title: Air pollution in India

text: Fuel wood and biomass burning is the primary reason for near-permanent haze and smoke observed above rural and urban India, and in satellite pictures of the country. Fuelwood and biomass cakes are used for cooking and general heating needs. These are burnt in cook stoves known as "chulha" (also "chullha" or "chullah") in some parts of India. These cook stoves are present in over 100 million Indian households, and are used two to three times a day, daily. Some reports, including one by the World Health Organization, claim 300,000 to 400,000 people die of indoor air pollution and carbon monoxide poisoning in India because of biomass burning and use of chullhas. The carbon containing gases released from biomass fuels are many times more reactive than cleaner fuels such as liquefied petroleum gas. Air pollution is also the main cause of the Asian brown cloud, which is delaying the start of the monsoon. The Burning of biomass and firewood will not stop until electricity or clean burning fuel and combustion technologies become reliably available and widely adopted in rural and urban India.


title: Air pollution in India

text: India is the world's largest consumer of fuelwood, agricultural waste and biomass for energy purposes. From the most recent available nationwide study, India used 148.7 million tonnes coal replacement worth of fuel-wood and biomass annually for domestic energy use. India's national average annual per capita consumption of fuel wood, agricultural waste and biomass cakes was 206 kilogram coal equivalent. The overall contribution of fuelwood, including sawdust and wood waste, was about 46% of the total, the rest being agricultural waste and biomass dung cakes. Traditional fuel (fuelwood, crop residue and dung cake) dominates domestic energy use in rural India and accounts for about 90% of the total. In urban areas, this traditional fuel constitutes about 24% of the total. India burns tenfold more fuelwood every year than the United States; the fuelwood quality in India is different from the dry firewood of the United States; and, the Indian stoves in use are less efficient, thereby producing more smoke and air pollutants per kilogram equivalent.


title: Air pollution in India

text: Some Indian taxis and auto-rickshaws run on adulterated fuel blends. Adulteration of gasoline and diesel with lower-priced fuels is common in South Asia, including India. Some adulterants increase emissions of harmful pollutants from vehicles, worsening urban air pollution. Financial incentives arising from differential taxes are generally the primary cause of fuel adulteration. In India and other developing countries, gasoline carries a much higher tax than diesel, which in turn is taxed more than kerosene meant as a cooking fuel, while some solvents and lubricants carry little or no tax.


title: Air pollution in India

text: As fuel prices rise, the public transport driver cuts costs by blending the cheaper hydrocarbon into highly taxed hydrocarbon. The blending may be as much as 20–30 percent. For a low wage driver, the adulteration can yield short term savings that are significant over the month. The consequences to long term air pollution, quality of life and effect on health are simply ignored. Also ignored are the reduced life of vehicle engine and higher maintenance costs, particularly if the taxi, auto-rickshaw or truck is being rented for a daily fee.


title: Air pollution in India

text: Adulterated fuel increases tailpipe emissions of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO), oxides of nitrogen (NO) and particulate matter (PM). Air toxin emissions — which fall into the category of unregulated emissions — of primary concern are benzene and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), both well-known carcinogens. Kerosene is more difficult to burn than gasoline, its addition results in higher levels of HC, CO and


title: Air pollution in India

text: Traffic congestion is severe in India's cities and towns. Traffic congestion is caused by several reasons, some of which are: increase in number of vehicles per kilometre of available roads, a lack of intra-city divided-lane highways and intra-city expressways networks, lack of inter-city expressways, traffic accidents and chaos due to poor enforcement of traffic laws.


title: Air pollution in India

text: Traffic congestion reduces the average traffic speed. At low speeds, scientific studies reveal that vehicles burn fuel inefficiently and pollute more per trip. For example, a study in the United States found that for the same trip, cars consumed more fuel and polluted more if the traffic was congested, than when traffic flowed freely. An average trip speeds between 20 and 40 kilometres per hour, the cars pollutant emission was twice as much as when the average speed was 55 to 75 kilometres per hour. At average trip speeds between 5 and 20 kilometres per hour, the cars pollutant emissions were 4 to 8 times as much as when the average speed was 55 to 70 kilometres per hour. Fuel efficiencies similarly were much worse with traffic congestion.


title: Air pollution in India

text: Traffic gridlock in Delhi and other Indian cities is extreme. This has been shown to result in a build up of local pollution, particularly under stagnent conditions. The average trip speed on many Indian city roads is less than 20 kilometres per hour; a 10-kilometre trip can take 30 minutes, or more. At such speeds, vehicles in India emit air pollutants 4 to 8 times more than they would with less traffic congestion; Indian vehicles also consume a lot more carbon footprint fuel per trip, than they would if the traffic congestion was less. Emissions of particles and heavy metals increase over time because the growth of the fleet and mileage outpaces the efforts to curb emissions.


title: Air pollution in India

text: The most important reason for concern over the worsening air pollution in the country is its effect on the health of individuals. Exposure to particulate matter for a long time can lead to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases such as asthma, bronchitis, COPD, lung cancer and heart attack. The Global Burden of Disease Study for 2010, published in 2013, had found that outdoor air pollution was the fifth-largest killer in India and around 620,000 early deaths occurred from air pollution-related diseases in 2010. According to a WHO study, 13 of the 20 most-polluted cities in the world are in India; however, the accuracy and methodology of the WHO study was questioned by the Government of India. India also has one of the highest number of COPD patients and the highest number of deaths due to COPD.


title: Air pollution in India

text: Over a million Indians die prematurely every year due to air pollution, according to the non-profit Health Effects Institute. Over two million children—half the children in Delhi—have abnormalities in their lung function, according to the Delhi Heart and Lung Institute. Over the past decade air pollution has increased in India significantly. Asthma is the most common health problem faced by Indians and it accounts for more than half of the health issues caused by air pollution.


title: Air pollution in India

text: The Global Burden of Disease Study of 2017 analysed in a report by The Lancet indicated that 76.8% of Indians are exposed to higher ambient particulate matter over 40 μg/m, which is significantly above the national limit recommenced by national guidelines on ambient air pollution.


title: Air pollution in India

text: The study estimated that of 480.7 million Disability-Adjusted Life Years in India 4.4% of could be ascribed to ambient particulate matter pollution and 15.8 million of them were the result of polluted air in households. In terms of average life expectancy it is suggested that average life expectancy in India would increase by 1.7 years if exposure was limited to national minimum recommendations.


title: Air pollution in India

text: Ambient air pollution in India is estimated to cause 670,000 deaths annually and particularly aggravates respiratory and cardiovascular conditions including chronic bronchitis, lung cancer and asthma. Ambient air pollution is linked to an increase in hospital visits, with a higher concentration of outdoor pollution particulates resulting in emergency room visit increases of between 20 and 25% for a range of conditions associated with higher exposure to air pollution. Approximately 76% of households in rural India are reliant on solid biomass for cooking purposes which contributes further to the disease burden of ambient air pollution experienced by the population of India.


title: Air pollution in India

text: According to the WHO, India has 14 out of the 15 most polluted cities in the world in terms of PM 2.5 concentrations. Other Indian cities that registered very high levels of PM2.5 pollutants are Delhi, Patna, Agra, Muzaffarpur, Srinagar, Gurgaon, Jaipur, Patiala and Jodhpur, followed by Ali Subah Al-Salem in Kuwait and a few cities in China and Mongolia.


title: Air pollution in India

text: Air Quality Index (AQI) is a number used to communicate the level of pollution in the air and it essentially tells you the level of pollution in the air in a given city on a given day. The AQI of Delhi was placed under the "severe-plus category" when it touched 574, by the System of Air Quality and Weather Forecasting And Research. In May 2014 the World Health Organization announced New Delhi as the most polluted city in the world. In November 2016, the Great smog of Delhi was an environmental event which saw New Delhi and adjoining areas in a dense blanket of smog, which was the worst in 17 years.


title: Air pollution in India

text: India's Central Pollution Control Board now routinely monitors four air pollutants namely sulphur dioxide (SO2), oxides of nitrogen (NOx), suspended particulate matter (SPM) and respirable particulate matter (PM10). These are target air pollutants for regular monitoring at 308 operating stations in 115 cities/towns in 25 states and 4 Union Territories of India. The monitoring of meteorological parameters such as wind speed and direction, relative humidity and temperature has also been integrated with the monitoring of air quality. The monitoring of these pollutants is carried out for 24 hours (4-hourly sampling for gaseous pollutants and 8-hourly sampling for particulate matter) with a frequency of twice a week, to yield 104 observations in a year.


title: Human branding

text: Human branding or stigmatizing is the process by which a mark, usually a symbol or ornamental pattern, is burned into the skin of a living person, with the intention that the resulting scar makes it permanent. This is performed using a hot or very cold branding iron. It therefore uses the physical techniques of livestock branding on a human, either with consent as a form of body modification; or under coercion, as a punishment or to identify an enslaved, oppressed, or otherwise controlled person. It may also be practiced as a "rite of passage", e.g. within a tribe, or to signify membership of or acceptance into an organization.


title: Human branding

text: The English verb to "burn", attested since the 12th century, is a combination of Old Norse "brenna" "to burn, light", and two originally distinct Old English verbs: "bærnan" "to kindle" (transitive) and "beornan" "to be on fire" (intransitive), both from the Proto-Germanic root "bren(wanan)", perhaps from a Proto-Indo-European root "bhre-n-u", from base root "bhereu-" "to boil forth, well up." In Dutch, "(ver)branden" mean "to burn", "brandmerk" a branded mark; similarly, in German, "Brandzeichen" means "a brand" and "brandmarken", "to brand".


title: Human branding

text: Sometimes, the word "cauterize" is used. This is known in English since 1541, and is derived via Medieval French "cauteriser" from Late Latin "cauterizare" "to burn or brand with a hot iron", itself from Greek καυτηριάζειν, "kauteriazein", from καυτήρ "kauter" "burning or branding iron", from καίειν "kaiein" "to burn". However "cauterization" is now generally understood to mean a medical process – specifically to stop bleeding.


title: Human branding

text: In criminal law, branding with a hot iron was a mode of punishment consisting of marking the subject as if goods or animals, sometimes concurrently with their reduction of status in life.


title: Human branding

text: Brand marks have also been used as a punishment for convicted criminals, combining physical punishment, as burns are very painful, with public humiliation (greatest if marked on a normally visible part of the body) which is here the more important intention, and with the imposition of an indelible criminal record.


title: Human branding

text: Robbers, like runaway slaves, were marked by the Romans with the letter F ("fur"); and the toilers in the mines, and convicts condemned to figure in gladiatorial shows, were branded on the forehead for identification. Under Constantine I the face was not permitted to be so disfigured, the branding being on the hand, arm or calf.


title: Human branding

text: The Acts of Sharbel record it applied, amongst other tortures, to a Christian between the eyes and on the cheeks in Parthian Edessa at the time of the Roman Emperor Trajan on a judge's order for refusal to sacrifice.


title: Human branding

text: In the 16th century, German Anabaptists were branded with a cross on their foreheads for refusing to recant their faith and join the Roman Catholic church.


title: Human branding

text: In the North American colonial settlements of the 17th and early 18th centuries, branding was a common punishment for those found guilty of crimes. The type of brand differed from crime to crime. Men and women sentenced for adultery were branded with an A letter on their chest, D for drunkenness and B for blasphemy or burglary, T on the hand for thief, SL on the cheek for seditious libel, R on the shoulder for rogue or vagabond, and F on the cheek for forgery. Those convicted of burglary on the Lord's Day were branded upon their forehead.


title: Human branding

text: During the early stages of the American Revolution, some Loyalists were branded on the face with the letters G.R (for "George Rex", i.e. King George) by Patriots as punishment for perceived servility to the Crown.


title: Human branding

text: The mark in later times was also often chosen as a code for the crime (e.g. D for desertion and BC for bad character in Canada. Most branded men were shipped off to a penal colony). Branding was also used by the Confederate Army during the American Civil War.


title: Human branding

text: Until 1832 in France, various offenses carried the additional infamy of being branded with a fleur de lis and galley slaves could be branded GAL or, once the galleys were replaced by the "bagnes" on land, TF ("travaux forcés", 'forced' labor, i.e. hard labour) or TFP ("travaux forcés à perpetuité", hard labour for life). In most of the German-speaking states, however, branding people was unlawful.


title: Human branding

text: Following the Conspiracy of the Slaves of 1749 in Malta, some slaves were branded with the letter R (for "ribelli") on their forehead and condemned to the galleys for life.


title: Human branding

text: Branding tended to be abolished like other judicial mutilations (with notable exceptions, such as amputation under sharia law), sooner and more widely than flogging, caning, and similar corporal punishments, which normally aim 'only' at pain and at worst cause stripe scars, although the most severe lashings (not uncommon in penal colonies) in terms of dosage and instrument (such as the proverbial knout) can even turn out to cause death.


title: Human branding

text: In Pennsylvania, the horse theft law "An Act to Increase the Punishments of Horse Stealing" was passed in 1780 and repealed in 1860, which stated people guilty of such a crime should be branded. The law ran as follows; ""the first offense [the convicted] shall stand in the pillory for one hour, and shall be publicly whipped on his, her or their [bare] backs with thirty-nine lashes, well laid on, and at the same time shall have his, her or their ears cut off and nailed to the pillory, and for the second offense shall be whipped and pilloried in like manner and be branded on the forehead in a plain and visible manner with the letters H. T.""


title: Human branding

text: This punishment was referenced in Cormac McCarthy's Novel Blood Meridian as the Character Toadvine is branded with the letters H. T. on his forehead. H stands for Horse, T for Thief and F for Felon; ""On his forehead were burned the letters H T and lower and almost between the eyes the letter F and these markings were splayed and garish as if the iron had been left too long. When he turned to look at the kid, the kid could see that he had no ears.""


title: Human branding

text: In Louisiana, there was a "black code", or "Code Noir", which allowed the cropping of ears, shoulder branding, and hamstringing, the cutting of tendons near the knee, as punishments for recaptured slaves. Slave owners used extreme punishments to stop flight, or escape. They would often brand the slaves' palms, shoulders, buttocks, or cheeks with a branding iron.


title: Human branding

text: Branding was sometimes used to mark recaptured runaway slaves to help the locals easily identify the runaway. Micajah Ricks, a slave owner in Raleigh, North Carolina, was looking for his slave and described, "I burnt her with a hot iron, on the left side of her face, I tried to make the letter M."


title: Human branding

text: Most slave owners would use whipping as their main method, but at other times they would use branding to punish their slaves. Another testimony explains how a slave owner in Kentucky around 1848 was looking for his runaway slave. He described her having "a brand mark on the breast something like L blotched." In South Carolina, there were many laws which permitted the punishments slaves would receive. When a slave ran away, if it was the first offense, the slave would receive no more than forty lashes. Then the second offense would be branding. The slave would have been marked with the letter R on their forehead signifying that they were a criminal, and a runaway.


title: Human branding

text: Ceremonial Branding is an integral part of religious initiation in most Vaishnava sects. References to this practice can be traced in texts such as Narad Panchratra, Vaikhnasagama, Skanda Purana, etc. This practice is still in vogue among Madhava sect Brahmins of Karnataka in India, who brand small marks on both shoulders (for men) or forearms (for women).


title: Human branding

text: The punishment was adopted by the Anglo-Saxons, and the ancient law of England authorized the penalty. By the


title: Human branding

text: Statute of Vagabonds (1547) under King Edward VI, vagabonds and Gypsies were ordered to be branded with a large V on the breast, and "brawlers" with F for "fraymaker"; slaves who ran away were branded with S on the cheek or forehead. This law was repealed in England in 1550. From the time of Henry VII, branding was inflicted for all offences which received benefit of clergy (branding of the thumbs was used around 1600 at Old Bailey to ensure that the accused who had successfully used the Benefit of Clergy defence, by reading a passage from the Bible, could not use it more than once), but it was abolished for such in 1822. In 1698 it was enacted that those convicted of petty theft or larceny, who were entitled to benefit of clergy, should be "burnt in the most visible part of the left cheek, nearest the nose." This special ordinance was repealed in 1707. James Nayler, a Quaker who in the year 1655 was accused of claiming to be the Messiah, was convicted of blasphemy in a highly publicized trial before the Second Protectorate Parliament and had his tongue bored through and his forehead branded B for "blasphemer".


title: Human branding

text: In the Lancaster Criminal Court, a branding iron is still preserved in the dock. It is a long bolt with a wooden handle at one end and an M (malefactor) at the other; close by are two iron loops for firmly securing the hands during the operation. The brander would, after examination, turn to the judge exclaiming "A fair mark, my lord." Criminals were formerly ordered to hold up their hands before sentence to show if they had been previously convicted.


title: Human branding

text: In the 18th century, cold branding or branding with cold irons became the mode of nominally inflicting the punishment on prisoners of higher rank. "When Charles Moritz, a young German, visited England in 1782 he was much surprised at this custom, and in his diary mentioned the case of a clergyman who had fought a duel and killed his man in Hyde Park. Found guilty of manslaughter he was burnt in the hand, if that could be called burning which was done with a cold iron" (Markham's "Ancient Punishments of Northants", 1886).


title: Human branding

text: Such cases led to branding becoming obsolete, and it was abolished in 1829 except in the case of deserters from the army, who were marked with the letter D, not with hot irons but by tattooing with ink or gunpowder. Notoriously bad soldiers were also branded with BC (bad character). The British Mutiny Act of 1858 provided that the court-martial might, in addition to any other penalty, order deserters to be marked on the left side, below the armpit, with the letter D, such letter to be not less than an inch long. In 1879 this was abolished.


title: Human branding

text: Offenders in Australia were subject to branding in accordance with British law. In 1826, in Hobart, Joseph Clarke was charged with manslaughter and ‘sentenced to be burnt in the hand’. In 1850, in New South Wales, deserter Daniel O’Neil was tattooed with the letter ‘D’.


title: Human branding

text: Branding in Russia was used quite extensively in the 18th century and the first half of the 19th century. Over time, red hot iron brands were gradually replaced by tattoo boards; criminals were first branded on the forehead and cheeks, later on the back and arms. Branding was totally abolished in 1863.


title: Human branding

text: Forced and enslaved prostitutes have often been tattooed or branded with a mark of their owners. Women and girls being forced into prostitution would have their boss's name or gang symbol inked or branded with hot iron on their skin. In some organizations involved with the trafficking of women and girls like the mafias nearly all prostitutes are marked. Some pimps and organisations use their name or well-known symbol, others are using secret signs.


title: Human branding

text: The branding is both painful and humiliating for the victim, especially when done with a branding iron, and may be also a form of punishment and of psychological submission for the prostitutes.


title: Human branding

text: Some years ago the brands were usually small, only recognized by other pimps, sometimes hidden between the inner vaginal lips, though other instances show that pimps have no issue with larger, more noticeable brands.


title: Human branding

text: In symbolic solidarity with Calf 269, protesters in Israel subjected themselves to branding on World Farm Animals Day (Gandhi's birthday): October 2, 2012. This act was emulated by others in England and the Czech Republic. An English protester who was interviewed justified the extremism as a reaction to the extreme cruelty perpetrated by the dairy industry such as shooting calves at birth.


title: Area codes 310 and 424

text: Area codes 310 and 424 are telephone area codes in the North American Numbering Plan (NANP) for the U.S. state of California. The numbering plan area includes the West Los Angeles and South Bay areas of Los Angeles County, a small portion of Ventura County, and Santa Catalina Island, which is located south.


title: Area codes 310 and 424

text: Area code 310 was created in a split from area code 213 on November 2, 1991. On January 25, 1997, area code 310 was split, creating area code 562 for the southeast portion of Los Angeles County and a large portion of Orange County. Area code 424 was added to the remaining numbering plan area on July 26, 2006, in an overlay plan, the first in California.


title: Area codes 310 and 424

text: Area code 562 was originally intended as an overlay code for cellular and pager services for the existing 310 area. The overlay was planned for late 1995, and was expected to extended over the 213 and 818 areas the following year. However, the plan was changed to a split of 310, when the California Public Utilities Commission decided that an overlay would have disadvantaged subscribers of smaller companies in requiring ten-digit dialing.


title: Area codes 310 and 424

text: The south and east portions of 310, roughly the Gateway Cities area of Los Angeles County from Long Beach to Whittier and parts of Orange County became area code 562 on January 25, 1997.


title: Area codes 310 and 424

text: In lieu of executing an additional split, a new area code, 424, was implemented in the entire 310 region, first announced in early 1999. Previously, several proposals intended to split 310 at Imperial Highway, a major east–west thoroughfare that marks the southern boundary of Los Angeles International Airport. The South Bay below the boundary would have received area code 424. South Bay governments and businesses opposed such a move, since it would require costly changes to business cards, stationery, signage, and other business communications.


title: Area codes 310 and 424

text: Announcement of the 424 overlay created an uproar in Los Angeles's politically powerful Westside community, in part because the change would necessitate dialing ten digits even when calling local numbers. Championed by "Los Angeles Times" columnist Robert Scheer in the paper's Santa Monica insert section, a protest movement arose in May 1999, focusing on the idea of telephone-number conservation. In a carry-over from the time of analog telephone systems, numbers were still assigned to telephone companies in blocks of 10,000, leading to a large portion of unused telephone numbers in each area code. Responding to the controversy, the California Assembly passed the Consumer Area Code Relief Act of 1999 on September 9, 1999, and the 424 overlay was tabled.


title: Area codes 310 and 424

text: Having been staved off nearly seven years, the 424 overlay was finally implemented on July 26, 2006, and new telephone numbers issued in the 310 area code may now begin with either 310 or 424. On December 31, 2005, customers began dialing "1 + area code + seven-digit number" (cellphones can omit the "1") whenever a call is placed from the 310 area code. After July 26, 2006, customers were required to use the new dialing procedure for all calls.


title: Nata de coco

text: Nata de coco, also marketed as coconut gel, is a chewy, translucent, jelly-like food produced by the fermentation of coconut water, which gels through the production of microbial cellulose by "Komagataeibacter xylinus".


title: Nata de coco

text: Originating in the Philippines, "nata de coco" was invented in 1949 by Teódula Kalaw África as an alternative to the traditional Filipino "nata de piña" made from pineapples. It is most commonly sweetened as a candy or dessert, and can accompany a variety of foods, including pickles, drinks, ice cream, puddings, and fruit cocktails.


title: Nata de coco

text: "Nata de coco" was invented in 1949 by Teódula Kalaw África, a Filipina chemist working for the National Coconut Corporation (now the Philippine Coconut Authority). It was originally conceived as an alternative to "nata de piña", another gel-like Filipino dessert produced since the 18th century. This was because though the demand was high, "nata de piña" was seasonal, as it relied on pineapple harvests from the declining piña fibre industry.


title: Nata de coco

text: Commercial production of "nata de coco" began in 1954, when the agency, renamed the Philippine Coconut Administration, opened a branch in Alaminos, Laguna and introduced the technology to local farmers. "Nata de coco" production was later optimized in the mid-1970s through the efforts of a team of microbiologists led by Priscilla C. Sánchez. In the 20th century, the demand for coconuts increased. Products from coconuts became a major export product of the Philippines, including "nata de coco".


title: Nata de coco

text: "Nata de coco" is mainly made from coconut water and so has a modest nutritional profile. One cup of it (118 grams) contains 109 calories, 1 gram of protein, and 7 grams of carbohydrates. It is often characterized as healthy since it contains dietary fiber to aid digestion while carrying fewer calories compared to other desserts, gram for gram.


title: Nata de coco

text: Commercially made "nata de coco" is made by small farms in the Philippines, especially in Laguna and Quezon, as well as Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia, especially in Yogyakarta. It is commonly sold in jars.


title: Nata de coco

text: "Nata de coco" can be consumed on its own, but it can be used as an ingredient as well for fruit salads, "halo-halo", coconut cakes, ice creams, soft drinks, bubble tea, and yogurts.


title: Ched Evans

text: Chedwyn Michael Evans (born 28 December 1988) is a Welsh footballer who plays as a striker for Championship club Preston North End.


title: Ched Evans

text: Born in Rhyl, Evans was signed by Manchester City from Chester City's youth set up in 2002 and he subsequently progressed through the ranks. Evans was loaned to Norwich City in 2007, where he scored 10 goals in 28 league appearances, before returning to his parent club. With first team opportunities at City limited he was subsequently sold to Sheffield United for £3 million in 2009. After an unspectacular first two seasons at Bramall Lane he scored 35 goals during the 2011–12 season. He also represented Wales at Wales under-21 and senior level, scoring on his debut for the national side in 2008, and making a total of 13 appearances.


title: Ched Evans

text: Evans began his playing career in Rhyl, before spending two seasons in Chester City's youth set-up from where he moved to Manchester City in 2002 following the closure of Chester's youth team. During the 2006–07 season, Evans was a regular in the academy and reserve teams and was also in the side that reached the final of the 2006 FA Youth Cup, where City lost to Liverpool. In May 2007, Evans signed his first professional contract with Manchester City.


title: Ched Evans

text: In September 2007 Evans came off the bench to make his senior debut in City's 1–0 League Cup victory against Norwich City. With first choice opportunities at City limited, Evans moved on loan to Norwich City in November of that year, agreeing a deal until 1 January 2008. He made his debut for Norwich the following week when he came on as a substitute in the 3–1 victory over Blackpool. His first goal for the club came two games later, and just two minutes into his first start in a 2–1 victory over Plymouth Argyle at the start of December. Evans returned to Manchester City after his initial loan deal expired in January 2008, having made eight appearances and scored two goals.


title: Ched Evans

text: Initially, Norwich manager Glenn Roeder's attempts to extend the loan were refused, however, on 10 January, the two clubs agreed a deal to allow Evans to return to Norwich on loan until 26 February, with Manchester City able to recall him after an initial period. However, after talks between the two clubs at the end of January 2008, the deal was extended to allow Evans to stay with the Carrow Road club until the end of the season. Then Manchester City manager Sven-Göran Eriksson stated he had no plans to sell Evans and that he would not be leaving the summer transfer window. Evans played regularly for Norwich for the remainder of his loan spell and by the end of the season he had notched up 10 goals from 20 starts and eight substitute appearances.


title: Ched Evans

text: Evans made his Premier League debut for Manchester City in the opening game of the following season on 18 August, against Aston Villa. He was not chosen for the starting eleven but replaced Valeri Bojinov, who suffered an injury during the pre-game warm-up. Evans scored his first Premier League goal for Manchester City against Portsmouth on 21 September, scoring the fifth goal as City went on to win 6–0. With City's acquisition of Craig Bellamy and later Emmanuel Adebayor, Roque Santa Cruz and Carlos Tevez, Evans opted to leave in 2009 in order to get more first team football.


title: Ched Evans

text: Evans joined Sheffield United for a fee of £3 million on a three-year deal in July 2009, making his debut for United in the first game of the new season; a 0–0 draw with Middlesbrough. Having bagged a brace for the Wales U21s during the midweek fixtures he then scored his first goal in Blades colours on his home debut, a 2–0 win over Watford. Despite a promising start Evans struggled to maintain any real form and was often relegated to the role of substitute during his first season with the Blades, making 36 appearances but scoring only four goals. The following season Evans was a regular first team choice and his form and scoring rate began to improve, despite the club going through a season of turmoil and battling against relegation. He finished the campaign as top scorer with nine goals in all competitions, but was unable to prevent the team dropping out of the division.


title: Ched Evans

text: With the Blades now in League One there was speculation that Evans would be sold to ease the club's wage bill but an injury picked up in the last days of the previous campaign meant he was unavailable until early September, preventing him from moving on to another club. Having returned from injury Evans hit a rich vein of form scoring regularly in both league and cup competitions as the Blades contested for promotion. On 28 March 2012 he scored a second-half hat trick within 15 minutes against Chesterfield giving him his thirtieth goal of the season in a 4–1 win for Sheffield United at Bramall Lane. During this impressive third season, Evans drew attention from Championship and Premier League clubs with his contract scheduled to expire in the summer. However, Blades manager Danny Wilson stated that Evans "[wasn't] even thinking about leaving Bramall Lane", adding "Of course we don't want to lose Ched." Evans was named League One Player of the Month for March 2012, having scored 10 goals in 8 games. He was nominated for 'League One Player of the Season', and in April 2012 Evans was named in the League One PFA Team of the Year. He ended the season with 35 goals in all competitions, but following his rape conviction Evans was released by United at the end of the season.


title: Ched Evans

text: On 20 June 2016, Evans signed his first contract since his release from prison and the quashing of his conviction, signing for one year at Chesterfield in League One. He was signed by his former Sheffield United manager Wilson, and their first-team coach was his former Blades teammate Chris Morgan.


title: Ched Evans

text: He scored on his debut for Chesterfield on 23 July, his first game in nearly four years, in a 3–0 pre-season friendly win over Ilkeston. He also scored, with a free-kick from , on his return to professional football, in a 1–1 away draw with Oxford United, on 6 August 2016. In his home debut for Chesterfield, on 13 August 2016 against Swindon Town, Evans produced a match-winning performance, scoring Chesterfield's third goal and having a hand in the other two from Gary Liddle and Jay O'Shea as they won 3–1.


title: Ched Evans

text: On 8 May 2017, Evans was signed by former club Sheffield United, having had several talks with Chris Wilder. On his first match back at the club, he turned in a man-of-the-match performance as the Blades beat Walsall in the EFL Cup.


title: Ched Evans

text: In July 2018, having failed to score a single goal for the Blades since his return to Bramall Lane, Evans signed a season-long loan deal with Fleetwood Town. He scored his first goal for Fleetwood on 11 August in a 2–0 away win against Oxford United. It was his first goal since 2016 when he was playing for Chesterfield. Following his debut goal, Evans left the pitch to a standing ovation from Fleetwood fans.


title: Ched Evans

text: He was transfer-listed by Sheffield United at the end of the 2018–19 season, with Fleetwood signing him permanently on 6 August 2019 for an undisclosed fee. In December 2020, Fleetwood manager Joey Barton announced that Evans had left the club due to "disciplinary reasons".


title: Ched Evans

text: On 6 January 2021, Evans joined Championship side Preston North End on a short-term loan. He scored his first goal for Preston in a 2–1 loss to Rotherham United on 6 February 2021. On 6 February, he signed a permanent contract with the club. On 12 April 2021, Evans extended his contract with the club until the summer of 2023, another two years on top of the original deal signed in February.


title: Ched Evans

text: Evans gained his first Wales U21 cap in 2007. He became a regular member of the squad and in November 2007 he scored a hat-trick against France U21s. In doing so he became only the fourth player to have scored a hat-trick for the under-21 side, along with John Hartson, Craig Davies and Lee Jones. Evans scored a brace against Bosnia and Herzegovina U21s in October 2009, taking his tally for the Welsh U21s to 13 goals in 12 games.


title: Ched Evans

text: Evans made his senior debut for Wales on 28 May 2008, scoring the winning goal (with a back heel) in a 1–0 away friendly victory against Iceland. He made 13 appearances for Wales in total, scoring once.


title: Ched Evans

text: After signing for Sheffield United, Evans moved to Millhouse Green, Penistone, in the nearby Barnsley area. After the death of former Wales boss and Sheffield United player, coach and manager Gary Speed, Evans revealed a message under his shirt after scoring his first goal in the FA Cup win over Torquay United, which read "Rest in peace Speedo".


title: Ched Evans

text: Evans was engaged for several years to Natasha Massey. It was reported that Evans married Massey in 2022. Massey's father, Karl, a businessman, funded a website, "Chedevans.com", which proclaimed Evans to be "wrongly convicted of rape on 20th April 2012". He also hired lawyers for an appeal. Speaking to ITV1's "This Morning" in 2014, Natasha Massey said that when she found out Evans had been questioned over rape, her first instinct was to be "protective" and to stand by him. She said: "My thoughts and feelings over the cheating were put to one side and I stepped in to help him through this terrible time."


title: Ched Evans

text: Evans and another footballer, Clayton McDonald, were tried at the Crown Court at Caernarfon after being indicted of the rape of a 19-year-old woman, who was alleged to be too drunk to consent, at a hotel near Rhyl in May 2011. Evans was convicted on 20 April 2012 and was sentenced to five years' imprisonment. He was eligible for release on licence after serving half of that sentence. During his imprisonment, Evans worked as a painter and decorator in prison. In August 2012, he was refused leave to appeal against the conviction by a Court of Appeal of England and Wales judge and the full court upheld the decision in November. Evans continued to maintain his innocence and in November 2013 recruited a new legal team to attempt to clear his name.


title: Ched Evans

text: After serving half of his prison sentence, Evans was eligible for release, and was released on licence on 17 October 2014. Following his release, the Criminal Cases Review Commission announced that they were reviewing his conviction. In January 2015, it was reported that Evans had submitted fresh evidence to the Criminal Cases Review Commission, to attempt to strengthen his case. In October 2015, the Criminal Cases Review Commission, following a 10-month investigation and relying on "new material which was not considered by the jury at trial", referred the case to the Court of Appeal.


title: Ched Evans

text: On 22 March 2016, the case was heard by the Court of Appeal. On 21 April 2016, the appeal was allowed, the conviction quashed and a retrial ordered. The Court of Appeal imposed a ban on reporting details of the legal argument. The retrial began on 4 October 2016 and on 14 October Evans was found not guilty. After the retrial, it could then be reported that the legal argument used in the appeal had related to the complainant's sexual history. On 11 April 2019, Evans accepted an £800,000 settlement from the legal firm which represented him in his first trial.


title: Ched Evans

text: In April 2014, Sheffield United co-chairman Kevin McCabe and new manager Nigel Clough met with Evans in HM Prison Wymott to discuss the possibility of Sheffield United re-signing Evans after his release from prison. Following speculation that Evans could rejoin his former club, a petition was signed by 150,000 people urging the club not to do so, which stated that it would be a "deep insult to the woman who was raped and to all women like her who have suffered at the hands of a rapist".


title: Ched Evans

text: In November 2014, following his release from prison, it was announced that Evans would resume training with Sheffield United after the Professional Footballers' Association had requested that Sheffield United let Evans train at the club as they were his last club before his conviction. The decision was controversial, and caused television presenter Charlie Webster, businesswoman Lindsay Graham and musicians Dave Berry and Paul Heaton to resign as patrons of the club. Athlete Jessica Ennis-Hill stated that she would want her name removed from a stand at Bramall Lane if Evans was signed by the club.


title: Ched Evans

text: The Football League stated that although they recognised the gravity of Evans' crime, they valued the reintegration of reformed criminals and could not take any action against any club which would hire Evans. Sheffield United manager Nigel Clough said on 12 November that the club were "nowhere near" signing Evans, citing his 30 months out of the professional game and an important run of fixtures as reasons why a decision would not be taken immediately. DBL Logistics, Sheffield United's sponsor on the back of their shirts, stated that they would end their sponsorship if Evans was signed by the club. John Holland Sales, who sponsor on the front of the shirts, declared that they would "re-evaluate" their relation to the club if he were signed. On 20 November, Sheffield United withdrew their offer to allow Evans to use their training facilities. Co-chairman Jim Phipps, however, attributed the decision to "mob-like behaviour", stating his belief that Evans had a right to return to his career having served his sentence.


title: Ched Evans

text: In December 2014, Hartlepool United manager Ronnie Moore said that he would like Evans to join the club. The comment brought criticism from Hartlepool's MP, Iain Wright, who described Evans as a "pariah". The club later followed up this headline with a statement saying that Hartlepool does not wish to sign Evans.


title: Ched Evans

text: On 2 January 2015, Hibernians of the Maltese Premier League, through their English vice-president Stephen Vaughan, announced that they had offered Evans a contract up to the end of the season. The British Ministry of Justice said that such a move would not be possible as Evans was a convicted sex offender on licence and, as such, barred from working abroad. Malta's Prime Minister, Joseph Muscat, warned Hibernians that hiring Evans could affect the whole country's reputation, while Justice Minister Owen Bonnici stated that Evans had a right to return to his profession after being released from prison.


title: Ched Evans

text: On 4 January 2015, it was reported that Evans had been in discussion with League One club Oldham Athletic and was expected to sign for them in a deal which may be worth as little as £400 per week. The club's manager Lee Johnson was reported to have expressed "grave reservations" about the signing, but was overruled by the club's owner Simon Corney. A petition against the signing gathered 19,000 signatures within a few hours and over 30,000 by the next day, while politicians such as Labour Party leader Ed Miliband voiced their opposition to the move.


title: Ched Evans

text: On 8 January, Oldham Athletic ended their interest in signing Evans, citing that proceeding could have resulted in "significant financial pressure" and would have "continued to be a divisive influence", while condemning the "vile and abusive threats, some including death threats, which have been made to our fans, sponsors and staff". BBC Sport reported that a named relative of a staff member was threatened with rape, and that one sponsor already having ended their association with Oldham in protest and another saying that it would follow suit if Evans signed. The petition against Evans signing had reached over 60,000 signatures. Meanwhile, a total of ten other clubs (other than Oldham and Sheffield United) from League One and League Two told BBC Sport that they would not sign Evans.


title: Ched Evans

text: Evans stated that he withdrew from the deal due to "mob rule", and that he was concerned the building of Oldham's new stand would be adversely affected by his signing. He also apologised for any grievances he had caused due to his rape case, but maintained his innocence. Journalist Henry Winter, writing for "The Daily Telegraph", rebutted Evans' claims, instead saying that "it was people's disgust that a convicted rapist felt he could swan back into a high-profile job after revealing no remorse for a crime that would preclude re-employment for many", while criticising Evans for making "his statement of contrition ... on the offensive, legally questionable website that continues to make life miserable for his victim".


title: Ched Evans

text: On 8 January 2015, it was announced by Grimsby Town director John Fenty that a financial backer had offered the club to pay Evans' full wages in order to bring him to the Conference Premier club. Having held a board meeting along with team manager Paul Hurst it was decided that the move would be of too high risk for the club. Grimsby had previously employed Clayton McDonald, the fellow footballer and friend of Evans who was acquitted in the same case, during the 2013–14 season.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters is a 1985 American biographical drama film based on the life and work of Japanese writer Yukio Mishima, directed by Paul Schrader from a screenplay co-written with his brother Leonard and Leonard's wife Chieko Schrader. The film interweaves episodes from Mishima's (Ken Ogata) life with dramatizations of segments from his books "The Temple of the Golden Pavilion", "Kyoko's House", and "Runaway Horses". Francis Ford Coppola and George Lucas were executive producers of the film, which has a musical score composed by Philip Glass and production design by Eiko Ishioka.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: The film sets in on November 25, 1970, the last day in Mishima's life. He is shown finishing a manuscript. Then, he puts on a uniform he designed for himself and meets with four of his most loyal followers from his private army.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: In flashbacks highlighting episodes from his past life, the viewer sees Mishima's progression from a sickly young boy to one of Japan's most acclaimed writers of the post-war era (who in adulthood trains himself into the acme of muscular discipline, owing to a morbid and militaristic obsession with masculinity and physical culture). His loathing for the materialism of modern Japan has him turn towards an extremist traditionalism. He sets up his own private army and proclaims the reinstating of the emperor as head of government.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: The biographical sections are interwoven with short dramatizations of three of Mishima's novels: In "The Temple of the Golden Pavilion", a stuttering aspirant sets fire to the famous Zen Buddhist temple because he feels inferior at the sight of its beauty. "Kyoko's House" depicts the sadomasochistic (and ultimately fatal) relationship between a middle-aged woman and her young lover, who is in her financial debt. In "Runaway Horses", a group of young fanatic nationalists fails to overthrow the government, with its leader subsequently committing suicide. Dramatizations, frame story, and flashbacks are segmented into the four chapters of the film's title, named "Beauty", "Art", "Action", and "Harmony of Pen and Sword".


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: The film culminates in Mishima and his followers taking hostage a General of the Japan Self-Defense Forces. He addresses the garrison's soldiers, asking them to join him in his struggle to reinstate the Emperor as the nation's sovereign. His speech is largely ignored and ridiculed. Mishima then returns to the General's office and commits seppuku.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: "Mishima" dramatizes three of the writer's novels and also uses segments from his autobiographical novel "Confessions of a Mask". At least two scenes, one showing the young Mishima being aroused by a painting of the Christian martyr Sebastian, and another where a young Mishima purposefully exaggerates his illness at a military draft health checkup, appear in this book.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: The use of one further Mishima novel, "Forbidden Colors", which describes the marriage of a homosexual man to a woman, was denied by Mishima's widow. As Schrader wanted to visualize a book illustrating Mishima's narcissism and sexual ambiguity, he chose the novel "Kyoko's House" (which he had translated for him exclusively) instead. "Kyoko's House" contains four equally ranking storylines, featuring four protagonists, but Schrader picked out only the one which he considered relevant.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: "Mishima" used various colour palettes to differentiate between frame story, flashbacks and scenes from Mishima's novels: the scenes set in 1970 were shot in naturalistic colours, the flashbacks in black-and-white, the "Temple of the Golden Pavilion"-episode is dominated by golden and green, "Kyoko's House" by pink and grey, and "Runaway Horses" by orange and black.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: Pre-production began in February 1984. Cinematographer John Bailey instructed the Japanese crew to set up a screening of Hideo Gosha's film Goyokin, which was screened as an important reference for the "look" of the film.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: Roy Scheider was the narrator in the original movie version and on the early VHS release. On the 2001 DVD release, Scheider's voice-over was substituted with a narration by an uncredited actor. The 2008 DVD re-release contains both Scheider's and the alternate narration (plus Ken Ogata's for the Japanese version). In a commentary on Amazon.com, Schrader explained this was a manufacturing error in 2001 and that the voice belonged to the photographer Paul Jasmin.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: The film closes with Mishima's suicide (which actually took longer than the seppuku ritual dictates). His confidant Morita, unable to behead Mishima, also failed in killing himself according to the ritual. A third group member beheaded both, then the conspirators surrendered without resistance. Roger Ebert approved of Schrader's decision not to show the suicide in bloody detail, which he thought would have destroyed the film's mood.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: The film was withdrawn from the Tokyo International Film Festival and never officially released in Japan, mostly due to boycott exercised by Mishima's widow and threats by far right wing groups opposed to Mishima's portrayal as a homosexual. The title role was originally intended for Ken Takakura, who indeed proposed this to Paul Schrader, but had to withdraw due to the pressure from the same groups. In an interview with Kevin Jackson, Schrader commented on the fact that his film has still not been shown in Japan: "[Mishima] is too much of a scandal. ... When Mishima died people said, 'Give us fifteen years and we'll tell you what we think about him,' but it's been more than fifteen years now and they still don't know what to say. Mishima has become a non-subject."


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: Schrader considers "Mishima" the best film he has directed. "It's the one I'd stand by – as a screenwriter it's "Taxi Driver", but as a director it's "Mishima"."


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: The musical score for "Mishima" was composed by Philip Glass, with parts performed by the Kronos Quartet. A soundtrack album was released on vinyl record and Audio CD in 1985 by Nonesuch Records.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, "Mishima" has approval rating and an average rating of based on reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "If Paul Schrader’s Yukio Mishima biopic omits too much to fully depict the author’s life, its passion shines through in its avant-garde structure, Eiko Ishioka’s production design, and Philip Glass’ thunderous score." In his 2013 movie guide, Leonard Maltin called the film an "ambitious, highly stylized drama", later adding that it is "long, difficult, not always successful, but fascinating." In 2007, Roger Ebert added the film to his "Great Movies" list, calling the film "a triumph of concise writing and construction. The unconventional structure of the film ... unfolds with perfect clarity, the logic revealing itself."


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: Chris Peachment of "Time Out Film Guide" said, "Schrader may have finally achieved the violent transfiguration that he seeks along with his protagonists; the film has all the ritual sharpness and beauty of that final sword. ... There is nothing quite like it."


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: The film premiered at the 1985 Cannes Film Festival on May 15, 1985, where it won the award for "Best Artistic Contribution".


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: "Mishima" has been released three times on DVD in the US, two of which by The Criterion Collection who also produced its Blu-ray release.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: A French DVD was released by Wild Side Video in 2010 titled "Mishima – une vie en quatre chapitres" in Japanese, English and French language with French subtitles.


title: Mishima: A Life in Four Chapters

text: A Spanish Blu-ray Disc was released in 2010 titled "Mishima – Una Vida en Cuatro Capítulos". It features Scheider's narration with optional Spanish and Catalan, but no English, subtitles.


title: Hemoptysis

text: Hemoptysis is the coughing up of blood or blood-stained mucus from the bronchi, larynx, trachea, or lungs. In other words, it is the airway bleeding. This can occur with lung cancer, infections such as tuberculosis, bronchitis, or pneumonia, and certain cardiovascular conditions. Hemoptysis is considered massive at . In such cases, there are always severe injuries. The primary danger comes from choking, rather than blood loss.


title: Hemoptysis

text: The most common causes for hemoptysis in adults are chest infections such as bronchitis or pneumonia. In children, hemoptysis is commonly caused by the presence of a foreign body in the airway. Other common causes include lung cancers and tuberculosis. Less common causes include aspergilloma, bronchiectasis, coccidioidomycosis, pulmonary embolism, pneumonic plague, and cystic fibrosis. Rarer causes include hereditary hemorrhagic telangiectasia (HHT or Rendu-Osler-Weber syndrome), Goodpasture's syndrome, and granulomatosis with polyangiitis. A rare cause of hemoptysis in women is endometriosis, which leads to intermittent hemoptysis coinciding with menstrual periods in 7% of women with thoracic endometriosis syndrome. Hemoptysis may be exacerbated or even caused by overtreatment with anticoagulant drugs such as warfarin.


title: Hemoptysis

text: Blood-laced mucus from the sinus or nose area can sometimes be misidentified as symptomatic of hemoptysis (such secretions can be a sign of nasal or sinus cancer, but also a sinus infection). Extensive non-respiratory injury can also cause one to cough up blood. Cardiac causes like congestive heart failure and mitral stenosis should be ruled out.The origin of blood can be identified by observing its color. Bright-red, foamy blood comes from the respiratory tract, whereas dark-red, coffee-colored blood comes from the gastrointestinal tract. Sometimes hemoptysis may be rust-colored.


title: Hemoptysis

text: Although there are reports that the fatality rate is as high as 80%, the in-hospital mortality rate for hospitalized hemoptysis patients is 2669/28539=9.4%, calculated from the data in the article by Kinoshita et al. This is probably the most reasonable figure considering the overwhelming number of cases.


title: Hemoptysis

text: The general definition of massive hemoptysis is more than 200 ml within 24 hours, but there is a wide range in the literature (100-600 ml). Considering that the total volume of the tracheal and bronchial lumen is about 150 cc, it may be reasonable to define massive hemoptysis as 200 ml, which is a little more than 150 ml, in terms of setting the threshold for fatal hemoptysis. More than 400ml/day is not adequate for screening purposes.


title: Hemoptysis

text: Treatment depends on the underlying cause. Treatments include iced saline, and topical vasoconstrictors such as adrenalin or vasopressin. Tranexamic acid was proved to improve in-hospital mortality. Selective bronchial intubation can be used to collapse the lung that is bleeding. Also, endobronchial tamponade can be used. Laser photocoagulation can be used to stop bleeding during bronchoscopy. Angiography of bronchial arteries can be performed to locate the bleeding, and it can often be embolized. Bronchial artery embolization (BAE) is the first line treatment nowadays. Surgical option is usually the last resort and can involve removal of a lung lobe or removal of the entire lung. Cough suppressants can increase the risk of choking.


title: Tina Brown

text: Christina Hambley Brown, Lady Evans (born 21 November 1953), is an English journalist, magazine editor, columnist, talk-show host, and author of "The Diana Chronicles" (2007) a biography of Diana, Princess of Wales, "The Vanity Fair Diaries" (2017) and "The Palace Papers" (2022). Born a British citizen, she now holds joint citizenship after she took United States citizenship in 2005, following her emigration in 1984 to edit "Vanity Fair".


title: Tina Brown

text: Having been editor-in-chief of "Tatler" magazine at the age of 25 in London, she edited "Vanity Fair" from 1984 to 1992 and "The New Yorker" from 1992 to 1998. She was founding editor-in-chief of "The Daily Beast", serving from 2008 to 2013.


title: Tina Brown

text: As an editor, she has received four George Polk Awards, five Overseas Press Club awards, and ten National Magazine Awards. In 2000, she was appointed a CBE (Commander of the Order of the British Empire) for her services to overseas journalism, and in 2007 was inducted into the Magazine Editors' Hall of Fame.


title: Tina Brown

text: She edited "Newsweek" from 2011 to 2012. In 2010 she founded live journalism platform Women in the World, which she ran until 2020.


title: Tina Brown

text: Tina Brown was born in Maidenhead, Berkshire, England, and grew up in the village of Little Marlow, in Buckinghamshire. Her father, George Hambley Brown, was active in the British film industry as a producer, including the Miss Marple films starring Margaret Rutherford. Her elder brother, Christopher Hambley Brown, became a film producer. Her mother, Bettina Kohr, who married George Brown in 1948, was an executive assistant to Laurence Olivier on his first two Shakespeare films. Bettina was of part Iraqi descent; Tina recounted, "She was dark and I never knew why."


title: Tina Brown

text: In Brown's own words she was considered "an extremely subversive influence" as a child, resulting in her expulsion from three boarding schools. Offences included organising a demonstration to protest against the school's policy of allowing a change of underwear only three times a week, referring to her headmistress's bosoms as "unidentified flying objects" in a journal entry, and writing a play about her school being blown up and a public lavatory being erected in its place.


title: Tina Brown

text: Brown entered the University of Oxford at the age of 17. She studied at St Anne's College, and graduated with a BA in English Literature. As an undergraduate, she wrote for "Isis", the university's literary magazine, to which she contributed interviews with the journalist Auberon Waugh and the actor Dudley Moore. Brown wrote for the "New Statesman" while she was still an undergraduate at Oxford. Her friendship with Waugh served as a boost to her writing career, as he used his influence to ensure that her ability was recognised. Later, she went on to date the writer Martin Amis.


title: Tina Brown

text: While still at Oxford, she won "The Sunday Times" National Student Drama Award for her one-act play "Under the Bamboo Tree" which was performed at the Bush Theatre and The Edinburgh Festival. A subsequent play, "Happy Yellow", in 1977 was mounted at the London fringe Bush Theatre and was later performed at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art.


title: Tina Brown

text: In 1973, the literary agent Pat Kavanagh introduced Brown's writings to Harold Evans, editor of "The Sunday Times", and in 1974 she was given freelance assignments in the UK by Ian Jack, the paper's features editor and in the US by its colour magazine edited by Godfrey Smith. When a relationship developed between Brown and Evans, she resigned to write for the rival "The Sunday Telegraph". Evans divorced in 1978 and, on 20 August 1981, he and Brown married at Grey Gardens, the East Hampton, New York, home of "The Washington Post" executive editor Ben Bradlee and Sally Quinn. They lived together in New York City until Evans' death on 23 September 2020. They had two children: a son, George, born in 1986, and a daughter, Isabel, born in 1990. Evans was knighted in 2004.


title: Tina Brown

text: After graduating, while doing freelance reporting, Brown was invited to write a weekly column by the literary humour magazine, "Punch". These articles and her freelance contributions to "The Sunday Times" and "The Sunday Telegraph" earned her the Catherine Pakenham Award for the best journalist under 25. Some of the writings from this era formed part of her first collection "Loose Talk", published by Michael Joseph.


title: Tina Brown

text: In 1979, Brown was invited to edit the society magazine "Tatler" by its new owner, the Australian real estate millionaire Gary Bogard and turned it into a modern glossy magazine with covers by celebrated photographers like Norman Parkinson, Helmut Newton, and David Bailey, and fashion by Michael Roberts. "Tatler" featured writers from Brown's circle including Julian Barnes, Dennis Potter, Auberon Waugh, Brian Sewell, Martin Amis, Georgina Howell (whom Brown appointed deputy editor), and Nicholas Coleridge. Brown herself wrote content for every issue, contributing irreverent surveys of the upper classes. She travelled through Scotland to portray the owners' stately homes. She also wrote short satirical profiles of eligible London bachelors under the pen-name Rosie Boot.


title: Tina Brown

text: "Tatler" covered the emergence of Lady Diana Spencer, soon to become Princess of Wales. Brown joined NBC's Tom Brokaw in running commentary for "The Today Show" on the royal wedding on 29 July 1981. "Tatler" increased its sales from 10,000 to 40,000. In 1982, when S. I. ("Si") Newhouse Jr., owner of Condé Nast Publications, bought "Tatler", Brown resigned to become a full-time writer again. The break didn't last long and Brown was lured back to Conde Nast. This year she also hosted several editions of the long running television series Film82 for BBC1 as a guest presenter.


title: Tina Brown

text: In 1983, Brown was brought to New York by Newhouse to advise on "Vanity Fair", a title that he had resurrected earlier that year. It then had a circulation of 200,000. She stayed on as a contributing editor for a brief time, and then was named editor-in-chief on 1 January 1984. She recalls that upon taking over the magazine she found it to be "pretentious, humourless. It wasn't too clever, it was just dull."


title: Tina Brown

text: The first contract writer she hired was not a writer but a movie producer whom she met at a dinner party hosted by the writer Marie Brenner. The producer told her he was going to California for the trial of the strangler of his daughter. As solace, Brown suggested for him to keep a diary and his report (headlined "Justice") proved the launch of the long magazine career of Dominick Dunne.


title: Tina Brown

text: Early pieces such as Dunne's cover story on accused murderer Klaus Von Bulow and Los Angeles arrivistes like Candy Spelling, and the use of provocative covers brightened the prospects of the magazine. In addition, Brown signed up among others Marie Brenner, Gail Sheehy—who wrote a series of widely read political profiles including a cover story on Mikhail Gorbachev-- Jesse Kornbluth, T.D. Allman, Stephen Schiff, Lynn Herschberg, Peter J. Boyer, John Richardson, James Atlas, Alex Shoumatoff and Ben Brantley. The magazine became a mix of celebrity and serious foreign and domestic reporting. Brown persuaded the novelist William Styron to write about his depression under the title "Darkness Visible", which subsequently became a best-selling nonfiction book. At the same time, Brown formed fruitful relationships with photographers Annie Leibovitz, Harry Benson, Herb Ritts, and Helmut Newton. Annie Leibovitz's portrayal of Jerry Hall, Diane Keaton, Whoopi Goldberg and others came to define "Vanity Fair". Its best known cover of this period was in August 1991 featuring a naked and pregnant Demi Moore.


title: Tina Brown

text: Three stories appeared in "Vanity Fair" which helped the magazine gain attention and circulation: Harry Benson's cover shoot of Ronald and Nancy Reagan dancing in the White House; Helmut Newton's portrait of accused murderer Claus von Bülow in his leathers with his mistress Andrea Reynolds with reporting by Dominick Dunne, and Brown's own cover story on Diana, Princess of Wales in October 1985 titled "The Mouse that Roared." Those three stories from June to October 1985 saved the magazine after a year when rumors were rife that it was to be folded into "The New Yorker."


title: Tina Brown

text: Thereafter sales of "Vanity Fair" rose from 200,000 to 1.2 million. In 1988, she was named Magazine Editor of the Year by "Advertising Age" magazine. Advertising topped 1,440 pages in 1991 and with circulation revenues, especially from profitable single copy sales at $20 million, selling some 55 percent of copies on the newsstand, well above the industry average sell through of 42 percent. Despite this success, occasional references later appeared to "Vanity Fair" losing money. Professor Jeffrey Pfeffer who suggested as much in his book "Power: Why Some People Have It – And Others Don't" was quickly rebutted by Bernard Leser, president of Conde Nast USA during Brown's tenure. In a letter to the editor of the "Evening Standard", Leser stated Pfeffer's claim was "absolutely false" and affirmed that they had indeed earned "a very healthy profit." Leo Scullin, an independent magazine consultant, called it a "successful launch of a franchise." Under Brown's editorship "Vanity Fair" won four National Magazine Awards, including a 1989 award for General Excellence.


title: Tina Brown

text: One of her editorial decisions was in October 1990, two months after the first Gulf War had started, when she removed a picture of Marla Maples (a blonde) from the cover and replaced it with a photograph of Cher. The reason for her last minute decision, she quipped to "The Washington Post": "In light of the gulf crisis, we thought a brunette was more appropriate."


title: Tina Brown

text: In 1992, Brown accepted the company's invitation to become editor of "The New Yorker", the fourth in its 73-year history and the first woman to hold the position, having been preceded by Harold Ross, William Shawn, and Robert Gottlieb. She has related in speeches that before taking over, she immersed herself in vintage "New Yorker"s, reading the issues produced by founding editor Harold Ross: "There was an irreverence, a lightness of touch as well as a literary voice that had been obscured in later years when the magazine became more celebrated and stuffy. ... Rekindling that DNA became my passion."


title: Tina Brown

text: "The New Yorker is a text-driven magazine and always will be, and certainly will be under my tenure," she said in an early interview. Text, she added, was her "first love." Still, anxieties that Brown might change the identity of "The New Yorker" as a cultural institution prompted a number of resignations. George Trow, who had been with the magazine for almost three decades, accused Brown of "kissing the ass of celebrity" in his resignation letter. (To which Brown reportedly replied, "I am distraught at your defection but since you never actually write anything I should say I am notionally distraught.") The departing Jamaica Kincaid described Brown as "a bully" and "Stalin in high heels."


title: Tina Brown

text: However, Brown had the support of some "New Yorker" stalwarts, including John Updike, Roger Angell, Brendan Gill, Lillian Ross, Calvin Tomkins, Janet Malcolm, Harold Brodkey and Philip Hamburger, as well as newer staffers like Adam Gopnik and Nancy Franklin. During her editorship, she let 79 staffers go and engaged 50 new writers and editors, most of whom remain to this day, including David Remnick (whom she nominated as her successor), Malcolm Gladwell, Anthony Lane, Jane Mayer, Jeffrey Toobin, Hendrik Hertzberg, Hilton Als, Ken Auletta, Simon Schama, Lawrence Wright, John Lahr, managing editor Pamela McCarthy and executive editor Dorothy Wickenden. Brown introduced the concept of special double issues such as the annual fiction issue and the Holiday Season cartoon issue. She also collaborated with Harvard professor Henry Louis Gates to devote a whole issue to the theme Black in America.


title: Tina Brown

text: Brown broke the magazine's longstanding reluctance to treat photography seriously in 1992, when she invited Richard Avedon to be its first staff photographer. She also approved controversial covers from a new crop of artists, including Edward Sorel's October 1992 cover of a punk rock passenger sprawled in the backseat of an elegant horse-drawn carriage, which may have been Brown's self-mocking riposte to fears that she would downgrade the magazine. A year later a national controversy was provoked by her publication of Art Spiegelman's Valentine's Day cover of a Jewish man and a black woman in an embracing kiss, a comment on the mounting racial tensions between blacks and ultra-Orthodox Jews in the Crown Heights section of Brooklyn, New York.


title: Tina Brown

text: During Brown's tenure, the magazine received four George Polk Awards, five Overseas Press Club Awards, and ten National Magazine Awards, including a 1995 award for General Excellence, the first in the magazine's history. Newsstand sales rose 145 percent. "The New Yorker"s circulation increased to 807,935 for the second half of 1997, up from 658,916 during the corresponding period in 1992. Critics maintained it was hemorrhaging money, but Newhouse remained supportive, viewing the magazine under Brown as a start-up (which routinely lose money): "It was practically a new magazine. She added topicality, photography, color. She did what we would have done if we invented the "New Yorker" from scratch. To do all that was costly. We knew it would be." Under Brown, its economic fortunes improved every year: in 1995 losses were about $17 million, in 1996 $14 million, and in 1997 $11 million.


title: Tina Brown

text: In 1998, Brown resigned from "The New Yorker" following an invitation from Harvey and Bob Weinstein of Miramax Films (then owned by The Walt Disney Company) to be the chairman of a new multi-media company they intended to start with a new magazine, book company, and television show. The Hearst company came in as partners with Miramax.


title: Tina Brown

text: Tina Brown next created "Talk" magazine, a monthly glossy, and appointed Jonathan Burnham and Susan Mercandetti to manage Talk Books, with a staff that included editors Sam Sifton, Danielle Mattoon and Jonathan Mahler. Its two political columnists were Jake Tapper and Tucker Carlson. She simultaneously appointed Jonathan Burnham and Susan Mercandetti to manage Talk Miramax Books. Out of 42 books published during Brown's time, 11 appeared on the New York Times Best Seller List, including "Leadership" by Rudy Giuliani, "" by Queen Noor of Jordan, and "Madam Secretary" by Madeleine Albright.


title: Tina Brown

text: "Talk" magazine was due to be launched during a party at the Brooklyn Navy Yard in New York City but was banned by Mayor Rudy Giuliani, who did not feel it was an appropriate use of the site. The star-studded event mixing political leaders, writers, and Hollywood, was then moved to Liberty Island, where on 2 August 1999 more than 800 guests – including Madonna, Salman Rushdie, Demi Moore, and George Plimpton - arrived by barge for a picnic dinner at the feet of the Statue of Liberty under thousands of Japanese lanterns and a Grucci fireworks display. An interview with Hillary Clinton in its very first issue caused an immediate political sensation when she claimed that the abuse her husband suffered as a child led to his adult philandering. "The Washington Post" reported that at times, ""Talk" seemed more interested in promoting such Miramax stars as Gwyneth Paltrow than in politics."


title: Tina Brown

text: Despite having achieved a circulation of 670,000 "Talk" magazine's publication was abruptly halted in January 2002 in the wake of the advertising recession following the 9/11 attacks. It was Brown's first very public failure but she said she had no regrets about embarking on the project. She told Charlotte Edwardes of "The Telegraph" in 2002: "My reputation rests on four magazines – three great successes, one that was a great experiment. I don't feel in any way let down. No big career doesn't have one flame out in it and there's nobody more boring than the undefeated." Talk Media was founded in July 1998 by Miramax Films, Tina Brown and Ron Galotti to publish books and Talk magazine and produce television programs. Talk Media formed a joint venture with Hearst Magazines for the magazine only in February 1999. Brown worked with the book division's editor-in chief Jonathan Burnham. She recalled in October 2017 at the time of allegations of sexual assault being made against Harvey Weinstein: "Strange contracts pre-dating us would suddenly surface, book deals with no deadline attached authored by attractive or nearly famous women."


title: Tina Brown

text: "Politico" estimated that Brown had "bombed through some $50 million in 2 years" on the failed venture. A $1 million contract settlement in 2002 ended Brown's involvement in Talk Media.


title: Tina Brown

text: Talk Miramax Books flourished as a boutique publishing house until it was detached from Miramax in 2005 and made part of Hyperion at Disney.


title: Tina Brown

text: Brown hosted a series of specials for CNBC. The network followed up by signing her to host a weekly talk show of politics and culture titled "Topic [A] With Tina Brown", which debuted on 4 May 2003. The program welcomed guests ranging from political figures, such as the Prime Minister of the UK, Tony Blair, and Senator John McCain, to celebrities, such as George Clooney and Annette Bening. "Topic A" struggled to find an audience on Sunday nights, airing after a day of infomercials. It averaged 75,000 viewers in 2005, about the same as "The Big Idea with Donny Deutsch" (79,000) and John McEnroe's "McEnroe" (75,000.) On being offered a lucrative deal with tight deadlines to write a book about Princess Diana, Brown resigned, airing her last "Topic A" interviews on 29 May 2005.


title: Tina Brown

text: Brown's biography of Diana, Princess of Wales was published just before the 10th anniversary of her death in June 2007. "The Diana Chronicles" made "The New York Times" bestseller list for hardback nonfiction, with two weeks in the number one position.


title: Tina Brown

text: A sequel, "The Palace Papers: Inside the House of Windsor–The Truth and the Turmoil", on the period between the deaths of the Princess of Wales and Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, was published in 2022. "Some of the gossip", wrote Philip Hensher in a review for "The Spectator", as in "all books of this sort, is grossly implausible."


title: Tina Brown

text: On 6 October 2008, Brown teamed up with Barry Diller to launch "The Daily Beast", an online news magazine. On 12 November 2010, "The Daily Beast" and "Newsweek" announced that they would merge their operations in a joint venture to be owned equally by Sidney Harman and IAC/InterActiveCorp. The new entity was named The Newsweek Daily Beast Company with Tina Brown as Editor-in-Chief and Stephen Colvin as CEO. In December 2012, the final printed issue of "Newsweek" was published. A cover headline stated the magazine would change to the digital format, and Tina Brown wrote an editorial about it. The digital format was short-lived: the print edition returned after Brown's departure.


title: Tina Brown

text: On 11 September 2013, Editor-in-Chief Tina Brown announced her departure. Initial reports of her contract not being renewed were refuted in a statement issued by Barry Diller, IAC/InterActiveCorp's Executive Director:


title: Tina Brown

text: Brown's resignation caused much speculation in the media in regard to the future of the website. Her hand-picked successor as executive editor, John Avlon, addressed the question succinctly with his quip: ""The Daily Beast" roars on."


title: SHA-3

text: SHA-3 (Secure Hash Algorithm 3) is the latest member of the Secure Hash Algorithm family of standards, released by NIST on August 5, 2015. Although part of the same series of standards, SHA-3 is internally different from the MD5-like structure of SHA-1 and SHA-2.


title: SHA-3

text: SHA-3 is a subset of the broader cryptographic primitive family Keccak ( or ), designed by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, and Gilles Van Assche, building upon RadioGatún. Keccak's authors have proposed additional uses for the function, not (yet) standardized by NIST, including a stream cipher, an authenticated encryption system, a "tree" hashing scheme for faster hashing on certain architectures, and AEAD ciphers Keyak and Ketje.


title: SHA-3

text: Keccak is based on a novel approach called sponge construction. Sponge construction is based on a wide random function or random permutation, and allows inputting ("absorbing" in sponge terminology) any amount of data, and outputting ("squeezing") any amount of data, while acting as a pseudorandom function with regard to all previous inputs. This leads to great flexibility.


title: SHA-3

text: NIST does not currently plan to withdraw SHA-2 or remove it from the revised Secure Hash Standard. The purpose of SHA-3 is that it can be directly substituted for SHA-2 in current applications if necessary, and to significantly improve the robustness of NIST's overall hash algorithm toolkit.


title: SHA-3

text: For small message sizes, the creators of the Keccak algorithms and the SHA-3 functions suggest using the faster function KangarooTwelve with adjusted parameters and a new tree hashing mode without extra overhead.


title: SHA-3

text: The Keccak algorithm is the work of Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen (who also co-designed the Rijndael cipher with Vincent Rijmen), Michael Peeters, and Gilles Van Assche. It is based on earlier hash function designs PANAMA and RadioGatún. PANAMA was designed by Daemen and Craig Clapp in 1998. RadioGatún, a successor of PANAMA, was designed by Daemen, Peeters, and Van Assche, and was presented at the NIST Hash Workshop in 2006. The reference implementation source code was dedicated to public domain via CC0 waiver.


title: SHA-3

text: In 2006, NIST started to organize the NIST hash function competition to create a new hash standard, SHA-3. SHA-3 is not meant to replace SHA-2, as no significant attack on SHA-2 has been demonstrated. Because of the successful attacks on MD5, SHA-0 and SHA-1,


title: SHA-3

text: After a setup period, admissions were to be submitted by the end of 2008. Keccak was accepted as one of the 51 candidates. In July 2009, 14 algorithms were selected for the second round. Keccak advanced to the last round in December 2010.


title: SHA-3

text: During the competition, entrants were permitted to "tweak" their algorithms to address issues that were discovered. Changes that have been made to Keccak are:


title: SHA-3

text: In 2014, the NIST published a draft FIPS 202 "SHA-3 Standard: Permutation-Based Hash and Extendable-Output Functions". FIPS 202 was approved on August 5, 2015.


title: SHA-3

text: In early 2013 NIST announced they would select different values for the "capacity", the overall strength vs. speed parameter, for the SHA-3 standard, compared to the submission. The changes caused some turmoil.


title: SHA-3

text: The hash function competition called for hash functions at least as secure as the SHA-2 instances. It means that a "d"-bit output should have "d"/2-bit resistance to collision attacks and "d"-bit resistance to preimage attacks, the maximum achievable for "d" bits of output. Keccak's security proof allows an adjustable level of security based on a "capacity" "c", providing "c"/2-bit resistance to both collision and preimage attacks. To meet the original competition rules, Keccak's authors proposed . The announced change was to accept the same "d"/2-bit security for all forms of attack and standardize . This would have sped up Keccak by allowing an additional "d" bits of input to be hashed each iteration. However, the hash functions would not have been drop-in replacements with the same preimage resistance as SHA-2 any more; it would have been cut in half, making it vulnerable to advances in quantum computing, which effectively would cut it in half once more.


title: SHA-3

text: In September 2013, Daniel J. Bernstein suggested on the NIST hash-forum mailing list to strengthen the security to the 576-bit capacity that was originally proposed as the default Keccak, in addition to and not included in the SHA-3 specifications. This would have provided at least a SHA3-224 and SHA3-256 with the same preimage resistance as their SHA-2 predecessors, but SHA3-384 and SHA3-512 would have had significantly less preimage resistance than their SHA-2 predecessors. In late September, the Keccak team responded by stating that they had proposed 128-bit security by setting as an option already in their SHA-3 proposal. Although the reduced capacity was justifiable in their opinion, in the light of the negative response, they proposed raising the capacity to bits for all instances. This would be as much as any previous standard up to the 256-bit security level, while providing reasonable efficiency, but not the 384-/512-bit preimage resistance offered by SHA2-384 and SHA2-512. The authors stated that "claiming or relying on security strength levels above 256 bits is meaningless".


title: SHA-3

text: In early October 2013, Bruce Schneier criticized NIST's decision on the basis of its possible detrimental effects on the acceptance of the algorithm, saying:


title: SHA-3

text: Paul Crowley, a cryptographer and senior developer at an independent software development company, expressed his support of the decision, saying that Keccak is supposed to be tunable and there is no reason for different security levels within one primitive. He also added:


title: SHA-3

text: There was some confusion that internal changes may have been made to Keccak, which were cleared up by the original team, stating that NIST's proposal for SHA-3 is a subset of the Keccak family, for which one can generate test vectors using their reference code submitted to the contest, and that this proposal was the result of a series of discussions between them and the NIST hash team.


title: SHA-3

text: In response to the controversy, in November 2013 John Kelsey of NIST proposed to go back to the original proposal for all SHA-2 drop-in replacement instances. The reversion was confirmed in subsequent drafts and in the final release.


title: SHA-3

text: SHA-3 uses the sponge construction, in which data is "absorbed" into the sponge, then the result is "squeezed" out. In the absorbing phase, message blocks are XORed into a subset of the state, which is then transformed as a whole using a permutation function formula_1. In the "squeeze" phase, output blocks are read from the same subset of the state, alternated with the state transformation function formula_1. The size of the part of the state that is written and read is called the "rate" (denoted formula_3), and the size of the part that is untouched by input/output is called the "capacity" (denoted formula_4). The capacity determines the security of the scheme. The maximum security level is half the capacity.


title: SHA-3

text: Given an input bit string formula_5, a padding function formula_6, a permutation function formula_1 that operates on bit blocks of width formula_8, a rate formula_3 and an output length formula_10, we have capacity formula_11 and the sponge construction formula_12, yielding a bit string formula_13 of length formula_10, works as follows:


title: SHA-3

text: The fact that the internal state "S" contains "c" additional bits of information in addition to what is output to "Z" prevents the length extension attacks that SHA-2, SHA-1, MD5 and other hashes based on the Merkle–Damgård construction are susceptible to.


title: SHA-3

text: In SHA-3, the state "S" consists of a array of "w"-bit words (with "w" = 64), "b" = 5 × 5 × "w" = 5 × 5 × 64 = 1600 bits total. Keccak is also defined for smaller power-of-2 word sizes "w" down to 1 bit (total state of 25 bits). Small state sizes can be used to test cryptanalytic attacks, and intermediate state sizes (from , 200 bits, to , 800 bits) can be used in practical, lightweight applications.


title: SHA-3

text: For SHA3-224, SHA3-256, SHA3-384, and SHA3-512 instances, "r" is greater than "d", so there is no need for additional block permutations in the squeezing phase; the leading "d" bits of the state are the desired hash. However, SHAKE128 and SHAKE256 allow an arbitrary output length, which is useful in applications such as optimal asymmetric encryption padding.


title: SHA-3

text: To ensure the message can be evenly divided into "r"-bit blocks, padding is required. SHA-3 uses the pattern 101 in its padding function: a 1 bit, followed by zero or more 0 bits (maximum ) and a final 1 bit.


title: SHA-3

text: The maximum of zero bits occurs when the last message block is bits long. Then another block is added after the initial 1 bit, containing zero bits before the final 1 bit.


title: SHA-3

text: The two 1 bits will be added even if the length of the message is already divisible by "r". In this case, another block is added to the message, containing a 1 bit, followed by a block of zero bits and another 1 bit. This is necessary so that a message with length divisible by "r" ending in something that looks like padding does not produce the same hash as the message with those bits removed.


title: SHA-3

text: The initial 1 bit is required so messages differing only in a few additional 0 bits at the end do not produce the same hash.


title: SHA-3

text: The position of the final 1 bit indicates which rate "r" was used (multi-rate padding), which is required for the security proof to work for different hash variants. Without it, different hash variants of the same short message would be the same up to truncation.


title: SHA-3

text: The block transformation "f", which is Keccak-f[1600] for SHA-3, is a permutation that uses XOR, AND and NOT operations, and is designed for easy implementation in both software and hardware.


title: SHA-3

text: The state can be considered to be a array of bits. Let be bit of the input, using a little-endian bit numbering convention and row-major indexing. I.e. selects the row, the column, and the bit.


title: SHA-3

text: The speed of SHA-3 hashing of long messages is dominated by the computation of "f" = Keccak-f[1600] and XORing "S" with the extended "P", an operation on "b" = 1600 bits. However, since the last "c" bits of the extended "P" are 0 anyway, and XOR with 0 is a NOP, it is sufficient to perform XOR operations only for "r" bits ("r" = 1600 − 2 × 224 = 1152 bits for SHA3-224, 1088 bits for SHA3-256, 832 bits for SHA3-384 and 576 bits for SHA3-512). The lower "r" is (and, conversely, the higher "c" = "b" − "r" = 1600 − "r"), the less efficient but more secure the hashing becomes since fewer bits of the message can be XORed into the state (a quick operation) before each application of the computationally expensive "f".


title: SHA-3

text: The authors report the following speeds for software implementations of Keccak-f[1600] plus XORing 1024 bits, which roughly corresponds to SHA3-256:


title: SHA-3

text: For the exact SHA3-256 on x86-64, Bernstein measures 11.7–12.25 cpb depending on the CPU. SHA-3 has been criticized for being slow on instruction set architectures (CPUs) which do not have instructions meant specially for computing Keccak functions faster – SHA2-512 is more than twice as fast as SHA3-512, and SHA-1 is more than three times as fast on an Intel Skylake processor clocked at 3.2 GHz. The authors have reacted to this criticism by suggesting to use SHAKE128 and SHAKE256 instead of SHA3-256 and SHA3-512, at the expense of cutting the preimage resistance in half (but while keeping the collision resistance). With this, performance is on par with SHA2-256 and SHA2-512.


title: SHA-3

text: However, in hardware implementations, SHA-3 is notably faster than all other finalists, and also faster than SHA-2 and SHA-1.


title: SHA-3

text: ARM's ARMv8 and IBM's s390x architectures already (as of 2018) include special instructions which enable Keccak algorithms to execute faster.


title: SHA-3

text: SHAKE will generate as many bits from its sponge as requested, called XOFs (Extendable Output Functions). For example, SHAKE128(M, 256) can be used as a hash function with a 256 character bitstream with 128-bit security strength. Arbitrarily large lengths can be used as pseudo-random number generators. Alternately, SHAKE256(M, 128) can be used as a hash function with a 128-bit length and 128-bit resistance.


title: SHA-3

text: All instances append some bits to the message, the rightmost of which represent the domain separation suffix. The purpose of this is to ensure that it is not possible to construct messages that produce the same hash output for different applications of the Keccak hash function. The following domain separation suffixes exist:


title: SHA-3

text: In December 2016 NIST published a new document, NIST SP.800-185, describing additional SHA-3 derived functions:


title: SHA-3

text: • N is a function-name bit string, used by NIST to define functions based on cSHAKE. When no function other than cSHAKE is desired, N is set to the empty string.


title: SHA-3

text: • S is a customization bit string. The user selects this string to define a variant of the function. When no customization is desired, S is set to the empty string.


title: SHA-3

text: In 2016 the same team that made the SHA-3 functions and the Keccak algorithm introduced faster reduced-rounds (reduced to 12 and 14 rounds, from the 24 in SHA-3) alternatives which can exploit the availability of parallel execution because of using tree hashing: KangarooTwelve and MarsupilamiFourteen.


title: SHA-3

text: These functions differ from ParallelHash, the FIPS standardized Keccak-based parallelizable hash function, with regard to the parallelism, in that they are faster than ParallelHash for small message sizes.


title: SHA-3

text: The reduced number of rounds is justified by the huge cryptanalytic effort focused on Keccak which did not produce practical attacks on anything close to twelve-round Keccak. These higher-speed algorithms are not part of SHA-3 (as they are a later development), and thus are not FIPS compliant; but because they use the same Keccak permutation they are secure for as long as there are no attacks on SHA-3 reduced to 12 rounds.


title: SHA-3

text: KangarooTwelve is a higher-performance reduced-round (from 24 to 12 rounds) version of Keccak which claims to have 128 bits of security while having performance as high as 0.55 cycles per byte on a Skylake CPU. This algorithm is an IETF RFC draft.


title: SHA-3

text: MarsupilamiFourteen, a slight variation on KangarooTwelve, uses 14 rounds of the Keccak permutation and claims 256 bits of security. Note that 256-bit security is not more useful in practice than 128-bit security, but may be required by some standards. 128 bits are already sufficient to defeat brute-force attacks on current hardware, so having 256-bit security does not add practical value, unless the user is worried about significant advancements in the speed of "classical" computers. For resistance against "quantum" computers, see below.


title: SHA-3

text: KangarooTwelve and MarsupilamiFourteen are Extendable-Output Functions, similar to SHAKE, therefore they generate closely related output for a common message with different output length (the longer output is an extension of the shorter output). Such property is not exhibited by hash functions such as SHA-3 or ParallelHash (except of XOF variants).


title: SHA-3

text: In 2016, the Keccak team released a different construction called Farfalle construction, and Kravatte, an instance of Farfalle using the Keccak-p permutation, as well as two authenticated encryption algorithms Kravatte-SANE and Kravatte-SANSE


title: SHA-3

text: RawSHAKE is the basis for the Sakura coding for tree hashing, which has not been standardized yet. Sakura uses a suffix of 1111 for single nodes, equivalent to SHAKE, and other generated suffixes depending on the shape of the tree.


title: SHA-3

text: There is a general result (Grover's algorithm) that quantum computers can perform a structured preimage attack in formula_18, while a classical brute-force attack needs 2. A structured preimage attack implies a second preimage attack and thus a collision attack. A quantum computer can also perform a birthday attack, thus break collision resistance, in formula_19 (although that is disputed). Noting that the maximum strength can be formula_20, this gives the following upper bounds on the quantum security of SHA-3:


title: SHA-3

text: It has been shown that the Merkle–Damgård construction, as used by SHA-2, is collapsing and, by consequence, quantum collision-resistant, but for the sponge construction used by SHA-3, the authors provide proofs only for the case when the block function "f" is not efficiently invertible; Keccak-f[1600], however, is efficiently invertible, and so their proof does not apply.


title: SHA-3

text: Changing a single bit causes each bit in the output to change with 50% probability, demonstrating an avalanche effect:


title: SHA-3

text: In the table below, "internal state" means the number of bits that are carried over to the next block.


title: SHA-3

text: Optimized implementation using AVX-512VL (i.e. from OpenSSL, running on Skylake-X CPUs) of SHA3-256 do achieve about 6.4 cycles per byte for large messages, and about 7.8 cycles per byte when using AVX2 on Skylake CPUs. Performance on other x86, Power and ARM CPUs depending on instructions used, and exact CPU model varies from about 8 to 15 cycles per byte, with some older x86 CPUs up to 25–40 cycles per byte.


title: SHA-3

text: Apple A13 ARMv8 six-core SoC CPU cores have support for accelerating SHA-3 (and SHA-512) using specialized instructions (EOR3, RAX1, XAR, BCAX) from ARMv8.2-SHA crypto extension set.


title: SHA-3

text: Some software libraries use vectorization facilities of CPUs to accelerate usage of SHA-3. For example, Crypto++ can use SSE2 on x86 for accelerating SHA3, and OpenSSL can use MMX, AVX-512 or AVX-512VL on many x86 systems too. Also POWER8 CPUs implement 2x64-bit vector rotate, defined in PowerISA 2.07, which can accelerate SHA-3 implementations somehow. Most implementations for ARM do not use Neon vector instructions as scalar code is faster. ARM implementations can however be accelerated using SVE and SVE2 vector instructions; these are available in the Fujitsu A64FX CPU for instance.


title: SHA-3

text: The IBM z/Architecture supports SHA-3 since 2017 as part of the Message-Security-Assist Extension 6. The processors support a complete implementation of the entire SHA-3 and SHAKE algorithms via the KIMD and KLMD instructions using a hardware assist engine built into each core.


title: The Blue Danube

text: "The Blue Danube" is the common English title of "An der schönen blauen Donau", Op. 314 (German for "By the Beautiful Blue Danube"), a waltz by the Austrian composer Johann Strauss II, composed in 1866. Originally performed on 15 February 1867 at a concert of the Wiener Männergesang-Verein (Vienna Men's Choral Association), it has been one of the most consistently popular pieces of music in the classical repertoire. Its initial performance was considered only a mild success, however, and Strauss is reputed to have said, "The devil take the waltz, my only regret is for the coda—I wish that had been a success!"


title: The Blue Danube

text: After the original music was written, the words were added by the Choral Association's poet, Joseph Weyl. Strauss later added more music, and Weyl needed to change some of the words. Strauss adapted it into a purely orchestral version for the 1867 Paris World's Fair, and it became a great success in this form. The instrumental version is by far the most commonly performed today. An alternate text was written by Franz von Gernerth, "" (Danube so blue). "The Blue Danube" premiered in the United States in its instrumental version on 1 July 1867 in New York, and in the UK in its choral version on 21 September 1867 in London at the promenade concerts at Covent Garden.