title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Also in June 2019, New Jersey Governor Phil Murphy signed Sami's Law, which requires more identification on ride-share vehicles. Specifically, the law requires companies to issue two "credential placards" to drivers of ride-share vehicles. These placards, which are to be placed on the driver and passenger side back windows, must have the driver's name and photo, along with their license plate number. Ride-share vehicles must also have an identifying marker on the front windshield and back window. Additionally, companies must give ride-share drivers two barcodes that passengers can scan to confirm the driver's identity.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Josephson’s murder prompted lawmakers in North Carolina to propose the Passenger Protection Act. The act requires ride-share drivers to display a printed license plate number on the front of their vehicles and, as of July 1, 2020, to have illuminated signs on their vehicles. The act creates a new criminal penalty for impersonating a ride-share driver and makes assaulting a ride-share driver a misdemeanor. Additionally, it provides $500,000 in grants for colleges to educate students about ride-share safety and creates a study commission to examine ways to improve ride-share safety. The law was signed by Governor Roy Cooper in August 2019.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Additional legislation aimed at protecting ride-share users is pending. In April 2019, Senator Anna Kaplan introduced the Samantha L. Josephson Ridesharing Safety Act, to the New York Senate. The act, which is currently in the Transportation Committee, requires ride-share drivers to “display visible, consistent, and distinctive signage clearly identifying the rideshare service provider at all times when the driver is active on the service platform or providing rideshare service.” These signs must be readable from a distance of 50 feet during daylight hours and should be illuminated at night so that the logo is patently visible.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Josephson's parents have worked with lawmakers in the United States Congress to craft a federal law to enhance ride-share safety. The bill, which is also titled "Sami's Law," was introduced on June 13, 2019. It requires ride-share vehicles to have front license plates and illuminated windshield signs along with scannable or quick-response codes on the sides. States that do not comply would be penalized by losing 1% of federal highway funding. The law would also establish a 15-member advisory council, called SAMI's Council, which would be made of federal agency and public stakeholders. The Council would report to the Secretary of Transportation and work to advance safety standards in the rideshare industry. The bill would also regulate the sale of official ride-share signage, require a Government Accountability Office (GAO) to report on incidents of assault and abuse of passengers and drivers, and require the GAO to examine the nature and specifics of background checks that are conducted by companies and the state standards of background checks. The federal Sami's Law was referred to several subcommittees and in July 2020, the U.S. House of Representatives unanimously approved it. Josephson's death promoted the University of South Carolina to launch a campaign titled "What's My Name" to help students stay safe while using ride-sharing services.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Josephson was awarded a posthumous political science degree in May 2019 at what would have been her graduation ceremony. Her diploma and college possessions were given to her mother.


title: Function composition

text: In mathematics, function composition is an operation that takes two functions and , and produces a function such that . In this operation, the function is applied to the result of applying the function to . That is, the functions and are composed to yield a function that maps in domain to in codomain .


title: Function composition

text: Intuitively, if is a function of , and is a function of , then is a function of . The resulting "composite" function is denoted , defined by for all in .


title: Function composition

text: The notation is read as " of ", " after ", " circle ", " round ", " about ", " composed with ", " following ", " then ", or " on ", or "the composition of and ". Intuitively, composing functions is a chaining process in which the output of function feeds the input of function .


title: Function composition

text: The composition of functions is a special case of the composition of relations, sometimes also denoted by formula_1. As a result, all properties of composition of relations are true of composition of functions, such as the property of associativity.


title: Function composition

text: But composition of functions is different from multiplication of functions (if defined at all), and has some quite different properties; in particular, composition of functions is not commutative.


title: Function composition

text: The composition of functions is always associative—a property inherited from the composition of relations. That is, if , , and are composable, then . Since the parentheses do not change the result, they are generally omitted.


title: Function composition

text: In a strict sense, the composition is only meaningful if the codomain of equals the domain of ; in a wider sense, it is sufficient that the former be a subset of the latter.


title: Function composition

text: Moreover, it is often convenient to tacitly restrict the domain of , such that produces only values in the domain of . For example, the composition of the functions defined by and defined by formula_2 can be defined on the interval .


title: Function composition

text: The functions and are said to commute with each other if . Commutativity is a special property, attained only by particular functions, and often in special circumstances. For example, only when . The picture shows another example.


title: Function composition

text: The composition of one-to-one (injective) functions is always one-to-one. Similarly, the composition of onto (surjective) functions is always onto. It follows that the composition of two bijections is also a bijection. The inverse function of a composition (assumed invertible) has the property that .


title: Function composition

text: Derivatives of compositions involving differentiable functions can be found using the chain rule. Higher derivatives of such functions are given by Faà di Bruno's formula.


title: Function composition

text: Suppose one has two (or more) functions having the same domain and codomain; these are often called "transformations". Then one can form chains of transformations composed together, such as . Such chains have the algebraic structure of a monoid, called a "transformation monoid" or (much more seldom) a "composition monoid". In general, transformation monoids can have remarkably complicated structure. One particular notable example is the de Rham curve. The set of "all" functions is called the full transformation semigroup or "symmetric semigroup" on . (One can actually define two semigroups depending how one defines the semigroup operation as the left or right composition of functions.)


title: Function composition

text: If the transformations are bijective (and thus invertible), then the set of all possible combinations of these functions forms a transformation group; and one says that the group is generated by these functions. A fundamental result in group theory, Cayley's theorem, essentially says that any group is in fact just a subgroup of a permutation group (up to isomorphism).


title: Function composition

text: The set of all bijective functions (called permutations) forms a group with respect to function composition. This is the symmetric group, also sometimes called the "composition group".


title: Function composition

text: In the symmetric semigroup (of all transformations) one also finds a weaker, non-unique notion of inverse (called a pseudoinverse) because the symmetric semigroup is a regular semigroup.


title: Function composition

text: More generally, for any natural number , the th functional power can be defined inductively by , a notation introduced by Hans Heinrich Bürmann and John Frederick William Herschel. Repeated composition of such a function with itself is called iterated function.


title: Function composition

text: Note: If takes its values in a ring (in particular for real or complex-valued ), there is a risk of confusion, as could also stand for the -fold product of , e.g. . For trigonometric functions, usually the latter is meant, at least for positive exponents. For example, in trigonometry, this superscript notation represents standard exponentiation when used with trigonometric functions:


title: Function composition

text: However, for negative exponents (especially −1), it nevertheless usually refers to the inverse function, e.g., .


title: Function composition

text: In some cases, when, for a given function , the equation has a unique solution , that function can be defined as the functional square root of , then written as .


title: Function composition

text: Under additional restrictions, this idea can be generalized so that the iteration count becomes a continuous parameter; in this case, such a system is called a flow, specified through solutions of Schröder's equation. Iterated functions and flows occur naturally in the study of fractals and dynamical systems.


title: Function composition

text: To avoid ambiguity, some mathematicians choose to use to denote the compositional meaning, writing for the -th iterate of the function , as in, for example, meaning . For the same purpose, was used by Benjamin Peirce whereas Alfred Pringsheim and Jules Molk suggested instead.


title: Function composition

text: In the mid-20th century, some mathematicians decided that writing "" to mean "first apply , then apply " was too confusing and decided to change notations. They write "" for "" and "" for "". This can be more natural and seem simpler than writing functions on the left in some areas – in linear algebra, for instance, when is a row vector and and denote matrices and the composition is by matrix multiplication. This alternative notation is called postfix notation. The order is important because function composition is not necessarily commutative (e.g. matrix multiplication). Successive transformations applying and composing to the right agrees with the left-to-right reading sequence.


title: Function composition

text: Mathematicians who use postfix notation may write "", meaning first apply and then apply , in keeping with the order the symbols occur in postfix notation, thus making the notation "" ambiguous. Computer scientists may write "" for this, thereby disambiguating the order of composition. To distinguish the left composition operator from a text semicolon, in the Z notation the ⨾ character is used for left relation composition. Since all functions are binary relations, it is correct to use the [fat] semicolon for function composition as well (see the article on composition of relations for further details on this notation).


title: Function composition

text: Given a function , the composition operator is defined as that operator which maps functions to functions as formula_3


title: Function composition

text: Partial composition is possible for multivariate functions. The function resulting when some argument of the function is replaced by the function is called a composition of and in some computer engineering contexts, and is denoted


title: Function composition

text: When is a simple constant , composition degenerates into a (partial) valuation, whose result is also known as restriction or "co-factor".


title: Function composition

text: In general, the composition of multivariate functions may involve several other functions as arguments, as in the definition of primitive recursive function. Given , a -ary function, and -ary functions , the composition of with , is the -ary function


title: Function composition

text: This is sometimes called the generalized composite or superposition of "f" with . The partial composition in only one argument mentioned previously can be instantiated from this more general scheme by setting all argument functions except one to be suitably chosen projection functions. Here can be seen as a single vector/tuple-valued function in this generalized scheme, in which case this is precisely the standard definition of function composition.


title: Function composition

text: A set of finitary operations on some base set "X" is called a clone if it contains all projections and is closed under generalized composition. Note that a clone generally contains operations of various arities. The notion of commutation also finds an interesting generalization in the multivariate case; a function "f" of arity "n" is said to commute with a function "g" of arity "m" if "f" is a homomorphism preserving "g", and vice versa i.e.:


title: Function composition

text: A unary operation always commutes with itself, but this is not necessarily the case for a binary (or higher arity) operation. A binary (or higher arity) operation that commutes with itself is called medial or entropic.


title: Function composition

text: Considering a function as a special case of a binary relation (namely functional relations), function composition satisfies the definition for relation composition. A small circle has been used for the infix notation of composition of relations, as well as functions. When used to represent composition of functions formula_8 however, the text sequence is reversed to illustrate the different operation sequences accordingly.


title: Function composition

text: The composition is defined in the same way for partial functions and Cayley's theorem has its analogue called the Wagner–Preston theorem.


title: Function composition

text: The category of sets with functions as morphisms is the prototypical category. The axioms of a category are in fact inspired from the properties (and also the definition) of function composition. The structures given by composition are axiomatized and generalized in category theory with the concept of morphism as the category-theoretical replacement of functions. The reversed order of composition in the formula applies for composition of relations using converse relations, and thus in group theory. These structures form dagger categories.


title: Function composition

text: The composition symbol is encoded as ; see the Degree symbol article for similar-appearing Unicode characters. In TeX, it is written codice_1.


title: Ceán Chaffin

text: Ceán Chaffin (born June 26, 1957) is an American film producer who has frequently collaborated with her husband, director David Fincher. She and her fellow producers were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture for "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" (2008), "The Social Network" (2010), and "Mank" (2020). She won American Film Institute's AFI Awards for these films as well as for "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo" (2011). Chaffin was nominated for Producers Guild of America's Producers of the Year Awards for the three aforementioned films and was also nominated for a British Academy Film Award for "The Curious Case of Benjamin Button" and "The Social Network".


title: Ceán Chaffin

text: In addition to producing the above films, Chaffin was executive producer for the 2017 TV series "Mindhunter".


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine is a pharmaceutical drug used for sedation, anesthesia, muscle relaxation, and analgesia in animals such as horses, cattle, and other non-human mammals. Veterinarians also use xylazine as an emetic, especially in cats. It is an analog of clonidine and an agonist at the of adrenergic receptor.


title: Xylazine

text: In veterinary anesthesia, xylazine is often used in combination with ketamine. It is sold under many brand names worldwide, most notably the Bayer brand name Rompun. It is also marketed as Anased, Sedazine, and Chanazine. The drug interactions vary with different animals.


title: Xylazine

text: It has become a drug of abuse, particularly in Puerto Rico, where it is diverted from stocks used by equine veterinarians and used as a cutting agent for heroin.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine is often used as a sedative, muscle relaxant, and analgesic. It is frequently used in the treatment of tetanus. Xylazine is very similar to drugs such as phenothiazine, tricyclic antidepressants, and clonidine. As an anesthetic, it is typically used in conjunction with ketamine. Xylazine appears to reduce sensitivity to insulin and glucose uptake in humans. Yohimbine, an adrenergic receptor antagonist, has been used to decrease glucose levels to a healthy level. In clinical settings, yohimbine can reverse the adverse effects of xylazine if administered intravenously shortly after xylazine administration.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine overdose is usually fatal in humans. Because it is used as a drug adulterant, the symptoms caused by the drugs accompanying xylazine administration vary between individuals.


title: Xylazine

text: The most common side effects in humans associated with xylazine administration include bradycardia, respiratory depression, hypotension, transient hypertension secondary to vagus nerve stimulation, and other changes in cardiac output. Xylazine significantly decreases heart rate in animals that are not premedicated with medications that have anticholinergic effects. The decrease in heart rate directly impacts aortic flow. Bradycardia caused by xylazine administration is effectively prevented by administration of atropine or glycopyrrolate. Arrhythmias associated with xylazine includes other symptoms such as sinoatrial block, atrioventricular block, A-V dissociation, and sinus arrhythmia.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine administration can lead to diabetes mellitus and hyperglycemia. Other possible side effects that can occur are areflexia, asthenia, ataxia, blurred vision, disorientation, dizziness, drowsiness, dysarthria, dysmetria, fainting, hyporeflexia, slurred speech, somnolence, staggering, coma, apnea, shallow breathing, sleepiness, premature ventricular contraction, tachycardia, miosis, and dry mouth. Rarely, hypotonia, dry mouth, urinary incontinence and nonspecific electrocardiographic ST segment changes occur. It has been reported that the duration of symptoms after human overdose is 8–72 hours. Further research is necessary to categorize the side effects that occur when xylazine is used in conjunction with heroin and cocaine.


title: Xylazine

text: Chronic use is reported to be associated with physical deterioration, dependence, abscesses, and skin ulceration, which can be physically debilitating and painful. Hypertension followed by hypotension, bradycardia, and respiratory depression lower tissue oxygenation in the skin. Thus, chronic use of xylazine can progress the skin oxygenation deficit, leading to severe skin ulceration. Lower skin oxygenation is associated with impaired healing of wounds and a higher chance of infection. The ulcers may ooze pus and have a characteristic odor. In severe cases, amputations must be performed on the affected extremities.


title: Xylazine

text: The known doses of xylazine that produce toxicity and fatality in humans vary from 40 to 2400 mg. Small doses may produce toxicity and larger doses may be survived with medical assistance. Non-fatal blood or plasma concentration ranges from 0.03 to 4.6 mg/L. In fatalities, the blood concentration of xylazine ranges from trace to 16 mg/L. It is reported that there is no defined safe or fatal concentration of xylazine because of the significant overlap between the non-fatal and postmortem blood concentrations of xylazine.


title: Xylazine

text: Currently, there is no specific antidote to treat humans that overdose on xylazine. Hemodialysis has been suggested as a form of treatment, but is usually unfavorable due to the large volume of distribution of xylazine. In addition, due to lack of research in humans, there are no standardized screenings to determine if an overdose has occurred. The detection of xylazine in biological fluids in humans involves various screening methods, such as urine screenings, thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS).


title: Xylazine

text: Multiple drugs have been used as supportive therapeutic intervention such as lidocaine, naloxone, thiamine, lorazepam, vecuronium, etomidate, propofol, tolazoline, yohimbine, atropine, orciprenaline, metoclopramide, ranitidine, metoprolol, enoxaparin, flucloxacillin, insulin, and irrigation of both eyes with saline. Effects of xylazine are also reversed by the analeptics 4-aminopyridine, doxapram, and caffeine, which are physiological antagonists to central nervous system depressants. Combining yohimbine and 4-aminopyridine in an effort to antagonize xylazine is superior as compared to the administration of either of these drugs individually due to reduction of recovery time. Research initiatives may be necessary in order to standardize treatment and determine effective measures for identifying chronic xylazine usage and intoxication.


title: Xylazine

text: The treatment after xylazine overdose should primarily involve maintaining respiratory function and blood pressure. In cases of intoxication, physicians recommend intravenous fluid infusion, atropine, and hospital observation. Severe cases may require endotracheal intubation, mechanical ventilation, gastric lavage, activated charcoal, bladder catheterization, electrocardiographic (ECG) and hyperglycemia monitoring. Physicians typically recommend which detoxification treatment should be used to manage possible dysfunction involving highly perfused organs, such as the liver and kidney.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine is a potent adrenergic agonist. When xylazine and other adrenergic receptor agonists are administered, they distribute throughout the body within 30–40 minutes. Due to xylazine's highly lipophilic nature, xylazine directly stimulates central receptors as well as peripheral -adrenoceptors in a variety of tissues. As an agonist, xylazine leads to a decrease in neurotransmission of norepinephrine and dopamine in the central nervous system. It does so by mimicking norepinephrine in binding to presynaptic surface autoreceptors, which leads to feedback inhibition of norepinephrine.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine also serves as a transport inhibitor by suppressing norepinephrine transport function through competitive inhibition of substrate transport. Accordingly, xylazine significantly increases and does not affect . This likely occurs by direct interaction on an area that overlaps with the antidepressant binding site. For example, xylazine and clonidine suppress uptake of MIBG, a norepinephrine analog, in neuroblastoma cells. Xylazine has varying affinities for cholinergic, serotonergic, dopaminergic, adrenergic, H-histaminergic and opiate receptors. Its chemical structure closely resembles the phenothiazines, tricyclic antidepressants, and clonidine.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine is absorbed, metabolized, and eliminated rapidly. Xylazine can be inhaled or administered intravenously, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, or orally either by itself or in conjunction with other anesthetics, such as ketamine, barbiturates, chloral hydrate, and halothane in order to provide reliable anesthesia effects. The most common route of administration is injection. The drug is used as a veterinary anesthetic and the recommended dose varies between species.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine's action can be seen usually 15–30 minutes after administration and the sedative effect may continue for 1–2 hours and last up to 4 hours. Once xylazine gains access to the vascular system, it is distributed within the blood, allowing xylazine to perfuse target organs including the heart, lungs, liver, and kidney. In nonfatal cases, the blood plasma concentrations range from 0.03–4.6 mg/L. Xylazine diffuses extensively and penetrates the blood–brain barrier, as might be expected due to the uncharged, lipophilic nature of the compound.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine is metabolized by liver cytochrome P450 enzymes. When it reaches the liver, xylazine is metabolized and proceeds to the kidneys to be excreted as urine. Around 70% of a dose is excreted by urine. Thus, urine can be used in detecting xylazine administration because it contains many metabolites, which are the main targets and products in urine. Within a few hours, xylazine decreases to undetectable levels. Other factors can also significantly impact the pharmacokinetics of xylazine, including sex, nutrition, environmental conditions, and prior diseases.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine was discovered as an antihypertensive agent in 1962 by Farbenfabriken Bayer in Leverkusen, Germany. Results from early human clinical studies confirmed that xylazine has several central nervous system depressant effects. Xylazine administration is used for sedation, anesthesia, muscle relaxation, and analgesia. It causes a significant reduction in blood pressure and heart rate in healthy volunteers. Due to hazardous side effects, including hypotension and bradycardia, xylazine was not approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for human use. As a result, xylazine's mechanism of action in humans remains unknown.


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine was approved by the FDA for veterinary use and is now used as an animal tranquilizer. In the United States, xylazine was only approved by the FDA for veterinary use as a sedative, analgesic, and muscle relaxant in dogs, cats, horses, elk, fallow deer, mule deer, sika deer, and white-tailed deer. The sedative and analgesic effects of xylazine are related to central nervous system depression. Xylazine's muscle relaxant effect inhibits the transmission of neural impulses in the central nervous system.


title: Xylazine

text: In scientific research, xylazine is a component of the most common anesthetic, ketamine-xylazine (see rodent cocktail), which is used in rats, mice, hamster, and guinea pigs. The accounts of the actions and uses of xylazine in animals were reported as early as the late 1960s and early 1970s.


title: Xylazine

text: Since the early 2000s, xylazine has become popular as a drug of abuse in the United States and Puerto Rico. Xylazine's street name in Puerto Rico is "anestesia de caballo", which roughly translates to "horse anesthetic".


title: Xylazine

text: Xylazine users are more likely to be male, under age 30, living in a rural area, and injecting versus inhaling xylazine. Xylazine has similar behavioral consequences as heroin, thus it is commonly used as an adulterant. Xylazine is also frequently found in "speedball" (a mixture of several abused drugs – usually cocaine, heroin or morphine, and fentanyl). The combination of heroin and xylazine produces a potentially more deadly high than administration of heroin alone. Use of xylazine in combination with "speedball" may potentiate or prolong the effects of the other drugs, which can lead to adverse consequences.


title: Xylazine

text: In 1979, the first case of xylazine toxicity was reported, in a 34 year-old male who had self-medicated for insomnia with injection of 1 g of xylazine. Intentional intoxication from ingesting, inhaling, or injecting xylazine has been reported. The intravenous route is the most common route of administration for those who abuse heroin or xylazine recreationally. In Puerto Rico, xylazine has increased in popularity. Its use was associated with a high number of inmate deaths at the Guerrero Correctional Institution in Aguadilla, Puerto Rico from 2002–2008.


title: Xylazine

text: When abused by humans, frequency of xylazine use depends on social or economic factors, as well as each user's subjective response to the drug's addictive properties.


title: Xylazine

text: The reasons that may explain why this drug has become increasingly popular are still unknown. Further research is needed to gain more information on the distribution of xylazine in the body, physical symptoms, potential treatments, and predictive factors for chronic usage.


title: Xylazine

text: In animals, xylazine may be administered intramuscularly or intravenously. As a veterinary anesthetic, xylazine is typically only administered once for intended effect before or during surgical procedures.


title: Xylazine

text: Side effects in animals include transient hypertension, hypotension, and respiratory depression. Further, the decrease of tissue sensitivity to insulin leads to xylazine-induced hyperglycemia and a reduction of tissue glucose uptake and utilization. The duration of effects in animals lasts up to 4 hours.


title: Xylazine

text: In dogs, sheep, horses, and cattle, the half life is very short: only 1.21–5.97 minutes. Complete elimination of the half lives can take up to 23.11 minutes in sheep and up to 49.51 minutes in horses. In young rats, the half life is an hour. Xylazine has a large volume of distribution ("V"). The = 1.9–2.5 for horses, cattle, sheep, and dogs. Though the peak plasma concentrations are reached in 12–14 minutes in all species, the bioavailability varies between species. The half life depends on the age of the animal, as age is related to prolonged duration of anesthesia and recovery time. Toxicity occurs with repeated administration, given that the metabolic clearance of the drug is usually calculated as 7–9 times the half-life, which is 4 to 5 days for the clearance of xylazine.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: The Watchers are a race of fictional extraterrestrials appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. They are commonly depicted as all-powerful beings who watch over the fictional multiverses and the stories that take place in them, and are not allowed to interact with other characters, though they have done so on several occasions, when the situation demanded it. Created by Stan Lee and Jack Kirby, the first Watcher to appear in the comics—named Uatu—debuted in "Fantastic Four" #13 (April 1963).


title: Watcher (comics)

text: The Watchers have been featured in several forms of media outside of comics. In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), they first appeared in the film "Guardians of the Galaxy Vol. 2" (2017); a Watcher (voiced by Jeffrey Wright) has a main role in the Disney+ series, "What If...?" (2021).


title: Watcher (comics)

text: The Watchers are one of the oldest species in the multiverse and are committed to observing and compiling knowledge on all aspects of the universe. This policy of total non-interference came into existence due to a former, well-meant attempt by the Watchers to bestow advanced knowledge on the Prosilicans, who used the nuclear technology gained to create weapons and destroy themselves. When the Watchers returned to Prosilicus, the survivors blamed them for causing the catastrophe by giving the Prosilicans nuclear technology before they were ready for it. The Watchers then took a vow never to interfere with other civilizations.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: Despite this, the Watcher Uatu has revealed himself to the superhero team the Fantastic Four, telling them of his race. In his first appearance, he made them battle the Red Ghost and his Super-Apes for control of the Moon. He complimented Reed Richards and claimed he would go to a more distant part of the galaxy to observe humanity. He aids them on several occasions against global threats such as the Molecule Man, Galactus, and the Overmind. The Leader discovered his existence and tracked him to his world. He transported the Hulk there to get the Ultimate Machine, which contains all the information in the Universe. The Hulk battled the Amphibious Qnax, who had also been sent to recover the machine. The Watcher transported them away from his machines to battle, and when the Hulk won, he transported Qnax back to his homeworld. He then took the Hulk back to his base, where the Hulk took the Machine despite the Watcher's warnings. The Leader transported him back to Earth and tried to use the device. However, the tremendous amount of knowledge proved too much for the Leader. He collapsed to the ground, unmoving, and the Hulk assumed that he died of shock. When the Hulk tried to use the machine himself, Uatu allowed him to hear the voice of Rick Jones, after which the Hulk removed the device. The Watcher then transported the Ultimate Machine back to his planet. After blatant interference with the mission of the Kree soldier Mar-Vell, Uatu is put on trial by his own race, but is released on the provision that he never directly interfere again.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: Uatu is later banished by his race for aiding the Fantastic Four against the threat of his rogue nephew, Aron, the Renegade Watcher, who tries to destroy the universe. The Dreaming Celestial later scans Uatu and learns the Watcher has broken his pact of non-interference almost 400 times. The Celestial also reveals the Watchers, like the Celestials themselves, are servants of a concept called Fulcrum, with apparent consequences for interference. Despite this, the other Watchers have interfered in other civilizations' events, though rarely, notably when the world-ending robot Omegex approached the Milky Way and they deemed it dangerous enough to act directly against it.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: There is also a tongue-in-cheek, splintered-off faction of Watchers that call themselves The Critics, who not only observe events, but also give dramatic critique as they take place. The only known Critic looks similar to other Watchers, but wears a mustache, goatee, dark sunglasses, and, rather than toga, dresses in a tweed sport coat.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: When Nova briefly visits Uatu and witnesses him watching various alternate realities, he learns that Uatu's father was the Watcher who originally gave nuclear technology to the Prosilicans, with Uatu's search of parallel universes being motivated by the desire to find the one world where his father's act of charity was proved to be the right thing to do. Three of Uatu's brothers and sisters broke their non-interference vow by judging Nick Fury and fusing what's left of Uatu with Nick Fury making him a Human/Watcher hybrid that they chained to a rock.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: When the Unseen summons Blink to him and tells her of things going on in the greater Multiverse, terrible creatures that are destroying time, space and dimension, and tells her that she is chosen by the device to act as protector of the very fabric of the Multiverse. This interference in the timestream causes a faction of Watchers to assault him with the objective of ending his involvement even if it means the end of the Multiverse.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: In the aftermath of the "Empyre" storyline, when the once pacifist plant-like aliens known as the Cotati were defeated after waging a war against Earth, the Kree and Skrulls, the Unseen uses his powers to inspect the weapons used by the Cotati, to find out that its from ancient technology that predates the Elders of the Universe, the Asgardians and even the Celestials. Once he realizes that it is from the ancient "First Race", the Unseen is overwhelmed with energy as a one-eyed Uatu is brought back to life. When the Unseen demands him to say something, all Uatu can say is "There shall be...a reckoning."


title: Watcher (comics)

text: After using the Cyclopedia Universum to see everything that had happened during his absence including how Nick Fury became the Unseen, Uatu released Fury from his punishment and told him that the mysterious weapons used by the Cotati were indeed created using the Watchers technology. Uatu set out to prepare for an oncoming conflict, the return of "the First War", and enlisted Fury to act as his operative.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: After Uatu realized that Watcher technology from "the First War" has spread all over the universe by a group called "The Reckoning", he summoned his brothers and sister to a meeting, as they included a clause in their sacred vow that it would be permissible to interfere should the Reckoning return. However, the Badoon were observing him and destroyed the moon, with Uatu and Fury on it. This ends up being the prelude of an invasion by the Badoon to Earth. As the moon's debris start raining down on Earth, the various Earth-based teams and heroes fight off the invasion and attempt to save the planet, while the Fantastic Four journey to space and find Fury, who reveals what's happening. This leads to Reed accessing the Cyclopedia Universum, which stores the knowledge of all the Watchers to learn more about the Reckoning and the Watchers themselves.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: As it turns out, there was a time when the rest of the Universe was still so young, and yet, one race already had advanced before all others. They could transform their own bodies into light and travel anywhere they wished in the blink of an eye and wherever they went, they soon began to be called the Luminous by the other species. They believed themselves to be kind and generous and therefore shared their gifts to other lesser and primitive civilizations. One of this civilizations were the Prosilicans that without the guidance of the Luminous, discovered other uses for the gifted technology that suited their own savage nature. While the mistake the Luminous made with the Prosilicans led the race to take their famous sacred vow to "only watch and never interfere with others" which is how they became the Watchers, the tale of the Prosilicans also goes far beyond the known fable. In truth, the Prosilicans had actually used the technology provided by the Luminous to wage war against every other civilization that existed at that times, leading to a final conflict that wiped out nine-tenths of the universe after an ultimate weapon was used. Due to the toxic fallout released by the weapon, the Luminous set up a barrier to prevent it from devastating what remained of the universe. The area affected by the fallout was eventually called the Barrens.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: The Watchers are cosmic beings, who possess the innate ability to achieve virtually any effect desired, including augmenting personal attributes, time and space manipulation, molecular manipulation, energy projection, and a range of mental powers. They also have access to highly advanced technology.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: The Watcher Uatu often observes how key events from the Earth-616 Marvel Universe differed in alternate universes and speculates on the related consequences.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: In the alternate reality of Earth X (Earth-9997), the Watchers are slaves of the Celestials. As punishment for their non-interference during the birth of their arch-enemy Galactus, the Celestials force the Watchers to observe the impregnation of newly formed planets with their Celestial eggs, and the eventual birth of the Celestial within, which ultimately destroys that planet.


title: Watcher (comics)

text: In the Ultimate Marvel alternate universe limited series "Ultimate Origins", the Watchers are depicted as machines that speak through a human host (Sue Storm). They choose Rick Jones as their "herald" to help humans survive an "upcoming crisis".


title: Watcher (comics)

text: "The Watcher" is the title of a web series that runs on Marvel's official YouTube page, hosted and written by Lorraine Cink, which features news about Marvel comics, film, television, and toys.


title: Yajurveda

text: The Yajurveda (, ', from ' meaning "worship", and "veda" meaning "knowledge") is the Veda primarily of prose mantras for worship rituals. An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilation of ritual-offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritual actions such as those before the yajna fire. Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas, and one of the scriptures of Hinduism. The exact century of Yajurveda's composition is unknown, and estimated by Witzel to be between 1200 and 800 BCE, contemporaneous with Samaveda and Atharvaveda.


title: Yajurveda

text: The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two – the "black" or "dark" ("Krishna") Yajurveda and the "white" or "bright" ("Shukla") Yajurveda. The term "black" implies "the un-arranged, unclear, motley collection" of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the "white" which implies the "well arranged, clear" Yajurveda. The black Yajurveda has survived in four recensions, while two recensions of white Yajurveda have survived into the modern times.


title: Yajurveda

text: The earliest and most ancient layer of Yajurveda samhita includes about 1,875 verses, that are distinct yet borrow and build upon the foundation of verses in Rigveda. The middle layer includes the Satapatha Brahmana, one of the largest Brahmana texts in the Vedic collection. The youngest layer of Yajurveda text includes the largest collection of primary Upanishads, influential to various schools of Hindu philosophy. These include the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the Isha Upanishad, the Taittiriya Upanishad, the Katha Upanishad, the Shvetashvatara Upanishad and the Maitri Upanishad.


title: Yajurveda

text: Two of the oldest surviving manuscript copies of the "Shukla Yajurveda" sections have been discovered in Nepal and Western Tibet, and these are dated to the 12th-century CE.


title: Yajurveda

text: Yajurveda is a compound Sanskrit word, composed of "ya jus" (यजुस्) and "Veda" (वेद). Monier-Williams translates "yajus" as "religious reverence, veneration, worship, sacrifice, a sacrificial prayer, formula, particularly mantras uttered in a peculiar manner at a sacrifice". "Veda" means "knowledge". Johnson states "yajus" means "(mostly) prose formulae or mantras, contained in the Yajur Veda, which are muttered".


title: Yajurveda

text: Michael Witzel interprets Yajurveda to mean a "knowledge text of prose mantras" used in Vedic rituals. Ralph Griffith interprets the name to mean "knowledge of sacrifice or sacrificial texts and formulas". Carl Olson states that Yajurveda is a text of "mantras (sacred formulas) that are repeated and used in rituals".


title: Yajurveda

text: The core text of the Yajurveda falls within the classical Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit at the end of the 2nd millennium BCE - younger than the Rigveda, and roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda, the Rigvedic Khilani, and the . The scholarly consensus dates the bulk of the Yajurveda and Atharvaveda hymns to the early Indian Iron Age, after c. 1200 and before 800 BCE.


title: Yajurveda

text: The Yajurveda text includes Shukla Yajurveda of which about 16 recensions are known, while the Krishna Yajurveda may have had as many as 86 recensions. Only two recensions of the Shukla Yajurveda have survived, Madhyandina and Kanva, and others are known by name only because they are mentioned in other texts. These two recensions are nearly the same, except for a few differences. In contrast to Shukla Yajurveda, the four surviving recensions of Krishna Yajurveda are very different versions.


title: Yajurveda

text: The samhita in the Shukla Yajurveda is called the "Vajasaneyi Samhita". The name "Vajasaneyi" is derived from Vajasaneya, the patronymic of Yajnavalkya, and the founder of the Vajasaneyi branch. There are two (nearly identical) surviving recensions of the Vajasaneyi Samhita (VS): "Vajasaneyi Madhyandina" and "Vajasaneyi Kanva". The lost recensions of the White Yajurveda, mentioned in other texts of ancient India, include "Jabala", "Baudhya", "Sapeyi", "Tapaniya", "Kapola", "Paundravatsa", "Avati", "Paramavatika", "Parasara", "Vaineya", "Vaidheya", "Katyayana" and "Vaijayavapa".


title: Yajurveda

text: There are four surviving recensions of the Krishna Yajurveda – , , and . A total of eighty six recensions are mentioned to exist in Vayu Purana, however vast majority of them are believed to be lost. The Katha school is referred to as a sub-school of "Carakas" (wanderers) in some ancient texts of India, because they did their scholarship as they wandered from place to place. In contrast to the Shukla Yajurveda, the saṃhitās of the Krishna Yajurveda contained both mantras and explanatory prose (which would usually belong to the brāhmaṇas).


title: Yajurveda

text: The best known and best preserved of these recensions is the "". Some attribute it to Tittiri, a pupil of Yaska and mentioned by Panini. The text is associated with the "Taittiriya" school of the Yajurveda, and attributed to the pupils of sage Tittiri (literally, partridge birds).


title: Yajurveda

text: The "" is the oldest Yajurveda Samhita that has survived, and it differs largely in content from the Taittiriyas, as well as in some different arrangement of chapters, but is much more detailed.


title: Yajurveda

text: The ' or the ', according to tradition was compiled by Katha, a disciple of Vaisampayana. Like the Maitrayani Samhita, it offers much more detailed discussion of some rituals than the younger "Taittiriya samhita" that frequently summarizes such accounts. The ' or the ', named after the sage Kapisthala is extant only in some large fragments and edited without accent marks. This text is practically a variant of the "".


title: Yajurveda

text: Each regional edition (recension) of Yajurveda had Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyakas, Upanishads as part of the text, with Shrautasutras, Grhyasutras and Pratishakhya attached to the text. In Shukla Yajurveda, the text organization is same for both Madhayndina and Kanva shakhas. The texts attached to Shukla Yajurveda include the "Katyayana Shrautasutra", "Paraskara Grhyasutra" and "Shukla Yajurveda Pratishakhya".


title: Yajurveda

text: In Krishna Yajurveda, each of the recensions has or had their Brahmana text mixed into the Samhita text, thus creating a motley of the prose and verses, and making it unclear, disorganized.


title: Yajurveda

text: The "Vajasaneyi Samhita" has forty chapters or "adhyayas", containing the formulas used with the following rituals:


title: Yajurveda

text: The various ritual mantras in the Yajurveda Samhitas are typically set in a meter, and call on Vedic deities such as the Savita (Sun), Indra, Agni, Prajapati, Rudra and others. The Taittiriya Samhita in Book 4, for example, includes the following verses for the Agnicayana ritual recitation (abridged),


title: Yajurveda

text: The title "Satapatha Brahmana" means "Brahmana of the Hundred Paths". It is one of the largest Brahmana text that has survived. It includes, states Staal, a "veritable encyclopedia of meandering opinions on ritual and other matters".


title: Yajurveda

text: The Satapatha Brahmana was translated by Eggeling in late 19th-century, reprinted often and has been well read because of the translation. However, it has been misinterpreted and misused, states Staal, because "it contains enough material to support "any" theory". Eggeling, the first translator of Satapatha Brahmana called it "flimsy symbolism rather than serious reasoning", similar to "speculative vaporings" found in the Christian and non-Christian variety of Gnosticism.


title: Yajurveda

text: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is found in the White Yajurveda. It is one of the Mukhya Upanishads, and among the largest and oldest as well (~700 BCE). It is a key scripture of Hinduism that has influenced all schools of Hindu philosophy. The text is a treatise on Ātman (Soul, Self), with passages on metaphysics, ethics and a yearning for knowledge that influenced various Indian religions, ancient and medieval scholars.


title: Yajurveda

text: The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is among the earliest extensive discussions of the Hindu concept of dharma, karma and moksha (liberation from sorrow, freedom, emancipation, self-realization). Paul Deussen calls it, "unique in its richness and warmth of presentation", with profoundness that retains its full worth in modern times. Max Muller illustrated its style as follows,


title: Yajurveda

text: The Isha Upanishad is found in the White Yajurveda. It is one of the shortest Upanishads, embedded as the final chapter of the Shukla Yajurveda. A key scripture of the Vedanta sub-schools of Hinduism, its name is derived from "hidden in the Lord (Self)".


title: Yajurveda

text: The Isha Upanishad discusses the Atman (Soul, Self) theory of Hinduism, and is referenced by both Dvaita (dualism) and Advaita (non-dualism) sub-schools of Vedanta. It is classified as a "poetic Upanishad" along with Kena, Katha, Svetasvatara and Mandukya Upanishads.


title: Yajurveda

text: The Taittiriya Upanishad is found in the black Yajurveda. It is the seventh, eighth and ninth chapters of Taittiriya Aranyaka, which are also called, respectively, the "Siksha Valli", the "Ananda Valli" and the "Bhrigu Valli".


title: Yajurveda

text: The Taittiriya Upanishad includes verses that are partly prayers and benedictions, partly instruction on phonetics and praxis, partly advice on ethics and morals given to graduating students from ancient Vedic "gurukul" (schools), partly a treatise on allegory, and partly philosophical instruction.


title: Yajurveda

text: The text offers a view of education system in ancient India. It also includes sections on ethics and invocation for one's personal development. Max Muller translates the text's tenth anuvaka, for example, as an affirmation of one's Self as a capable, empowered blissful being. The tenth anuvaka asserts, "I am he who shakes the tree. I am glorious like the top of a mountain. I, whose pure light (of knowledge) has risen, am that which is truly immortal, as it resides in the sun. I (Soul, Self) am the treasure, wise, immortal, imperishable. This is the teaching of the Veda, by sage Trisanku."


title: Yajurveda

text: The Katha Upanishad is found in the black Yajurveda. The Upanishad is the legendary story of a little boy, Nachiketa – the son of sage Vajasravasa, who meets Yama – the Indian deity of death. Their conversation evolves to a discussion of the nature of man, knowledge, Ātman (Soul, Self) and moksha (liberation).


title: Yajurveda

text: The Kathaka Upanishad is an important ancient Sanskrit corpus of the Vedanta sub-schools. It asserts that "Atman (Soul, Self) exists", teaches the precept "seek Self-knowledge which is Highest Bliss", and expounds on this premise like the other primary Upanishads of Hinduism. The detailed teachings of Katha Upanishad have been variously interpreted, as Dvaita (dualistic) and as Advaita (non-dualistic).


title: Yajurveda

text: The Katha Upanishad found in the Yajurveda is among the most widely studied Upanishads. Philosophers such as Arthur Schopenhauer praised it, Edwin Arnold rendered it in verse as "The Secret of Death", and Ralph Waldo Emerson credited Katha Upanishad for the central story at the end of his essay "Immortality", as well as his poem ""Brahma"".


title: Yajurveda

text: The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is found in the black Yajurveda. The text opens with metaphysical questions about the primal cause of all existence, its origin, its end, and what role if any did time, nature, necessity, chance, the spirit had as primal cause? It then develops its answer, concluding that "the Universal Soul exists in every individual, it expresses itself in every creature, everything in the world is a projection of it, and that there is Oneness, a unity of souls in one and only Self".


title: Yajurveda

text: The Shvetashvatara Upanishad is notable for its discussion of the concept of personal god – Ishvara, and suggesting it to be a path to one's own Highest Self. The text is also notable for its multiple mentions of both Rudra and Shiva, along with other Vedic deities, and of crystallization of Shiva as a central theme.


title: Yajurveda

text: The Maitrayaniya Upanishad, also known as the Maitri Upanishad, is found in the black Yajurveda. It consists of seven "Prapathakas" (lessons). The first "Prapathaka" is introductory, the next three are structured in a question-answer style and discuss metaphysical questions relating to Atman (Self, Soul), while the fifth to seventh "Prapathaka" are supplements. However, several manuscripts discovered in different parts of India contain lesser number of "Prapathakas", with a Telugu-language version showing just four.


title: Yajurveda

text: The common kernel of the Maitri Upanishad across different recensions, states Max Muller, is a reverence for soul, that can be summarized in a few words as, "(Man) is the Self – the immortal, the fearless, the Brahman". The Maitrayaniya Upanishad is notable for its references to theories also found in Buddhism, elements of the Samkhya and Yoga schools of Hinduism, as well as the Ashrama system.


title: Yajurveda

text: The Yajurveda had Shrautasutras and Grhyasutras attached to it, from fifteen schools: Apastamba, Agastya, Agniveshyaka, Baudhayana, Bharadvaja, Hiranyakeshi, Kaundinya, Kusidaka, Katyayana, Lokaksita, Madhyamdina, Panca-Kathaka, Satyasadha, Sakala, Sandilya, Vaikhanasa, and Vadula. Of these nine have survived, along with portions of Kaundinya.


title: Yajurveda

text: Most surviving manuscripts and recensions of Yajurveda's Samhitas, Aranyakas and Brahmanas remain untranslated into Western languages. The two reliable translations are from British India colonial era, and have been widely studied. These are AB Keith's translation of Taittiriya Samhita of the Black Yajurveda, and Juliu Eggeling's translation of Satapatha Brahmana of the White Yajurveda.


title: Yajurveda

text: Ralph Griffith published an early translation of White Yajurveda Samhita. However, Frits Staal has questioned his translations and considers them "fantasies and best discarded".


title: Yajurveda

text: Devi Chand published a re-interpreted translation of Yajurveda in 1965, reprinted as 3rd edition in 1980, wherein the translation incorporated Dayananda Saraswati's monotheistic interpretations of the Vedic text, and the translation liberally adds "O Lord" and "the Creator" to various verses, unlike other translators.


title: Yajurveda

text: In 18th century, French Jesuits published Ezourvedam, claiming it to be a translation of a recension of the Yajurveda. The Ezourveda was studied by Voltaire, and later declared a forgery, representing Jesuit ideas to Indians as a Vedic school.


title: Yajurveda

text: The text is a useful source of information about the agriculture, economic and social life during the Vedic era. The verses, for example, list the types of crops considered important in ancient India,


title: Daniel Tammet

text: Daniel Tammet (born Daniel Paul Corney; 31 January 1979) is an English writer and savant. His memoir, "Born on a Blue Day" (2006), is about his early life with Asperger syndrome and savant syndrome, and was named a "Best Book for Young Adults" in 2008 by the American Library Association's "Young Adult Library Services" magazine. His second book, "Embracing the Wide Sky", was one of France's best-selling books of 2009. His third book, "Thinking in Numbers", was published in 2012 by Hodder & Stoughton in the United Kingdom and in 2013 by Little, Brown and Company in the United States and Canada. His books have been published in over 20 languages.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: Tammet was born Daniel Paul Corney, the eldest of nine children, and raised in Barking and Dagenham, East London. As a young child, he had epileptic seizures, which remitted following medical treatment.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: He participated twice in the World Memory Championships in London under his birth name, placing 11th in 1999 and 4th in 2000.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: He changed his birth name by deed poll because "it didn't fit with the way he saw himself." He took the Estonian surname "Tammet," which is related to "oak trees".


title: Daniel Tammet

text: At age twenty-five, he was diagnosed with Asperger syndrome by Simon Baron-Cohen of the University of Cambridge Autism Research Centre. He is one of fewer than a hundred "prodigious savants" according to Darold Treffert, the world's leading researcher in the study of savant syndrome.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: He was the subject of a documentary film titled "Extraordinary People: The Boy with the Incredible Brain", first broadcast on Channel 4 on 23 May 2005.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: He met software engineer Neil Mitchell in 2000, and they started a relationship. They lived in Kent. He and Mitchell operated the online e-learning company Optimnem, where they created and published language courses.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: Tammet now lives in Paris, with his husband Jérôme Tabet, a photographer whom he met while promoting his autobiography.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: Tammet is a graduate of the Open University with a Bachelor of Arts degree with first-class honours in the humanities.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: In 2002, Tammet launched the website, Optimnem. The site offers language courses (currently French and Spanish) and has been an approved member of the UK National Grid for Learning since 2006.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: "Born on a Blue Day" received international media attention and critical praise. "Booklist" magazine contributing reviewer Ray Olson stated that Tammet's autobiography was "as fascinating as Benjamin Franklin's and John Stuart Mill's" and that Tammet wrote "some of the clearest prose this side of Hemingway". "Kirkus Reviews" stated that the book "transcends the disability memoir genre".


title: Daniel Tammet

text: For his US book tour, Tammet appeared on several television and radio talk shows and specials, including "60 Minutes" and the "Late Show with David Letterman". In February 2007, "Born on a Blue Day" was serialised as BBC Radio 4's "Book of the Week" in the United Kingdom.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: His second book, "Embracing the Wide Sky", was published in 2009. Allan Snyder, director of the University of Sydney Centre for the Mind, called the work 'an extraordinary and monumental achievement'. Tammet argues that savant abilities are not "supernatural" but are "an outgrowth" of "natural, instinctive ways of thinking about numbers and words". He suggests that the brains of savants can, to some extent, be retrained, and that normal brains could be taught to develop some savant abilities.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: "Thinking in Numbers", a collection of essays, was first published in 2012 and serialised as BBC Radio 4's "Book of the Week" in the United Kingdom.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: His translation into French of a selection of poetry by Les Murray was published by L'Iconoclaste in France in 2014.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: "Every Word Is a Bird We Teach to Sing", a collection of essays on language, was published in the UK, US, and France in 2017. In a review of the book for "The Wall Street Journal", Brad Leithauser noted that "in terms of literary genres, something new and enthralling is going on inside his books" and that the author showed "a grasp of language and a sweep of vocabulary that any poet would envy".


title: Daniel Tammet

text: Written in French as a letter to a non-believing friend, the creative non-fiction work "Fragments de paradis" ("Fragments of Heaven") was published in France and Canada in 2020.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: After the World Memory Championships, Tammet participated in a group study, later published in the New Year 2003 edition of "Nature Neuroscience". The researchers investigated the reasons for the memory champions' superior performance. They reported that they used "strategies for encoding information with the sole purpose of making it more memorable", and concluded that superior memory was not driven by exceptional intellectual ability or differences in brain structure.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: In another study, Baron-Cohen and others at the Autism Research Centre tested Tammet's abilities in around 2005. Tammet was found to have synaesthesia, according to the "Test of Genuineness-Revised", which tests the subjects' consistency in reporting descriptions of their synaesthesia. He performed well on tests of short-term memory (with a digit-span of 11.5, where 6.5 is typical). Conversely, test results showed his memory for faces scored at the level expected of a 6- to 8-year-old child in this task. The authors of the study speculated that his savant memory could be a result of synaesthesia combined with Asperger syndrome, or it could be the result of mnemonic strategies.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: In a further study published in "Neurocase" in 2008, Baron-Cohen, Bor and Billington investigated whether Tammet's synaesthesia and Asperger syndrome explained his savant memory abilities. They concluded that his abilities might be explained by hyperactivity in one brain region (the left prefrontal cortex), which results from his Asperger syndrome and synaesthesia. On the Navon task, relative to non-autistic controls, Tammet was found to be faster at finding a target at the local level and to be less distracted by interference from the global level. In an fMRI scan, "Tammet did not activate extra-striate regions of the brain normally associated with synaesthesia, suggesting that he has an unusual and more abstract and conceptual form of synaesthesia". Published in "Cerebral Cortex" (2011), an fMRI study led by Jean-Michel Hupé at the University of Toulouse (France) observed no activation of colour areas in ten synaesthetes. Hupé suggests that synaesthetic colour experience lies not in the brain's colour system, but instead results from "a complex construction of meaning in the brain, involving not only perception, but language, memory and emotion".


title: Daniel Tammet

text: In his book "Moonwalking with Einstein" (2011), Joshua Foer, a science journalist and former US Memory Champion, speculates that Tammet's study of conventional mnemonic approaches has played a role in the savant's feats of memory. While accepting that Tammet meets the standard definition of a prodigious savant, Foer suggests that his abilities may simply reflect intensive training using memory techniques, rather than any abnormal psychology or neurology. In a review of his book for "The New York Times", psychologist Alexandra Horowitz described Foer's speculation as among the few "missteps" in his book. She questioned whether it would matter if Tammet had used such strategies or not.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: Tammet has been studied continuously by researchers in Britain and the United States, and has been the subject of several peer-reviewed scientific papers. Allan Snyder at the Australian National University has said of him: "Savants can't usually tell us how they do what they do. It just comes to them. Daniel can describe what he sees in his head. That's why he's exciting. He could be the Rosetta Stone."


title: Daniel Tammet

text: In his mind, Tammet says, each positive integer up to 10,000 has its own unique shape, colour, texture and feel. He has described his visual image of 289 as particularly ugly, 333 as particularly attractive, and pi, though not an integer, as beautiful. The number 6 apparently has no distinct image yet what he describes as an almost small nothingness, opposite to the number 9, which he says is large, towering, and quite intimidating. He describes the number 117 as "a handsome number. It's tall, it's a lanky number, a little bit wobbly." He described David Letterman with the number 117 in these terms when interviewed on the "Late Show with David Letterman". In his memoir, he describes undergoing a synaesthetic and emotional response for numbers and words.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: Tammet set the European record for reciting pi from memory on 14 March 2004 – recounting to 22,514 digits in five hours and nine minutes. He revealed in a French talk show on Radio Classique on 29 April 2016, that this event inspired Kate Bush's song "Pi" from her album "Aerial".


title: Daniel Tammet

text: He is a polyglot. In "Born on a Blue Day", he writes that he knows eleven languages: English, Estonian, Finnish, French, German, Lithuanian, Esperanto, Spanish, Romanian, Icelandic, and Welsh. In "Embracing the Wide Sky", he wrote that he learned conversational Icelandic in a week, and appeared on an interview on "Kastljós" on RÚV speaking the language.


title: Daniel Tammet

text: Mänti (, ) is a constructed language that Tammet published in 2006. The word "Mänti" comes from the Finnish word for "pine tree" (, ). Mänti uses vocabulary and grammar from the Finnic languages.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Condensed matter physics is the field of physics that deals with the macroscopic and microscopic physical properties of matter, especially the solid and liquid phases which arise from electromagnetic forces between atoms. More generally, the subject deals with "condensed" phases of matter: systems of many constituents with strong interactions between them. More exotic condensed phases include the superconducting phase exhibited by certain materials at low temperature, the ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic phases of spins on crystal lattices of atoms, and the Bose–Einstein condensate found in ultracold atomic systems. Condensed matter physicists seek to understand the behavior of these phases by experiments to measure various material properties, and by applying the physical laws of quantum mechanics, electromagnetism, statistical mechanics, and other theories to develop mathematical models.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: The diversity of systems and phenomena available for study makes condensed matter physics the most active field of contemporary physics: one third of all American physicists self-identify as condensed matter physicists, and the Division of Condensed Matter Physics is the largest division at the American Physical Society. The field overlaps with chemistry, materials science, engineering and nanotechnology, and relates closely to atomic physics and biophysics. The theoretical physics of condensed matter shares important concepts and methods with that of particle physics and nuclear physics.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: A variety of topics in physics such as crystallography, metallurgy, elasticity, magnetism, etc., were treated as distinct areas until the 1940s, when they were grouped together as "solid-state physics". Around the 1960s, the study of physical properties of liquids was added to this list, forming the basis for the more comprehensive specialty of condensed matter physics. The Bell Telephone Laboratories was one of the first institutes to conduct a research program in condensed matter physics. According to founding director of the Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, physics professor Manuel Cardona, it was Albert Einstein who created the modern field of condensed matter physics starting with his seminal 1905 article on the photoelectric effect and photoluminescence which opened the fields of photoelectron spectroscopy and photoluminescence spectroscopy, and later his 1907 article on the specific heat of solids which introduced, for the first time, the effect of lattice vibrations on the thermodynamic properties of crystals, in particular the specific heat. Deputy Director of the Yale Quantum Institute A. Douglas Stone makes a similar priority case for Einstein in his work on the synthetic history of quantum mechanics.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: According to physicist Philip Warren Anderson, the use of the term "condensed matter" to designate a field of study was coined by him and Volker Heine, when they changed the name of their group at the Cavendish Laboratories, Cambridge from "Solid state theory" to "Theory of Condensed Matter" in 1967, as they felt it better included their interest in liquids, nuclear matter, and so on. Although Anderson and Heine helped popularize the name "condensed matter", it had been used in Europe for some years, most prominently in the Springer-Verlag journal "Physics of Condensed Matter", launched in 1963. The name "condensed matter physics" emphasized the commonality of scientific problems encountered by physicists working on solids, liquids, plasmas, and other complex matter, whereas "solid state physics" was often associated with restricted industrial applications of metals and semiconductors. In the 1960s and 70s, some physicists felt the more comprehensive name better fit the funding environment and Cold War politics of the time.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: References to "condensed" states can be traced to earlier sources. For example, in the introduction to his 1947 book "Kinetic Theory of Liquids", Yakov Frenkel proposed that "The kinetic theory of liquids must accordingly be developed as a generalization and extension of the kinetic theory of solid bodies. As a matter of fact, it would be more correct to unify them under the title of 'condensed bodies'".


title: Condensed matter physics

text: One of the first studies of condensed states of matter was by English chemist Humphry Davy, in the first decades of the nineteenth century. Davy observed that of the forty chemical elements known at the time, twenty-six had metallic properties such as lustre, ductility and high electrical and thermal conductivity. This indicated that the atoms in John Dalton's atomic theory were not indivisible as Dalton claimed, but had inner structure. Davy further claimed that elements that were then believed to be gases, such as nitrogen and hydrogen could be liquefied under the right conditions and would then behave as metals.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In 1823, Michael Faraday, then an assistant in Davy's lab, successfully liquefied chlorine and went on to liquefy all known gaseous elements, except for nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen. Shortly after, in 1869, Irish chemist Thomas Andrews studied the phase transition from a liquid to a gas and coined the term critical point to describe the condition where a gas and a liquid were indistinguishable as phases, and Dutch physicist Johannes van der Waals supplied the theoretical framework which allowed the prediction of critical behavior based on measurements at much higher temperatures. By 1908, James Dewar and Heike Kamerlingh Onnes were successfully able to liquefy hydrogen and then newly discovered helium, respectively.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Paul Drude in 1900 proposed the first theoretical model for a classical electron moving through a metallic solid. Drude's model described properties of metals in terms of a gas of free electrons, and was the first microscopic model to explain empirical observations such as the Wiedemann–Franz law. However, despite the success of Drude's free electron model, it had one notable problem: it was unable to correctly explain the electronic contribution to the specific heat and magnetic properties of metals, and the temperature dependence of resistivity at low temperatures.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In 1911, three years after helium was first liquefied, Onnes working at University of Leiden discovered superconductivity in mercury, when he observed the electrical resistivity of mercury to vanish at temperatures below a certain value. The phenomenon completely surprised the best theoretical physicists of the time, and it remained unexplained for several decades. Albert Einstein, in 1922, said regarding contemporary theories of superconductivity that "with our far-reaching ignorance of the quantum mechanics of composite systems we are very far from being able to compose a theory out of these vague ideas."


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Drude's classical model was augmented by Wolfgang Pauli, Arnold Sommerfeld, Felix Bloch and other physicists. Pauli realized that the free electrons in metal must obey the Fermi–Dirac statistics. Using this idea, he developed the theory of paramagnetism in 1926. Shortly after, Sommerfeld incorporated the Fermi–Dirac statistics into the free electron model and made it better to explain the heat capacity. Two years later, Bloch used quantum mechanics to describe the motion of an electron in a periodic lattice. The mathematics of crystal structures developed by Auguste Bravais, Yevgraf Fyodorov and others was used to classify crystals by their symmetry group, and tables of crystal structures were the basis for the series "International Tables of Crystallography", first published in 1935. Band structure calculations was first used in 1930 to predict the properties of new materials, and in 1947 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain and William Shockley developed the first semiconductor-based transistor, heralding a revolution in electronics.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In 1879, Edwin Herbert Hall working at the Johns Hopkins University discovered a voltage developed across conductors transverse to an electric current in the conductor and magnetic field perpendicular to the current. This phenomenon arising due to the nature of charge carriers in the conductor came to be termed the Hall effect, but it was not properly explained at the time, since the electron was not experimentally discovered until 18 years later. After the advent of quantum mechanics, Lev Landau in 1930 developed the theory of Landau quantization and laid the foundation for the theoretical explanation for the quantum Hall effect discovered half a century later.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Magnetism as a property of matter has been known in China since 4000 BC. However, the first modern studies of magnetism only started with the development of electrodynamics by Faraday, Maxwell and others in the nineteenth century, which included classifying materials as ferromagnetic, paramagnetic and diamagnetic based on their response to magnetization. Pierre Curie studied the dependence of magnetization on temperature and discovered the Curie point phase transition in ferromagnetic materials. In 1906, Pierre Weiss introduced the concept of magnetic domains to explain the main properties of ferromagnets. The first attempt at a microscopic description of magnetism was by Wilhelm Lenz and Ernst Ising through the Ising model that described magnetic materials as consisting of a periodic lattice of spins that collectively acquired magnetization. The Ising model was solved exactly to show that spontaneous magnetization cannot occur in one dimension but is possible in higher-dimensional lattices. Further research such as by Bloch on spin waves and Néel on antiferromagnetism led to developing new magnetic materials with applications to magnetic storage devices.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: The Sommerfeld model and spin models for ferromagnetism illustrated the successful application of quantum mechanics to condensed matter problems in the 1930s. However, there still were several unsolved problems, most notably the description of superconductivity and the Kondo effect. After World War II, several ideas from quantum field theory were applied to condensed matter problems. These included recognition of collective excitation modes of solids and the important notion of a quasiparticle. Russian physicist Lev Landau used the idea for the Fermi liquid theory wherein low energy properties of interacting fermion systems were given in terms of what are now termed Landau-quasiparticles. Landau also developed a mean-field theory for continuous phase transitions, which described ordered phases as spontaneous breakdown of symmetry. The theory also introduced the notion of an order parameter to distinguish between ordered phases. Eventually in 1956, John Bardeen, Leon Cooper and John Schrieffer developed the so-called BCS theory of superconductivity, based on the discovery that arbitrarily small attraction between two electrons of opposite spin mediated by phonons in the lattice can give rise to a bound state called a Cooper pair.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: The study of phase transitions and the critical behavior of observables, termed critical phenomena, was a major field of interest in the 1960s. Leo Kadanoff, Benjamin Widom and Michael Fisher developed the ideas of critical exponents and widom scaling. These ideas were unified by Kenneth G. Wilson in 1972, under the formalism of the renormalization group in the context of quantum field theory.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: The quantum Hall effect was discovered by Klaus von Klitzing, Dorda and Pepper in 1980 when they observed the Hall conductance to be integer multiples of a fundamental constant formula_1.(see figure) The effect was observed to be independent of parameters such as system size and impurities. In 1981, theorist Robert Laughlin proposed a theory explaining the unanticipated precision of the integral plateau. It also implied that the Hall conductance is proportional to a topological invariant, called Chern number, whose relevance for the band structure of solids was formulated by David J. Thouless and collaborators. Shortly after, in 1982, Horst Störmer and Daniel Tsui observed the fractional quantum Hall effect where the conductance was now a rational multiple of the constant formula_1. Laughlin, in 1983, realized that this was a consequence of quasiparticle interaction in the Hall states and formulated a variational method solution, named the Laughlin wavefunction. The study of topological properties of the fractional Hall effect remains an active field of research. Decades later, the aforementioned topological band theory advanced by David J. Thouless and collaborators was further expanded leading to the discovery of topological insulators.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In 1986, Karl Müller and Johannes Bednorz discovered the first high temperature superconductor, a material which was superconducting at temperatures as high as 50 kelvins. It was realized that the high temperature superconductors are examples of strongly correlated materials where the electron–electron interactions play an important role. A satisfactory theoretical description of high-temperature superconductors is still not known and the field of strongly correlated materials continues to be an active research topic.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In 2009, David Field and researchers at Aarhus University discovered spontaneous electric fields when creating prosaic films of various gases. This has more recently expanded to form the research area of spontelectrics.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In 2012, several groups released preprints which suggest that samarium hexaboride has the properties of a topological insulator in accord with the earlier theoretical predictions. Since samarium hexaboride is an established Kondo insulator, i.e. a strongly correlated electron material, it is expected that the existence of a topological Dirac surface state in this material would lead to a topological insulator with strong electronic correlations.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Theoretical condensed matter physics involves the use of theoretical models to understand properties of states of matter. These include models to study the electronic properties of solids, such as the Drude model, the band structure and the density functional theory. Theoretical models have also been developed to study the physics of phase transitions, such as the Ginzburg–Landau theory, critical exponents and the use of mathematical methods of quantum field theory and the renormalization group. Modern theoretical studies involve the use of numerical computation of electronic structure and mathematical tools to understand phenomena such as high-temperature superconductivity, topological phases, and gauge symmetries.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Theoretical understanding of condensed matter physics is closely related to the notion of emergence, wherein complex assemblies of particles behave in ways dramatically different from their individual constituents. For example, a range of phenomena related to high temperature superconductivity are understood poorly, although the microscopic physics of individual electrons and lattices is well known. Similarly, models of condensed matter systems have been studied where collective excitations behave like photons and electrons, thereby describing electromagnetism as an emergent phenomenon. Emergent properties can also occur at the interface between materials: one example is the lanthanum aluminate-strontium titanate interface, where two band-insulators are joined to create conductivity and superconductivity.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: The metallic state has historically been an important building block for studying properties of solids. The first theoretical description of metals was given by Paul Drude in 1900 with the Drude model, which explained electrical and thermal properties by describing a metal as an ideal gas of then-newly discovered electrons. He was able to derive the empirical Wiedemann-Franz law and get results in close agreement with the experiments. This classical model was then improved by Arnold Sommerfeld who incorporated the Fermi–Dirac statistics of electrons and was able to explain the anomalous behavior of the specific heat of metals in the Wiedemann–Franz law. In 1912, The structure of crystalline solids was studied by Max von Laue and Paul Knipping, when they observed the X-ray diffraction pattern of crystals, and concluded that crystals get their structure from periodic lattices of atoms. In 1928, Swiss physicist Felix Bloch provided a wave function solution to the Schrödinger equation with a periodic potential, known as Bloch's theorem.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Calculating electronic properties of metals by solving the many-body wavefunction is often computationally hard, and hence, approximation methods are needed to obtain meaningful predictions. The Thomas–Fermi theory, developed in the 1920s, was used to estimate system energy and electronic density by treating the local electron density as a variational parameter. Later in the 1930s, Douglas Hartree, Vladimir Fock and John Slater developed the so-called Hartree–Fock wavefunction as an improvement over the Thomas–Fermi model. The Hartree–Fock method accounted for exchange statistics of single particle electron wavefunctions. In general, it is very difficult to solve the Hartree–Fock equation. Only the free electron gas case can be solved exactly. Finally in 1964–65, Walter Kohn, Pierre Hohenberg and Lu Jeu Sham proposed the density functional theory (DFT) which gave realistic descriptions for bulk and surface properties of metals. The density functional theory has been widely used since the 1970s for band structure calculations of variety of solids.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Some states of matter exhibit "symmetry breaking", where the relevant laws of physics possess some form of symmetry that is broken. A common example is crystalline solids, which break continuous translational symmetry. Other examples include magnetized ferromagnets, which break rotational symmetry, and more exotic states such as the ground state of a BCS superconductor, that breaks U(1) phase rotational symmetry.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Goldstone's theorem in quantum field theory states that in a system with broken continuous symmetry, there may exist excitations with arbitrarily low energy, called the Goldstone bosons. For example, in crystalline solids, these correspond to phonons, which are quantized versions of lattice vibrations.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Phase transition refers to the change of phase of a system, which is brought about by change in an external parameter such as temperature. Classical phase transition occurs at finite temperature when the order of the system was destroyed. For example, when ice melts and becomes water, the ordered crystal structure is destroyed.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In quantum phase transitions, the temperature is set to absolute zero, and the non-thermal control parameter, such as pressure or magnetic field, causes the phase transitions when order is destroyed by quantum fluctuations originating from the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Here, the different quantum phases of the system refer to distinct ground states of the Hamiltonian matrix. Understanding the behavior of quantum phase transition is important in the difficult tasks of explaining the properties of rare-earth magnetic insulators, high-temperature superconductors, and other substances.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Two classes of phase transitions occur: "first-order transitions" and "second-order" or "continuous transitions". For the latter, the two phases involved do not co-exist at the transition temperature, also called the critical point. Near the critical point, systems undergo critical behavior, wherein several of their properties such as correlation length, specific heat, and magnetic susceptibility diverge exponentially. These critical phenomena present serious challenges to physicists because normal macroscopic laws are no longer valid in the region, and novel ideas and methods must be invented to find the new laws that can describe the system.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: The simplest theory that can describe continuous phase transitions is the Ginzburg–Landau theory, which works in the so-called mean-field approximation. However, it can only roughly explain continuous phase transition for ferroelectrics and type I superconductors which involves long range microscopic interactions. For other types of systems that involves short range interactions near the critical point, a better theory is needed.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Near the critical point, the fluctuations happen over broad range of size scales while the feature of the whole system is scale invariant. Renormalization group methods successively average out the shortest wavelength fluctuations in stages while retaining their effects into the next stage. Thus, the changes of a physical system as viewed at different size scales can be investigated systematically. The methods, together with powerful computer simulation, contribute greatly to the explanation of the critical phenomena associated with continuous phase transition.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Experimental condensed matter physics involves the use of experimental probes to try to discover new properties of materials. Such probes include effects of electric and magnetic fields, measuring response functions, transport properties and thermometry. Commonly used experimental methods include spectroscopy, with probes such as X-rays, infrared light and inelastic neutron scattering; study of thermal response, such as specific heat and measuring transport via thermal and heat conduction.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Several condensed matter experiments involve scattering of an experimental probe, such as X-ray, optical photons, neutrons, etc., on constituents of a material. The choice of scattering probe depends on the observation energy scale of interest. Visible light has energy on the scale of 1 electron volt (eV) and is used as a scattering probe to measure variations in material properties such as dielectric constant and refractive index. X-rays have energies of the order of 10 keV and hence are able to probe atomic length scales, and are used to measure variations in electron charge density.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Neutrons can also probe atomic length scales and are used to study scattering off nuclei and electron spins and magnetization (as neutrons have spin but no charge). Coulomb and Mott scattering measurements can be made by using electron beams as scattering probes. Similarly, positron annihilation can be used as an indirect measurement of local electron density. Laser spectroscopy is an excellent tool for studying the microscopic properties of a medium, for example, to study forbidden transitions in media with nonlinear optical spectroscopy.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In experimental condensed matter physics, external magnetic fields act as thermodynamic variables that control the state, phase transitions and properties of material systems. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a method by which external magnetic fields are used to find resonance modes of individual electrons, thus giving information about the atomic, molecular, and bond structure of their neighborhood. NMR experiments can be made in magnetic fields with strengths up to 60 tesla. Higher magnetic fields can improve the quality of NMR measurement data. Quantum oscillations is another experimental method where high magnetic fields are used to study material properties such as the geometry of the Fermi surface. High magnetic fields will be useful in experimentally testing of the various theoretical predictions such as the quantized magnetoelectric effect, image magnetic monopole, and the half-integer quantum Hall effect.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: The local structure, the structure of the nearest neighbour atoms, of condensed matter can be investigated with methods of nuclear spectroscopy, which are very sensitive to small changes. Using specific and radioactive nuclei, the nucleus becomes the probe that interacts with its surrounding electric and magnetic fields (hyperfine interactions). The methods are suitable to study defects, diffusion, phase change, magnetism. Common methods are e.g. NMR, Mössbauer spectroscopy, or perturbed angular correlation (PAC). Especially PAC is ideal for the study of phase changes at extreme temperature above 2000 °C due to no temperature dependence of the method.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Ultracold atom trapping in optical lattices is an experimental tool commonly used in condensed matter physics, and in atomic, molecular, and optical physics. The method involves using optical lasers to form an interference pattern, which acts as a "lattice", in which ions or atoms can be placed at very low temperatures. Cold atoms in optical lattices are used as "quantum simulators", that is, they act as controllable systems that can model behavior of more complicated systems, such as frustrated magnets. In particular, they are used to engineer one-, two- and three-dimensional lattices for a Hubbard model with pre-specified parameters, and to study phase transitions for antiferromagnetic and spin liquid ordering.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In 1995, a gas of rubidium atoms cooled down to a temperature of 170 nK was used to experimentally realize the Bose–Einstein condensate, a novel state of matter originally predicted by S. N. Bose and Albert Einstein, wherein a large number of atoms occupy one quantum state.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Research in condensed matter physics has given rise to several device applications, such as the development of the semiconductor transistor, laser technology, and several phenomena studied in the context of nanotechnology. Methods such as scanning-tunneling microscopy can be used to control processes at the nanometer scale, and have given rise to the study of nanofabrication. Such molecular machines were developed for example by Nobel laurate in chemistry Ben Feringa. He and his team developed multiple molecular machines such as molecular car, molecular windmill and many more.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: In quantum computation, information is represented by quantum bits, or qubits. The qubits may decohere quickly before useful computation is completed. This serious problem must be solved before quantum computing may be realized. To solve this problem, several promising approaches are proposed in condensed matter physics, including Josephson junction qubits, spintronic qubits using the spin orientation of magnetic materials, or the topological non-Abelian anyons from fractional quantum Hall effect states.


title: Condensed matter physics

text: Condensed matter physics also has important uses for biophysics, for example, the experimental method of magnetic resonance imaging, which is widely used in medical diagnosis.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: The Mitsubishi Colt is a nameplate from Mitsubishi Motors that has been applied to a number of automobiles since 1962. It was first introduced with a series of kei and subcompact cars in the 1960s, and then for the export version of the subcompact Mirage between 1978 and 2002. Chrysler, Mitsubishi's longtime partner, also used the name when applying its long-running practice of rebadging Mitsubishi vehicles as the Dodge and Plymouth Colt captive imports for the North American market between 1970 and 1994.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: The most recent version was a subcompact car model manufactured between 2002 and 2013, sold under the Colt nameplate internationally. Mitsubishi replaced this series in 2013 with a newer generation which reverted to the Mirage name.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: In addition to these small cars, "Colt" in the Mitsubishi vernacular has been used for unrelated vehicles of various forms as discussed below. The name has also been disaffiliated from Mitsubishi as an independent marque in some markets.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: The "Colt" nameplate was first introduced in 1962, which started as a line of small cars sold predominantly in Japan. These models continued on in various similar forms until 1971. Between 1978 and 2002, the nameplate was applied to export versions of the Mirage in markets such as Europe and for a time, in Australia. Between 2002 and 2013, the nameplate was referred to a subcompact hatchback (and derivative body styles) that replaced the Mirage line. Unlike previously, the "Colt" nameplate was used internationally.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: Various other unrelated models have been designated "Colt" over time as well. The L200 pickup truck in South Africa utilised the "Colt" nameplate from 1992 to 2008. The nameplate is also used in Indonesia for a series of light commercial vehicles consisting of Delica-based "Colt T100/T120/L300" (1968–present), Suzuki Carry-based "Colt T120SS" (1991–2019), and Canter-based "Colt T200/Diesel" (1975–2022).


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: Colt was also used as a marque from 1974 to 1984 by the Colt Car Company to market Mitsubishi vehicles in the United Kingdom. In New Zealand, the Colt brand ceased in favour of the Mitsubishi name in 1970, upon the release of the "Dyna-wedge" Galant model.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: Mitsubishi introduced the "Colt" name in 1962 on the Mitsubishi Colt 600, the first of a line of small family cars complementing their Mitsubishi 500, the company's first post-war passenger car. The Colt 600 is powered by a 594 cc "NE35B" OHV air-cooled straight-twin engine. At this time, Mitsubishi did not yet exist as an autonomous company, and vehicles were being produced by three regional subsidiaries of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries. MHI, which had been formally dismantled after World War II, resumed operating as a single entity in 1964, but continued to use the "Colt" marque until the 1970s in Asia, and the 1980s in Europe.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: To complement the 600, a larger compact car was introduced in 1963, the Colt 1000. The larger Colt 1500 arrived in 1965, the Colt 1100 replaced the Colt 1000 in 1966, and the Colt 1200 took the 1100's place in 1968.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: The third Colt line was the smaller, fastback Colt 800 and its derivatives the 1000F, 1100F, and 11-F. This series was built from 1965 until late 1971.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: Mitsubishi reintroduced the Colt nameplate as a front-wheel drive hatchback in 1978, with a sedan later released in 1982. Sold in Japan as the Mirage, the Colt name was restricted to markets such as Europe and Australia (where the Colt was built by Mitsubishi Motors Australia from 1982 to late 1989).


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: Five generations of Mirage-based Colts were sold between 1978 and 2002, with new generations released in 1983, 1987, 1991, and 1995. These Mirage derivatives were sold in various forms as the Mitsubishi Lancer in many markets, with the Colt nameplate in Europe typically restricted to the hatchback variants; sedans and station wagons were relegated to the Lancer name.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: In November 2002, a new Colt was released by Mitsubishi in Japan with a design by Olivier Boulay and built on the same platform as the Smart Forfour. In Japan, it was sold at a specific retail chain called "Galant Shop". A European version made at Mitsubishi's NedCar facility followed into production a year later (see below). This generation is not sold in the United States.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: In 2004, the Colt was launched in Europe and Australia, with models ranging from 1.1 L MPI MIVEC, 1.3 L MPI MIVEC, 1.5 L MPI MIVEC and 1.5 L turbo MIVEC in petrol. A three-door arrived in 2005 for Europe only.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: The Smart Forfour also shared the 2003 specification chassis, with Brabus releasing a performance version of the Forfour in 2004 using the same engine as used in the 2004 European cz-"T", but squeezing extra out of the same 4G15.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: In November 2004, a 1.5 L D-ID direct injection turbo-diesel version with turbocharger and intercooler, producing 95 PS (70 kW) was made available, with an option of the "Allshift" automated manual gearbox with electrohydraulic clutch and six gears.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: The performance specification 1.5 T was based on the 4G15 block, with a Turbo and Intercooler to aid power ( at 6000 rpm / at 3500 rpm). MIVEC variable valve timing was also used to increase the output, upping the power dramatically from the 1.5 MPI. The same performance engine was also used to power the later released CZC cabrio model Colt (2005), with the more petrol-friendly 1.5 MPI available as an option.


title: Mitsubishi Colt

text: Mitsubishi released its new Colt CZC coupé cabriolet at the Geneva Motor Show in March 2005, and the car has been on sale since 2006. The car is a 2+2 with a retractable hard-top and available with the turbo engine from the European CZ-"T" or as just a 1.5 MPI. Jointly developed by Mitsubishi and Pininfarina under Ken Okuyama, it was partially made in the Netherlands, with final assembly taking part at Pininfarina in Turin, Italy.