition and in 1979 he was chosen by the International Brotherhood of Magicians as the Outstanding Teenage Magician in the stage-magic category.


title: Patrick Page

text: Page attended Central High School in Independence, Oregon, graduating in 1980. During high school, Page was active not only in theater, but also in speech and debate tournaments and became the first person to win the national championship title twice, as the National Forensics League's Speaker of the Year in both 1979 and 1980. Next, he attended The Pacific Conservatory of Performing Arts. He then graduated cum laude from Whitman College in 1985 and was chosen as the valedictory speaker for his class. During his time at Whitman, Page was twice chosen as the Outstanding Competitive Speaker in the Nation by the American Forensics Association, leading the Whitman team to an overall second-place finish at Nationals.


title: Patrick Page

text: Page's early career was spent primarily in Utah and Oregon. Page spent six seasons with the Utah Shakespeare Festival in Cedar City, becoming a Resident Artist and the Director of Development, during which time he helped oversee the creation of the new Randall L. Jones Theatre. During the off-season he frequently performed with the Pioneer Theatre Company in Salt Lake City. Subsequently, he spent several seasons with the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in Ashland, before branching out to other regional theatres and eventually moving to New York.


title: Patrick Page

text: Page's Broadway credits include originating the role of The Grinch in "Dr. Seuss' How the Grinch Stole Christmas!", Scar in "The Lion King", Lumière in "Disney's Beauty and the Beast" in the U.S. National Tour, Ebenezer Scrooge and Jacob Marley in "A Christmas Carol" at Madison Square Garden, Decius Brutus in "Julius Caesar" (opposite Denzel Washington), and multiple roles in "The Kentucky Cycle". His performance as King Henry VIII (opposite Frank Langella) in the Broadway revival of "A Man for All Seasons" in 2008 was nominated for the Outer Critics Award and chosen by "The Wall Street Journal" as one of the outstanding theatre performances of that year.


title: Patrick Page

text: Off-Broadway, he has been seen in "Richard II", "Rex", and "The Duchess of Malfi". Page is also widely recognized as one of America's leading classical actors. He is an Affiliate Artist of the Shakespeare Theatre Company in Washington, D.C., and an Artist in Residence at the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego. As a member of the Shakespeare Theatre Company, he, along with other company members, received the William Shakespeare Award for Classical Theatre (Will Award) in 2007. In 2006 Page was awarded the Helen Hayes Award for Outstanding Leading Performance by an Actor for his portrayal of Iago in Michael Kahn's production of "Othello" at The Shakespeare Theatre. "Washington Post" critic Peter Marks cited Page's Iago as one of five outstanding American performances of Shakespeare in his lifetime, along with Stacy Keach, Liev Schreiber, Kevin Kline, and Michael Hayden. Page's other performances at STC include the title role in "Macbeth" (opposite Kelly McGillis) and Claudius in "Hamlet".


title: Patrick Page

text: At the Old Globe Theatre in San Diego, Page's performance in the title role of "Cyrano De Bergerac" won the Craig Noel, San Diego Critics, and Patte Awards for Outstanding Leading Actor in a Play. He has also been seen at the Globe as Malvolio in "Twelfth Night", Pogo Poole in "The Pleasure of His Company", and Geoffrey Cordova in "Dancing in the Dark" (aka "The Band Wagon") for which he also received the Craig Noel Award. Page has performed at many of America's leading regional theatres. His classical performances include Cyrano, Sergius, Hamlet, Richard II, Richard III, Oberon, Henry V, Talbot, Pinch, Armado, Mercutio, Brutus, Antony, Dr. Caius, Autolycus, Pandarus, Brazen, Hortensio, Malvolio, Horatio, Claudius, Iago, Jaques, Macbeth, and Benedick. Page is also a playwright. In 2004 his play "Swansong" debuted at the Lucille Lortel White Barn Theatre in Norwalk, Connecticut, and was named one of the top ten plays of the year by the American Theatre Critics Association. It later played at the Kennedy Center, the Seattle Shakespeare Company, and Off-Broadway on Theatre Row.


title: Patrick Page

text: Page is also the author of the one-man shows "Passion's Slaves" and "Love Will", and the co-author (with Doug Christensen and Larry Baker) of "Nothing Like the Sun". Page authored a popular stage adaptation of "A Christmas Carol". Page is also an acting teacher who has worked at NYU's Tisch Graduate School of the Arts, the Old Globe's MFA program, the Alabama Shakespeare Festival's MFA program, Southern Utah University, and many others. He now teaches privately in New York City. He has directed "Macbeth", "Romeo and Juliet", "A Midsummer Night's Dream", "Measure for Measure", "Twelfth Night", and many more.


title: Patrick Page

text: Page created the dual role of Norman Osborn and his alter ego the Green Goblin in Julie Taymor's Broadway rock musical "", which played at the Foxwoods Theatre until January 2014. Premiering in June 2011, it featured music and lyrics by Bono and The Edge. Page's performance received positive reviews and was quoted as being one of the main reasons to see the show. For this performance, he received a nomination for the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Featured Actor in a Musical. Page left the show on August 5, 2012, to star in the new Broadway production of "Cyrano De Bergerac" which ran for a limited engagement from September to November 2012. His role in "Spider-Man" was taken over by Robert Cuccioli.


title: Patrick Page

text: Page appeared in the Broadway production of John Grisham's "A Time to Kill". The production started on September 28, 2013, and officially opened on October 20, 2013. He appeared in the new play "Casa Valentina", which opened on Broadway in April 2014. He originated the role of Frollo in the U.S. premiere of "The Hunchback of Notre Dame", made his Shakespeare in the Park debut in "Cymbeline", and in fall 2015 played Adult Men in the "Spring Awakening" revival produced by Deaf West and directed by his "Hunchback" co-star Michael Arden.


title: Patrick Page

text: Page played Hades in productions of "Hadestown" at the New York Theatre Workshop, at the Citadel Theatre in Edmonton, and at London's Royal National Theatre. He reprised the role on Broadway at the Walter Kerr Theatre beginning in March 2019, receiving a nomination for the Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Musical. The role features Page singing as low as a G1, which is one of the lowest notes playable on a piano. On November 2, 2022, it was announced that Page would be exiting "Hadestown" on December 30, after six years in the role.


title: Patrick Page

text: He was married to actress Liisa Ivary from 1989 to 1991. In 2001, he married actress and TV personality Paige Davis (TLC's "Trading Spaces", Broadway's "Chicago" and "Boeing-Boeing"). The Pages said in 2009: "We've been a couple for 14 years and married for eight of them..."


title: Patrick Page

text: He has been an outspoken advocate for mental-health awareness and has spoken publicly about his lifelong experience with deep depression, which he now manages with medication: "It took a long time to get my medications right. I have variously been diagnosed with an anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, depressive disorder—you name it. It takes constant vigilance to keep up with my sneaky serotonin levels. And—full disclosure—there were years of dangerous substance abuse as I attempted to self-medicate my symptoms."


title: Patrick Page

text: Page has received a variety of awards and accolades throughout his career, including a Grammy Award, a Helen Hayes Award, a Princess Grace Award, an Emery Battis Award, the Utah Governors Medal for the Arts, the Whitman College Young Alumni Award, the Craig Noel Award, and the Joseph Jefferson Award, as well as having received a Tony Award nomination.


title: Tigerland

text: Tigerland is a 2000 American war drama film directed by Joel Schumacher and starring Colin Farrell. It takes place in a training camp for soldiers to be sent to the Vietnam War.


title: Tigerland

text: "Tigerland" was the name of a U.S. Army training camp during the mid-1960s to early 1970s, located at Fort Polk, Louisiana as part of the U.S. Army Advanced Infantry Training Center. As often the last stop for new infantrymen on their way to Vietnam, Tigerland was established in humid and muggy Fort Polk in order to closely mimic the environmental conditions of South Vietnam. While the film's setting is loosely based on Fort Polk, the film was actually filmed at Camp Blanding in Florida. The film premiered at the 2000 Toronto International Film Festival.


title: Tigerland

text: In September 1971, the US is losing the Vietnam War. Roland Bozz, a draftee opposed to the war, is an unruly soldier who disrespects authority. He befriends another Army recruit, Jim Paxton, an aspiring writer who records his experiences in a journal. Unlike Bozz, Paxton volunteered. Upon reaching their post, company commanding officer Captain Saunders explains that every soldier who passes through Fort Polk will be sent to Vietnam, and that any political views on the war are irrelevant.


title: Tigerland

text: Having "X-ray vision for loopholes", Bozz finds ways for soldiers to get out of the army — one because he not only has children but also a disabled wife; another, Miter, had joined to prove his manhood but finds himself overwhelmed. Eventually Bozz's natural leadership and ability earn him the title of squad leader. Another private, Wilson, a racial bigot and instigator, continuously demeans Miter and Bozz. Bozz fights and easily beats Wilson, earning Wilson's hatred.


title: Tigerland

text: Later, during live fire exercises, Wilson threatens Bozz with a pistol. Bozz tries to disarm Wilson, and the two wrestle each other to the ground, with Wilson prevailing and putting the gun to the back of Bozz's head and pulling the trigger. Miraculously, the gun misfires, saving Bozz's life. Saunders lets Bozz choose the punishment: have Wilson court-martialed or "let me deal with him", strongly suggesting the latter. Bozz says he wants Wilson "out of the Army", because he recognizes Wilson has emotionally suffered ever since his inability to command became obvious.


title: Tigerland

text: The platoon is sent to "Tigerland", a forested training area designed as a replica of Vietnam. During an exercise, Bozz's squad acts as villagers in a mock Vietnamese village, with one squad member designated as a Viet Cong sympathizer. They compete with another squad charged with rooting out the sympathizer, led by Wilson, who was ultimately spared. As the exercise ends with Bozz's squad "winning", Wilson tells Bozz he will kill him no matter what it takes. Soon thereafter, Bozz plans to escape to Mexico with the aid of some civilians he has paid. Platoon member Johnson tells him if he runs away, Wilson will kill Paxton instead. Bozz remains.


title: Tigerland

text: During the last training exercise, the two squads are pitted against each other on patrolling missions. As Wilson's squad prepares for an attack, he replaces his blank cartridges with live ammunition and removes his blank-firing adaptor. As Bozz's squad nears, he opens fire. Though he does not hit anyone, he is obviously using live ammunition, and the trainer for the exercise tries to intervene. As he does, Bozz is standing above Paxton and deliberately fires a blank round with his rifle muzzle near Paxton's face, the flash wounding Paxton's eye. The trainer aims a pistol at Wilson's head to get him to hold his weapon up and surrender, telling him he will be court-martialed.


title: Tigerland

text: The platoon prepares to head to Vietnam, except for Paxton, whose eye injury, though temporary, has earned him a medical discharge. Bozz and Paxton exchange farewells. Paxton tells Bozz he is going to write about him, but Bozz says he will not. He has stolen Paxton's journal and rips out pages as the platoon's bus drives off, leaving Paxton scrambling to recover them. Bozz tosses the journal as the bus speeds away.


title: Tigerland

text: In the closing narration, Paxton says he never saw Bozz again. Over time, he heard from various sources that Bozz either died in Vietnam or disappeared over there. One acquaintance told Paxton he thought he'd seen Bozz, years after the war, in Mexico with a beautiful woman.


title: Tigerland

text: "Tigerland" received positive reviews from critics and has a "certified fresh" rating of 77% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 47 reviews with an average score of 6.98 out of 10. The consensus states "A great cast and the gritty feel of the film help elevate "Tigerland" above the familiarity of the subject matter." The film also has a score of 55 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 14 reviews. Despite the positive critical reception and its US$10 million budget, the film hardly appeared at the box office, making $148,701 worldwide.


title: Axial precession

text: In astronomy, axial precession is a gravity-induced, slow, and continuous change in the orientation of an astronomical body's rotational axis. In the absence of precession, the astronomical body's orbit would show axial parallelism. In particular, axial precession can refer to the gradual shift in the orientation of Earth's axis of rotation in a cycle of approximately 26,000 years. This is similar to the precession of a spinning top, with the axis tracing out a pair of cones joined at their apices. The term "precession" typically refers only to this largest part of the motion; other changes in the alignment of Earth's axis—nutation and polar motion—are much smaller in magnitude.


title: Axial precession

text: Earth's precession was historically called the precession of the equinoxes, because the equinoxes moved westward along the ecliptic relative to the fixed stars, opposite to the yearly motion of the Sun along the ecliptic. Historically,


title: Axial precession

text: the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes is usually attributed in the West to the 2nd-century-BC astronomer Hipparchus. With improvements in the ability to calculate the gravitational force between planets during the first half of the nineteenth century, it was recognized that the ecliptic itself moved slightly, which was named planetary precession, as early as 1863, while the dominant component was named lunisolar precession. Their combination was named general precession, instead of precession of the equinoxes.


title: Axial precession

text: Lunisolar precession is caused by the gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun on Earth's equatorial bulge, causing Earth's axis to move with respect to inertial space. Planetary precession (an advance) is due to the small angle between the gravitational force of the other planets on Earth and its orbital plane (the ecliptic), causing the plane of the ecliptic to shift slightly relative to inertial space. Lunisolar precession is about 500 times greater than planetary precession. In addition to the Moon and Sun, the other planets also cause a small movement of Earth's axis in inertial space, making the contrast in the terms lunisolar versus planetary misleading, so in 2006 the International Astronomical Union recommended that the dominant component be renamed the precession of the equator, and the minor component be renamed precession of the ecliptic, but their combination is still named general precession. Many references to the old terms exist in publications predating the change.


title: Axial precession

text: "Precession" and "procession" are both terms that relate to motion. "Precession" is derived from the Latin "praecedere" ("to precede, to come before or earlier"), while "procession" is derived from the Latin "procedere" ("to march forward, to advance"). Generally the term "procession" is used to describe a group of objects moving forward. The stars viewed from Earth are seen to proceed from east to west daily, due to the Earth's diurnal motion, and yearly, due to the Earth's revolution around the Sun. At the same time the stars can be observed to anticipate slightly such motion, at the rate of approximately 50 arc seconds per year, a phenomenon known as the "precession of the equinoxes".


title: Axial precession

text: In describing this motion astronomers generally have shortened the term to simply "precession". In describing the "cause" of the motion physicists have also used the term "precession", which has led to some confusion between the observable phenomenon and its cause, which matters because in astronomy, some precessions are real and others are apparent. This issue is further obfuscated by the fact that many astronomers are physicists or astrophysicists.


title: Axial precession

text: The term "precession" used in astronomy generally describes the observable precession of the equinox (the stars moving retrograde across the sky), whereas the term "precession" as used in physics, generally describes a mechanical process.


title: Axial precession

text: The precession of the Earth's axis has a number of observable effects. First, the positions of the south and north celestial poles appear to move in circles against the space-fixed backdrop of stars, completing one circuit in approximately 26,000 years. Thus, while today the star Polaris lies approximately at the north celestial pole, this will change over time, and other stars will become the "north star". In approximately 3,200 years, the star Gamma Cephei in the Cepheus constellation will succeed Polaris for this position. The south celestial pole currently lacks a bright star to mark its position, but over time precession also will cause bright stars to become south stars. As the celestial poles shift, there is a corresponding gradual shift in the apparent orientation of the whole star field, as viewed from a particular position on Earth.


title: Axial precession

text: Secondly, the position of the Earth in its orbit around the Sun at the solstices, equinoxes, or other time defined relative to the seasons, slowly changes. For example, suppose that the Earth's orbital position is marked at the summer solstice, when the Earth's axial tilt is pointing directly toward the Sun. One full orbit later, when the Sun has returned to the same apparent position relative to the background stars, the Earth's axial tilt is not now directly toward the Sun: because of the effects of precession, it is a little way "beyond" this. In other words, the solstice occurred a little "earlier" in the orbit. Thus, the tropical year, measuring the cycle of seasons (for example, the time from solstice to solstice, or equinox to equinox), is about 20 minutes shorter than the sidereal year, which is measured by the Sun's apparent position relative to the stars. After about 26 000 years the difference amounts to a full year, so the positions of the seasons relative to the orbit are "back where they started". (Other effects also slowly change the shape and orientation of the Earth's orbit, and these, in combination with precession, create various cycles of differing periods; see also Milankovitch cycles. The magnitude of the Earth's tilt, as opposed to merely its orientation, also changes slowly over time, but this effect is not attributed directly to precession.)


title: Axial precession

text: For identical reasons, the apparent position of the Sun relative to the backdrop of the stars at some seasonally fixed time slowly regresses a full 360° through all twelve traditional constellations of the zodiac, at the rate of about 50.3 seconds of arc per year, or 1 degree every 71.6 years.


title: Axial precession

text: At present, the rate of precession corresponds to a period of 25,772 years, so tropical year is shorter than sidereal year by 1,224.5 seconds (20 min 24.5 s, ~365.24219*86400/25772).


title: Axial precession

text: The rate itself varies somewhat with time (see Values below), so one cannot say that in exactly 25,772 years the Earth's axis will be back to where it is now.


title: Axial precession

text: The discovery of precession usually is attributed to Hipparchus (190–120 BC) of Rhodes or Nicaea, a Greek astronomer. According to Ptolemy's "Almagest", Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and other bright stars. Comparing his measurements with data from his predecessors, Timocharis (320–260 BC) and Aristillus (~280 BC), he concluded that Spica had moved 2° relative to the autumnal equinox. He also compared the lengths of the tropical year (the time it takes the Sun to return to an equinox) and the sidereal year (the time it takes the Sun to return to a fixed star), and found a slight discrepancy. Hipparchus concluded that the equinoxes were moving ("precessing") through the zodiac, and that the rate of precession was not less than 1° in a century, in other words, completing a full cycle in no more than 36000 years.


title: Axial precession

text: Virtually all of the writings of Hipparchus are lost, including his work on precession. They are mentioned by Ptolemy, who explains precession as the rotation of the celestial sphere around a motionless Earth. It is reasonable to presume that Hipparchus, similarly to Ptolemy, thought of precession in geocentric terms as a motion of the heavens, rather than of the Earth.


title: Axial precession

text: The first astronomer known to have continued Hipparchus's work on precession is Ptolemy in the second century AD. Ptolemy measured the longitudes of Regulus, Spica, and other bright stars with a variation of Hipparchus's lunar method that did not require eclipses. Before sunset, he measured the longitudinal arc separating the Moon from the Sun. Then, after sunset, he measured the arc from the Moon to the star. He used Hipparchus's model to calculate the Sun's longitude, and made corrections for the Moon's motion and its parallax (Evans 1998, pp. 251–255). Ptolemy compared his own observations with those made by Hipparchus, Menelaus of Alexandria, Timocharis, and Agrippa. He found that between Hipparchus's time and his own (about 265 years), the stars had moved 2°40', or 1° in 100 years (36" per year; the rate accepted today is about 50" per year or 1° in 72 years). It is possible, however, that Ptolemy simply trusted Hipparchus' figure instead of making his own measurements. He also confirmed that precession affected all fixed stars, not just those near the ecliptic, and his cycle had the same period of 36,000 years as found by Hipparchus.


title: Axial precession

text: Most ancient authors did not mention precession and, perhaps, did not know of it. For instance, Proclus rejected precession, while Theon of Alexandria, a commentator on Ptolemy in the fourth century, accepted Ptolemy's explanation. Theon also reports an alternate theory:


title: Axial precession

text: Instead of proceeding through the entire sequence of the zodiac, the equinoxes "trepidated" back and forth over an arc of 8°. The theory of trepidation is presented by Theon as an alternative to precession.


title: Axial precession

text: Various assertions have been made that other cultures discovered precession independently of Hipparchus. According to Al-Battani, the Chaldean astronomers had distinguished the tropical and sidereal year so that by approximately 330 BC, they would have been in a position to describe precession, if inaccurately, but such claims generally are regarded as unsupported.


title: Axial precession

text: The archaeologist Susan Milbrath has speculated that the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar of "30,000 years involving the Pleiades...may have been an effort to calculate the precession of the equinox." This view is held by few other professional scholars of Mayan civilization.


title: Axial precession

text: Similar claims have been made that precession was known in Ancient Egypt during the dynastic era, prior to the time of Hipparchus (Ptolemaic period). However, these claims remain controversial. Some buildings in the Karnak temple complex, for instance, allegedly were oriented toward the point on the horizon where certain stars rose or set at key times of the year. Nonetheless, they kept accurate calendars and if they recorded the date of the temple reconstructions it would be a fairly simple matter to plot the rough precession rate. The Dendera Zodiac, a star-map from the Hathor temple at Dendera from a late (Ptolemaic) age, allegedly records precession of the equinoxes (Tompkins 1971). In any case, if the ancient Egyptians knew of precession, their knowledge is not recorded as such in any of their surviving astronomical texts.


title: Axial precession

text: Michael Rice wrote in his "Egypt's Legacy", "Whether or not the ancients knew of the mechanics of the Precession before its definition by Hipparchos the Bithynian in the second century BC is uncertain, but as dedicated watchers of the night sky they could not fail to be aware of its effects." (p. 128) Rice believes that "the Precession is fundamental to an understanding of what powered the development of Egypt" (p. 10), to the extent that "in a sense Egypt as a nation-state and the king of Egypt as a living god are the products of the realisation by the Egyptians of the astronomical changes effected by the immense apparent movement of the heavenly bodies which the Precession implies." (p. 56). Rice says that "the evidence that the most refined astronomical observation was practised in Egypt in the third millennium BC (and probably even before that date) is clear from the precision with which the Pyramids at Giza are aligned to the cardinal points, a precision which could only have been achieved by their alignment with the stars. " (p. 31) The Egyptians also, says Rice, were "to alter the orientation of a temple when the star on whose position it had originally been set moved its position as a consequence of the Precession, something which seems to have happened several times during the New Kingdom." (p. 170)


title: Axial precession

text: Before 1200, India had two theories of trepidation, one with a rate and another without a rate, and several related models of precession. Each had minor changes or corrections by various commentators. The dominant of the three was the trepidation described by the most respected Indian astronomical treatise, the "Surya Siddhanta" (3:9–12), composed but revised during the next few centuries. It used a sidereal epoch, or ayanamsa, that is still used by all Indian calendars, varying over the ecliptic longitude of 19°11′ to 23°51′, depending on the group consulted. This epoch causes the roughly 30 Indian calendar years to begin 23–28 days after the modern vernal equinox. The vernal equinox of the "Surya Siddhanta" librated 27° in both directions from the sidereal epoch. Thus the equinox moved 54° in one direction and then back 54° in the other direction. This cycle took 7200 years to complete at a rate of 54″/year. The equinox coincided with the epoch at the beginning of the "Kali Yuga" in −3101 and again 3600 years later in 499. The direction changed from prograde to retrograde midway between these years at −1301 when it reached its maximum deviation of 27°, and would have remained retrograde, the same direction as modern precession, for 3600 years until 2299.


title: Axial precession

text: Another trepidation was described by Varāhamihira (). His trepidation consisted of an arc of 46°40′ in one direction and a return to the starting point. Half of this arc, 23°20′, was identified with the Sun's maximum declination on either side of the equator at the solstices. But no period was specified, thus no annual rate can be ascertained.


title: Axial precession

text: Several authors have described precession to be near 200,000revolutions in a Kalpa of 4,320,000,000years, which would be a rate of = 60″/year. They probably deviated from an even 200,000revolutions to make the accumulated precession zero near 500. Visnucandra () mentions 189,411revolutions in a Kalpa or 56.8″/year. Bhaskara I () mentions [1]94,110revolutions in a Kalpa or 58.2″/year. Bhāskara II () mentions 199,699revolutions in a Kalpa or 59.9″/year.


title: Axial precession

text: Yu Xi (fourth century AD) was the first Chinese astronomer to mention precession. He estimated the rate of precession as 1° in 50 years (Pannekoek 1961, p. 92).


title: Axial precession

text: In medieval Islamic astronomy, precession was known based on Ptolemy's Almagest, and by observations that refined the value.


title: Axial precession

text: Al-Battani, in his Zij Al-Sabi', after mentioning Hipparchus calculating precession, and Ptolemy's value of 1 degree per 100 solar years, says that he measured precession and found it to be one degree per 66 solar years.


title: Axial precession

text: Subsequently, Al-Sufi mentions the same values in his Book of Fixed Stars, that Ptolemy's value for precession is 1 degree per 100 solar years. He then quotes a different value from Zij Al Mumtahan, which was done during Al-Ma'mun's reign, as 1 degree for every 66 solar years. He also quotes the aforementioned Al-Battani's Zij Al-Sabi' as adjusting coordinates for stars by 11 degrees and 10 minutes of arc to account for the difference between Al-Battani's time and Ptolemy's.


title: Axial precession

text: Later, the "Zij-i Ilkhani" compiled at the Maragheh observatory sets the precession of the equinoxes at 51 arc seconds per annum, which is very close to the modern value of 50.2 arc seconds.


title: Axial precession

text: In the Middle Ages, Islamic and Latin Christian astronomers treated "trepidation" as a motion of the fixed stars to be "added to" precession. This theory is commonly attributed to the Arab astronomer Thabit ibn Qurra, but the attribution has been contested in modern times. Nicolaus Copernicus published a different account of trepidation in "De revolutionibus orbium coelestium" (1543). This work makes the first definite reference to precession as the result of a motion of the Earth's axis. Copernicus characterized precession as the third motion of the Earth.


title: Axial precession

text: Over a century later precession was explained in Isaac Newton's "Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica" (1687), to be a consequence of gravitation (Evans 1998, p. 246). Newton's original precession equations did not work, however, and were revised considerably by Jean le Rond d'Alembert and subsequent scientists.


title: Axial precession

text: Hipparchus gave an account of his discovery in "On the Displacement of the Solsticial and Equinoctial Points" (described in "Almagest" III.1 and VII.2). He measured the ecliptic longitude of the star Spica during lunar eclipses and found that it was about 6° west of the autumnal equinox. By comparing his own measurements with those of Timocharis of Alexandria (a contemporary of Euclid, who worked with Aristillus early in the 3rd century BC), he found that Spica's longitude had decreased by about 2° in the meantime (exact years are not mentioned in Almagest). Also in VII.2, Ptolemy gives more precise observations of two stars, including Spica and concludes that in each case a 2°:40' change occurred between 128 BC and AD 139 (hence, 1° per century or one full cycle in 36000 years, that is, the precessional period of Hipparchus as reported by Ptolemy ; cf. page 328 in Toomer's translation of Almagest, 1998 edition)). He also noticed this motion in other stars. He speculated that only the stars near the zodiac shifted over time. Ptolemy called this his "first hypothesis" ("Almagest" VII.1), but did not report any later hypothesis Hipparchus might have devised. Hipparchus apparently limited his speculations, because he had only a few older observations, which were not very reliable.


title: Axial precession

text: Because the equinoctial points are not marked in the sky, Hipparchus needed the Moon as a reference point; he used a lunar eclipse to measure the position of a star. Hipparchus already had developed a way to calculate the longitude of the Sun at any moment. A lunar eclipse happens during Full moon, when the Moon is at opposition, precisely 180° from the Sun. Hipparchus is thought to have measured the longitudinal arc separating Spica from the Moon. To this value, he added the calculated longitude of the Sun, plus 180° for the longitude of the Moon. He did the same procedure with Timocharis' data (Evans 1998, p. 251). Observations such as these eclipses, incidentally, are the main source of data about when Hipparchus worked, since other biographical information about him is minimal. The lunar eclipses he observed, for instance, took place on 21 April 146 BC, and 21 March 135 BC (Toomer 1984, p. 135 n. 14).


title: Axial precession

text: Hipparchus also studied precession in "On the Length of the Year". Two kinds of year are relevant to understanding his work. The tropical year is the length of time that the Sun, as viewed from the Earth, takes to return to the same position along the ecliptic (its path among the stars on the celestial sphere). The sidereal year is the length of time that the Sun takes to return to the same position with respect to the stars of the celestial sphere. Precession causes the stars to change their longitude slightly each year, so the sidereal year is longer than the tropical year. Using observations of the equinoxes and solstices, Hipparchus found that the length of the tropical year was 365+1/4−1/300 days, or 365.24667 days (Evans 1998, p. 209). Comparing this with the length of the sidereal year, he calculated that the rate of precession was not less than 1° in a century. From this information, it is possible to calculate that his value for the sidereal year was 365+1/4+1/144 days (Toomer 1978, p. 218). By giving a minimum rate, he may have been allowing for errors in observation.


title: Axial precession

text: To approximate his tropical year Hipparchus created his own lunisolar calendar by modifying those of Meton and Callippus in "On Intercalary Months and Days" (now lost), as described by Ptolemy in the "Almagest" III.1 (Toomer 1984, p. 139). The Babylonian calendar used a cycle of 235 lunar months in 19 years since 499 BC (with only three exceptions before 380 BC), but it did not use a specified number of days. The Metonic cycle (432 BC) assigned 6,940 days to these 19 years producing an average year of 365+1/4+1/76 or 365.26316 days. The Callippic cycle (330 BC) dropped one day from four Metonic cycles (76 years) for an average year of 365+1/4 or 365.25 days. Hipparchus dropped one more day from four Callippic cycles (304 years), creating the Hipparchic cycle with an average year of 365+1/4−1/304 or 365.24671 days, which was close to his tropical year of 365+1/4−1/300 or 365.24667 days.


title: Axial precession

text: Hipparchus's mathematical signatures are found in the Antikythera Mechanism, an ancient astronomical computer of the second century BC. The mechanism is based on a solar year, the Metonic Cycle, which is the period the Moon reappears in the same place in the sky with the same phase (full Moon appears at the same position in the sky approximately in 19 years), the Callipic cycle (which is four Metonic cycles and more accurate), the Saros cycle and the Exeligmos cycles (three Saros cycles for the accurate eclipse prediction). The study of the Antikythera Mechanism proves that the ancients have been using very accurate calendars based on all the aspects of solar and lunar motion in the sky. In fact, the Lunar Mechanism which is part of the Antikythera Mechanism depicts the motion of the Moon and its phase, for a given time, using a train of four gears with a pin and slot device which gives a variable lunar velocity that is very close to the second law of Kepler, i.e. it takes into account the fast motion of the Moon at perigee and slower motion at apogee. This discovery proves that Hipparchus mathematics were much more advanced than Ptolemy describes in his books, as it is evident that he developed a good approximation of Kepler's second law.


title: Axial precession

text: A consequence of the precession is a changing pole star. Currently Polaris is extremely well suited to mark the position of the north celestial pole, as Polaris is a moderately bright star with a visual magnitude of 2.1 (variable), and it is located about one degree from the pole, with no stars of similar brightness too close.


title: Axial precession

text: The previous pole star was Kochab (Beta Ursae Minoris, β UMi, β Ursae Minoris), the brightest star in the bowl of the "Little Dipper", located 16 degrees from Polaris. It held that role from 1500 BC to AD 500. It was not quite as accurate in its day as Polaris is today. Today, Kochab and its neighbor Pherkad are referred to as the "Guardians of the Pole" (meaning Polaris).


title: Axial precession

text: On the other hand, Thuban in the constellation Draco, which was the pole star in 3000 BC, is much less conspicuous at magnitude 3.67 (one-fifth as bright as Polaris); today it is invisible in light-polluted urban skies.


title: Axial precession

text: When Polaris becomes the north star again around 27,800, it will then be farther away from the pole than it is now due to its proper motion, while in 23,600 BC it came closer to the pole.


title: Axial precession

text: It is more difficult to find the south celestial pole in the sky at this moment, as that area is a particularly bland portion of the sky, and the nominal south pole star is Sigma Octantis, which with magnitude 5.5 is barely visible to the naked eye even under ideal conditions. That will change from the 80th to the 90th centuries, however, when the south celestial pole travels through the False Cross.


title: Axial precession

text: This situation also is seen on a star map. The orientation of the south pole is moving toward the Southern Cross constellation. For the last 2,000 years or so, the Southern Cross has pointed to the south celestial pole. As a consequence, the constellation is difficult to view from subtropical northern latitudes, unlike how it was in the time of the ancient Greeks. The Southern Cross can be viewed from as far north as Miami (about 25° N), but only during the winter/early spring.


title: Axial precession

text: The images at right attempt to explain the relation between the precession of the Earth's axis and the shift in the equinoxes. These images show the position of the Earth's axis on the "celestial sphere", a fictitious sphere which places the stars according to their position as seen from Earth, regardless of their actual distance. The first image shows the celestial sphere from the outside, with the constellations in mirror image. The second image shows the perspective of a near-Earth position as seen through a very wide angle lens (from which the apparent distortion arises).


title: Axial precession

text: The rotation axis of the Earth describes, over a period of 25,700 years, a small among the stars near the top of the diagram, centered on the ecliptic north pole (the ) and with an angular radius of about 23.4°, an angle known as the "obliquity of the ecliptic". The direction of precession is opposite to the daily rotation of the Earth on its axis. The was the Earth's rotation axis 5,000 years ago, when it pointed to the star Thuban. The yellow axis, pointing to Polaris, marks the axis now.


title: Axial precession

text: The equinoxes occur where the celestial equator intersects the ecliptic (red line), that is, where the Earth's axis is perpendicular to the line connecting the centers of the Sun and Earth. (Note that the term "equinox" here refers to a point on the celestial sphere so defined, rather than the moment in time when the Sun is overhead at the Equator, though the two meanings are related.) When the axis "precesses" from one orientation to another, the equatorial plane of the Earth (indicated by the circular grid around the equator) moves. The celestial equator is just the Earth's equator projected onto the celestial sphere, so it moves as the Earth's equatorial plane moves, and the intersection with the ecliptic moves with it. The positions of the poles and equator "on Earth" do not change, only the orientation of the Earth against the fixed stars.


title: Axial precession

text: As seen from the , 5,000 years ago, the vernal equinox was close to the star Aldebaran in Taurus. Now, as seen from the yellow grid, it has shifted (indicated by the ) to somewhere in the constellation of Pisces.


title: Axial precession

text: Still pictures like these are only first approximations, as they do not take into account the variable speed of the precession, the variable obliquity of the ecliptic, the planetary precession (which is a slow rotation of the ecliptic plane itself, presently around an axis located on the plane, with longitude 174.8764°) and the proper motions of the stars.


title: Axial precession

text: The precessional eras of each constellation, often known as “"Great Months"”, are given, approximately, in the table below:


title: Axial precession

text: The precession of the equinoxes is caused by the gravitational forces of the Sun and the Moon, and to a lesser extent other bodies, on the Earth. It was first explained by Sir Isaac Newton.


title: Axial precession

text: Axial precession is similar to the precession of a spinning top. In both cases, the applied force is due to gravity. For a spinning top, this force tends to be almost parallel to the rotation axis initially and increases as the top slows down. For a gyroscope on a stand it can approach 90 degrees. For the Earth, however, the applied forces of the Sun and the Moon are closer to perpendicular to the axis of rotation.


title: Axial precession

text: The Earth is not a perfect sphere but an oblate spheroid, with an equatorial diameter about 43 kilometers larger than its polar diameter. Because of the Earth's axial tilt, during most of the year the half of this bulge that is closest to the Sun is off-center, either to the north or to the south, and the far half is off-center on the opposite side. The gravitational pull on the closer half is stronger, since gravity decreases with the square of distance, so this creates a small torque on the Earth as the Sun pulls harder on one side of the Earth than the other. The axis of this torque is roughly perpendicular to the axis of the Earth's rotation so the axis of rotation precesses. If the Earth were a perfect sphere, there would be no precession.


title: Axial precession

text: This average torque is perpendicular to the direction in which the rotation axis is tilted away from the ecliptic pole, so that it does not change the axial tilt itself. The magnitude of the torque from the Sun (or the Moon) varies with the angle between the Earth's spin axis direction and that of the gravitational attraction. It approaches zero when they are perpendicular. For example, this happens at the equinoxes in the case of the interaction with the Sun. This can be seen to be since the near and far points are aligned with the gravitational attraction, so there is no torque due to the difference in gravitational attraction.


title: Axial precession

text: Although the above explanation involved the Sun, the same explanation holds true for any object moving around the Earth, along or close to the ecliptic, notably, the Moon. The combined action of the Sun and the Moon is called the lunisolar precession. In addition to the steady progressive motion (resulting in a full circle in about 25,700 years) the Sun and Moon also cause small periodic variations, due to their changing positions. These oscillations, in both precessional speed and axial tilt, are known as the nutation. The most important term has a period of 18.6 years and an amplitude of 9.2 arcseconds.


title: Axial precession

text: In addition to lunisolar precession, the actions of the other planets of the Solar System cause the whole ecliptic to rotate slowly around an axis which has an ecliptic longitude of about 174° measured on the instantaneous ecliptic. This so-called planetary precession shift amounts to a rotation of the ecliptic plane of 0.47 seconds of arc per year (more than a hundred times smaller than lunisolar precession). The sum of the two precessions is known as the general precession.


title: Axial precession

text: The tidal force on Earth due to a perturbing body (Sun, Moon or planet) is expressed by Newton's law of universal gravitation, whereby the gravitational force of the perturbing body on the side of Earth nearest is said to be greater than the gravitational force on the far side by an amount proportional to the difference in the cubes of the distances between the near and far sides. If the gravitational force of the perturbing body acting on the mass of the Earth as a point mass at the center of Earth (which provides the centripetal force causing the orbital motion) is subtracted from the gravitational force of the perturbing body everywhere on the surface of Earth, what remains may be regarded as the tidal force. This gives the paradoxical notion of a force acting away from the satellite but in reality it is simply a lesser force toward that body due to the gradient in the gravitational field. For precession, this tidal force can be grouped into two forces which only act on the equatorial bulge outside of a mean spherical radius. This couple can be decomposed into two pairs of components, one pair parallel to Earth's equatorial plane toward and away from the perturbing body which cancel each other out, and another pair parallel to Earth's rotational axis, both toward the ecliptic plane. The latter pair of forces creates the following torque vector on Earth's equatorial bulge:


title: Axial precession

text: The three unit vectors of the torque at the center of the Earth (top to bottom) are x on a line within the ecliptic plane (the intersection of Earth's equatorial plane with the ecliptic plane) directed toward the vernal equinox, y on a line in the ecliptic plane directed toward the summer solstice (90° east of x), and z on a line directed toward the north pole of the ecliptic.


title: Axial precession

text: The value of the three sinusoidal terms in the direction of x for the Sun is a sine squared waveform varying from zero at the equinoxes (0°, 180°) to 0.36495 at the solstices (90°, 270°). The value in the direction of y for the Sun is a sine wave varying from zero at the four equinoxes and solstices to ±0.19364 (slightly more than half of the sine squared peak) halfway between each equinox and solstice with peaks slightly skewed toward the equinoxes (43.37°(−), 136.63°(+), 223.37°(−), 316.63°(+)). Both solar waveforms have about the same peak-to-peak amplitude and the same period, half of a revolution or half of a year. The value in the direction of z is zero.


title: Axial precession

text: The average torque of the sine wave in the direction of y is zero for the Sun or Moon, so this component of the torque does not affect precession. The average torque of the sine squared waveform in the direction of x for the Sun or Moon is: