title: Guitar chord

text: The musical theory of chords is reviewed, to provide terminology for a discussion of guitar chords. Three kinds of chords, which are emphasized in introductions to guitar-playing, are discussed. These basic chords arise in chord-triples that are conventional in Western music, triples that are called three-chord progressions. After each type of chord is introduced, its role in three-chord progressions is noted.


title: Guitar chord

text: Both major and minor chords are examples of musical "triads", which contain three distinct notes. Triads are often introduced as an ordered triplet:


title: Guitar chord

text: The three notes of a major triad have been introduced as an ordered triplet, namely (root, third, fifth), where the major third is four semitones above the root and where the perfect fifth is seven semitones above the root. This type of triad is in closed position. Triads are quite commonly played in open position: For example, the C-major triad is often played with the third (E) and fifth (G) an octave higher, respectively sixteen and nineteen semitones above the root. Another variation of the major triad changes the order of the notes: For example, the C-major triad is often played as (C,G,E), where (C,G) is a perfect fifth and E is raised an octave above the perfect third (C,E). Alternative orderings of the notes in a triad are discussed below (in the discussions of chord inversions and chords).


title: Guitar chord

text: In popular music, a subset of triads is emphasized—those with notes from the three major-keys (C, G, D), which also contain the notes of their relative minor keys (Am, Em, Bm).


title: Guitar chord

text: The major chords are highlighted by the three-chord theory of chord progressions, which describes the three-chord song that is archetypal in popular music. When played sequentially (in any order), the chords from a three-chord progression sound harmonious ("good together").


title: Guitar chord

text: The most basic three-chord progressions of Western harmony have only major chords. In each key, three chords are designated with the Roman numerals (of musical notation): The tonic (I), the subdominant (IV), and the dominant (V). While the chords of each three-chord progression are numbered (I, IV, and V), they appear in other orders.


title: Guitar chord

text: In the 1950s the I–IV–V chord progression was used in "Hound Dog" (Elvis Presley) and in "Chantilly Lace" (The Big Bopper).


title: Guitar chord

text: Major-chord progressions are constructed in the harmonization of major scales in triads. For example, stacking the C-major scale with thirds creates a chord progression, which is traditionally enumerated with the Roman numerals I, ii, iii, IV, V, vi, vii; its sub-progression C–F–G (I–IV–V) is used in popular music, as already discussed. Further chords are constructed by stacking additional thirds. Stacking the dominant major-triad with a minor third creates the dominant seventh chord, which shall be discussed after minor chords.


title: Guitar chord

text: A minor chord has the root and the fifth of the corresponding major chord, but its first interval is a minor third rather than a major third:


title: Guitar chord

text: Minor chords arise in the harmonization of the major scale in thirds, which was already discussed: The minor chords have the degree positions ii, iii, and vi.


title: Guitar chord

text: Minor chords arise as the tonic notes of minor keys that share the same key signature with major keys. From the major key's I–ii–iii–IV–V–vi–vii progression, the "secondary" (minor) triads ii–iii–vi appear in the relative minor key's corresponding chord progression as i–iv–v (or i–iv–V or i–iv–V7): For example, from C's vi–ii–iii progression Am–Dm–Em, the chord Em is often played as E or E7 in a minor chord progression. Among basic chords, the minor chords (D,E,A) are the tonic chords of the relative minors of the three major keys (F,G,C):


title: Guitar chord

text: The technique of changing among relative keys (pairs of relative majors and relative minors) is a form of modulation.


title: Guitar chord

text: Adding a minor seventh to a major triad creates a "dominant" seventh (denoted V7). In music theory, the "dominant seventh" described here is called a major-minor seventh, emphasizing the chord's construction rather than its usual function. Dominant sevenths are often the dominant chords in three-chord progressions, in which they increase the tension with the tonic "already inherent in the dominant triad".


title: Guitar chord

text: An A-major I–IV–V7 chord progression A–D–E7 was used by Paul McCartney in the song "3 Legs" on his album "Ram".


title: Guitar chord

text: Be they in major key or minor key, such I–IV–V chord progressions are extended over twelve bars in popular music—especially in jazz, blues, and rock music. For example, a "twelve-bar blues" progression of chords in the key of E has three sets of four bars:


title: Guitar chord

text: this progression is simplified by playing the sevenths as major chords. The twelve-bar blues structure is used by McCartney's "3 Legs", which was noted earlier.


title: Guitar chord

text: The implementation of musical chords on guitars depends on the tuning. Since standard tuning is most commonly used, expositions of guitar chords emphasize the implementation of musical chords on guitars with standard tuning. The implementation of chords using particular tunings is a defining part of the literature on guitar chords, which is omitted in the abstract musical-theory of chords for all instruments.


title: Guitar chord

text: For example, in the guitar (like other stringed instruments but unlike the piano), open-string notes are not fretted and so require less hand-motion. Thus chords that contain open notes are more easily played and hence more frequently played in popular music, such as folk music. Many of the most popular tunings—standard tuning, open tunings, and new standard tuning—are rich in the open notes used by popular chords. Open tunings allow major triads to be played by barring one fret with only one finger, using the finger like a capo. On guitars without a zeroth fret (after the nut), the intonation of an open note may differ from then note when fretted on other strings; consequently, on some guitars, the sound of an open note may be inferior to that of a fretted note.


title: Guitar chord

text: Unlike the piano, the guitar has the same notes on different strings. Consequently, guitar players often double notes in chord, so increasing the volume of sound. Doubled notes also changes the chordal timbre: Having different "string widths, tensions and tunings, the doubled notes reinforce each other, like the doubled strings of a twelve-string guitar add chorusing and depth". Notes can be doubled at identical pitches or in different octaves. For triadic chords, doubling the third interval, which is either a major third or a minor third, clarifies whether the chord is major or minor.


title: Guitar chord

text: Unlike a piano or the voices of a choir, the guitar (in standard tuning) has difficulty playing the chords as stacks of thirds, which would require the left hand to span too many frets, particularly for dominant seventh chords, as explained below. If in a particular tuning chords cannot be played in closed position, then they often can be played in open position; similarly, if in a particular tuning chords cannot be played in root position, they can often be played in inverted positions. A chord is inverted when the bass note is not the root note. Additional chords can be generated with drop-2 (or drop-3) voicing, which are discussed for standard tuning's implementation of dominant seventh chords (below).


title: Guitar chord

text: When providing harmony in accompanying a melody, guitarists may play chords all-at-once or as arpeggios. Arpeggiation was the traditional method of playing chords for guitarists for example in the time of Mozart. Contemporary guitarists using arpeggios include Johnny Marr of The Smiths.


title: Guitar chord

text: A six-string guitar has five musical-intervals between its consecutive strings. In standard tuning, the intervals are four perfect fourths and one major third, the comparatively irregular interval for the (G,B) pair. Consequently, standard tuning requires four chord shapes for the major chords. There are separate chord forms for chords having their root note on the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth strings. Of course, a beginner learns guitar by learning notes and chords, and irregularities make learning the guitar difficult—even more difficult than learning the formation of plural nouns in German, according to Gary Marcus. Nonetheless, most beginners use standard tuning.


title: Guitar chord

text: Another feature of standard tuning is that the ordering of notes often differs from root position. Notes are often inverted or otherwise permuted, particularly with seventh chords in standard tuning, as discussed below.


title: Guitar chord

text: As previously discussed, each "power chord" has only one interval, a perfect fifth between the root note and the fifth. In standard tuning, the following fingerings are conventional:


title: Guitar chord

text: Commonly used major chords are convenient to play in "standard" tuning, in which fundamental chords are available in "open position", that is, the first three frets and additional open strings.


title: Guitar chord

text: For the C major chord (C,E,G), the conventional left-hand fingering doubles the C and E notes in the next octave; this fingering uses two open notes, E and G:


title: Guitar chord

text: For the other commonly used chords, the conventional fingerings also double notes and feature open-string notes:


title: Guitar chord

text: The "B major" and "F major" chords are commonly played as barre chords, with the first finger depressing five–six strings.


title: Guitar chord

text: B major chord has the same shape as the A major chord but it is located two frets further up the fretboard. The F major chord is the same shape as E major but it is located one fret further up the fretboard.


title: Guitar chord

text: Minor chords (commonly notated as "C-", "Cm", "Cmi or Cmin") are the same as major chords except that they have a minor third instead of a major third. This is a difference of one semitone.


title: Guitar chord

text: To create F minor from the F major chord (in E major shape), the second finger should be lifted so that the third string plays onto the barre. Compare the F major to F minor:


title: Guitar chord

text: These chords are used extensively by My Bloody Valentine, on the album Loveless. They are also used on the Who song "Pinball Wizard" and many, many more songs.


title: Guitar chord

text: As previously stated, a dominant seventh is a four-note chord combining a major chord and a minor seventh. For example, the C7 dominant seventh chord adds B to the C-major chord (C,E,G). The naive chord (C,E,G,B) spans six frets from fret 3 to fret 8; such seventh chords "contain some pretty serious stretches in the left hand". An illustration shows a naive C7 chord, which would be extremely difficult to play, besides the "open-position" C7 chord that is conventional in standard tuning. The standard-tuning implementation of a C7 chord is a "second-inversion C7 drop 2" chord, in which the "second highest" note in a second inversion of the C7 chord is lowered by an octave. Drop-two chords are used for sevenths chords besides the major–minor seventh with dominant function, which are discussed in the section on intermediate chords, below. Drop-two chords are used particularly in jazz guitar. Drop-two second-inversions are examples of openly voiced chords, which are typical of standard tuning and other popular guitar tunings.


title: Guitar chord

text: "Alternatively voiced" seventh chords are commonly played with standard tuning. A list of fret number configurations for some common chords follows:


title: Guitar chord

text: Already in basic guitar playing, inversion is important for sevenths chords in standard tuning. It is also important for playing major chords.


title: Guitar chord

text: In standard tuning, chord inversion depends on the bass note's string, and so there are three different forms for the inversion of each major chord, depending on the position of the irregular major thirds interval between the G and B strings.


title: Guitar chord

text: For example, if the note E (the open sixth string) is played over the A minor chord, then the chord would be <nowiki>[0 0 2 2 1 0]</nowiki>. This has the note E as its lowest tone instead of A. It is often written as "Am/E", where the letter following the slash indicates the new bass note. However, in popular music it is usual to play inverted chords on the guitar when they are not part of the harmony, since the bass guitar can play the root pitch.


title: Guitar chord

text: There are many alternate tunings. These change the way chords are played, making some chords easier to play and others harder.


title: Guitar chord

text: An "open tuning" allows a chord to be played by strumming the strings when "open", or while fretting no strings. The base chord consists of at least three notes and may include all the strings or a subset. The tuning is named for the base chord when played open, typically a major triad, and each major triad can be played by barring exactly one fret. Open tunings are common in blues and folk music, and they are used in the playing of slide and lap-slide ("Hawaiian") guitars. Ry Cooder uses open tunings when he plays slide guitar.


title: Guitar chord

text: Open tunings improve the intonation of major chords by reducing the error of third intervals in equal temperaments. For example, in the open-G overtones tuning G–G–D–G–B–D, the (G,B) interval is a major third, and of course each successive pair of notes on the G- and B-strings is also a major third; similarly, the open-string minor-third (B,D) induces minor thirds among all the frets of the B-D strings. The thirds of equal temperament have audible deviations from the thirds of just intonation: Equal temperaments is used in modern music because it facilitates music in all keys, while (on a piano and other instruments) just intonation provided better-sounding major-third intervals for only a subset of keys. "Sonny Landreth, Keith Richards and other open-G masters often lower the second string slightly so the major third is in tune with the overtone series. This adjustment dials out the dissonance, and makes those big one-finger major-chords come alive."


title: Guitar chord

text: Repetitive open-tunings are used for two non-Spanish classical-guitars. For the English guitar the open chord is C major (C–E–G–C–E–G); for the Russian guitar which has seven strings, G major (G–B–D–G–B–D–G). Mixing a perfect fourth and a minor third along with a major third, these tunings are on-average major-thirds regular-tunings. While on-average major-thirds tunings are conventional open tunings, properly major-thirds tunings are unconventional open-tunings, because they have augmented triads as their open chords.


title: Guitar chord

text: Guitar chords are dramatically simplified by the class of alternative tunings called regular tunings. In each "regular tuning", the musical intervals are the same for each pair of consecutive strings. Regular tunings include major-thirds ("M3"), all-fourths, augmented-fourths, and all-fifths tunings. For each regular tuning, chord patterns may be diagonally shifted down the fretboard, a property that simplifies beginners' learning of chords and that simplifies advanced players' improvisation. The diagonal shifting of a C major chord in M3 tuning appears in a diagram.


title: Guitar chord

text: Further simplifications occur for the regular tunings that are "repetitive", that is, which repeat their strings. For example, the E–G–c–e–g–c' M3 tuning repeats its octave after every two strings. Such repetition further simplifies the learning of chords and improvisation; This repetition results in two copies of the three open-strings' notes, each in a different octave. Similarly, the B–F–B–F–B–F augmented-fourths tuning repeats itself after one string.


title: Guitar chord

text: A chord is inverted when the bass note is not the root note. "Chord inversion" is especially simple in M3 tuning. Chords are inverted simply by raising one or two notes by three strings; each raised note is played with the same finger as the original note. Inverted major and minor chords can be played on two frets in M3 tuning. In standard tuning, the shape of inversions depends on the involvement of the irregular major third, and can involve four frets.


title: Guitar chord

text: It is a challenge to adapt conventional guitar chords to new standard tuning, which is based on all-fifths tuning.


title: Guitar chord

text: The fundamental guitar-chords—major and minor triads and dominant sevenths—are tertian chords, which concatenate third intervals, with each such third being either major (M3) or minor (m3).


title: Guitar chord

text: Stacking thirds also constructs the most used seventh-chords. The most important seventh-chords concatenate a major triad with a third interval, supplementing it with a seventh interval:


title: Guitar chord

text: Four of these five seventh-chords—all but the diminished seventh—are constructed via the tertian harmonization of a major scale. As already stated,


title: Guitar chord

text: Besides these five types there are many more seventh-chords, which are less used in the tonal harmony of the common-practice period.


title: Guitar chord

text: When playing seventh chords, guitarists often play only subset of notes from the chord. The fifth is often omitted. When a guitar is accompanied by a bass, the guitarist may omit the bass note from a chord. As discussed earlier, the third of a triad is doubled to emphasize its major or minor quality; similarly, the third of a seventh is doubled to emphasize its major or minor quality. The most frequent seventh is the dominant seventh; the minor, half-diminished, and major sevenths are also popular.


title: Guitar chord

text: The previously discussed I–IV–V chord progressions of major triads is a subsequence of the circle progression, which ascends by perfect fourths and descends by perfect fifths: Perfect fifths and perfect fourths are inverse intervals, because one reaches the same pitch class by either ascending by a perfect fourth (five semitones) or descending by a perfect fifth (seven semitones). For example, the jazz standard "Autumn Leaves" contains the iv–VII–VIM–ii–i circle-of-fifths chord progression; its sevenths occur in the tertian harmonization in sevenths of the minor scale. Other subsequences of the fifths-circle chord progression are used in music. In particular, the ii–V–I progression is the most important chord progression in jazz music.


title: Guitar chord

text: Major inversions for guitar in standard tuning. The low E is on the left. The A demonstrates three of the different movable shapes.


title: Guitar chord

text: Besides the dominant seventh chords discussed above, other seventh chords—especially minor seventh chords and major seventh chords—are used in guitar music.


title: Guitar chord

text: In major-thirds (M3) tuning, the chromatic scale is arranged on three consecutive strings in four consecutive frets. This four-fret arrangement facilitates the left-hand technique for classical (Spanish) guitar: For each hand position of four frets, the hand is stationary and the fingers move, each finger being responsible for exactly one fret. Consequently, three hand positions (covering frets 1–4, 5–8, and 9–12) partition the fingerboard of classical guitar, which has exactly 12 frets.


title: Guitar chord

text: Only two or three frets are needed for the guitar chords—major, minor, and dominant sevenths—which are emphasized in introductions to guitar-playing and to the fundamentals of music. Each major and minor chord can be played on exactly two successive frets on exactly three successive strings, and therefore each needs only two fingers. Other chords—seconds, fourths, sevenths, and ninths—are played on only three successive frets.


title: Guitar chord

text: The circle of fifths was discussed in the section on intermediate guitar chords. Other progressions are also based on sequences of third intervals; progressions are occasionally based on sequences of second intervals.


title: Guitar chord

text: As their categorical name suggests, "extended chords" indeed extend seventh chords by stacking one or more additional third-intervals, successively constructing ninth, eleventh, and finally thirteenth chords; thirteenth chords contain all seven notes of the diatonic scale.


title: Guitar chord

text: In closed position, extended chords contain dissonant intervals or may sound supersaturated, particularly thirteenth chords with their seven notes. Consequently, extended chords are often played with the omission of one or more tones, especially the fifth and often the third, as already noted for seventh chords; similarly, eleventh chords often omit the ninth, and thirteenth chords the ninth or eleventh. Often, the third is raised an octave, mimicking its position in the root's sequence of harmonics.


title: Guitar chord

text: Dominant ninth chords were used by Beethoven, and eleventh chords appeared in Impressionist music. Thirteenth chords appeared in the twentieth century. Extended chords appear in many musical genres, including jazz, funk, rhythm and blues, and progressive rock.


title: Guitar chord

text: Conventional music uses diatonic harmony, the major and minor keys and major and minor scales, as sketched above. Jazz guitarists must be fluent with jazz chords and also with many scales and modes; "of all the forms of music, jazz ... demands the highest level of musicianship—in terms of both theory and technique".


title: Guitar chord

text: Whole tone scales were used by King Crimson for the title track on its "Red" album of 1974; whole tone scales were also used by King Crimson guitarist Robert Fripp on "Fractured".


title: Guitar chord

text: Chords are also systematically constructed by stacking not only thirds but also fourths and fifths, supplementing tertian major–minor harmony with quartal and quintal harmonies. Quartal and quintal harmonies are used by guitarists who play jazz, folk, and rock music.


title: Guitar chord

text: Quartal harmony has been used in jazz by guitarists such as Jim Hall (especially on Sonny Rollins's "The Bridge"), George Benson ("Skydive"), Kenny Burrell ("So What"), and Wes Montgomery ("Little Sunflower").


title: Guitar chord

text: Harmonies based on fourths and fifths also appear in folk guitar. On her 1968 debut album "Song to a Seagull", Joni Mitchell used both quartal and quintal harmony in "Dawntreader", and she used quintal harmony in "Seagull".


title: Guitar chord

text: Quartal and quintal harmonies also appear in alternate tunings. It is easier to finger the chords that are based on perfect fifths in new standard tuning than in standard tuning. New standard tuning was invented by Robert Fripp, a guitarist for King Crimson. Preferring to base chords on perfect intervals—especially octaves, fifths, and fourths—Fripp often avoids minor thirds and especially major thirds, which are sharp in equal temperament tuning (in comparison to thirds in just intonation).


title: Guitar chord

text: Professors at the Department of Guitar at the Berklee College of Music wrote the following books, which like their colleagues' and are Berklee-course textbooks:


title: Lingual papillae

text: Lingual papillae (singular papilla) are small structures on the upper surface of the tongue that give it its characteristic rough texture. The four types of papillae on the human tongue have different structures and are accordingly classified as circumvallate (or vallate), fungiform, filiform, and foliate. All except the filiform papillae are associated with taste buds.


title: Lingual papillae

text: In living subjects, lingual papillae are more readily seen when the tongue is dry. There are four types of papillae present on the tongue:


title: Lingual papillae

text: Filiform papillae are the most numerous of the lingual papillae. They are fine, small, cone-shaped papillae covering most of the dorsum of the tongue. They are responsible for giving the tongue its texture and are responsible for the sensation of touch. Unlike the other kinds of papillae, filiform papillae do not contain taste buds. They cover most of the front two-thirds of the tongue's surface.


title: Lingual papillae

text: They appear as very small, conical or cylindrical surface projections, and are arranged in rows which lie parallel to the sulcus terminalis. At the tip of the tongue, these rows become more transverse.


title: Lingual papillae

text: Histologically, they are made up of irregular connective tissue cores with a keratin–containing epithelium which has fine secondary threads. Heavy keratinization of filiform papillae, occurring for instance in cats, gives the tongue a roughness that is characteristic of these animals.


title: Lingual papillae

text: These papillae have a whitish tint, owing to the thickness and density of their epithelium. This epithelium has undergone a peculiar modification as the cells have become cone–like and elongated into dense, overlapping, brush-like threads. They also contain a number of elastic fibers, which render them firmer and more elastic than the other types of papillae. The larger and longer papillae of this group are sometimes termed papillae conicae.


title: Lingual papillae

text: The fungiform papillae are club shaped projections on the tongue, generally red in color. They are found on the tip of the tongue, scattered amongst the filiform papillae but are mostly present on the tip and sides of the tongue. They have taste buds on their upper surface which can distinguish the five tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami. They have a core of connective tissue. The fungiform papillae are innervated by the seventh cranial nerve, more specifically via the submandibular ganglion, chorda tympani, and geniculate ganglion ascending to the solitary nucleus in the brainstem.


title: Lingual papillae

text: Foliate papillae are short vertical folds and are present on each side of the tongue. They are located on the sides at the back of the tongue, just in front of the palatoglossal arch of the fauces, There are four or five vertical folds, and their size and shape is variable. The foliate papillae appear as a series of red colored, leaf–like ridges of mucosa. They are covered with epithelium, lack keratin and so are softer, and bear many taste buds. They are usually bilaterally symmetrical. Sometimes they appear small and inconspicuous, and at other times they are prominent. Because their location is a high risk site for oral cancer, and their tendency to occasionally swell, they may be mistaken as tumors or inflammatory disease. Taste buds, the receptors of the gustatory sense, are scattered over the mucous membrane of their surface. Serous glands drain into the folds and clean the taste buds. Lingual tonsils are found immediately behind the foliate papillae and, when hyperplastic, cause a prominence of the papillae.


title: Lingual papillae

text: The circumvallate papillae (or vallate papillae) are dome-shaped structures on the human tongue that vary in number from 8 to 12.


title: Lingual papillae

text: They are situated on the surface of the tongue immediately in front of the foramen cecum and sulcus terminalis, forming a row on either side; the two rows run backward and medially, and meet in the midline.


title: Lingual papillae

text: Each papillae consists of a projection of mucous membrane from 1 to 2 mm. wide, attached to the bottom of a circular depression of the mucous membrane; the margin of the depression is elevated to form a wall (vallum), and between this and the papilla is a circular sulcus termed the fossa.


title: Lingual papillae

text: The papilla is shaped like a truncated cone, the smaller end being directed downward and attached to the tongue, the broader part or base projecting a little above the surface of the tongue and being studded with numerous small secondary papillae and covered by stratified squamous epithelium.


title: Lingual papillae

text: Ducts of lingual salivary glands, known as Von Ebner's glands empty a serous secretion into the base of the circular depression, which acts like a moat. The function of the secretion is presumed to flush materials from the base of circular depression to ensure that taste buds can respond to changing stimuli rapidly. The circumvallate papillae get special afferent taste innervation from cranial nerve IX, the glossopharyngeal nerve, even though they are anterior to the sulcus terminalis. The rest of the anterior two-thirds of the tongue gets taste innervation from the chorda tympani of cranial nerve VII, distributed with the lingual nerve of cranial nerve V.


title: Lingual papillae

text: Lingual papillae, particularly filiform papillae, are thought to increase the surface area of the tongue and to increase the area of contact and friction between the tongue and food. This may increase the tongue's ability to manipulate a bolus of food, and also to position food between the teeth during mastication (chewing) and swallowing.


title: Lingual papillae

text: In some diseases, there can be depapillation of the tongue, where the lingual papillae are lost, leaving a smooth, red and possibly sore area. Examples of depapillating oral conditions include geographic tongue, median rhomboid glossitis and other types of glossitis. The term glossitis, particularly "atrophic glossitis" is often used synonymously with depapillation. Where the entire dorsal surface of the tongue has lost its papillae, this is sometimes termed "bald tongue". Nutritional deficiencies of iron, folic acid, and B vitamins may cause depapillation of the tongue.


title: Lingual papillae

text: Papillitis refers to inflammation of the papillae, and sometimes the term hypertrophy is used interchangeably.


title: Lingual papillae

text: In foliate papillitis the foliate papillae appear swollen. This may occur due to mechanical irritation, or as a reaction to an upper respiratory tract infection. Other sources state that foliate papilitis refers to inflammation of the lingual tonsil, which is lymphoid tissue.


title: Lingual papillae

text: The term "lingual" is derived from the Latin word "lingua" meaning "tongue" or "speech". "Papilla" is from Latin, meaning "nipple".


title: Lingual papillae

text: "Vallate" (pronounced \ˈva-ˌlāt\) is from the Latin word "vallum" (rampart, wall), and means "having a raised edge surrounding a depression". This refers to the circular mucosal elevation which surrounds the circumvallate papillae.


title: Lingual papillae

text: "Fungiform" (pronounced \ˈfən-jə-ˌfȯrm\) is from the Latin words "fungus" (mushroom) and "forma", and means "shaped like a mushroom or fungus".


title: Lingual papillae

text: "Foliate" (pronounced \ˈfō-lē-ət\) is from the Latin word "foliatus" (leafy), and means "shaped like a leaf".


title: Lingual papillae

text: "Filiform" (pronounced \ˈfi-lə-ˌfȯrm-\) is from the Latin word "fīlum" (thread), and means "shaped like a filament or thread".


title: Lingual papillae

text: Foliate papillae are fairly rudimentary structures in humans, representing evolutionary vestiges of similar structures in many other mammals.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: "Stronger" is a song by American rapper Kanye West, released as the second single from his third studio album, "Graduation" (2007). The production was handled by West, with an extended outro co-produced with Mike Dean. Written by a four-man team, the composition is electronic in nature, employing drums and synthesizers as the most prominent instruments. For the track, West repeats a vocal sample of "Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger" by French house duo Daft Punk in the background while he delivers lyrics about the resolve that comes when one is faced with adversity, paraphrasing Friedrich Nietzsche's dictum "What does not kill me makes me stronger" for the song's refrain. West has described the song as an "emancipation" as it allowed him to vent his frustration over mistakes made in the year prior.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: The song's production process was arduous, with West and his team reportedly mixing the track over 75 times, including after its release as a single. Although he worked with eight audio engineers and eleven mix engineers around the world for the track, West still felt dissatisfied with the results and decided to enlist the aid of record producer Timbaland in redoing the drum programming to "Stronger" prior to the release of "Graduation". West felt the result he achieved paled in comparison to the sampled original track by Daft Punk, but they were delighted by the song, leading to future collaborations. The single's music video, directed by Hype Williams, features sci-fi imagery based on the 1988 anime film "Akira", and was shot largely in Tokyo, Japan. Kanye West's look, wearing shutter shades in the music video, became a signature of his in the late 2000s.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: Released as a single on July 31, 2007, "Stronger" would top the "Billboard" Hot 100 several weeks later, becoming West's third number-one single. It was a top ten single in ten countries, topping the charts in Canada, New Zealand, United Kingdom and the United States. The song was praised by music critics. It was awarded a Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance at the 50th Grammy Awards, and was named as one of the best songs of the year by "Rolling Stone" and "Spin". The song's popularity has been accredited to not only encouraging other hip-hop artists to incorporate house and electronica elements into their music, but also for playing a part in the revival of disco and electro-infused music in the ensuing years. "Stronger" has since sold five million copies in the United States, and was certified Diamond by the RIAA in 2021, making it one of the best-selling singles in the United States. In 2021, the song was included on "Rolling Stone"'s 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: Prior to release, a portion of "Stronger" was first released in May 2007 on West's "Can't Tell Me Nothing" mixtape. On June 27, 2007, "Stronger" was added to the BBC Radio 1 Up-Front playlist and later upgraded to the A-List a month prior to its release. The single's front cover art was released on West's website on June 28, 2007. It was designed by Japanese artist Takashi Murakami, whom Kanye West collaborated with to produce the artwork for "Graduation". The cover artwork features a cartoon version of West's mascot "Dropout Bear" wearing sunglasses similar to those West wears in the music video, as well as the small, trademark robot helmets of the Daft Punk duo Thomas Bangalter and Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: "Stronger" musically derives from a vocal sample of "Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger" (2001) by French house duo Daft Punk. The use of the sample was requested by West through Pedro Winter, Daft Punk's manager at the time. The duo, who deeply enjoyed "Stronger", approved of the sample and are credited as co-writers on the track. West later met the Daft Punk musicians, Thomas Bangalter and Guy-Manuel de Homem-Christo, at Chicago music festival Lollapalooza. The recording sessions for "Stronger" were a turning point in the production process for West's third studio album "Graduation", whereas West had been "aimlessly making songs" prior to this. The record began to take definite shape and form upon the creation of the track, which West released as the third album's second single, as well as around the filming of its accompanying music video, which was directed by music video director Hype Williams. The sci-fi imagery of the video inspired West to take his music in a more futuristic direction.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: On July 3, 2007, West told Zane Lowe on BBC Radio 1 that although he believes "Stronger" is a great song, it does not compare to the sampled original . When asked about their take on hip-hop music and how rappers like West were suddenly fascinated by their music, Bangalter replied that, "Hip-hop has always been exciting and interesting to us." Daft Punk went on to say that they were very delighted with how West's single turned out to be. The two had first heard the new song on Power 106 while on a San Francisco flight. As de Homem-Christo stated, "Our song had a good sound, but when [the radio DJ] put Kanye's record on, the sound was really fat. It sounds really big." De Homem-Christo also clarified, "It's not a collaboration in the studio, but the vibe of the music we do separately connected in what [West] did with the song."


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: "Stronger" was recorded in three recording studios: Ape Sounds in Tokyo, Sony Music Studios in New York City, and The Record Plant in Los Angeles. The track utilizes a vocal sample of "Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger" (2001) by French house duo Daft Punk, which itself features a re-worked instrumental of "Cola Bottle Baby" (1979), a song by the funk keyboardist Edwin Birdsong. Daft Punk had added "a melodic chorus with a descending chord sequence," which was the basis for West's sample. West subsequently "slowed down and loosened the rhythm, and overdubbed pulsating synths, evocative rapping and singing." After the filming of the single's music video, which began before he had even written its second verse, West returned to the studio to redo parts of "Stronger" and various other tracks he recorded for the album, watching films such as "Total Recall" for more ideas. West worked on "Stronger" with eight audio engineers and eleven mix engineers around the world and recorded over fifty versions of the track.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: The final version of the song is credited to Manny Marroquin, a producer who mixed West's debut album, "The College Dropout" (2004). West and Marroquin first worked on the song together for fourteen hours at Larrabee North Studios in Los Angeles, followed by four three-hour sessions at Battery Studios in New York. Much of the song's keyboards and electric guitar accompaniment were added in New York by Mike Dean and Lamar "Mars" Edwards. West's sampling of Daft Punk had left many glitches within the clip, which Marroquin corrected by lowering the volume for several milliseconds on each. In crafting the song's distinctive four-to-the-floor rhythm, West and Marroquin employed multi–band compression and extreme EQ. This was primarily to ensure that the single would play well in club atmospheres.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: West mixed "Stronger" seventy-five times, as he could not seem to get the kick drum to sound precisely the way that he wanted it to, amongst other issues. Still feeling dissatisfied after hearing number-one hit single inside a club played alongside Timbaland's 2007 single "The Way I Are", which at that time was his favorite hip-hop beat, West decided to enlist the record producer to assist him in redoing the song's drum programming. In the end, Manny Marroquin and Kanye West auditioned twelve kick drums, going back to the original — which is a mix of three kick drums — shortly before completing the track. The song's final arrangement in Pro Tools included over 100 layers. This completed version of "Stronger" contains a master use of Edwin Birdsong's "Cola Bottle Baby."


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: "Stronger" is a hip-hop song that lasts for a duration of five minutes and eleven seconds (5:11). The composition incorporates elements from a range of electronic music genres, including house, electro, techno and electronica. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, "Stronger" is composed in the key of E-flat minor (Em) and set in the time signature of common time, with a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute. The song follows a basic sequence of Em–D–Am–C–B as its chord progression. The stark musical composition is electronic in nature, employing distorted, layered synthesizers as its prominent instrument. The production of the track revolves around a vocoder-affected vocal sample of "Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger" by the French house duo Daft Punk. As one of the most musically complex arrangements on "Graduation", West experiments with an elliptic song structure that makes extensive use of descending synth-bass and alternating backbeats.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: The song starts with its refrain, where the cut-up sample of Daft Punk's robotic vocals can be heard at a decreased tempo. Following its introduction, West raps the refrain as the vocal sample is played continuously in the background. During the refrain, the track maintains a distinctive four-to-the-floor rhythmic pattern which takes cues from house-music. For the verses, West switches to a syncopated hip-hop beat; propulsive programmed drums replete with rumbling kick drums that stomps over the layered synths. He integrates additional vocal hooks into the song's bridge while also adjusting its refrain and at one interval includes an ad libitum. At its close, the track enters a flanging extended outro that contains a synth-heavy breakdown. It comes complete with abrasive keyboard stabs, operatic harmonies and somber electric guitars which chime in unison.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: For the track, West evokes his rapping technique to a thumping beat. Within two verses, he delivers his defiant lyrics at loud volume with fragmented, forceful flow that makes use of rests as the song builds into a bombastic crescendo. With a simplified, halting vocal delivery, West manipulates his articulation to match the melodies of the musical composition. An inspirational aspect can be found within "Stronger," where West speaks about the resolve that comes when one is faced with adversity, with defiant lyrics at the song's refrain that paraphrase Friedrich Nietzsche's famous dictum: "What does not kill him, makes him stronger." Regarding the lyrical content, West describes the abrasive track as an "emancipation," as he uses the first verse to vent his pent-up frustration over mistakes that he had made in the past year. In addition, West views the single as a return with the help from his fans, hence the "I need you right now" lyric which serves as a hook that follows the refrain. As he told an interviewer for "The Guardian", "It's also a message from me to my fans that I'm coming back after a time away and I need you right now, to help me come back."


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: West performed a partial version of "Stronger" live at the Concert for Diana held at Wembley Stadium on July 1, 2007, to a crowd of 63,000 people. An estimated 500 million people watched the event in over 140 countries. Daft Punk made a surprise appearance at the 50th Grammy Awards on February 10, 2008, to join West in performing a reworked version of the song on stage at the Staples Center in Los Angeles. A press release specified that this was the very first televised live performance by Daft Punk in their career. In an interview, de Homem-Christo specified that the live performance of "Stronger" at the 50th Grammy Awards was "truly a collaboration from the start. We really did it all hand in hand."


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: During his live performance at Coachella in 2011, West performed a version with altered lyrics in the second verse of the track to insult his ex-girlfriend Amber Rose. Following on from this, it was rumoured that there was a confrontation between West and Amber's then-boyfriend Wiz Khalifa, which Khalifa dismissed as being untrue. West performed the song at the 2011 Victoria's Secret Fashion Show, he was due to perform in 2007 but dropped out due to the death of his mother.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: In 2010, Vincent Peters sued West, arguing "Stronger" is an illegitimate copy of a song he recorded in 2006. Peters claimed that he handed a copy of his track to John Monopoly, West's business manager, who, according to Peters, gave the song to West. Both songs share the title, make reference to model Kate Moss, and feature chorus lyrics that rhyme "wronger" and "longer". A federal judge dismissed the claim, finding no substantial similarity, but Peters went to the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals. West's lawyers claim both derive their respective chorus lyrics from Friedrich Nietzsche's famous dictum, "What does not kill him, makes him stronger." In 2012, the 7th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in West's favor, ordering the lawsuit dismissed. Diane Wood, the presiding judge, noted that Nietzsche's dictum had been employed in popular works for decades, including Kelly Clarkson's "Stronger (What Doesn't Kill You)", a hit single at the time. "The Hollywood Reporter" quoted the ruling: "Although the fact that both songs quote from a 19th century German philosopher might, at first blush, seem to be an unusual coincidence, West correctly notes that the aphorism has been repeatedly invoked in song lyrics over the past century."


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: "Stronger" entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 on the charting week of August 11, 2007 at number forty-seven, the highest debut single on the chart that week. Over the next eight weeks, the song steadily climbed upwards, eventually reaching the number one position on the charting week of September 29, 2007, pushing the previous week's chart topper, Soulja Boy Tell 'Em's "Crank That (Soulja Boy)" into the number two position. However, the following week, "Crank That (Soulja Boy)" replaced "Stronger" atop the charts, making West's single reach its peak for only one week. It is West's third number-one single in the United States, following on from "Slow Jamz" in 2004, and "Gold Digger" in 2005, respectively.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: After becoming West's first number one single in the UK, "Stronger" went on to be met by widespread international success, reaching number-one in Canada and New Zealand. The song debuted at number three in the United Kingdom and rose to become West's very first British number one single. Climbing on downloads alone, it surpassed the prior week's number one single, Robyn's "With Every Heartbeat". "Stronger" also spent 18 weeks on the German Singles Chart and peaked at number 17. The song ended 2007 as the 19th best-selling, and sixth best-selling digital single in the UK. "Stronger" was the sixth best selling song on iTunes in 2007. "Stronger" was the second best-selling digital song of 2007 in Canada.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: In February 2010, it was revealed that "Stronger" was the 16th most-downloaded song of all time on iTunes. It was the 17th best selling digital song of al time in the US by August 2010. As of March 2013, the single has sold five million copies in the US. In 2017, it was revealed that "Stronger" had stayed in the ARIA Top 500 for ten straight years, making it the longest running song on the chart with 522 weeks. In October 2021, "Stronger" was certified Diamond by the RIAA. The song is the most streamed song released in 2007 on Spotify.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: The track was well received by music critics. Ann Powers of the "Los Angeles Times" praised West's performance: "On 'Stronger,' he pushes himself like a runner on a treadmill, always on the verge of losing his breath." Although Louis Pattison of "NME" criticized what he viewed as "brazen theft" from Daft Punk, he called the song "a silicone-hearted vocoder serenade, beefed up with hoover-like synthesisers." Anna Pickard of "The Guardian" praised it for the Daft Punk sample, viewing the track as opening with "the immediate familiarity of a Daft Punk sample" and the sample as "working well over this thumping beat".


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: "Stronger" appeared in numerous year-end lists; "Spin" named "Stronger" the best song of 2007, "The Village Voice" ranked "Stronger" at number seven on their annual year-end critics' poll Pazz & Jop. "Rockdelux" named it the second best foreign song of 2007. "Blitz" listed it the ninth best song of 2007. "MTV" named "Stronger" the sixth best song of 2007. "Thought Catalog" listed the song as the eleventh best Pop song of 2007. "Consequence of Sound" named it the 17th best song of 2007. "Stronger" was placed 20th in Australia's annual Triple J Hottest 100. "Rolling Stone" named it the eleventh best song of 2007, elsewhere in the magazine's decade-end readers' poll the song was named the sixth best single of the 2000s. Furthermore, a 2013 "Rolling Stone" reader's poll ranked "Stronger" as West's eighth best song to that point.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: The "Stronger" music video was directed and produced by Hype Williams, with director of photography John Perez, editor Peter Johnson, executive producer Susan Linss and post supervisor Amelia Torabi. Post production and visual effects were done at RhinoFX by VFX Supervisor Vico Sharabani. Williams explained that the decision to work with West again was natural after he heard the song, stating "When I heard the record I thought it was something I could kind of dive in with him on it. I felt like my whole world made sense to do it. He has a lot of relationships with a lot of filmmakers but I think this particular song spoke to me."


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: The video explores life in a sleek space-age robot world set in Japan, and was filmed guerrilla-style over twelve days in Tokyo and Los Angeles in April 2007, featuring shots in Aoyama clothing store A Bathing Ape and Harajuku clothing store Billionaire Boys Club/Ice Cream. The video features appearances by a real-life Japanese motorcycle gang, singer /model Cassie Ventura, and the two principal actors from the film "Daft Punk's Electroma" dressed as Daft Punk. The video also features multiple scenes which pay homage to the 1988 anime film "Akira". These include the light effects on the motorbikes, the hospital scenes and West being scanned by machines.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: West approached Island/Def Jam chairman Antonio "L.A." Reid with only a general concept for the video, with no storyboard, asking for $1.2 million to fund four videos. The treatment was simply "Kanye and Hype in Japan". West and Williams had the vision in their brains, but they didn't have anything on paper. There was no storyboard. They just wanted to get a bunch of footage." West, a fan of Japanese directors and anime, had desired to shoot in Japan to give the video a futuristic look, in line with the creative design of "Graduation" as a whole.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: In the clip's original storyline, West plays the part of a man in a motorcycle gang, who gets into a bar fight with Japanese rivals and gets a beaten so bad that the doctors have to rebuild him. Both West and Williams had originally planned to integrate scenes from the film into the video. but decided against so to produce something more impressionistic. Williams explained this to SOHH "He was always inspired by "Akira," there was a point where we really dove in and wound up filming parts of that movie for the video, but we decided to back off of it and do something a little more abstract for the final version. So originally it went from inspired by -- to us really diving into that world and giving him a piece of the story and that kind of transmutated into the video that's out now.”


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: West and his entourage got no permits to film, simply having interpreters explain the situation to locals. The clip features shots of a real-life riot of a Japanese politician; it took place directly outside of Williams' hotel, and West encouraged the director to go out and film it. West was not satisfied when going over the footage back in the United States, he spent ten weeks in editing suites editing the video. He decided to abandon the storyline and choose a video with "the hottest shots possible," going to New York for additional filming at the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center. Williams was unable to film additional footage, with the video already extensively over-budget, so West hired a local team. The video's most famous shots were filmed in New York, and feature West wearing a pair of Alain Mikli shutter shades, which he requested from the designer specifically for the video. Dissatisfied with the footage of said shots, due to the director of photography not being the same as Williams' DOP, West distorted the footage to resemble what it might look like as if it were broadcast over a cathode ray tube television set. Further pickup shots were filmed in Los Angeles, including segments featuring Daft Punk, who were coincidentally in L.A. at the time and attended the video shoot. Williams explained that the video was West's vision saying, "He's a strong filmmaker in his own right, a very well-respected and strong filmmaker in my book. He really did a great job executing his vision. I was kinda his co-partner on this one."


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: Don "Don C" Crawley, West's manager and confidant, described his perfectionist attitude whilst editing the clip:


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: Kanye almost had a brain aneurysm, editing this video for three months. Literally, 10 weeks of editing going back in. Then he still was not satisfied, so he shot more footage in New York. [...] Kanye put everything else on halt. He was in the editing suite till 4 or 5 in the morning. He went way over budget editing, sitting in them expensive editing suites. He kept going — and not only kept going, but he wanted to shoot more footage.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: Rhinofx VFX Supervisor Vico Sharabani said that the process of this project was totally unconventional.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: “Kanye approached the creation of this video the same way he writes a song. He wanted to put different elements together and according to how they relate to each-other he would then take the next step. This made for a very creative environment with a quickly-evolving vision. Originally, there were supposed to be just four machine shots, but when we showed them the style frame we created for the machine, Kanye decided to re-edit the video around the machine, adding a dozen more shots. Kanye is a very talented visual artist and his passion translates to the way he manages the process. The whole process was very intimate and fast paced, with ideas flying around 24/7. It was a truly amazing creative collaboration between Kanye, Hype, our team, and editorial; everyone contributed to every aspect of the job. It was also very rewarding to hear of the video nomination for the MTV music awards.”


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: A rough cut of the video first premiered at the Tribeca Studios in New York City on June 19, 2007, with West editing the clip until the last minute. Elsewhere, Williams revealed that an extended, limited-edition version of the music video was due for an internet type of release, but this ultimately never come to fruition.”


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: The JabbaWockeeZ performed to this song in the first season finale of "America's Best Dance Crew" as their victory performance for being crowned champions. Thirty Seconds to Mars performed a cover version of "Stronger" on BBC Radio 1, which is featured on "Radio 1's Live Lounge – Volume 2" and a UK release of the single "From Yesterday". The cover features a slower tempo on guitar and omits the profanity, which was reworded by their lead singer Jared Leto. Leto said that he "hoped that Kanye [was] okay" with the editing. The song was also cover by Swiss metalcore band Breakdown of Sanity.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: The song can be heard for the promo of the 2007 film "The Kingdom". It can also be heard as the introductory song of the Baltimore Orioles, Toronto Raptors, New York Mets, Texas Longhorns, Washington Wizards, Cincinnati Reds and Tampa Bay Rays. The New York Giants entered the field to this song at Super Bowl XLII and during most of their home games during the season. The New York Rangers and Chicago Blackhawks play it at every home game as well. The song is also featured in Season 4 Episode 4 of "Entourage" as background music in a night club. The A-Trak remix of the song is used in an advert for the short-lived American TV show "Bionic Woman". This song is also used by Animal Planet to promote their new show "Jockeys", appearing in commercials as well as being the series' opening theme. UK rapper Kano has freestyled over this song on his mixtape "MC No.1." The song also appeared on the trailer for the videogame "Top Spin 4." In 2008 "Stronger" was featured in the movie "Never Back Down", when the main character, Jake Tyler, enters the "Beatdown" tournament.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: "Stronger" is featured in (and is on the soundtrack for) for the 2011 film "The Hangover Part II". In 2013, on the HBO show "Girls", Allison Williams's character performed the song at a slower tempo. "Stronger" was also used as a track that can be selected on the Hollywood Rip Ride Rockit at Universal Studios Florida. "Stronger" was used in a gameplay TV spot for the 2016 video game Watch Dogs 2. The song was used in a Nescafé trailer for the Dolce Gusto Drop. The song appears in the BBC Radio 1Xtra episode 10 Moments That Made Kanye West.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: Considered one of West's most radio-friendly songs, "Stronger" has been credited with not only encouraging other hip-hop artists to incorporate house and electronica elements into their music, but also with playing a part in the revival of disco and electro-infused music in the late 2000s. The song also brought Daft Punk to prominence in the United States; "Rolling Stone" credited it with "the beginning of the group's path to mainstream success." The song helped sales of Daft Punk's Harder, Better, Faster, Stronger go from 1,000 per week to between 5,000 and 7,000. The song has been looked at as a turning point in how the talents of West were viewed in his career and it brought him more commercial success.


title: Stronger (Kanye West song)

text: In 2011, Stronger was voted "the greatest workout song of all time" after topping a nationwide poll by Gold's Gym. "Stronger" has been ranked as the third most popular workout song of all time on Spotify. In 2020, uDiscoverMusic named it the best workout song of all time.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: Xavier: Renegade Angel is an American adult computer-animated television series created by Vernon Chatman and John Lee, who are also the creators of "Wonder Showzen". The show was produced by PFFR, with animation by Cinematico. It premiered on November 4, 2007, on Adult Swim and November 1, 2007, on the Adult Swim website.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: "Xavier" features a style characterized by an elaborate and nonlinear plot following the humorous musings of an itinerant humanoid pseudo-shaman and spiritual seeker named Xavier. The show is known for its use of ideologically critical black comedy, surrealist and absurdist humor presented through a psychedelic and satirically New Age lens.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: The computer-generated animation-style of "Xavier: Renegade Angel" resembles that of PC games such as "Second Life" and "The Sims". The show features ribald wordplay, nonchalant violence and transgressive sexuality, in deeply nested, often recursive plots. These plots are often very nonlinear in their chronology; however, each episode seems to contain similar themes and motifs, as well as a single opening scene that has recurred in every episode of "Xavier": a depiction of the titular character wandering through a desert (possibly a reference to the 1970s television program "Kung Fu", although more likely a satirical take on the "wandering in the desert" archetype as a search for wisdom) as he narrates a semi-spontaneous, often nonsensical philosophical thought that many times connects with the episode at hand, whilst the title card of the show itself flies overhead, usually varying in action or position. An opening theme presumed to be played by Xavier on his "shakashuri" is present during these.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: Co-creator Vernon Chatman called the show "a warning to children and adults about the dangers of spirituality". The show has been known to show insensitivity and caricatures of Catholicism, Islam, Middle America, redneck stereotypes, and anarcho-punk subcultures.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: Xavier often incorporates underlying themes and concepts based outside of, though interconnected with, the plot of each episode. Philosophical or political concepts are often juxtaposed with the surrealistic and aleatory nature of the show. Society and cultural psychology and phenomena, the meaning of life, the existence of sentience and the nature of reality have been examined in one form or another throughout the program's 2 seasons.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: Jokes and humor tend to be oriented towards Xavier's own philosophical inquiry and the "deep," "zen-like" diction of wisdom quotes from various spiritual systems (particularly Native American and Hindu or Eastern spirituality) that Xavier seemingly attempts to mimic. These are many times lightly mocked with Xavier's misuse of the phrases, reflecting on contemporary humor and taking the often circular logic of such statements far out of context.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: Taboo topics — such as necrophilia, bestiality, homophobia, abortion, irreligion, pedophilia, incest, self-injury, and racism — are used as sources for humor. In this respect, the program can be seen as containing a substantial amount of black comedy.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: In Canada, "Xavier: Renegade Angel" previously aired on Teletoon's Teletoon at Night block and later G4's Adult Digital Distraction block. The series currently airs in Canada on the Canadian version of Adult Swim.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: Adult Swim released the series on DVD in America on November 10, 2009, shortly after the series finale originally aired. Madman Entertainment released the series on DVD on Region 4 in Australia on February 10, 2010. In addition to being available on DVD, the entire series is also available on iTunes.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: In 2009, "DVD Talk"'s Casey Burchby gave the show three and half stars out of five, noting ""Xavier: Renegade Angel" is intelligent, entertaining, and very funny. It is also consistent to a fault. The show never develops much beyond its original concept and falls into a repetitious rut. [...] Much like "Flight of the Conchords", its small triumphs are better appreciated over time; a concentrated dose of the show reveals its flaws."


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: "Xavier: Renegade Angel" was largely ignored on initial release, but garnered a cult following and by 2017 it was highly regarded for its originality, absurd imagery and smart, intricate humor. In that year, "Inverse.com" placed Xavier 15th on a list of "The 25 Most Iconic Adult Swim Characters of All Time". Also in 2017, Max Carpenter of "Vulture" said that it "stands out as a puzzlement of form with its "Second Life" graphical environs and sphinxlike protagonist [...] Even in the context of PFFR’s twisted endeavors, the show's blend of form and content is a brilliant anomaly. [...] "Xavier" is on one level a comedy-by-assault, an explosion of wordplay, and a ridiculousness of images that the average viewer can only take in piecemeal." Lionel Boyce, co-creator of "The Jellies!", listed it among his favorite cartoons.


title: Xavier: Renegade Angel

text: In 2020, Xavier returned to give a virtual commencement speech, as part of Adult Swim's Commencement Speaker Series 2020, a response to the cancellation of commencement ceremonies due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Vernon Chatman returned to voice Xavier as part of a six-minute video was released on YouTube and the Adult Swim app.


title: Fitoor

text: Fitoor ("Madness, Obsession, Passion") is a 2016 Indian Hindi-language romantic drama film directed by Abhishek Kapoor, produced by Siddharth Roy Kapur, and written by Kapoor and Supratik Sen based on Charles Dickens' 1861 novel "Great Expectations". The film features Tabu, Katrina Kaif and Aditya Roy Kapur in leading roles. Filming began in Kashmir in November 2014. The film was released on 12 February 2016. It did not succeed at the box-office; however, the film's music, cinematography and performances of the cast received praise, with Tabu's performance receiving high critical acclaim.


title: Fitoor

text: Noor, a thirteen-year-old Kashmiri boy from a middle-class family, meets and becomes deeply infatuated with Firdaus, the daughter of a rich elite family in Kashmir that employs him. Firdaus' mother, Begum Hazrat Jahaan, was left heartbroken in her youth and disapproves of Noor's feelings to his low social status. Despite this, Noor and Firdaus grow closer until Hazrat sends Firdaus abroad for school, insulting Noor as she breaks the news.


title: Fitoor

text: Years later, Noor receives a prestigious art scholarship and moves to Delhi, where he encounters Firdaus again. By this time she is engaged to Bilal, a Pakistani diplomat, but Noor's feelings have not changed and they begin a relationship. Despite initial friction with Noor, who by this time is a successful artist, Hazrat slowly starts to realise her mistake, but is still adamant that Firdaus should marry Bilal, and orders her against her will. A flashback of Hazrat and her lover Mufti, who left her pregnant and ran away with all her jewels, shows why she insisted on Firdaus marrying Bilal and let go of her love. Noor travels for an art show in London where he finds out that the art scholarship was given by Moazam, a terrorist he saved when he was young, and not by Hazrat as he thought. Upset that he has been merely a pawn in Moazam's scheme and realizing that Hazrat has been playing him all along, Noor confronts her in London where she denies manipulating him and bursts into a fit of rage for her former lover Mufti and Noor realizes that she has been seeking redemption by breaking his heart. Noor goes back to the gallery and burns his artwork which was related to the memory of Firdaus. Another flashback of Hazrat shows that she lost her baby and Firdaus is her adopted daughter. She wakes up distraught and commits suicide. At her funeral, a grieving Firdaus opens her pendant to find Mufti's picture in it with Hazrat's and realizes that she could never get over her love for Noor. With this realization, Firdaus decides to leave Bilal and reunites with Noor.


title: Fitoor

text: In October 2013, Disney UTV announced its upcoming production "Fitoor", a Bollywood adaptation of Charles Dickens' novel "Great Expectations" to be directed by Abhishek Kapoor with Aditya Roy Kapur and Katrina Kaif signed as the lead pair. Rekha was confirmed to join the cast in January 2014 but later opted out and replaced by Tabu. The film also stars Aditi Rao Hydari, Rahul Bhat, Akshay Oberoi, Lara Dutta, Suchitra Pillai and Andy Von Eich in supporting roles.


title: Fitoor

text: Principal photography began in Srinagar, Kashmir in November 2014 and continued at Nishat Bagh on the banks of the Dal Lake in Srinagar in January 2015. The film was also shot at Humayun's Tomb in Nizamuddin East, Delhi in March 2015. The remaining portion of the film was shot in Mehboob Studios, Filmistan Studios and Film City, Mumbai from April to September 2015. In September 2015, the cast and crew flew off to Poland to shoot the last leg of the film at the Goetz Palace, Brzesko and Warsaw's traditional and contemporary art galleries. On 2 October, the shooting of the project was completed.


title: Fitoor

text: Amit Trivedi composed the songs while Swanand Kirkire wrote the lyrics for the film. Hitesh Sonik composed the film's score. The first song "Yeh Fitoor Mera" sung by Arijit Singh was released on 7 January 2016. The second song "Pashmina" was released on 14 January 2016. The official soundtrack released on 18 January 2016 by Zee Music Company.


title: Satyavati

text: Satyavati (, ; also spelled Satyawati) was the queen of the Kuru. She is the wife of king Shantanu of Hastinapura, and the great-grandmother of the Pandava and Kaurava princes (The principal characters of the Hindu epic "Mahabharata"). She is also the mother of the seer Vyasa, author of the epic. Her story appears in the "Mahabharata", the "Harivamsa," and the "Devi Bhagavata Purana".


title: Satyavati

text: Satyavati is the daughter of a fisherman chieftain, Dasharaja and was brought up as a commoner on the banks of the river Yamuna. Another legend says that she is the biological daughter of the Chedi king Uparichara Vasu (Vasu) and a cursed "apsara" (celestial nymph), who was turned into a fish called Adrika. Due to the smell emanating from her body, she was known as "Matsyagandha" ("She who smells like fish"), and helped her father, Dasharaja, in his job as ferryman and fisherman.


title: Satyavati

text: As a young woman, Satyavati met the wandering rishi (sage) Parashara, who fathered her son Vyasa out of wedlock. The sage also gave her a musky fragrance, which earned her names like "Yojanagandha" ("She whose fragrance is spread as far as a "yojana"") and "Gandhavati" ("fragrant one").


title: Satyavati

text: Later, King Shantanu, captivated by her fragrance and beauty, fell in love with Satyavati. She married Santanu on her father's condition that their children inherit the throne, denying the birthright of Shantanu's eldest son (and crown prince) Bhishma. Satyavati bore Shantanu two children, Chitrangada and Vichitravirya. After Shantanu's death, she and her sons ruled the kingdom with the help of Bhishma. Although both her sons died childless, she arranged for her eldest son, Vyasa, to father the children of the two widows of Vichitravirya through "niyoga". The children, Dhritarashtra and Pandu, became the fathers of the Kauravas and Pandavas, respectively. After Pandu's death, Satyavati retired to the forest in penance and died there.


title: Satyavati

text: While Satyavati's presence of mind, far-sightedness and mastery of realpolitik is praised, her unscrupulous means of achieving her goals and her blind ambition are criticised.


title: Satyavati

text: Little is said about Satyavati in the Mahabharata; however, later texts – the Harivamsa and the Devi-Bhagavata Purana – elaborate her legend.


title: Satyavati

text: Satyavati is known by numerous names in the Mahabharata, among them Daseyi, Gandhakali, Gandhavati, Kali, Matysyagandha, Satya, Vasavi and Yojanagandha. The name ""Daseyi"" – a term often used by her stepson Bhishma used to address her – means one of the "Dasa" or "Kaivartta" clan. "Vasavi" means "daughter of king Vasu". Her birth name, "Kali" indicates her dark complexion. Her other name, Satyavati means "truthful"; "Satya" means "veracity". As noted above, she was also known as "Matsyagandha" or "Matsyagandhi" in her earlier life – and Gandhakali (lit. fragrant dark one), "Gandhavati", "Kastu-gandhi" and" "Yojanagandha" in later life.


title: Satyavati

text: According to the "Harivamsa", Satyavati in her previous life was Achchoda, daughter of the Pitrs (ancestors) and cursed to be born on earth. The "Mahabharata", "Harivamsa" and "Devi Bhagavata Purana" assert that Satyavati was the daughter of a cursed "apsara" (celestial nymph) named Adrika. Adrika was transformed by a curse into a fish and lived in the Yamuna river. According to the legend, Vasu (also known as Uparicara Vasu), a Chedi King, was on a hunting expedition when he had a nocturnal emission while dreaming of his wife. Using an eagle, He sent his semen to his queen but due to fighting mid-air with another eagle, the semen fell into the river and was swallowed by the cursed Adrika-fish. Consequently, the fish became pregnant. Soon, A fisherman caught the pregnant fish and cut it open to find two babies in the womb of the fish, one male and one female. The fisherman presented the children to the king, who kept the male child. The boy grew up to become King Matsya, the founder of the Matsya Kingdom. The king gave the female child back to the fisherman, naming her "Matsya-gandha" ("She who smells like fish"). The fisherman raised the girl as his daughter and named her "Kali" ("the dark one") because of her complexion. Over the course of time, Kali earned the name "Satyavati" ("truthful"). The fisherman was also a ferryman, ferrying people across the river in his boat. Satyavati helped her father in his job and grew up into a beautiful maiden.


title: Satyavati

text: The "Devi Bhagavata Purana" narrates that when Satyavati was ferrying the rishi Parashara across the river Yamuna, the sage wanted Satyavati to satisfy his lust and held her right hand. She tried to dissuade Parashara but finally gave in, realizing the desperation and persistence of the sage. Satyavati agreed and told Parashara to be patient until the boat reached the bank. On reaching the other side the sage grabbed her again, but she declared that her body stank and coitus should be pleasurable to them both. At these words, "Matsyagandha" was transformed (by the powers of the sage into "Yojanagandha" ("she whose fragrance can be smelled from across a "yojana""). She now smelled of musk, and so was called "Kasturi-Gandha" ("musk-fragrant") and Parashara transformed into fisherman and had intercourse with Satyavati only to return her chastity again. She asked Parashara to promise her that the coitus would be a secret and her virginity intact; the son born from their union would be as famous as the great sage, and her fragrance and youth would be eternal. Parashara granted her these wishes and was satiated by the beautiful Satyavati. After the act, the sage bathed in the river and left, never to meet her again. The Mahabharata abridges the story, noting only two wishes for Satyavati: her "virgo intacta" and everlasting sweet fragrance.


title: Satyavati

text: Ecstatic with her blessings, Satyavati gave birth the same day to her baby on an island in the Yamuna. The son immediately grew up as a youth and promised his mother that he would come to her aid every time she called on him; he then left to do penance in the forest. The son was called "Krishna" ("the dark one") due to his colour, or "Dvaipayana" ("one born on an island") and would later become known as Vyasa – compiler of the Vedas and author of the "Puranas" and the "Mahabharata", fulfilling Parashara's prophecy. After this, Satyavati returned home to help her father.


title: Satyavati

text: One day Shantanu, the Kuru king of Hastinapur, came to the forest on a hunting trip and was mesmerized by the musk-fragrance emanating from Satyavati. Allured by her sweet scent, Shantanu reached Satyavati's house and, seeing her, fell in love at first sight. The king asked the fisherman-chief for his daughter's hand; the fisherman Dashraj said his daughter would marry the king if – and only if – her sons would inherit the throne.


title: Satyavati

text: The king, shocked and dejected, returned to the palace since he had already appointed his son, Devavrata, who was mothered by Goddess Ganga, as heir apparent. Devavrata was distressed by his father's condition; he learned about the promise asked by the fisherman-chief from a minister. Immediately, Devavrata rushed to the hut of the fisherman-chief and begged for Satyavati's hand on his father's behalf. The fisherman repeated his condition and told Devavrata that only Shantanu was worthy of Satyavati; she had rejected marriage proposals from even "Brahmarishis" like Asita.


title: Satyavati

text: Devavrata renounced his claim to the throne in favour of Satyavati's son, but the fisherman contended that Devavrata's children might dispute his grandson's claim. Intensely, Devavrata pledged the "terrible" vow of Brahmacharya - celibacy. The fisherman immediately gave Satyavati to Devavrata, who was henceforth called Bhishma ("the One whose vows are terrible"). Bhishma presented Satyavati to Shantanu, who married her.


title: Satyavati

text: In the "Devi Bhagavata Purana", Satyavati's premarital first-born, Vyasa, laments that his mother abandoned him to fate immediately after birth. He returns to his birthplace in search of his mother who, he finds out, is now the queen of Hastinapur.


title: Satyavati

text: After their marriage, Satyavati bore Shantanu two sons: Chitrangada and Vichitravirya. The "Harivamsa" tells of Bhishma recalling events after Shantanu's death. During the period of mourning after Shantanu's death, Ugrayudha Paurava (usurper of the throne of Panchala) demanded that Bhishma hand over Satyavati in return for wealth. Bhishma killed Ugrayudha Paurava, who had lost his powers because he lusted after another's wife. However, the "Mahabharata" does not include this event; it only describes Bhishma crowning Chitrangada as king under Satyavati's command. Chitrangada was later killed by a namesake gandharva (a celestial musician).


title: Satyavati

text: After Chitrangada's death, his young brother Vichitravirya was crowned king, while Bhishma ruled on his behalf (under Satyavati's command) until Vichitravirya grew up. Vichitravirya married the princesses of Kashi-Kosala: Ambika and Ambalika, who were won by Bhishma in a "Swayamvara" (marriage choice). The childless Vichitravirya met with an untimely death from tuberculosis.


title: Satyavati

text: With no heir to the throne, Satyavati asked Bhishma to marry the widows of Vichitravirya (following the practice of "niyoga" in its narrower sense, as a levirate marriage) and rule as king. Bhishma refused, reminding Satyavati of the promise he made to his father and his vow of bachelorhood. He suggests that a Brahmin could be hired to father children on the widows, thus preserving the dynasty. Revealing to Bhishma the tale of her encounter with Parashara, Satyavati well knew that this was the time to call her son Vyasa to aid her. Satyavati coaxed Vyasa to have "niyoga" with his brother's widows, saying: "from affection for thy brother Vichitravirya, for the perpetuation of our dynasty, for the sake of this Bhishma's request and my command, for kindness to all creatures, for the protection of the people and from the liberality of thy heart, O sinless one, it behooveth thee to do what I say." After convincing Vyasa, Satyavati managed (with great difficulty) to obtain the consent of her "virtuous" daughters-in-law. In the "Mahabharata", Vyasa agreed immediately to the "niyoga". In the "Devi Bhagavata Purana" version, Vyasa initially refused Satyavati's proposal. He argued that Vichitravirya's wives were like his daughters; having "niyoga" with them was a heinous sin, through which no good could come. As a master of "realpolitik", the hungry-for-grandsons Satyavati asserted that to preserve the dynasty, wrong directives by elders should be followed if they are going to reduce the sorrow of a mother. Vyasa finally agreed to that "disgusting task", but suggested that offspring of perversity cannot be a source of joy.


title: Satyavati

text: During the fertile period of the older queen, Ambika, Satyavati sent Vyasa to Ambika's bedchamber. During coitus with Vyasa, Ambika noticed his dark complexion and closed her eyes. Vyasa declared to Satyavati that due to Ambika's cruelty, her son would be blind (but strong) and have a hundred sons – later known as Kauravas (descendants of Kuru). Satyavati considered such an heir to be an unworthy king, so she asked Vyasa to have "niyoga" with her younger daughter-in-law. During their niyoga, Ambalika fell pale due to Vyasa's grim appearance. As the result the child would be wan, Vyasa told his mother, who begged for another child. In due course, the blind Dhritarashtra and the pale Pandu were born. Satyavati again invited Vyasa to Ambika's bed-chamber; she remembered Vyasa's grim appearance (and repulsive odour), and substituted a Shudra (lowest caste) maid in her place. The maid respected the sage and was not afraid of him, and Vyasa thus blessed her; her son would be the most intelligent man, and she would no longer be a slave. Vyasa told Satyavati of the deception, and then disappeared; Vidura, an incarnation of the god Dharma, was born to the maid.


title: Satyavati

text: Consequently, due to Dhritarashtra's blindness and Vidura's birth from a maid, Pandu was crowned king of Hastinapur. However, he was cursed (by a sage) that he could not bear any children, renounced the kingdom and went to the forest with his wives Kunti and Madri. There, his wives had children – the Pandavas, or "sons of Pandu" – for him through "niyoga" with the gods. Pandu died in the forest; Madri ended her life with her husband. Kunti returned to Hastinapur with the Pandavas. Satyavati was grief-stricken because of her grandson's untimely death and did not wish to live any longer. After the funerary rites for Pandu, Vyasa warned Satyavati that happiness would end in the dynasty and devastating events would occur in the future (leading to the destruction of her kin), which she would not be able to bear in her old age. At Vyasa's suggestion, Satyavati left for the forest to do penance with her daughters-in-law Ambika and Ambalika. In the forest, she died and attained heaven. Within some days her daughters-in-law died too.


title: Satyavati

text: Dhanalakshmi Ayyer, author of "Satyavati: Blind Ambition", introduces Satyavati as "the embodiment of the driving force of womanhood, with motherly ambition blinding her vision at every turn" and further says that "[i]n a way, Satyavati exemplifies what Rudyard Kipling succinctly put":


title: Satyavati

text: For Satyavati the end matters, not the means. Satyavati's life goal and ambition was to ensure the succession of Santanu's lineage and inheritance of his fortune by her sons but ironically (Ayyer comments), Bhishma - whose right to the throne Satyavati snatches - outlives her children in life and in fame. Her actions (and decisions) create a generation encompassed by a greed which ultimately leads to its annihilation. Ayyer concludes that "Satyavati's story teaches the new generation women that determination and commitment are different from avarice and calculation. One should know where greed takes over from ambition."


title: Satyavati

text: Pradip Bhattacharya, author of "Of Kunti and Satyawati: Sexually Assertive Women of the Mahabharata", praises Satyavati's handling of her encounter with the sage Parashara. He notes that although young, she tackles the persistent sage with great maturity and presence of mind. Bhattacharya remarks, "With a maturity and frankness that astonishes us even in the twenty-first century, she points out that coitus ought to be mutually enjoyable." She is not deluded by the belief that the sage will marry her and asks for virginity to ensure her future status in society. Bhattacharya further comments on the sequence of her requests: the bodily fragrance to make the sexual act pleasant for both, the veil of mist to keep the act a secret, virginal status for her future and fame for her child – securing his fame and after practical aspects are sorted out, "eternally feminine" boons of lifelong youth and fragrance. Bhattacharya says: "Modern-day women could well wish that they were half as confident, clear-headed and assertive of their desires and goals as Satyavati." He further praises her "characteristic far-sightedness", when she ensures the future of her children with Santanu by disposing of the crown prince Bhishma. She brings her illegitimate son, Vyasa, onto the scene to father sons with her dead son's widows – turning the renowned "lunar dynasty, into the lineage of a "dasa" (slave) maiden".


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: Jo Ann Pflug was born in Atlanta, Georgia, to J. Lynn and Kelly Pflug. She was raised in Winter Park, Florida, where her father was elected mayor in 1958, and she graduated from Winter Park High School, Rollins College, and the University of Miami, receiving her BA in broadcasting and her minor in American history.


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: She had a weekly radio show called "The Magic Carpet", where she was the storyteller, and for four years hosted a weekly live interview talk show called "Montage". Her background in interviewing led her to be the first woman to have a live weekly TV talk show in the late 1960s in Los Angeles, on KHJ-TV (now KCAL-TV, channel 9).


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: Her first screen credit is in 1966 as Woman in Control Booth in Cyborg 2087. She also was the voice of Invisible Girl in the 1967 animated version of "Fantastic Four".


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: Pflug's first major role was as U.S. Army nurse Lt. Maria "Dish" Schneider in the 1970 film "M*A*S*H". Also in 1970, she starred in an episode of "Marcus Welby, M.D." titled "To Carry the Sun in a Golden Cup", in which she played an ailing nurse.


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: She appeared in "Catlow" (1971) with Yul Brynner, "Where Does It Hurt?" (1972) starring Peter Sellers, and as Lt. Katherine O'Hara in the television series spin-off of "Operation Petticoat" (1979).


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: Pflug was the co-star of the made-for-television movie "The Night Strangler" (1973) (a sequel to the movie "The Night Stalker" (1972), and a precursor of the TV series "" (1974–75). She starred in the TV werewolf movie "Scream of the Wolf" (1974) alongside Peter Graves and Clint Walker.


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: Pflug was a frequent panelist on the television game show "Match Game" from 1973 until 1981, a co-host with Allen Funt on the 1970s version of "Candid Camera", and a regular in the TV series "The Fall Guy" for the 1981–1982 season.


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: In 1984, she was the first actress to play Taylor Chapin in the syndicated soap opera "Rituals". She made guest appearances on many television series, including "McCloud", "The Love Boat", "CHiPs", "The Dukes of Hazzard", "One Day at a Time", "Knight Rider", "Love, American Style", "Adam-12", "Quincy, M.E.", "Alias Smith and Jones", "Charlie's Angels" and "The Colbys".


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: Later roles include Boss Jack's wife in "Traveller" (1997), and Cynthia Vaughn in "Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil" (1997).


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: A resident of Tequesta, Florida, in 2011 she interviewed Pat Boone, Shirley MacLaine and other celebrities for "The Jo Ann Pflug Show" on Seaview Radio.


title: Jo Ann Pflug

text: Pflug married Chuck Woolery in 1972 at the Knowles Memorial Chapel at Rollins College in Orlando, Florida. They had a daughter, Melissa. The couple divorced in 1980. She married Charles Young in 1988.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: The North Crimean Canal (, , in the Soviet Union: North Crimean Canal of the Lenin's Komsomol of Ukraine) is a land improvement canal for irrigation and watering of Kherson Oblast in southern Ukraine and the Crimean Peninsula. The canal has multiple branches throughout Kherson Oblast and Crimea.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: Preparation for construction began in 1957, soon after the transfer of Crimea to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1954. The main project works took place in three stages between 1961 and 1971. The construction was conducted by the Komsomol members sent by the Komsomol travel ticket ("Komsomolskaya putyovka") as part of shock construction projects and accounted for some 10,000 volunteer workers.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: Ukraine shut down the canal in 2014 soon after Russia annexed Crimea. Russia restored the flow of water in March 2022 during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: A 2015 study found that the canal had been providing 85% of Crimea's water prior to the 2014 shutdown. Of the water from the canal, 72% went to agriculture and 10% to industry, while water for drinking and other public uses made up 18%.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: The canal begins at the city of Tavriisk, where it draws from the Kakhovka Reservoir fed by the Dnieper river, and runs for in a generally southeasterly direction, terminating at the small village of Zelnyi Yar (Lenine Raion). From there, a pipeline carries water to supply the city of Kerch at the eastern extreme of the Crimean Peninsula. Seven water reservoirs lie along the main canal – they are Mizhhirne, Feodosiiske, Frontove, Leninske, Samarlynske, Starokrymske and Stantsiine (Kerchenske).


title: North Crimean Canal

text: Water flows by gravity from Tavriisk to Dzhankoi, where it is elevated by four pump stations to a height of over to energize its continued downstream flow. In Crimea, numerous smaller canals branch off the main channel, including the Razdolne rice canal, Azov rice canal, Krasnohvardiiske distribution canal, Uniting canal, and Saky canal. Through these, water is also supplied to the city of Simferopol.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: The idea to construct the canal was raised in the 19th century, particularly by the Russian-Finnish botanist Christian von Steven. It was not until after World War II when the decision was adopted in September 1950 by the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union and the Government of the Soviet Union. The decision was to build the Kakhovka Hydro Electric Station, South Ukrainian and North Crimean canals. In 1951 the Soviet postal service released a commemorative post stamp where the North Crimean Canal was categorized as one of the Great Construction Projects of Communism.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: Construction of the canal and irrigation systems began in 1957 and was carried out in several stages. The first stage opened in October 1963, carrying water as far as Krasnoperekopsk in the north. In 1965 the canal was completed as far as the city of Dzhankoi in the center of Crimea. In 1971 the city of Kerch was reached. In December 1976 the canal was officially put into operation.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: After the Maidan revolution and the subsequent Russian annexation of Crimea in March 2014, Ukrainian authorities greatly reduced the volume of water flowing to the peninsula via the canal, citing a huge outstanding debt owed by Crimea for water supplied in 2013. This included a semi-secret project organized by presidential aide Andriy Senchenkoto that dammed the canal south of Kalanchak, about north of the Crimean border, which began a severe . The reduction caused the peninsula's agricultural harvest, which is heavily dependent on irrigation, to fail in 2014.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: Crimean water sources were connected to the North Crimean Canal to replace the former Ukrainian sources. The objective was to restore irrigation and urban supplies to the Kerch Peninsula and to smaller communities on the east coast of Crimea. In 2014, a reservoir was built to store water of the rivers of Eastern Crimea near the village of Novoivanovka, Nyzhnohirskyi Raion. The North Crimean Canal is connected with the Novoivanovka reservoir.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: According to official Russian statistics, the Crimean agricultural industry fully overcame the consequences of the blocking of the North Crimean Canal and crop yields grew by a factor of 1.5 from 2013 by 2016. The reported rapid growth in agricultural production in Crimea is due to the fact that, with the help of subsidies in the order of 2–3 billion rubles a year from the budget of the Russian Federation, agricultural producers in Crimea were able to increase their fleet of agricultural machinery.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: These official statistics contrast with reports of a massive shrinkage in the area under cultivation in Crimea, from 130,000 hectares in 2013 to just 14,000 in 2017, and an empty canal and a nearly dry reservoir resulting in widespread water shortages, with water only being available for three to five hours a day in 2021. That same year, the "New York Times" cited senior American officials as stating that securing Crimea's water supply could be an objective of a possible incursion by Russia into Ukraine.


title: North Crimean Canal

text: On 24 February 2022, the first day of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Russian troops advancing from Crimea established control over the North Crimean Canal. The Head of the Republic of Crimea, Sergey Aksyonov, told local authorities to prepare the canal to receive water from the Dnieper river and resume the supply of water. Two days later, Russian forces used explosives to destroy the dam that had been blocking the flow since 2014, and water supply resumed.


title: Karl Hanke

text: Karl August Hanke (24 August 1903 – 8 June 1945) was an official of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) during its rule over Germany and served as the fifth and last "Reichsführer" of the "Schutzstaffel" (SS). He also served as "Gauleiter" of Gau Lower Silesia from 1941 to 1945 and as "Oberpräsident" of the Prussian Province of Lower Silesia. Captured on 6 May 1945, he was shot and wounded during an escape attempt and then beaten to death by Czech communists on 8 June, after the war had ended.


title: Karl Hanke

text: Hanke was born in Lauban (present-day Lubań) in Silesia, on 24 August 1903. His older brother was killed in World War I. Hanke was too young for service in the war and attended Gymnasium through Obersekunda. He served in the Reichswehr as a "Zeitfreiwilliger" (temporary volunteer) in the 19th Infantry Regiment (von Courbiere) at Frankfurt/Oder from 1920 to 1921.


title: Karl Hanke

text: Hanke obtained an education as a milling engineer by attending the German Millers' School at Dippoldiswalde. He then decided to obtain a year's practical experience as a railway workshop apprentice before returning to milling. From 1921 to around 1926, Hanke mainly worked in the milling industry, serving as a business manager for mills in the vicinity of Silesia, Bavaria, and Tyrol. He later attended the "Berufspädagogische Institut" in Berlin, receiving a degree that qualified him to teach milling at vocational schools. Later in 1928, he worked in Berlin-Steglitz as a master miller. After this he became a vocational instructor at a technical school in Berlin.


title: Karl Hanke

text: Hanke joined the Nazi Party on 1 November 1928, with membership number 102606. Hanke began his career at the somewhat low level of "Amtswalter", a low ranking speaker and factory cell organizer in Berlin. He joined the "Sturmabteilung" (SA) Reserve in 1929; that same year he became a deputy street cell leader. In 1930 he was promoted to street cell leader ("Strassenzellenleiter") and then a section leader ("Sektionsführer") in Berlin.


title: Karl Hanke

text: Hanke was fired from his teaching position at the vocational school in April 1931 for his political agitation for the Nazi Party. He went to work full-time for the party. By late 1931, he was "Kreisleiter" (ward leader) of Westend in Berlin, working under Berlin's "Gauleiter" Joseph Goebbels. In 1932, Hanke was made chief Gau organizational director and on 1 April 1932, personal adjutant and "Referent" (advisor) to Goebbels in his capacity as propaganda director of the NSDAP ("Reichspropagandaleiter der NSDAP").


title: Karl Hanke

text: In his position as "Kreisleiter" of Westend in Berlin, Hanke was the first party official to establish contact with the young architect Albert Speer. Hanke contracted Speer to convert a villa in the western suburbs into an office for the local party organization in 1932. Hanke and Speer became close friends. In 1944, according to Speer's book ("Inside the Third Reich"), Hanke strongly advised Speer never to visit "a camp in Upper Silesia" (Auschwitz) for any reason. Hanke had ""seen something that he was not allowed to describe and indeed could not describe.""


title: Karl Hanke

text: Adolf Hitler took an early liking to the outspoken young Hanke, who by April 1932 had become an NSDAP delegate to the Prussian State Parliament ("Landtag"). Later in November 1932, Hanke was elected to the German Parliament ("Reichstag") on the slate of the NSDAP, representing Potsdam. He held this seat until the end of the war in Europe.


title: Karl Hanke

text: Hanke again secured a task for Albert Speer in July 1932, having him build a headquarters for the Berlin NSDAP in the centre of the city (at "Vossstrasse" 11). Following the Nazi takeover of power and the parliamentary elections of March 1933, Goebbels established the Propaganda Ministry ("Propagandaministerium"). Hanke followed his boss there as his private secretary and aide. At the time, Hanke was a favorite of Goebbels and accompanied his boss on official visits to Italy and Poland. On 15 February 1934, Hanke joined the "Allgemeine SS" or general SS with membership number 203,103. He was attached to the 6th SS-Standarte which was situated in Berlin. This led to Hanke serving as a special duties officer on the staff of the "Reichsfuhrer-SS" Heinrich Himmler from January 1935 through 1 April 1936. Then in late 1937, he was promoted to State Secretary (Deputy Minister) in the Propaganda Ministry. The effective date for the promotion being 15 January 1938. Also in January 1938, he became second vice president of the "Reichskulturkammer" (Reich Chamber of Culture; RKK) succeeding Walther Funk.


title: Karl Hanke

text: Hanke's seemingly unstoppable ascent on the coattails of Goebbels came to a sudden, albeit temporary, halt when he was drawn into the marital affairs of Joseph Goebbels and his wife, Magda. Goebbels had many extramarital affairs. By the winter of 1937, Goebbels began an intense affair with the Czech actress Lída Baarová. After Magda Goebbels learned of this, she had a long conversation with Hitler about it on 15 August 1938. Hitler was very fond of Magda and the Goebbels' young children. He demanded that Goebbels break off the affair. Thereafter, Joseph and Magda seemed to reach a "truce" until the end of September. The couple had another falling out at that point. Goebbels asked Hanke to act as a mediator with Magda on his behalf, but things did not go well. Hanke also spoke with Hitler as to the matter, who stated he would discuss it in private with Joseph Goebbels. Hitler became involved to make the couple stay together. Later in July 1939, Magda confessed to her husband that beginning in October 1938, she had an affair with Hanke. Hitler once again became involved and told the Goebbels they had to stay together and the affair was ended. Joseph Goebbels immediately sent Hanke off on vacation. Hanke did not subsequently return to his position at the Propaganda Ministry.