title: Betting in poker

text: To aid players in tracking bets, and to ensure all players have bet the correct amount, players stack the amount they have bet in the current round in front of them. When the betting round is over (a common phrase is "the pot's good"), the players will push their stacks into the pot or the dealer will gather them into the pot. Tossing chips directly into the pot (known as splashing the pot), though popular in film and television depictions of the game, causes confusion over the amount of a raise and can be used to hide the true amount of a bet. Likewise, string raises, or the act of raising by first placing chips to call and then adding chips to raise, causes confusion over the amount bet. Both actions are generally prohibited at casinos and discouraged at least in other cash games.


title: Betting in poker

text: Most actions (calls, raises or folds) occurring out-of-turn—when players to the right of the player acting have not yet made decisions as to their own action—are considered improper, for several reasons. First, since actions by a player give information to other players, acting out of turn gives the person in turn information that they normally would not have, to the detriment of players who have already acted.


title: Betting in poker

text: For instance, say that with three players in a hand, Player A has a weak hand but decides to try a bluff with a large opening bet. Player C then folds out of turn while Player B is making up their mind. Player B now knows that if they fold, A will take the pot, and also knows that they cannot be re-raised if they call. This may encourage Player B, if they have a good "drawing hand" (a hand currently worth nothing but with a good chance to improve substantially in subsequent rounds), to call the bet, to the disadvantage of Player A.


title: Betting in poker

text: Second, calling or raising out of turn, in addition to the information it provides, assumes all players who would act before the out of turn player would not exceed the amount of the out-of-turn bet. This may not be the case, and would result in the player having to bet twice to cover preceding raises, which would cause confusion.


title: Betting in poker

text: A player is never required to expose their concealed cards when folding or if all others have folded; this is only required at the showdown.


title: Betting in poker

text: Many casinos and public cardrooms using a house dealer require players to protect their hands. This is done either by holding the cards or, if they are on the table, by placing a chip or other object on top. Unprotected hands in such situations are generally considered folded and are mucked by the dealer when action reaches the player. This can spark heated controversy, and is rarely done in private games.


title: Betting in poker

text: The style of game generally determines whether players should hold face-down cards in their hands or leave them on the table. Holding "hole" cards allows players to view them more quickly and thus speeds up gameplay, but spectators watching over a player's shoulder can communicate the strength of that hand to other players, even unintentionally. Unwary players can hold their hand such that a "rubbernecker" in an adjacent seat can sneak a peek at the cards. Lastly, given the correct light and angles, players wearing glasses can inadvertently show their opponents their hole cards through the reflection in their glasses. Thus for most poker variants involving a combination of faceup and facedown cards (most variants of stud and community are dealt in this manner), the standard method is to keep hole cards face-down on the table except when it is that player's turn to act. 5 card draw is generally played with hands held by the players at all times.


title: Betting in poker

text: Making change out of the pot is allowed in most games; to avoid confusion, the player should announce their intentions first. Then, if opening or cold calling, the player may exchange a large chip for its full equivalent value out of the pot before placing their bet, or if over-calling may place the chip (announcing that they are calling or raising a lesser amount) and remove the change from their own bet for the round. Normally, if a player places one oversized chip in the pot without explicitly voicing intention while facing a bet, the action is automatically deemed a call whether or not the chip is large enough to otherwise qualify as a raise. In most casinos players are prohibited from handling chips once they are placed in the pot, although a player removing their own previous bet in the current round from the pot for the purpose of calling a raise (or re-raising) is usually tolerated. Otherwise, the dealer is expected to make change when required.


title: Betting in poker

text: Making change should, in general, be done between hands whenever possible, when a player sees they are running low of an oft-used value. The house dealer at most casinos maintains a chip bank and can usually make change for a large amount of chips. In informal games, players can make change with each other or with unused chips in the set. While this can prevent delays while players figure out change for a bet, casinos generally frown on or outright prohibit such practices to prevent players from surreptitiously "ratholing" (taking away and securing part of the stakes for personal use) and/or circumventing buy-in limits. Similarly, buying in for an additional amount must be done between hands (or, at least, done after a player has folded during the current hand) since players are not allowed to add to their stack during a hand. If buy-ins cannot and/or are not expected to be handled by the dealer it can take two or three hands for an attendant to bring another tray to the table. As described below, some casinos alleviate this issue by allowing cash to be deemed temporarily "in play" while staff fetches chips. Players who wish to always play with at least the buy-in limit will often carry additional chips in their pocket so that whenever they lose a pot they can quickly "top up" without inconveniencing the dealer or delaying the game.


title: Betting in poker

text: While having players buy chips directly from the dealer is seen as a convenience by some players, and can help deter players from exceeding buy-in limits, many players dislike this system because it slows down the game, especially if the dealer is expected to count large numbers of small denominations of chips. Also, many jurisdictions require all such purchases (or, at least, all larger transactions) to be confirmed (primarily to ensure accuracy) by a supervisor or other staff member, potentially causing further delay. To speed up play (and, by extension, increase the number of hands dealt and rake earned by the casino), many casinos require players to buy chips from a cashier - to assist players, some establishments employ chip runners to bring cash and chips to and from the tables. Many casinos have a dedicated cashier station located in or very near the poker room, although in some (usually, smaller venues) the same cashier station that handles other transactions will also handle poker-related purchases. In addition, if the casino uses the same chips for poker as for other games then it is often possible to bring chips from such games to the poker table.


title: Betting in poker

text: Touching another player's chips without permission is a serious breach of protocol and can result in the player being barred from the casino.


title: Betting in poker

text: Most tournaments and many cash games require that larger denomination chips be stacked in front (i.e., closer to the center of the table, or closer to the pot) of the player's lesser denomination chips, or at least stacked in such a manner that they can be easily seen by all opponents. This rule is employed to discourage attempts to conceal stack size. Some casinos discourage, prohibit or simply refrain from circulating larger chip denominations to prevent them from being used in lower-stakes cash games, although the drawback is that larger stacks won during play will become more difficult to handle and manage as a result.


title: Betting in poker

text: Some informal games allow a bet to be made by placing the amount of cash on the table without converting it to chips, as this speeds up play. However, table stakes rules strictly prohibit this from being done while a hand is in progress. Other drawbacks to using cash include the ease with which cash can be "ratholed", which is normally disallowed, in addition to the security risk of leaving cash on the table. As a result, many games and virtually all casinos require a formal "buy-in" when a player wishes to increase their stake, or at least require any cash placed on the table to be converted into chips as quickly as possible.


title: Betting in poker

text: Players in home games typically have both cash and chips available; thus, if money for expenses other than bets is needed, such as food, drinks and fresh decks of cards, many players typically pay out of pocket. Some players (especially professionals) loath removing any part of their stack from play for any reason, especially once their stacks exceed the initial buy-in limit. In casinos and public cardrooms, however, the use of cash is occasionally restricted or discouraged, so players often establish a small cache of chips called the "kitty", used to pay for such things. Players contribute a chip of lowest value towards the kitty when they win a pot, and it pays for expenses other than bets such as tipping the dealer as well as (where applicable) to pay for "rent" (formally known as time fees) and/or buying fresh decks of cards (while many public cardrooms include such costs in the "rake" or other fees, some charge separately for such things as playing cards and "rent"), and similar costs.


title: Betting in poker

text: At a casino, dealers who exchange cash for chips are expected to immediately secure any cash by placing it into a locked box near their station. This means that regardless of how chips are purchased, when cashing them in it is typically not possible to sell them back to the dealer since they have no access to any cash. Poker chips must therefore be taken to the cashier to be exchanged for cash. Dealers who handle buy-ins will often be willing (and sometimes encourage) departing players to "color up" their stacks by exchanging them for the highest-available denominations, both for the convenience of the player and to minimize the number of times casino staff must deliver fresh chips to the poker table - a time-consuming process. On the other hand, casinos that expect players to buy chips from the cashier will usually furnish players with chip trays (typically designed to handle 100 chips each) to ease the handling of large numbers of chips.


title: Betting in poker

text: Chips given by players or otherwise retained by the dealer for tips, rake and other fees (where applicable) are usually placed in separate locked boxes by the dealer, although in some casinos the rake is kept in a separate row in the dealer's tray.


title: Betting in poker

text: Public cardrooms often have additional rules designed to speed up play, earn revenue for the casino (such as the "rake"), improve security and discourage cheating.


title: Betting in poker

text: All poker games require some forced bets to create an initial stake for the players to contest, as well as an initial cost of being dealt each hand for one or more players. The requirements for forced bets and the betting limits of the game (see below) are collectively called the game's "betting structure".


title: Betting in poker

text: An ante is a forced bet in which all players put an equal amount of money or chips into the pot before the deal begins. Often this is either a single "unit" (a one-value or the smallest value in play) or some other small amount; a proportion such as a half or a quarter of the minimum bet is also common. An ante paid by every player ensures that a player who folds every round will lose money (though slowly), thus providing all players with an incentive, however small, to play the hand rather than toss it in when the opening bet reaches them.


title: Betting in poker

text: Antes are the most common forced bet in draw poker and stud poker but are uncommon in games featuring blind bets (see next section). However, some tournament formats of games featuring blinds impose an ante to discourage extremely tight play. Antes encourage players to play more loosely by lowering the cost of staying in the hand (calling) relative to the current pot size, offering better pot odds. With antes, more players stay in the hand, which increases pot size and makes for more interesting play. This is considered important to ensure good ratings for televised tournament finals. Most televised high-stakes cash games also use both blinds and antes. Televised cash games usually have one of the players, normally the dealer, pay for everyone to accelerate play. If there are six players for example, the dealer would toss six times the ante into the pot, paying for each person. Tournaments which employ antes, often do so only in the later rounds.


title: Betting in poker

text: In live cash games where the acting dealer changes each turn, it is not uncommon for the players to agree that the dealer (or some other position relative to the button) provides the ante for each player. This simplifies betting, but causes minor inequities if other players come and go or miss their turn to deal. During such times, the player can be given a special button indicating the need to pay an ante to the pot (known as "posting"; see below) upon their return. Some cardrooms eliminate these inequities by always dealing all players into every hand whether they are present or not. In such cases casino staff (or neighboring players under staff supervision) will be expected to post antes and fold hands on behalf of absent players as necessary.


title: Betting in poker

text: A blind bet or just blind is a forced bet placed into the pot by one or more players before the deal begins, in a way that simulates bets made during play. The most common use of blinds as a betting structure calls for two blinds: the player after the dealer blinds about half of what would be a normal bet, and the next player blinds what would be a whole bet. This two-blind structure, sometimes with antes, is the dominating structure of play for community card poker games such as Texas hold 'em. Sometimes only one blind is used (often informally as a "price of winning" the previous hand), and sometimes three are used (this is sometimes seen in Omaha hold 'em). In the case of three blinds (usually one quarter, one quarter, and half a normal bet amount), the first blind goes "on the button", that is, is paid by the dealer.


title: Betting in poker

text: A blind is usually a "live bet"; the amount paid as the blind is considered when figuring the bet to that player (the amount needed to call) during the first round. However, some situations, such as when a player was absent from the table during a hand in which they should have paid a blind, call for placing a "dead blind"; the blind does not count as a bet.


title: Betting in poker

text: For example, in a $2–4 limit game, the first player to the dealer's left (who, if not for the blinds, would be the first to act) posts a small blind of $1, and the next player in turn posts a big blind of $2. After the cards are dealt, play begins with the next player in turn (third from the dealer), who must either call $2, raise, or fold. When the betting returns to the player who blinded $1, they must equal the bet facing them (toward which they may count their $1), raise, or fold. If there have been no raises when action first gets to the big blind (that is, the bet amount facing them is just the amount of the big blind they posted), the big blind has the ability to raise or check. This right to raise (called the "option") occurs only once. As with any raise, if their raise is now called by every player, the first betting round closes as usual.


title: Betting in poker

text: Similarly to a missed ante, a missed blind due to the player's temporary absence (e.g. for drinks or a restroom break) can be denoted by use of a special button. Upon the player's return, they must pay the applicable blind to the pot for the next hand they will participate in. The need for this rule is eliminated in casinos that deal in absent players as described above. Also the rule is for temporary absences only; if a player leaves the table permanently, special rules govern the assigning of blinds and button (see next subsection).


title: Betting in poker

text: In some fixed-limit and spread-limit games, especially if three blinds are used, the big blind amount may be less than the normal betting minimum. Players acting after a sub-minimum blind have the right to call the blind as it is, even though it is less than the amount they would be required to bet, or they may raise the amount needed to bring the current bet up to the normal minimum, called "completing" the bet. For example, a limit game with a $5 minimum bet on the first round might have blinds of $1 and $2. Players acting after the blind may either call the $2, or raise to $5. After the bet is raised to $5, the next raise must be to $10 in accordance with the normal limits.


title: Betting in poker

text: When one or more players pays the small or big blinds for a hand, then after that hand permanently leaves the game (by "busting out" in a tournament or simply calling it a night at a public cardroom), an adjustment is required in the positioning of the blinds and the button. There are three common rule sets to determine this:


title: Betting in poker

text: In tournaments, the "dead button" and "moving button" rules are common (replacement players are generally not a part of tournaments). Online cash games generally use the "simplified moving button" as other methods are more difficult to codify and can be abused by players constantly entering and leaving.


title: Betting in poker

text: Casino card rooms where players can come and go can use any of the three rulesets, though "moving button" is most common. When a player immediately takes the place of a player who leaves, the player may have the option to either pay the blinds in the leaving player's stead, in which case play continues as if the player never left, or to "sit out" until the button has moved past him, and thus the chair is effectively empty for purposes of the blinds. Many card rooms do not allow new players to sit out as it is highly advantageous for the new player, both to watch one or more hands without obligation to play, and to enter the game in a very "late" position (on their first hand they see all other player's actions except the dealer's). For these reasons, new players must often post a "live" big blind to enter regardless of their position at the table.


title: Betting in poker

text: The normal rules for positioning the blinds do not apply when there are only two players at the table. The player on the button is always due the small blind, and the other player must pay the big blind. The player on the button is therefore the first to act before the flop, but last to act for all remaining betting rounds.


title: Betting in poker

text: A special rule is also applied for placement of the button whenever the size of the table shrinks to two players. If three or more players are involved in a hand, and at the conclusion of the hand one or more players have busted out such that only two players remain for the next hand, the position of the button may need to be adjusted to begin heads-up play. The big blind always continues moving, and then the button is positioned accordingly.


title: Betting in poker

text: For example, in a three-handed game, Alice is the button, Dianne is the small blind, and Carol is the big blind. If Alice busts out, the next hand Dianne will be the big blind, and the button will skip past Dianne and move to Carol. On the other hand, if Carol busts out, Alice will be the big blind, Dianne will get the button and will have to pay the small blind for the second hand in a row.


title: Betting in poker

text: A kill blind is a special blind bet made by a player who triggers the kill in a "kill game" (see below). It is often twice the amount of the big blind or minimum bet (known as a full kill), but can be 1.5 times the big blind (a half-kill) or any other amount according to house rules. This blind is "live"; the player posting it normally acts last in the opening round (after the other blinds, regardless of relative position at the table), and other players must call the amount of the kill blind to play. As any player can trigger a kill, there is the possibility that the player must post a kill blind when they are already due to pay one of the other blinds. Rules vary on how this is handled.


title: Betting in poker

text: A bring-in is a type of forced bet that occurs after the cards are initially dealt, but before any other action. One player, usually chosen by the value of cards dealt face up on the initial deal, is forced to open the betting by some small amount, after which players act after them in normal rotation. Because of this random first action, bring-ins are usually used in games with an ante instead of structured blind bets.


title: Betting in poker

text: The bring-in is normally assigned on the first betting round of a stud poker game to the player whose upcards indicate the poorest hand. For example, in traditional high hand stud games and high-low split games, the player showing the lowest card pays the bring-in. In low hand games, the player with the highest card showing pays the bring-in. The high card by suit order can be used to break ties, but more often the person closest to the dealer in order of rotation pays the bring-in.


title: Betting in poker

text: In most fixed-limit and some spread-limit games, the bring-in amount is less than the normal betting minimum (often half of this minimum). The player forced to pay the bring-in may choose either to pay only what is required (in which case it functions similarly to a small blind) or to make a normal bet. Players acting after a sub-minimum bring-in have the right to call the bring-in as it is, even though it is less than the amount they would be required to bet, or they may raise the amount needed to bring the current bet up to the normal minimum, called completing the bet. For example, a game with a $5 fixed bet on the first round might have a bring-in of $2. Players acting after the bring-in can either call the $2, or increase it to $5, which would count as a normal bet, not a raise. After the bet is completed to $5, the first raise must be to $10 in accordance with the normal limits.


title: Betting in poker

text: In a game where the bring-in is equal to the fixed bet (this is rare and not recommended), the game must either allow the bring-in player to optionally come in for a raise, or else the bring-in must be treated as live in the same way as a blind, so that the player is guaranteed their right to raise on the first betting round (the "option") if all other players call.


title: Betting in poker

text: Some cash games, especially with blinds, require a new player to post when joining a game already in progress. Posting in this context means putting an amount equal to the big blind or the minimum bet into the pot before the deal. This amount is also called a "dead blind". The post is a "live" bet, meaning that the amount can be applied towards a call or raise when it is the player's turn to act. If the player is not facing a raise when the action gets to them, they may also "check their option" as if they were in the big blind.


title: Betting in poker

text: A player who is away from their seat and misses one or more blinds is also required to post to reenter the game. In this case, the amount to be posted is the amount of the big or small blind, or both, at the time the player missed them. If both must be posted immediately upon return, the big blind amount is "live", but the small blind amount is "dead", meaning that it cannot be considered in determining a call or raise amount by that player. Some house rules allow posting one blind per hand, largest first, meaning all posts of missed blinds are live.


title: Betting in poker

text: Posting is usually not required if the player who would otherwise post happens to be in the big blind. This is because the advantage that would otherwise be gained by missing the blind, that of playing several hands before having to pay blinds, is not the case in this situation. It is therefore common for a new player to lock up a seat and then wait several hands before joining a table, or for a returning player to sit out several hands until the big blind comes back around, so that they may enter in the big blind and avoid paying the post. For this same reason, only one set of missed blinds can be accumulated by the player; old missed blinds are removed when the big blind returns to that player's seat because the player was never in any position to gain from missing the blinds.


title: Betting in poker

text: In online poker it is common for the post to be equal in size to a big blind and to be live, just like the big blind. This can create a tactical advantage for the player if they choose not to play during the time they would otherwise spend in the blind in full ring games.


title: Betting in poker

text: A "straddle bet" is an optional and voluntary blind bet made by a player after the posting of the small and big blinds, but before cards are dealt. Straddles are typically used only in cash games played with fixed blind structures. Some jurisdictions and casinos prohibit live straddles. Straddles are normally not permitted in tournament formats and are rarely allowed online.


title: Betting in poker

text: The purpose of a straddle is to "buy" the privilege of last action, which on the first round with blinds is normally the player in the big blind. A straddle or sleeper blind may count as a raise towards the maximum number of raises allowed, or it may count separately; in the latter case this raises the maximum total bet of the first round. For example, straddling is permitted in Nevada and Atlantic City but illegal in other areas on account of differences in state and local laws.


title: Betting in poker

text: The player immediately to the left of the big blind ("under the gun", UTG) may place a "live straddle" blind bet. The straddle must be the size of a normal raise over the big blind. A straddle is a live bet; but does not become a "bigger blind". The straddle acts as a minimum raise but with the difference being that the straddler still gets their option of acting when the action returns to them. In a no-limit game if any other player wants to make a raise with a straddle on board, the minimum raise will be the difference between the big blind and the straddle.


title: Betting in poker

text: Example: small blind is at 5, big blind is 10 then a straddle would cost 20. The minimum raise would be 10, for a total of 30; it doesn't need to double to 40.


title: Betting in poker

text: Action begins with the player to the left of the straddle. If action returns to the straddle without a raise, the straddle has the option to raise. (This is part of what makes a straddle different from a "sleeper" because a sleeper does not have the option to raise if everyone folds or calls around to him.) Some casinos permit the player to the left of a live straddle to "re-straddle" by placing a blind bet raising the original straddle. Most public cardrooms do not permit more than one re-straddle. Depending on house rules, each re-straddle is often required to be double the previous straddle, so as to limit the number of feasible re-straddles.


title: Betting in poker

text: Straddling is considered poor long-term strategy by most experts, since the benefit of obtaining last action is more than offset by the cost of making a blind raise. Because straddling has a tendency to enrich the average pot size without a corresponding increase in the blinds (and antes if applicable), players who sit at tables that allow straddling can increase their profits considerably simply by choosing not to straddle themselves.


title: Betting in poker

text: Straddling is voluntary at most cardrooms that allow it, however house rules can make straddling obligatory at times by using a special token (called "the rock") at the table. Whoever is in possession of the "rock" is obliged to place a live straddle for double the big blind when they are in the UTG position. The winner of the ensuing pot takes possession of the "rock" and is obliged to make a live straddle when the UTG position comes around to this player. If the pot is split the "rock" goes to the winner closest to the left (i.e. clockwise) of the previous holder. This is very similar in principle to the "kill blind" of a kill game, but does not necessarily occur in the same circumstances, and the betting amounts do not have to be affected beyond the first round as in a kill game.


title: Betting in poker

text: A "Mississippi straddle" is similar to a live straddle, but instead of being made by the player "under the gun", it can be made by any player, depending on house rules (one common variation is to allow this left of big blind or on the button). House rules permitting Mississippi straddles are common in the southern United States. Like a live straddle, a Mississippi straddle must be at least the minimum raise. Action begins with the player to the left of the straddle (in a common variation, action starts left of the big blind, skips over the straddle who is last). If, for example (in a game with $10–25 blinds), the button puts a live $50 on it, the first player to act would be the small blind, followed by the big blind, and so on. If action gets back to the straddle the straddle has the option of raising. The player to the left of a Mississippi straddle may re-straddle by placing a blind bet raising the original straddle.


title: Betting in poker

text: A "sleeper" is a blind raise, made from a position other than the player "under the gun". A Mississippi straddle is a sleeper raise given this definition, but Mississippi straddles can be disallowed or restricted while sleepers are allowed at any position. A sleeper bet is not given the option to raise if other players call, and the player is not buying last action; thus the sleeper bet simply establishes a higher minimum to call for the table during the opening round and allows the player to ignore their turn as long as no one re-raises the sleeper bet.


title: Betting in poker

text: Sleepers are often considered illegal out-of-turn play and are commonly disallowed, but they can speed up a game slightly as a player who posts a sleeper can focus their attention on other matters such as ordering a drink or buying a tray of chips. It can also be an intimidation tactic as a sleeper raise makes it unfeasible to "limp in" (a situation where a player with a mediocre starting hand but acting late only has to call the minimum to see more cards), thus forcing weaker but improvable starting hands out of the play.


title: Betting in poker

text: A game of no-limit poker with blinds of $1/$2. Alice is in the small blind, Dianne is in the big blind, Carol is next to act, followed by Joane, with Ellen on the button.


title: Betting in poker

text: Betting limits apply to the amount a player may open or raise, and come in four common forms: "no limit", "pot limit" (the two collectively called big bet poker), "fixed limit", and "spread limit".


title: Betting in poker

text: All such games have a minimum bet as well as the stated maximums, and also commonly a betting unit, which is the smallest denomination in which bets can be made. For example, it is common for games with $20 and $40 betting limits to have a minimum betting unit of $5, so that all bets must be in multiples of $5, to simplify game play. It is also common for some games to have a bring-in that is less than the minimum for other bets. In this case, players may either call the bring-in, or raise to the full amount of a normal bet, called completing the bet.


title: Betting in poker

text: In a game played with a fixed-limit betting structure, a player chooses only whether to bet or not—the amount is fixed by rule in most situations. To enable the possibility of bluffing and protection, the fixed amount generally doubles at some point in the game. This double wager amount is referred to as a big bet.


title: Betting in poker

text: For example, a four-round game called "20 and 40 limit" (usually written as $20/$40) may specify that each bet in the first two rounds is $20, and that each "big bet" used in the third and fourth rounds is $40. This amount applies to each raise, not the total amount bet in a round, so a player may bet $20, be raised $20, and then re-raise another $20, for a total bet of $60, in such a game.


title: Betting in poker

text: Some limit games have rules for specific situations allowing a player to choose between a small or big bet. For example, in seven-card stud high, when a player has a face-up pair on the second round (4th street), players may choose a small or big bet (e.g. $20 or $40 in a 20-40 game).


title: Betting in poker

text: Most fixed-limit games will not allow more than a predefined number of raises in a betting round. The maximum number of raises depends on the casino house rules, and is usually posted conspicuously in the card room. Typically, an initial bet plus either three or four raises are allowed.


title: Betting in poker

text: Consider this example in a $20/$40 game, with a posted limit of a bet and three raises. During a $20 round with three players, play could proceed as follows:


title: Betting in poker

text: Once Player A has made their final bet, Players B and C may only call another two and one bets (respectively); they may not raise again because the betting is capped.


title: Betting in poker

text: A common exception in this rule practiced in some card rooms is to allow unlimited raising when a pot is played heads up (when only two players are in the hand at the start of the betting round). Usually, this has occurred because all other players have folded, and only two remain, although it is also practiced when only two players get dealt in. Many card rooms will permit these two players to continue re-raising each other until one player is all in.


title: Betting in poker

text: Sometimes a fixed-limit game is played as a kill game. In such a game, a kill hand is triggered when a player wins a pot over a certain predetermined amount, or when the player wins a certain number of consecutive hands. The player triggering the kill must post a kill blind, generally either 1.5 times (a half kill) or double (a full kill) the amount of the big blind. In addition, the betting limits for the kill hand are multiplied by 1.5 or doubled, respectively.


title: Betting in poker

text: The term kill, when used in this context, should not be confused with "killing a hand", which is a term used for a hand that was made a dead hand by action of a game official.


title: Betting in poker

text: A game played with a spread-limit betting structure allows a player to raise any amount within a specified range. For example, a game called "one to five limit" allows each bet to be anywhere from $1 to $5 (subject to other betting rules). These limits are typically larger in later rounds of multi-round games. For example, a game might be "one to five, ten on the end", meaning that early betting rounds allow bets of $1 to $5, and the last betting round allows bets of $1 to $10.


title: Betting in poker

text: Playing spread-limit requires some care to avoid giving easy tells with one's choice of bets. Beginners frequently give themselves away by betting high with strong hands and low with weak ones, for instance. It is also harder to force other players out with big bets.


title: Betting in poker

text: There is a variation of this known as "California Spread," where the range is much higher, such as 3-100 or 10-1000. California Spread, as the name implies, is played in California, Colorado, and Minnesota, where local laws forbid no limit.


title: Betting in poker

text: In a half-pot limit game, no player can raise more than the half of the size of the total pot. Half-pot limit games are often played at non-high-low games including Badugi in South Korea.


title: Betting in poker

text: This does not preclude a player from raising less than the maximum so long as the amount of the raise is equal to or greater than any previous bet or raise in the same betting round.


title: Betting in poker

text: Making a maximum raise is referred to as "raising the pot", or "potting", and can be announced by the acting player by declaring "Raise pot", or simply "Pot".


title: Betting in poker

text: If there is $20 in the pot at the start of a betting round in a $2/$5 pot limit game, and Player A bets $5, player B may "raise the pot" and wager $35 creating a new pot total of $60. This is derived from the $20 previous round action, Player A's $5 bet, Player B's $5 call, and player B's $30 Pot Raise ($20+$5+$5+$30=$60). Bear in mind, however, that $60 is the "new" pot, player B's "Pot" declaration will cost them $35. (These actions, with additional follow-up wagering, are laid out in Table '1' on the right.)


title: Betting in poker

text: Only pot limit games allow the dealer, on request, to inform the players of the pot size and the amount of a pot raise before it's made. The dealer is also required to push any amount over the maximum raise back to the offending player. Keeping track of those numbers can be harrowing if the action becomes heated, but there are simple calculations that allow a dealer or player to keep track of the maximum raise amount. Here is an example:


title: Betting in poker

text: There may be some variance between cash and tournament play in pot limit betting structures, which should be noted:


title: Betting in poker

text: Because the calculations can be confusing, especially as tournament blind levels increase, major tournaments will include the amount of the small blind, big blind, minimum raise and maximum raise with the printed blind schedule and/or display them on the tournament timer.


title: Betting in poker

text: There can be some confusion about the small blind. Some (usually home) games treat the small blind as dead money that is pulled into the center pot. In a $10/$25 pot limit game, the small blind puts $10 into the pot before the cards are dealt. Using the dead money reasoning, the small blind would put another $25 into the pot to call the big blind, for a total of $35. The big blind might then check for $25, which would enable that player to win out of proportion to their wager.


title: Betting in poker

text: This is not equitable; it's simple enough to consider that the small blind has made a half bet and must complete that bet for $15 to call, or raise, or fold for $10.


title: Betting in poker

text: A game played with a no-limit betting structure allows each player to raise the bet by any amount up to and including their entire remaining stack at any time (subject to the table stakes rules and any other rules about raising). There is generally a minimum opening bet, and raises usually must be at least the amount of the previous raise.


title: Betting in poker

text: Hands in a cap limit or "capped" structure are played exactly the same as in regular no limit or pot limit games until a pre-determined maximum per player is reached. Once the betting cap is reached, all players left in the hand are considered all-in, and the remaining cards dealt out with no more wagering.


title: Betting in poker

text: "Player A bets $2. Player B raises to $10. Player C can then raise to a max of $60, and players A & B can call the $60 wager ($58 and $50 respectively). There would be no further wagering, and the winner would collect $180.


title: Betting in poker

text: Cap limit games offer a similar action and strategy to no limit and pot limit games, but without risking an entire stack on a single hand.


title: Betting in poker

text: All casinos and most home games play poker by what are called table stakes rules, which state that each player starts each deal with a certain stake, and plays that deal with that stake. A player may not remove money from the table or add money from their pocket during the play of a hand. In essence, table stakes rules creates a maximum and a minimum buy-in amount for cash game poker as well as rules for adding and removing the stake from play. A player also may not take a portion of their money or stake off the table, unless they opt to leave the game and remove their entire stake from play. Players are not allowed to hide or misrepresent the amount of their stake from other players and must truthfully disclose the amount when asked.


title: Betting in poker

text: In casino games, an exception is customarily made for de minimis amounts such as tips paid out of a player's stack.


title: Betting in poker

text: Common among inexperienced players is the act of "going south" after winning a big pot, which is to take a portion of one's stake out of play, often as an attempt to hedge one's risk after a win. This is also known as "ratholing" or "reducing" and, while totally permissible in most other casino games, is not permitted in poker. If a player wishes to "hedge" after a win, the player must leave the table entirely—to do so immediately after winning a large pot is known as a "hit and run" and, although not prohibited, is generally considered in poor taste as the other players have no chance to "win some of it back".


title: Betting in poker

text: In most casinos, once a player picks up their stack and leaves a table, they must wait a certain amount of time (usually an hour) before returning to a table with the same game and limits unless they buy in for the entire amount they left with. This is to prevent circumvention of the rule against "ratholing" by leaving the table after a large win only to immediately buy back in for a lesser amount.


title: Betting in poker

text: Table stakes are the rule in most cash poker games because it allows players with vastly different bankrolls a reasonable amount of protection when playing with one another. They are usually set in relation to the blinds. For example, in a $1/2 No Limit cash game, the minimum stake is often set at $40 while maximum stake is often set at $200, or 20 and 100 big blinds respectively.


title: Betting in poker

text: This also requires some special rules to handle the case when a player is faced with a bet that they cannot call with their available stake.


title: Betting in poker

text: A player faced with a current bet who wishes to call but has insufficient remaining stake (folding does not require special rules) may bet the remainder of their stake and declare themselves all-in. They may now hold onto their cards for the remainder of the deal as if they had called every bet, but may not win any more money from any player above the amount of their bet. In no-limit games, a player may also go all in, that is, betting their entire stack at any point during a betting round.


title: Betting in poker

text: A player who goes "all-in" effectively caps the main pot; the player is not entitled to win any amount from each player over their total stake. If only one other player is still in the hand, the other player simply matches the all-in (retracting any overage if necessary) and the hand is dealt to completion. However, if multiple players remain in the game and the bet rises beyond the all-in's stake, the overage goes into a side pot. Only the players who have contributed to the side pot have the chance to win it. In the case of multiple all-in bets, multiple side pots can be created. Players who choose to fold rather than match bets "in the side pot" are considered to fold with respect to the main pot as well.


title: Betting in poker

text: For example, with three players in a game, Player A, with a large stack, opens the betting round for $20. Player B only has $10. They call the $10, going all-in. Player C has $30, and thus can either call the full $20, re-raise to $30, or fold. Player C decides to "raise all-in", betting their remaining stake. The bet is now $10 to Player A, who calls. Player A is the only player at the table with a remaining stake; they may not make any further bets this hand. Because Player B can only win $10 from each of the other two players' $30 bets, that $10 is taken from all players' bets and the $30 total is placed in the main pot. The $40 remaining, for which Players A and C are separately contesting, goes in a side pot. As no further bets can be made, the hand is now dealt to completion. It is found that Player B has the best hand overall, and wins the main pot. Player A has the second-best hand, and wins the side pot. Player C loses the hand, and must "re-buy" if they wish to be dealt in on subsequent hands.


title: Betting in poker

text: There is a strategic advantage to being all-in: such a player cannot be bluffed, because they are entitled to hold their cards and see the showdown without risking any more money. Opponents who continue to bet after a player is all-in can still bluff each other out of the side pot, which is also to the all-in player's advantage since players who fold out of the side pot also reduce competition for the main pot. But these advantages are offset by the disadvantage that a player cannot win any more money than their stake can cover when they have the best hand, nor can an all-in player bluff other players on subsequent betting rounds when they do not have the best hand.


title: Betting in poker

text: Some players may choose to buy into games with a "short stack", a stack of chips that is relatively small for the stakes being played, with the intention of going all-in after the flop and not having to make any further decisions. However, this is generally a non-optimal strategy in the long term, since the player does not maximize their gains on their winning hands.


title: Betting in poker

text: If a player does not have sufficient money to cover the ante and blinds due, that player is automatically all-in for the coming hand. Any money the player holds must be applied to the ante first, and if the full ante is covered, the remaining money is applied towards the blind.


title: Betting in poker

text: Some cardrooms require players in the big blind position to have at least enough chips to cover the small blind (and ante if applicable) in order to be dealt in. In cash games with such a rule, any player in the big blind with insufficient chips to cover the small blind will not be dealt in unless they re-buy. In tournaments with such a rule, any player in the big blind with insufficient chips to cover the small blind will be eliminated with their remaining chips being removed from play.


title: Betting in poker

text: If a player is all in for part of the ante, or the exact amount of the ante, an equal amount of every other player's ante is placed in the main pot, with any remaining fraction of the ante and all blinds and further bets in the side pot.


title: Betting in poker

text: If a player is all in for part of a blind, all antes go into the main pot. Players to act must call the complete amount of the big blind to call, even if the all-in player has posted less than a full big blind. At the end of the betting round, the bets and calls will be divided into the main pot and side pot as usual.


title: Betting in poker

text: For example, Alice is playing at a table with 10 players in a tournament with an ante of $1 and blinds of $4/$8. Alice is due the big blind but she only has $8. She must pay the $1 ante and apply the remaining $7 towards the big blind, and she is all in. Dianne, next to act, calls $8, the full big blind amount. Carol raises to $16 total. All remaining players fold, the small blind folds, and Dianne folds. The amount in the main pot is $10 (the sum of all antes) plus the full $4 small blind since Alice had this amount covered, plus $7 from Alice and every other player who called at least that amount, namely Dianne and Carol. The main pot is therefore $10 + $4 + 3 × $7 = $35. The side pot of $10 ($1 in excess of Alice's all-in bet from Dianne, and $9 in excess of Alice's all-in bet from Carol) is paid immediately to Carol when Dianne folds.


title: Betting in poker

text: If a player goes all-in with a bet or raise rather than a call, another special rule comes into play. There are two options in common use: pot-limit and no-limit games usually use what is called the full bet rule, while fixed-limit and spread-limit games may use either the full bet rule or the half bet rule. The full bet rule states that if the amount of an all-in bet is less than the minimum bet, or if the amount of an all-in raise is less than the full amount of the previous raise, it does not constitute a "real" raise, and therefore does "not" reopen the betting action. The half bet rule states that if an all-in bet or raise is equal to or larger than half the minimum amount, it "does" constitute a raise and reopens the action.


title: Betting in poker

text: For example, with the full bet rule in effect, a player opens the betting round for $20, and the next player has a total stake of $30. They may raise to $30, declaring themselves all-in, but this does not constitute a "real" raise, in the following sense: if a third player now calls the $30, and the first player's turn to act comes up, they may now call the additional $10, but they do not have the right to re-raise further. The all-in player's pseudo-raise was really just a call with some extra money, and the third player's call was just a call, so the initial opener's bet was simply called by both remaining players, closing the betting round (even though they must still equalize the money by putting in the additional $10). If the half bet rule were being used, then that raise would count as a genuine raise and the first player would be entitled to re-raise if they chose to (creating a side pot for the amount of their re-raise and the third player's call, if any).


title: Betting in poker

text: In a game with a half bet rule, a player may complete an incomplete raise, if that player still has the right to raise (in other words, if that player has not yet acted in the betting round, or has not yet acted since the last full bet or raise). The act of completing a bet or raise reopens the betting to other remaining opponents.


title: Betting in poker

text: For example, four players are in a hand, playing with a limit betting structure and a half bet rule. The current betting round is $20. Alice checks, and Dianne checks. Carol goes all-in for $5. Joane, still to act, has the following options: fold, call $5, or complete the bet to a total of $20. If Joane calls the $5, Alice and Dianne only have the option of calling or folding; neither can raise. But if Joane completes, either of them could raise.


title: Betting in poker

text: When all players in the pot are all-in, or one player is playing alone against opponents who are all all-in, no more betting can take place. Some casinos and many major tournaments require that all players still involved open, or immediately reveal, their hole cards in this case—the dealer will not continue dealing until all hands are flipped up. Likewise, any other cards that would normally be dealt face down, such as the final card in seven-card stud, may be dealt face-up. Such action is automatic in online poker. This rule discourages a form of tournament collusion called "chip dumping", in which one player deliberately loses their chips to another to give that player a greater chance of winning.


title: Betting in poker

text: The alternative to table stakes rules is called "open stakes", in which players are allowed to buy more chips during the hand and even to borrow money (often called "going light"). Open stakes are most commonly found in home or private games. In casinos, players are sometimes allowed to buy chips at the table during a hand, but are never allowed to borrow money or use IOUs. Other casinos, depending on protocol for buying chips, prohibit it as it slows gameplay considerably.


title: Betting in poker

text: Open stakes is the older form of stakes rules, and before "all-in" betting became commonplace, a large bankroll meant an unfair advantage; raising the bet beyond what a player could cover in cash gave the player only two options; buy a larger stake (borrowing if necessary) or fold. This is commonly seen in period-piece movies such as Westerns, where a player bets personal possessions or even wagers property against another player's much larger cash bankroll.


title: Betting in poker

text: In modern open-stakes rules, a player may go all in as in table stakes if they so choose, rather than adding to their stake or borrowing.


title: Betting in poker

text: Because it is a strategic advantage to go all in with some hands while being able to add to one's stake with others, such games may strictly enforce a minimum buy-in that is several times the maximum bet (or blinds, in the case of a no-limit or pot-limit game).


title: Betting in poker

text: A player who goes all in and wins a pot that is less than the minimum buy-in may not then add to their stake or borrow money during any future hand until they re-buy an amount sufficient to bring their stake up to a full buy-in.


title: Betting in poker

text: If a player cannot or does not wish to go all-in, they may instead choose to buy chips with cash out-of-pocket at any time, even during the play of a hand, and their bets are limited only by the specified betting structure of the game.


title: Betting in poker

text: Finally, a player may also borrow money by betting with an IOU, called a "marker", payable to the winner of the pot. To bet with a marker, "all" players still active in the pot must agree to accept the marker. Some clubs and house rules forbid IOUs altogether. If the marker is not acceptable, the bettor may bet with cash out-of-pocket or go all-in.


title: Betting in poker

text: A player may also borrow money from a player not involved in the pot, giving them a personal marker in exchange for cash or chips, which the players in the pot are then compelled to accept.


title: Betting in poker

text: A player may borrow money to call a bet during a hand, and later in the same hand go all-in due to further betting; but if a player borrows money to raise, they forfeit the right to go all-in later in that same hand—if they are re-raised, they "must" borrow money to call, or fold.


title: Betting in poker

text: A player may also buy more chips or be bought back in by any other player for any given amount at any given time.


title: Betting in poker

text: Just as in table stakes, no player may remove chips or cash from the table once they are put in play (except small amounts for refreshments, tips, and such)—this includes all markers, whether one's own or those won from other players.


title: Betting in poker

text: Players may agree before play on the means and time limits of settling markers, and a convenient amount below which all markers must be accepted to simplify play.


title: Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary

text: "Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary" is an English nursery rhyme. The rhyme has been seen as having religious and historical significance, but its origins and meaning are disputed. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 19626.


title: Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary

text: The oldest known version was first published in "Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book" (1744) with the lyrics that are shown here:


title: Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary

text: No proof has been found that the rhyme was known before the 18th century, while Mary I of England (Mary Tudor) and Mary, Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart), were contemporaries in the 16th century.


title: Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary

text: Like many nursery rhymes, it has acquired various historical explanations. One theory is that it is religious allegory of Catholicism, with Mary being Mary, the mother of Jesus, bells representing the sanctus bells, the cockleshells the badges of the pilgrims to the shrine of Saint James in Spain (Santiago de Compostela) and pretty maids are nuns, but even within this strand of thought there are differences of opinion as to whether it is lament for the reinstatement of Catholicism or for its persecution. Another theory sees the rhyme as connected to Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–1587), with "how does your garden grow" referring to her reign over her realm, "silver bells" referring to (Catholic) cathedral bells, "cockle shells" insinuating that her husband was not faithful to her, and "pretty maids all in a row" referring to her ladies-in-waiting – "The four Maries".


title: Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary

text: Mary has also been identified with Mary I of England ("Bloody Mary"; 1516–1558), with "How does your garden grow?" said to refer to her lack of heirs, or to the common idea that England had become a Catholic vassal or "branch" of Spain and the Habsburgs. It is also said to be a punning reference to her chief minister, Stephen Gardiner. "Quite contrary" is said to be a reference to her unsuccessful attempt to reverse ecclesiastical changes effected by her father Henry VIII and her brother Edward VI. The "pretty maids all in a row" is speculated to be a reference to miscarriages or her execution of Lady Jane Grey. "Rows and rows" is said to refer to her executions of Protestants.


title: Chios

text: Chios (; , traditionally known as Scio in English) is the fifth largest Greek island, situated in the northern Aegean Sea. The island is separated from Turkey by the Chios Strait. Chios is notable for its exports of mastic gum and its nickname is "the Mastic Island". Tourist attractions include its medieval villages and the 11th-century monastery of Nea Moni, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Chios

text: Administratively, the island forms a separate municipality within the Chios regional unit, which is part of the North Aegean region. The principal town of the island and seat of the municipality is Chios. Locals refer to Chios town as "Chora" ( literally means land or country, but usually refers to the capital or a settlement at the highest point of a Greek island).


title: Chios

text: The island was also the site of the Chios massacre, in which thousands of Greeks on the island were massacred, expelled, and enslaved by Ottoman troops during the Greek War of Independence in 1822.


title: Chios

text: Chios island is crescent or kidney-shaped, long from north to south, and at its widest, covering an area of . The terrain is mountainous and arid, with a ridge of mountains running the length of the island. The two largest of these mountains, Pelineon () and Epos (), are situated in the north of the island. The center of the island is divided between east and west by a range of smaller peaks, known as Provatas.


title: Chios

text: Midway up the east coast lie the main population centers, the main town of Chios, and the regions of Vrontados and Kambos. Chios Town, with a population of 32,400, is built around the island's main harbour and medieval castle. The current castle, with a perimeter of , was principally constructed during the time of Genoese and Ottoman rule, although remains have been found dating settlements there back to 2000 B.C. The town was substantially damaged by an earthquake in 1881, and only partially retains its original character.


title: Chios

text: North of Chios Town lies the large suburb of Vrontados (population 4,500), which claims to be the birthplace of Homer. The suburb lies in the Omiroupoli municipality, and its connection to the poet is supported by an archaeological site known traditionally as "Teacher's Rock".


title: Chios

text: In the southern region of the island are the (literally 'mastic villages'), the seven villages of Mesta (), Pyrgi (), Olympi (), Kalamoti (), Vessa (), Lithi (), and Elata (), which together have controlled the production of mastic gum in the area since the Roman period. The villages, built between the 14th and 16th centuries, have a carefully designed layout with fortified gates and narrow streets to protect against the frequent raids by marauding pirates. Between Chios Town and the Mastichochoria lie a large number of historic villages including Armolia (), Myrmighi (), and Kalimassia (). Along the east coast are the fishing villages of Kataraktis () and to the south, Nenita ().


title: Chios

text: Directly in the centre of the island, between the villages of Avgonyma to the west and Karyes to the east, is the 11th century monastery of Nea Moni, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The monastery was built with funds given by the Byzantine Emperor Constantine IX, after three monks, living in caves nearby, had petitioned him while he was in exile on the island of Lesbos. The monastery had substantial estates attached, with a thriving community until the massacre of 1822. It was further damaged during the 1881 earthquake. In 1952, due to the shortage of monks, Nea Moni was converted to a convent.


title: Chios

text: The island's climate is warm and moderate, categorised as Temperate, Mediterranean (Csa), with modest variation due to the stabilising effect of the surrounding sea. Average temperatures normally range from a summer high of to a winter low of in January, although temperatures of over or below freezing can sometimes be encountered.


title: Chios

text: The island normally experiences steady breezes (average ) throughout the year, with wind direction predominantly northerly ("Etesian" Wind—locally called the "Meltemi") or southwesterly (Sirocco).


title: Chios

text: The Chios Basin is a hydrographic sub-unit of the Aegean Sea adjacent to the island of Chios. A kind of white dirt found near Pyrgi on the southern part of the island was famed as an astringent and cosmetic since antiquity as Chian earth (; , "pēlomaiotiko"). Extracted around May each year, it was considered less valuable than the similar medicinal earth produced by Lemnos given that the Limnian earth was considered protective against venoms and poisons but nonetheless reputed to be "the greatest of all cosmetics... giv[ing] a whiteness and smoothness to the skin and prevent[ing] wrinkles beyond any of the other substances... for the same purposes."


title: Chios

text: The ancient writer Pausanias tells us that the poet Ion of Chios believed the island received its name from "Chios", the son of Poseidon by a nymph of the island, who was born amidst snowfall ( 'snow'). Known as Ophioussa (, 'snake island') and Pityoussa (, 'pine-tree island') in antiquity, during the later Middle Ages the island was ruled by a number of non-Greek powers and was known as (Genoese), (Italian) and ( in Ottoman Turkish). The capital during that time was Kastron (, 'castle').


title: Chios

text: Archaeological research on Chios has found evidence of habitation dating back at least to the Neolithic era. The primary sites of research for this period have been cave dwellings at Hagio(n) Galas in the north and a settlement and accompanying necropolis in modern-day Emporeio at the far south of the island. Scholars lack information on this period. The size and duration of these settlements have therefore not been well-established.


title: Chios

text: The British School at Athens under the direction of Sinclair Hood excavated the Emporeio site in 1952–1955, and most current information comes from these digs. The Greek Archaeological Service has also been excavating periodically on Chios since 1970, though much of its work on the island remains unpublished.


title: Chios

text: The noticeable uniformity in the size of houses at Emporeio leads some scholars to believe that there may have been little social distinction during the Neolithic era on the island. The inhabitants apparently all benefited from agricultural and livestock farming.


title: Chios

text: It is also widely held by scholars that the island was not occupied by humans during the Middle Bronze Age (2300–1600), though researchers have recently suggested that the lack of evidence from this period may only demonstrate the lack of excavations on Chios and the northern Aegean.


title: Chios

text: By at least the 11th century BC the island was ruled by a monarchy, and the subsequent transition to aristocratic (or possibly tyrannic) rule occurred sometime over the next four centuries. Future excavations may reveal more information about this period. 9th-century Euboean and Cypriote presence on the island is attested by ceramics, while a Phoenician presence is noted at Erythrae, the traditional competitor of Chios on the mainland.


title: Chios

text: Pherecydes, native to the Aegean, wrote that the island was occupied by the Leleges, Pre-Greeks who were reported to be subjected to the Minoans on Crete. They were eventually driven out by invading Ionians.


title: Chios

text: Chios was one of the original twelve member states of the Ionian League. As a result, Chios, at the end of the 7th century BC, was one of the first cities to strike or mint coins, establishing the sphinx as its symbol. It maintained this tradition for almost 900 years.


title: Chios

text: In the 6th century BC, Chios' government adopted a constitution similar to that developed by Solon in Athens and later developed democratic elements with a voting assembly and people's magistrates called "damarchoi".


title: Chios

text: In 546 BC, Chios was subjected to the Persian Empire. Chios joined the Ionian Revolt against the Persians in 499 BC. The naval power of Chios during this period is demonstrated by the fact that the Chians had the largest fleet (100 ships) of all of the Ionians at the Battle of Lade in 494 BC. At Lade, the Chian fleet doggedly continued to fight the Persian fleet even after the defection of the Samians and others, but the Chians were ultimately forced to retreat and were again subjected to Persian domination.


title: Chios

text: The defeat of Persia at the Battle of Mycale in 479 BC meant the liberation of Chios from Persian rule. When the Athenians formed the Delian League, Chios joined as one of the few members who did not have to pay tribute but who supplied ships to the alliance.


title: Chios

text: By the fifth to fourth centuries BC, the island had grown to an estimated population of over 120,000 (two to three times the estimated population in 2005), based on the huge necropolis at the main city of Chios. It is thought that the majority of the population lived in that area.


title: Chios

text: In 412 BC, during the Peloponnesian War, Chios revolted against Athens, and the Athenians besieged it. Relief only came the following year when the Spartans were able to raise the siege. In the 4th century BC, Chios was a member of the Second Athenian League but revolted against Athens during the Social War (357–355 BC), and Chios became independent again until the rise of Macedonia.


title: Chios

text: Theopompus returned to Chios with the other exiles in 333 BC after Alexander had invaded Asia Minor and decreed their return, as well as the exile or trial of Persian supporters on the island. Theopompus was exiled again sometime after Alexander's death and took refuge in Egypt.


title: Chios

text: During this period, the island also had become the largest exporter of Greek wine, which was noted for being of relatively high quality (see "Chian wine"). Chian amphoras, with a characteristic sphinx emblem and bunches of grapes, have been found in nearly every country with whom the ancient Greeks traded. These countries included Gaul, Upper Egypt, and Southern Russia.


title: Chios

text: During the Third Macedonian War, thirty-five vessels allied to Rome, carrying about 1,000 Galatian troops, as well as a number of horses, were sent by Eumenes II to his brother Attalus. Leaving from Elaea, they were headed to the harbour of Phanae, planning to disembark from there to Macedonia. However, Perseus's naval commander Antenor intercepted the fleet between Erythrae (on the Western coast of Turkey) and Chios. According to Livy, they were caught completely off-guard by Antenor. Eumenes' officers at first thought the intercepting fleet were friendly Romans, but scattered upon realizing they were facing an attack by their Macedonian enemy, some choosing to abandon ship and swim to Erythrae. Others, crashing their ships into land on Chios, fled toward the city. The Chians however closed their gates, startled at the calamity. And the Macedonians, who had docked closer to the city anyway, cut the rest of the fleet off outside the city gates, and on the road leading to the city. Of the 1,000 men, 800 were killed, 200 taken prisoner.'


title: Chios

text: Pliny remarks upon the islanders' use of variegated marble in their buildings, their appreciation for such stone above murals or other forms of artificial decoration, and the cosmetic properties of the local earth.


title: Chios

text: According to the Acts of the Apostles, Luke the Evangelist, Paul the Apostle and their companions passed Chios during Paul's third missionary journey, on a passage from Lesbos to Samos.


title: Chios

text: After the permanent division of the Roman Empire in 395 AD, Chios was for seven centuries part of the Byzantine Empire. This came to an end when the island was briefly held (1090–97) by Tzachas, a Turkish bey in the region of Smyrna during the first expansion of the Turks to the Aegean coast. However, the Turks were driven back from the Aegean coast by the Byzantines aided by the First Crusade, and the island was restored to Byzantine rule by admiral Constantine Dalassenos.


title: Chios

text: This relative stability was ended by the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade (1204) and during the turmoil of the 13th century the island's ownership was constantly affected by the regional power struggles. After the Fourth Crusade, the Byzantine empire was divided up by the Latin emperors of Constantinople, with Chios nominally becoming a possession of the Republic of Venice. However, defeats for the Latin empire resulted in the island reverting to Byzantine rule in 1225.


title: Chios

text: The Byzantine rulers had little influence and through the Treaty of Nymphaeum, authority was ceded to the Republic of Genoa (1261). At this time the island was frequently attacked by pirates, and by 1302–1303 was a target for the renewed Turkish fleets. To prevent Turkish expansion, the island was reconquered and kept as a renewable concession, at the behest of the Byzantine emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus, by the Genovese Benedetto I Zaccaria (1304), then admiral to Philip of France. Zaccaria installed himself as ruler of the island, founding the short-lived Lordship of Chios. His rule was benign and effective control remained in the hands of the local Greek landowners. Benedetto Zacharia was followed by his son Paleologo and then his grandsons or nephews Benedetto II and Martino. They attempted to turn the island towards the Latin and Papal powers, and away from the predominant Byzantine influence. The locals, still loyal to the Byzantine Empire, responded to a letter from the emperor and, despite a standing army of a thousand infantrymen, a hundred cavalrymen and two galleys, expelled the Zacharia family from the island (1329) and dissolved the fiefdom.


title: Chios

text: Local rule was brief. In 1346, a chartered company or "Maona" (the ""Maona di Chio e di Focea"") was set up in Genoa to reconquer and exploit Chios and the neighbouring town of Phocaea in Asia Minor. Although the islanders firmly rejected an initial offer of protection, the island was invaded by a Genoese fleet, led by Simone Vignoso, and the castle besieged. Again rule was transferred peacefully, as on 12 September the castle was surrendered and a treaty signed with no loss of privileges to the local landowners as long as the new authority was accepted. The Maona was controlled by the Giustiniani family.


title: Chios

text: The Genoese, being interested in profit rather than conquest, controlled the trade-posts and warehouses, in particular the trade of mastic, alum, salt and pitch. Other trades such as grain, wine oil and cloth and most professions were run jointly with the locals. After a failed uprising in 1347, and being heavily outnumbered (less than 10% of the population in 1395), the Latins maintained light control over the local population, remaining largely in the town and allowing full religious freedom. In this way the island remained under Genoese control for two centuries. By 1566, when Genoa lost Chios to the Ottoman Empire, there were 12.000 Greeks and 2.500 Genoese (or 17% of the total population) in the island.


title: Chios

text: In the April of 1566, the island of Chios was captured by the Ottoman Empire after the surrender to Piyale Pasha. Subsequently, the Genoans were sent to the capital and after some time upon the request of the French ambassdor they were allowed to return with a firman.


title: Chios

text: During Ottoman rule, the government and tax gathering again remained in the hands of Greeks and the Turkish garrison was small and inconspicuous.


title: Chios

text: As well as the Latin and Turkish influx, documents record a small Jewish population from at least 1049 AD. The original Greek (Romaniote) Jews, thought to have been brought over by the Romans, were later joined by Sephardic Jews welcomed by the Ottomans during the Iberian expulsions of the 15th century.


title: Chios

text: The mainstay of the island's famous wealth was the mastic crop. Chios was able to make a substantial contribution to the imperial treasury while at the same time maintaining only a light level of taxation. The Ottoman government regarded it as one of the most valuable provinces of the Empire.


title: Chios

text: When the Greek War of Independence broke out, the island's leaders were reluctant to join the revolutionaries, fearing the loss of their security and prosperity. However, in March 1822, several hundred armed Greeks from the neighbouring island of Samos landed in Chios. They proclaimed the revolution and launched attacks against the Turks, at which point islanders decided to join the struggle.


title: Chios

text: Ottomans landed a large force on the island consequently and put down the rebellion. The Ottoman massacre of Chios expelled, killed or enslaved thousands of the inhabitants of the island.


title: Chios

text: It wiped out whole villages and affected the Mastichochoria area, the mastic growing villages in the south of the island. It triggered also negative public reaction in Western Europe, as portrayed by Eugène Delacroix, and in the writing of Lord Byron and Victor Hugo. In 1825, Thomas Barker of Bath painted a fresco depicting the Chios Massacre on the walls of Doric House, Bath, Somerset. Finally, Chios was not included in the modern Greek state and remained under Ottoman rule.


title: Chios

text: In 1881, an earthquake, estimated as 6.5 on the moment magnitude scale, damaged a large portion of the island's buildings and resulted in great loss of life. Reports of the time spoke of 5,500–10,000 fatalities.


title: Chios

text: Remarkably, despite the terrible devastation, in the later 19th century Chios emerged as the motherland of the modern Greek shipping industry. Indicatively, while in 1764, Chios had 6 vessels with 90 sailors on record, in 1875 there were 104 ships with over 60,000 registered tonnes, and in 1889 were recorded 440 sailing ships of various types with 3,050 sailors. The dynamic development of Chian shipping in the 19th century is further attested by the various shipping related services that were present in the island during this time, such as the creation of the shipping insurance companies "Chiaki Thalassoploia" (Χιακή Θαλασσοπλοΐα), "Dyo Adelfai" (Δυο Αδελφαί), "Omonoia" (Ομόνοια) and the shipping bank "Archangelos" (Αρχάγγελος) (1863). The boom of Chian shipping took place with the successful transition from sailing vessels to steam. To this end, Chian ship owners were supported by the strong "diaspora" presence of Chian merchants and bankers, and the connections they had developed with the financing centers of the time (Istanbul, London), the establishment in London of shipping businessmen, the creation of shipping academies in Chios and the expertise of Chian personnel on board.


title: Chios

text: Chios joined the rest of independent Greece after the First Balkan War (1912). The Greek Navy landed at Chios in November 1912 and took control of the island after a brief amphibious operation. The Ottoman Empire recognized Greece's annexation of Chios and the other Aegean islands by signing the Treaty of London (1913).


title: Chios

text: Although Greece was officially neutral, the island was occupied by the British during World War I. They landed on 17 February 1916. This may have been due to the island's proximity to the Ottoman Empire and the city of İzmir in particular.


title: Chios

text: It was affected also by the population exchange after the Greco–Turkish War of 1919–1922, with the incoming Greek refugees settling in Kastro (previously a Turkish neighborhood) and in new settlements hurriedly built south of Chios town.


title: Chios

text: The island saw some local violence during the Greek Civil War setting neighbour against neighbour. This ended when the final band of communist fighters was trapped and killed in the orchards of Kampos and their bodies driven through the main town on the back of a truck. In March 1948, the island was used as an internment camp for female political detainees (communists or relatives of guerillas) and their children, who were housed in military barracks near the town of Chios. Up to 1300 women and 50 children were housed in cramped and degrading conditions, until March 1949 when the camp was closed and the inhabitants moved to Trikeri.


title: Chios

text: The production of mastic was threatened by the Chios forest fire that swept the southern half of the island in August 2012 and destroyed some mastic groves.


title: Chios

text: By 2015, Chios had become a transit point for refugees and asylum seekers entering the EU from Turkey. A reception and identification centre was formed at VIAL near the village of Chalkeio, however, in 2021 the Greek government announced a new closed reception centre will be built in a more isolated location at Akra Pachy near the village of Pantoukios.


title: Chios

text: The present municipality Chios was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 8 former municipalities, that became municipal units:


title: Chios

text: The local merchant shipping community transports several locally grown products including mastic, olives, figs, wine, mandarins, and cherries.


title: Chios

text: Sporadically for some time during the early 19th century to 1950s there was mining activity on the island at Keramos Antimony Mines.


title: Airports of London

text: The metropolitan area of London, England, United Kingdom, is served by six international airports and several smaller airports. Together, these airports constitute the busiest airport system in the world by passenger numbers and the second-busiest by aircraft movements. In 2018, the six airports handled a total of 177,054,819 passengers. The London airports handle over 60% of all the UK's air traffic. The airports serve a total of 14 domestic destinations and 396 international destinations.


title: Airports of London

text: Located in the London Borough of Newham, London City Airport is situated in London's Docklands, and is the closest to central London, which limits its size—the airport has a single runway, which is very short. As a result, only the smallest aircraft are permitted to use the airport, which initially prevented all long-haul flights. However, from 2009 to 2020, British Airways had operated a flight to New York JFK, via Shannon, using an Airbus A318 – the largest aircraft that can be handled at the airport. The largest aircraft currently operating from the airport is the Airbus A220-100, slightly smaller


title: Airports of London

text: than the Airbus A318, with increased range and capable of taking off from London City fully loaded. Its first commercial flight completed in August 2017 from Zurich.


title: Airports of London

text: Located only four miles from Canary Wharf, London City Airport is often used by business travellers, with many flights serving destinations across the UK and northern Europe. The airport cannot be expanded due to the docks on either side. It is also the only airport serving London which does not operate at night.


title: Airports of London

text: A light rail service from London City Airport DLR station, which adjoins the terminal building of London City Airport, links it to the financial district of the City of London at Bank and Monument stations, which offer interchanges with London Underground.


title: Airports of London

text: Located in the London Borough of Hillingdon, Heathrow is by far the largest of London's airports and considered the main gateway into the United Kingdom for non-European visitors. Heathrow has four terminals and two parallel runways. Due to the location in London's western suburbs, Heathrow has had trouble trying to expand, with various expansion projects being cancelled. As a result, the airport consistently runs at over 99% capacity and is often included on lists of the worst-rated airports in the world. However, on 1 July 2015 Heathrow's expansion plan was suggested as the best option by the Airport Commission and on 25 October 2016 a new northwest runway and terminal was approved by the Government.


title: Airports of London

text: The airport is connected to Great Britain's motorway network via the M4 and M25 motorways, to London Paddington station by Heathrow Express and TfL Rail trains and to other Central London destinations by London Underground trains on the Piccadilly line.


title: Airports of London

text: In April 2012 (before the 2012 Summer Olympics), Heathrow announced that for the first time in history it handled 70 million passengers in a calendar year, making it the third busiest airport in the world in terms of passenger numbers, after Atlanta and Beijing–Capital. It also comes second behind Dubai International Airport in the list of the busiest airport in the world in terms of international passenger numbers, as well as being the busiest airport in Europe by total passenger numbers.


title: Airports of London

text: Heathrow serves six continents around the world, and is the base for the flag carrier British Airways in Terminal 5. While it also serves short-haul flights, Heathrow is London's long-distance hub and is the most popular arrival point for flights from the United States of America (including New York–JFK), with 13 million passengers. However, because it is operating at capacity, Heathrow has failed to increase service to cities in the newly industrialised countries such as China, falling behind European bases like Frankfurt, Amsterdam, and Paris–Charles de Gaulle.


title: Airports of London

text: Located in West Sussex, Gatwick is the second-busiest airport in the United Kingdom, the eighth-busiest in Europe, and the second-busiest single-runway airport in the world. It handles flights to more destinations than any other UK airport and is the main base of easyJet, the UK's largest airline by number of passengers. Also using it as a base are British Airways, Norwegian Air Shuttle and TUI Airways.


title: Airports of London

text: The airport consists of two terminals, North and South, is connected to the motorway network via the M23 and has its own railway station, with Southern and Thameslink trains serving London Victoria and London Bridge stations respectively as well as there being a dedicated Gatwick Express shuttle to and from London Victoria.


title: Airports of London

text: Located in Bedfordshire, Luton Airport is London's fourth-largest airport, the fifth-busiest in the United Kingdom and the fourth-closest to central London, after Gatwick, Heathrow and City airports. The two airlines supplying most passenger capacity are the low-cost carriers easyJet and Wizz Air.


title: Airports of London

text: Luton Airport Parkway railway station can be reached from London St Pancras in as little as 22 minutes via East Midlands Railway, while Thameslink is the primary operator, with slower but more frequent services. A shuttle bus service connects Luton Airport Parkway to the airport, a distance of just over a mile.


title: Airports of London

text: Located in Essex, Stansted is London's third-busiest airport, being the fourth-busiest in the United Kingdom, behind Manchester Airport, 22nd-busiest in Europe and the largest operational base for Ryanair, which is Europe's largest low-cost carrier and the world's largest international airline by number of international passengers. Stansted serves more scheduled European destinations than any other airport in the UK, as well as some destinations further afield. It is the home of Air Harrods, operated by Harrods Aviation, allowing VIP aircraft to land there, such as Air Force One carrying the President of the United States, Barack Obama, in 2009 and also 2016, also President Donald Trump in 2017 and 2019.


title: Airports of London

text: Stansted Airport railway station is situated in the terminal building directly below the main concourse. Services to Central London are on the Stansted Express train to and from London Liverpool Street.


title: Airports of London

text: Located in Essex, Southend Airport expanded commercial air transport operations to destinations in Ireland in 2011, and to mainland Europe in 2012 when easyJet commenced operations using the brand new terminal and railway station. Southend claims it only takes 15 minutes to go through arrivals from plane to train with hand luggage. It was the third-busiest airport in the United Kingdom from the 1960s until the end of the 1970s, when it was overtaken in passenger numbers by London Stansted Airport.


title: Airports of London

text: Southend Airport railway station is served by Abellio Greater Anglia trains, which connect the airport to London Liverpool Street station up to 8 times per hour. The journey to London takes about one hour.


title: Airports of London

text: Though not generally considered London airports, Birmingham Airport and Southampton Airport have been suggested as alternative airports for London due to the existence of direct rail links serving Central London. Birmingham Airport has argued that High Speed 2, once complete, would make it an attractive option for London passengers.


title: Airports of London

text: Airports are listed at their current borough, although the area may have been outside London at the time of construction.


title: Airports of London

text: There were several Royal Air Force stations in London. This list excludes those that are classed as non-flying stations.


title: Airports of London

text: Station are listed at their current borough, although the area may have been outside London at the time of construction.


title: Airports of London

text: Due to London's airports, particularly Heathrow, operating at full capacity, Boris Johnson, London's former mayor and former UK Prime Minister, and Sir Norman Foster have both brought up plans to have a new airport built, either on a man-made island in the Thames Estuary, or on the Isle of Grain in north Kent. Foster's proposed Thames Hub Airport would be very similar to the design of Hong Kong International Airport and Qatar's Hamad International Airport. The plans to have an airport able to handle 110 million passengers a year would require the closure of Heathrow, and probably make the new airport the busiest in the world.


title: Airports of London

text: The plans have met with opposition from some people living nearby warning the airport would cause a significant increase in bird strikes. Other people and local businesses, recognising the depressed levels of economic activity in north Kent, have been supportive and argue that London needs a new airport in order to be able to compete in the world.


title: Airports of London

text: In total, there were 30 international destinations from London, and another 3 domestic routes, that handled more than 1 million passengers in 2011:


title: Airports of London

text: Heathrow Airport is a major hub for flights across the North Atlantic. In 2011, 11% of all north Atlantic flights originated or terminated at Heathrow, more than Paris and Frankfurt combined, and Heathrow is the European terminus for 11 of the 25 busiest north Atlantic routes.


title: Airports of London

text: The busiest long-haul route in the world is between London (Heathrow and Gatwick) and New York (JFK and Newark), with a total of 3,898,460 passengers travelling between the two cities in 2011.


title: Chrysler Pentastar engine

text: The Chrysler Pentastar engine family is a series of aluminium (die-cast cylinder block) dual overhead cam 24-valve gasoline V6 engines introduced for model-year 2011 Chrysler, Dodge and Jeep vehicles. The engine was initially named "Phoenix," but the name was changed before the official launch due to a trademark conflict; the Pentastar name is derived from the trademark of the former Chrysler Corporation, which dates back to 1963. The Pentastar was introduced at the 2009 New York Auto Show. The engine design allows the use of E85 or 87 octane fuel and features dual variable valve timing. Direct injection, forced induction, and cylinder deactivation options were engineered into the engine design, but haven't been implemented from the factory, remaining "on the shelf" as of 2016.


title: Chrysler Pentastar engine

text: For 2016, FCA released an updated version of the 3.6 L engine. This engine now features upgrades to the variable valve timing (VVT) system, two-stage variable valve lift (VVL), a new intake manifold, new valve springs, new piston rings, new fuel injectors, new ignition coils, a cooled EGR, lower internal friction and lower weight. It also features a higher compression ratio, increased from 10.2:1 to 11.3:1. These improvements help to increase power as well as efficiency. The new version, however, has lost its flex-fuel capability.


title: Chrysler Pentastar engine

text: The Pentastar engines are made in three different factories: Dundee Engine Plant, Trenton Engine Plant and Saltillo South Engine Plant.


title: Chrysler Pentastar engine

text: Insiders initially reported that the engine would come in four basic sizes (3.0L, 3.3L, 3.6L, and 4.0L), each offered in various states of tune. The 4.0L has been dropped from the list and a 3.2L added, while Fiat's investor website, as of December 2011, specifies the 3.0L with Fiat's MultiAir technology. The 3.6L engine itself has different horsepower ratings in different vehicles, and has higher horsepower (305 hp) and torque (268 lb-ft) as used in the Dodge Challenger


title: Chrysler Pentastar engine

text: Single and Twin-turbocharged variants had been planned for 2015. These engines were projected to produce around , respectively. Direct injection was also planned.


title: Chrysler Pentastar engine

text: Due to the new ownership structure, Fiat has obtained the right to use these engines, and currently adopt them in the larger models of Lancia and Fiat brands.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: In computer programming, one of the many ways that programming languages are colloquially classified is whether the language's type system makes it strongly typed or weakly typed (loosely typed). However, there is no precise technical definition of what the terms mean and different authors disagree about the implied meaning of the terms and the relative rankings of the "strength" of the type systems of mainstream programming languages. For this reason, writers who wish to write unambiguously about type systems often eschew the terms "strong typing" and "weak typing" in favor of specific expressions such as "type safety".


title: Strong and weak typing

text: Generally, a strongly typed language has stricter typing rules at compile time, which implies that errors and exceptions are more likely to happen during compilation. Most of these rules affect variable assignment, function return values, procedure arguments and function calling. Dynamically typed languages (where type checking happens at run time) can also be strongly typed. Note that in dynamically typed languages, values, rather than variables, have types.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: A weakly typed language has looser typing rules and may produce unpredictable or even erroneous results or may perform implicit type conversion at runtime. Advocates of dynamically typed (generally "weakly typed") languages find such concerns to be overblown and believe that static typing actually introduces an exponentially larger set of problems and inefficiencies. A different but related concept is latent typing.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: In 1974, Liskov and S. Zilles defined a strongly-typed language as one in which "whenever an object is passed from a calling function to a called function, its type must be compatible with the type declared in the called function."


title: Strong and weak typing

text: In 1977, K. Jackson wrote, "In a strongly typed language each data area will have a distinct type and each process will state its communication requirements in terms of these types."


title: Strong and weak typing

text: A number of different language design decisions have been referred to as evidence of "strong" or "weak" typing. Many of these are more accurately understood as the presence or absence of type safety, memory safety, static type-checking, or dynamic type-checking.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: "Strong typing" generally refers to use of programming language types in order to both capture invariants of the code, and ensure its correctness, and definitely exclude certain classes of programming errors. Thus there are many "strong typing" disciplines used to achieve these goals.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: Some programming languages make it easy to use a value of one type as if it were a value of another type. This is sometimes described as "weak typing".


title: Strong and weak typing

text: For example, Aahz Maruch observes that "Coercion occurs when you have a statically typed language and you use the syntactic features of the language to force the usage of one type as if it were a different type (consider the common use of void* in C). Coercion is usually a symptom of weak typing. Conversion, on the other hand, creates a brand-new object of the appropriate type."


title: Strong and weak typing

text: As another example, GCC describes this as type-punning and warns that it will break strict aliasing. Thiago Macieira discusses several problems that can arise when type-punning causes the compiler to make inappropriate optimizations.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: There are many examples of languages that allow implicit type conversions, but in a type-safe manner. For example, both C++ and C# allow programs to define operators to convert a value from one type to another with well-defined semantics. When a C++ compiler encounters such a conversion, it treats the operation just like a function call. In contrast, converting a value to the C type is an unsafe operation that is invisible to the compiler.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: Some programming languages expose pointers as if they were numeric values, and allow users to perform arithmetic on them. These languages are sometimes referred to as "weakly typed", since pointer arithmetic can be used to bypass the language's type system.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: Some programming languages support untagged unions, which allow a value of one type to be viewed as if it were a value of another type.


title: Strong and weak typing

text: In Luca Cardelli's article "Typeful Programming", a "strong type system" is described as one in which there is no possibility of an unchecked runtime type error. In other writing, the absence of unchecked run-time errors is referred to as "safety" or "type safety"; Tony Hoare's early papers call this property "security".


title: Strong and weak typing

text: Some programming languages do not have static type-checking. In many such languages, it is easy to write programs that would be rejected by most static type-checkers. For example, a variable might store either a number or the Boolean value "false".


title: Strong and weak typing

text: Note that some of these definitions are contradictory, others are merely conceptually independent, and still others are special cases (with additional constraints) of other, more "liberal" (less strong) definitions. Because of the wide divergence among these definitions, it is possible to defend claims about most programming languages that they are either strongly or weakly typed. For instance:


title: Pogaru

text: Pogaru is a 2021 Indian Kannada-language masala film directed by Nanda Kishore and produced by B. K. Gangadhar. The film stars Dhruva Sarja and Rashmika Mandanna with Chikkanna, P. Ravi Shankar, Pavitra Lokesh, and Raghavendra Rajkumar in supporting roles, and Sampath Raj, Dhananjay, Kai Greene, Morgan Aste and Dharma as antagonists.


title: Pogaru

text: Chandan Shetty and Gummineni Vijay composed the soundtrack, while V. Harikrishna composed the background score. Cinematography and editing are performed by Vijay Milton and Mahesh S respectively. The film was planned as a Kannada and Telugu bilingual film, but the Telugu version was later dropped and a dubbed version was released in both Tamil and Telugu. The film’s Tamil dubbed version is titled as "Semma Thimiru". It was later dubbed into Hindi under the same title " Pogaru " by RKD Studio.


title: Pogaru

text: A young Shiva loses his father, who was actually killed by JB as his father became a witness to JB's crimes. Shiva is unknown of his father's death and learns that his mother Lakshmi's second marriage with Executive officer Ramakrishna from his dying grandmother, who makes Shiva promise that he will take care of Lakshmi. Shiva agrees and ask Lakshmi to come with him without Ramakrishna and his daughter (Shiva's sister), but disagrees which leads Shiva to become a rogue. Years later, Shiva becomes a notorious rogue, who hates Ramakrishna and his daughter for snatching Lakshmi away from him. Shiva meets a teacher named Geetha, who soon falls for her good nature.