title: Melvin Manhoef

text: Manhoef next faced Alexander Shlemenko on 13 February 2015 at Bellator 133. He lost via knockout early in the second round. On 17 March 2015 Shlemenko was suspended indefinitely for failing a post fight drug test with elevated testosterone levels. The fight result was changed to a no contest.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: Manhoef faced Rafael Carvalho on 20 May 2016 for the Bellator Middleweight World Championship at Bellator 155. Manhoef lost a controversial split decision. Bellator announcer Jimmy Smith called it one of the worst decisions he had ever seen in the promotion; likewise, 5 of 5 media outlets scored the bout in favor of Manhoef.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: An immediate rematch with Carvalho was scheduled to take place at Bellator 168, on 10 December 2016. However, Carvalho pulled out of the fight due to injury. The rematch eventually took place on 8 April 2017 at Bellator 176. Manhoef lost the bout via knockout due to a head kick in the fourth round.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: Manhoef made a comeback to kickboxing and faced Remy Bonjasky for the fourth time, after losing three times, on 29 October 2017. Manhoef won the bout by decision. He announced his retirement from kickboxing and stated that he would focus on his MMA career.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: In May 2018 it was revealed that Manhoef and Bellator had come to terms for an exclusive, multi-fight contract.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: Manhoef was scheduled to face Chidi Njokuani on 30 November 2018 at Bellator 210. However, on 1 November 2018 it was reported that Manhoef pulled out from the event due to injury and he was replaced by John Salter.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: After over two years away from MMA action, Manhoef returned and faced Kent Kauppinen at Bellator 223. He won the fight by unanimous decision.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: As the ultimate bout of his prevailing contract, Manhoef next headlined Bellator Milan against Yannick Bahati on 12 October 2019. Manhoef won the bout via technical knockout in the first round. Subsequently, Manhoef signed a two-fight contract extension with the organization.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: Manhoef was next expected to face Simon Biyong at Bellator 248 on 10 October 2020. However, the bout was scrapped an Manhoef instead faced Corey Anderson at Bellator 251 on 5 November 2020. He was defeated via second round TKO.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: Manhoef was scheduled to fight Yoel Romero on May 6, 2022 at Bellator 280. However, Manhoef withdrew from the bout due to a hand injury and was replaced by Alex Polizzi. The pair was rescheduled to meet at Bellator 285 on September 23, 2022. He lost the bout via knockout on the ground via elbows in the third round. Manhoef retired from mixed martial arts after the fight.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: Despite his retirement months ago, Manhoef is scheduled to face Igor Tanabe on December 28, 2022 at Inoki Bom-Ba-Ye x Ganryujima.


title: Melvin Manhoef

text: On 29 March 2022, Manhoef and other neighbourhood residents apprehended three alleged burglars who had targeted his home near Amsterdam. He stopped the men from fleeing in a car by performing a PIT maneuver, and then, with the assistance of neighbours, detained the suspects until police arrived. Manhoef gave a statement to police afterwards, although legal ramifications of his actions are unclear.


title: Mea culpa

text: The phrase comes from a Western Christian prayer of confession of sinfulness, known as the "Confiteor", used in the Roman Rite at the beginning of Mass or when receiving the sacrament of Penance. Grammatically, "" is in the ablative case, with an instrumental meaning.


title: Mea culpa

text: At the sight of the crucifixion of Jesus in the Gospels, "the whole crowd who came together to that sight, seeing what had been done, beat their breasts and returned"."


title: Mea culpa

text: In the present form of the Confiteor as used in the celebration of Mass, "mea culpa" is said three times, the third time with the addition of the adjective "maxima" ("very great", usually translated as "most grievous"), and is accompanied by the gesture of beating the breast.


title: Mea culpa

text: According to Adrian Fortescue, the inclusion in the "Confiteor" of the phrase "mea culpa" can be traced back only to the 16th century.


title: Mea culpa

text: However, the Latin phrase "mea culpa" was used, even in an English context, earlier than that. Geoffrey Chaucer's 14th-century "Troilus and Criseyde" uses it in a way that shows it was already a traditional religious phrase: "Now, "mea culpa", lord! I me repente."


title: Mea culpa

text: Although the "Confiteor" was not then part of the Mass, it was used in administering the sacrament of Penance. In some forms it already included the phrase "mea culpa". Thus the 9th-century "Paenitentiale Vallicellanum II" had a thrice-repeated "mea culpa" (without "maxima") in its elaborate form of the "Confiteor".


title: Mea culpa

text: In about 1220, the rite of public penance in Siena for those who had committed murder required the penitent to throw himself on the ground three times, saying: "Mea culpa; peccavi; Domine miserere mei" ("Through my fault. I have sinned. Lord, have mercy on me").


title: Time Variance Authority

text: The Time Variance Authority (TVA) is a fictional organization, a group of timeline monitors appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: In the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), Chronicoms, based on the lower-ranked TVA Chronomonitors, are introduced in the fourth season finale of the ABC series "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D." in 2017, recurring through to its series finale in 2020, while the TVA is featured in the 2021 Disney+ series "Loki" and the promotional "The Simpsons" short film "The Good, the Bart, and the Loki", primarily embodied by Ravonna Renslayer (portrayed by Gugu Mbatha-Raw) and Mobius M. Mobius (portrayed by Owen Wilson) and controlled by He Who Remains (portrayed by Jonathan Majors) through Miss Minutes (voiced by Tara Strong); a different TVA operating under an unidentified variation of Kang (also Majors) is also introduced in the first season finale.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: The Time Variance Authority (TVA) first appeared in "Thor" #372 (October 1986). Created by Walt Simonson and Sal Buscema, the TVA originally paid homage to long-time Marvel writer/editor and continuity expert Mark Gruenwald: the TVA staff were all visually designed as clones of Gruenwald (the classification system for alternate realities—the Marvel multiverse—was devised, in part, by Gruenwald).


title: Time Variance Authority

text: Writer Roy Thomas and Sal's brother, artist John Buscema, had previously explored the concept of a Marvel multiverse with Marvel's evil Justice League correlates, called the Squadron Sinister, in "Avengers" #69 (1969). Thomas later introduced a heroic version of the Squadron Sinister named the Squadron Supreme, which first appeared in "Avengers" #85–86 (February–March 1971), and which was co-created with John Buscema.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: In 1985–1986, Mark Gruenwald wrote a deconstructionist multiverse storyline featuring the Squadron Supreme in a self-titled twelve-issue limited series.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: The concept of a timeline monitoring organization had previously been explored in a Captain Britain story arc originally published in the Marvel UK series "The Daredevils" #6–8 (1983). Written by Alan Moore and Alan Davis, Captain Britain is brought outside of time to the Supreme Omniversal Tribunal in Eden Place to testify before Lord Mandragon, Majestrix of the Dimensional Development Court, on behalf of the former majestrix, Opal Luna Saturnyne. Saturnyne is accused of failing to protect the multiverse from the creation of a deviant version of Earth-238.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: Prior to Captain Britain's testimony, Mandragon declares that the Earth-238 universe must be "removed" from the multiverse before it destroys the continuums of the other universes. Saturnyn's legal counsel, a faceless being referred to as Lord Chancellor, objects, as the destruction of the Earth-238 universe will destroy material evidence of Saturnyne's innocence. Lord Mandragon overrules the defense's objection, citing Ominversal Writ clause 723-801-(d). He then proceeds to remove the dangerous deviant timestream using crystal technology.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: It is revealed during the trial that the prime Earth that exists in Marvel Comics is Earth-616. (Because of this story, Alan Moore is usually credited with naming the mainstream Marvel Universe "Earth-616." However, Alan Davis has said that it was invented by Dave Thorpe, the previous writer of the UK-published "Captain Britain" stories.)


title: Time Variance Authority

text: While Captain Britain's 1983 story arc does not mention the Time Variance Authority, the Dimensional Development Court contains elements that were plainly retconned by Walt Simonson and Sal Buscema and in subsequent incarnations (such as the TVA employees—chronomonitors—functioning and appearing in new universes in the same manner as the Captain Britain Corps). According to Mark Gruenwald's widow Catherine, Gruenwald's 1985 Squadron Supreme limited series was the work about which he was the proudest.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: The TVA claims responsibility for monitoring the multiverse and can prune timelines if they are deemed too dangerous to exist. They also take action to prevent other beings from altering the past or future. They were first seen allowing Justice Peace, a lawman from the future, to travel to the 20th century in order to stop the killer Zaniac. Peace is able to succeed in his mission thanks to the assistance of Thor.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: Despite their claims, the TVA's influence over time is not absolute. The scope of their influence is bordered by Alioth in the distant past as well as Kang the Conqueror, the Delubric Consortium, and Revelation at different eras throughout the timescape. There have also been numerous incidents of time travel or reality tampering where the TVA has failed to interfere.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: At the End of Time, the last Director of the TVA known as He Who Remains creates the Time-Keepers, the last three beings who exist in the remaining timeline in the universe, who subsequently enslave Immortus. The process also ends up creating the Time Twisters, a trio of beings who imperiled all realities until stopped by Thor and other members of the Avengers.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: The TVA are next seen utilizing the law-firm that She-Hulk works for on several instances and laws. Jurors for cases are plucked from time soon before they actually die, minimizing the effects on the time stream. This also establishes the tendencies for time-travelers to go through genetic scrambling, also to minimize the effect on the time-stream. Notably, the scrambling tends to cause similar appearances among various males who undergo the process. A defendant who is found guilty in one of these trials is executed with a weapon called the Retroactive Cannon, or Ret-Can (a reference to retroactive continuity, or "retcon", a practice used by storytellers to add previously unknown material to an event or remove previously established material from an event in a previous story), which erases the victim, deleting their existence from the universe by undoing their birth and entire history. She-Hulk herself was handed this harsh sentence, but it was overturned as a reward when she helped defeat the villain Clockwise.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: Lower-ranked TVA employees, called Chronomonitors, are literally faceless. They are created artificially, using "quantum technology". The moment a new reality appears, a new faceless agent is created to monitor it, along with the necessary equipment (a personal computer-like device, plus a desk and a chair) to do so. Cloned managers of the Chronomonitors resemble Mark Gruenwald—and, later, Tom DeFalco—both longtime Marvel Comics writers. The most frequent recurring manager is Mobius M. Mobius, a Gruenwald clone.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: On occasion, the TVA hires mercenaries for use in the more dangerous missions, such as Justice Peace and Death's Head. These mercenaries often lose limbs which the TVA replaces with clunky robotic parts. Another example of their seemingly anachronistic technology is a time machine shaped like an old locomotive. Professor Justin Alphonse Gamble, a pastiche of the Doctor, is a renegade from the TVA.


title: Time Variance Authority

text: The Time Variance Authority (TVA), modeled after the MCU version, appears in "The Good, the Bart, and the Loki".


title: Cowpox

text: Cowpox is an infectious disease caused by the "cowpox virus" (CPXV). It presents with large blisters in the skin, a fever and swollen glands, historically typically following contact with an infected cow, though in the last several decades more often (though overall rarely) from infected cats. The hands and face are most frequently affected and the spots are generally very painful.


title: Cowpox

text: The virus, part of the genus "Orthopoxvirus", is closely related to the "vaccinia" virus. The virus is zoonotic, meaning that it is transferable between species, such as from cat to human. The transferral of the disease was first observed in dairymaids who touched the udders of infected cows and consequently developed the signature pustules on their hands. Cowpox is more commonly found in animals other than bovines, such as rodents. Cowpox is similar to, but much milder than, the highly contagious and often deadly smallpox disease. Its close resemblance to the mild form of smallpox and the observation that dairy farmers were immune to smallpox inspired the modern smallpox vaccine, created and administered by English physician Edward Jenner.


title: Cowpox

text: The first description of cowpox was given by Jenner in 1798. "Vaccination" is derived from the Latin adjective "vaccinus", meaning "of or from the cow". Once vaccinated, a patient develops antibodies that make them immune to cowpox, but they also develop immunity to the smallpox virus, or "Variola virus". The cowpox vaccinations and later incarnations proved so successful that in 1980, the World Health Organization announced that smallpox was the first disease to be eradicated by vaccination efforts worldwide. Other orthopox viruses remain prevalent in certain communities and continue to infect humans, such as the cowpox virus in Europe, vaccinia in Brazil, and monkeypox virus in Central and West Africa.


title: Cowpox

text: Naturally occurring cases of cowpox were not common, but it was discovered that the vaccine could be "carried" in humans and reproduced and disseminated human-to-human. Jenner's original vaccination used lymph from the cowpox pustule on a milkmaid, and subsequent "arm-to-arm" vaccinations applied the same principle. As this transfer of human fluids came with its own set of complications, a safer manner of producing the vaccine was first introduced in Italy. The new method used cows to manufacture the vaccine using a process called "retrovaccination", in which a heifer was inoculated with humanized cowpox virus, and it was passed from calf to calf to produce massive quantities efficiently and safely. This then led to the next incarnation, "true animal vaccine", which used the same process but began with naturally-occurring cowpox virus, and not the humanized form.


title: Cowpox

text: This method of production proved to be lucrative and was taken advantage of by many entrepreneurs needing only calves and seed lymph from an infected cow to manufacture crude versions of the vaccine. W. F. Elgin of the National Vaccine Establishment presented his slightly refined technique to the Conference of State and Provincial Boards of Health of North America. A tuberculosis-free calf, stomach shaved, would be bound to an operating table, where incisions would be made on its lower body. Glycerinated lymph from a previously inoculated calf was spread along the cuts. After a few days, the cuts would have scabbed or crusted over. The crust was softened with sterilized water and mixed with glycerin, which disinfected it, then stored hermetically sealed in capillary tubes for later use.


title: Cowpox

text: At some point, the virus in use was no longer cowpox, but vaccinia. Scientists have not determined exactly when the change or mutation occurred, but the effects of vaccinia and cowpox virus as vaccine are nearly the same.


title: Cowpox

text: The virus is found in Europe, and mainly in the UK. Human cases today are very rare and most often contracted from domestic cats. The virus is not commonly found in cattle; the reservoir hosts for the virus are woodland rodents, particularly voles. From these rodents, domestic cats contract and transmit the virus to humans.


title: Cowpox

text: Symptoms in cats include lesions on the face, neck, forelimbs, and paws, and less commonly upper respiratory tract infections. Symptoms of infection with cowpox virus in humans are localized, pustular lesions generally found on the hands and limited to the site of introduction. The incubation period is 9 to 10 days. The virus is prevalent in late summer and autumn.


title: Cowpox

text: In the years from 1770 to 1790, at least six people who had contact with a cow had independently tested the possibility of using the cowpox vaccine as an immunization for smallpox in humans. Among them were the English farmer Benjamin Jesty, in Dorset in 1774 and the German teacher Peter Plett in 1791. Jesty inoculated his wife and two young sons with cowpox, in a successful effort to immunize them to smallpox, an epidemic of which had arisen in their town. His patients who had contracted and recovered from the similar but milder cowpox (mainly milkmaids), seemed to be immune not only to further cases of cowpox, but also to smallpox. By scratching the fluid from cowpox lesions into the skin of healthy individuals, he was able to immunize those people against smallpox.


title: Cowpox

text: Reportedly, farmers and people working regularly with cattle and horses were often spared during smallpox outbreaks. Investigations by the British Army in 1790 showed that horse-mounted troops were less infected by smallpox than infantry, due to probable exposure to the similar horsepox virus ("Variola equina"). By the early 19th century, more than 100,000 people in Great Britain had been vaccinated. The arm-to-arm method of transfer of the cowpox vaccine was also used to distribute Jenner's vaccine throughout the Spanish Empire. Spanish king Charles IV's daughter had been stricken with smallpox in 1798, and after she recovered, he arranged for the rest of his family to be vaccinated.


title: Cowpox

text: In 1803, the king, convinced of the benefits of the vaccine, ordered his personal physician Francis Xavier de Balmis, to deliver it to the Spanish dominions in North and South America. To maintain the vaccine in an available state during the voyage, the physician recruited 22 young boys who had never had cowpox or smallpox before, aged three to nine years, from the orphanages of Spain. During the trip across the Atlantic, de Balmis vaccinated the orphans in a living chain. Two children were vaccinated immediately before departure, and when cowpox pustules had appeared on their arms, material from these lesions was used to vaccinate two more children.


title: Cowpox

text: In 1796, English medical practitioner Edward Jenner tested the theory that cowpox could protect someone from being infected by smallpox. There had long been speculation regarding the origins of Jenner's variolae vaccinae, until DNA sequencing data showed close similarities between horsepox and cowpox viruses. Jenner noted that farriers sometimes milked cows and that material from the equine disease could produce a vesicular disease in cows from which variolae vaccinae was derived. Contemporary accounts provide support for Jenner's speculation that the vaccine probably originated as an equine disease called "grease".


title: Cowpox

text: Although cowpox originates on the udder of cows, Jenner took his sample from a milkmaid, Sarah Nelmes.


title: Cowpox

text: Jenner extracted the pus of one of the lesions formed by cowpox on Nelmes to James Phipps, an eight-year-old boy who had never had smallpox. He eventually developed a scab and fever that was manageable. Approximately six weeks later, Jenner then introduced an active sample of the smallpox virus into Phipps to test the theory. After being observed for an extended amount of time, it was recorded that Phipps did not receive a reaction from it. Although Jenner was not the first person to conceive the notion of cowpox protecting against the smallpox virus, his experiment proved the theory. It was later discovered that the cowpox vaccination only worked temporarily against the invasion of smallpox and the procedure would need to be repeated several times through one's lifetime to remain smallpox free.


title: Cowpox

text: In later years, Jenner popularized the experiment, calling it a vaccination from the Latin for cow, "vacca". The amount of vaccinations among people of that era increased drastically. It was widely considered to be a relatively safer procedure compared to the mainstream inoculation. Although Jenner was propelled into the spotlight from the vaccination popularity, he mainly focused on science behind why the cowpox allowed persons to not be infected by smallpox. The honour of the discovery of the vaccination is often attributed to Benjamin Jesty, but he was no scientist and did not repeat or publish his findings. He is considered to be the first to use cowpox as a vaccination, though the term vaccination was not invented yet.


title: Cowpox

text: During the midst of the smallpox outbreak, Jesty transferred pieces of cow udder which he knew had been infected with cowpox into the skin of his family members in the hopes of protecting them. Jesty did not publicize his findings, and Jenner, who performed his first inoculation 22 years later and publicized his findings, assumed credit. It is said that Jenner made this discovery by himself, possibly without knowing previous accounts 20 years earlier. Although Jesty may have been the first to discover it, Jenner made vaccination widely accessible and has therefore been credited for its invention.


title: Cowpox

text: The genome for the CPXV is over 220kbp. This makes it the largest genome in the Orthopoxviral species. It can be divided into three different regions. There are two end regions called R1 and R2 and a main central region that is roughly half of the size of the genome. There are also inverted terminal repeats that are located at the terminal sites of the genome and measure around 10kbp. These inverted terminal repeats can then be divided into two more distinct regions. The first section is around 7.5kbp long and includes a coding region. The other section includes a terminal region that can be repeated up to as many times as thirty and is composed of 50 nucleotides. The CPXV genome encodes only 30-40% of products of which are involved in the pathogenesis of the virus. The CPXV genome has the most complete set of genes out of all of the orthopoxviruses. This unique feature of CPXV makes it ideal to be able to mutate into different strains of the virus. It is a double stranded DNA virus. The virus does have an envelope that surrounds the virion. The cowpox's genome allows the virus to encode its own transcription machinery along with its own DNA replication machinery. The replication then takes place in the cytoplasm after the virus is in the cell and the virion is uncoated. The virion is then assembled and released from the host cell.


title: Cowpox

text: The genome is arranged so that both of the ends contain the genes responsible for evading the defenses from the immune system of the host which is only activated in the extracellular portion. These receptors are able to be stopped by cytokine and chemokine secretion by blocking the cytokine and chemokine found extracellularly. This is the process responsible for attachment and entry of the virion into the host cell. Because of the large size of the genome, it makes the virus more likely and capable to fight back against the immunes system defenses. Out of all of the poxviruses, CPXV has the most cytokine responses that fight back against the immune system. It encodes cytokine receptors such as TNF, CrmB, CrmC, CrmD, and CrmE proteins. Another set of receptors that CPXV have are lymphotoxins such as IL-1ß, IFN-y, IFN 1, β-chemokines, and IL-18. However, not all of the receptors of CPXV are still not known. CPXV also encodes four tumor necrosis factors (TNF) and lymphotoxin which are the biggest group of homologous receptors for the virus. These receptors play a crucial role that are involved with the immune system.


title: Cowpox

text: CPXV has two different types of inclusion bodies. All of the poxviruses have basophilic inclusions also called B-type inclusion bodies. The B-type inclusion bodies contain the factory where the virus produces necessary elements for the replication and maturation of the virion. CPXV has another inclusion body that is unique to only some chordopoxviruses called acidophilic inclusion bodies also called A-type inclusion bodies (ATIs). The ATIs are encoded by the cpxv158 gene and is then made the protein ATIP which is a late protein. However, the importance of these ATIs in the life cycle are still not well known or understood and research is still being done to better understand them. It is known that replication can still continue without the cpxv158 gene, and that the replication cycle shows no difference between a fully encoded virion versus the virion that had deleted cwpx158 gene. However, with studies done on mice, the lesions that were caused by the CPXV-BR△ati were able to heal faster due to less tissue that was lost than the CPXV-BR lesions that took longer to heal and lost more tissue. This suggests that this gene helps supports the idea that ATIs are partly involved in how the host responds to the virus infection.


title: Cowpox

text: Another way that the virus is able to control and infect the host is by regulating cellular signaling pathways. During the infection, CPXV is known to use MEK/ERK/1/2/Egr-1, JNK1/2, and PI3K/Akt pathways. Some of these pathways are not unique only to CPXV, but how they function in response to the host is unique to this virus.


title: Cowpox

text: One notable protein in the CPXV is the p28 protein. It is made up of 242 amino acids and contains two domains, and N terminal KilA-N and a C-terminal RING domain. One of those domains, the N-terminal KilA-N domain, allows for DNA to bind to it. The KilA-N domain facilitates this p28 protein that is translated early in the replication cycle in the cytoplasm and is then located in the cytoplasm for the rest of the life cycle of the virus. There is current research still being done to determine if the p28 protein could be a requital for an essential macrophage factor that is needed for the DNA replication.


title: Cowpox

text: The majority of the population at the time accepted the up-and-coming vaccination. However, there was still opposition from individuals who were reluctant to change from the inoculations. In addition, there became a growing concern from parties who were worried about the unknown repercussions of infecting a human with an animal disease. One way individuals expressed their discontent was to draw comics that sometimes depicted small cows growing from the sites of vaccination. Others publicly advocated for the continuance of the inoculations; however, this was not because of their discontent for the vaccinations. Some of their reluctance had to do with an apprehensiveness for change. They had become so familiar with the process, outcome, positives, and negatives of inoculations that they did not want to be surprised by the outcome or effects of the vaccinations. Jenner soon eased their minds after extensive trials. However, others advocated against vaccinations for different reason. Because of the high price of inoculation, Jenner experienced very few common folk who were not willing to accept the vaccination. Due to this, Jenner found many subjects for his tests. He was able to publish his results in a pamphlet in 1798: "An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of Variolae Vaccinae, a Disease, Discovered in some of the Western Counties of England particularly Gloucestershire, and known by the Name of Cow Pox."


title: Cowpox

text: After inoculation, vaccination using the cowpox virus became the primary defense against smallpox. After infection by the cowpox virus, the body (usually) gains the ability to recognize the similar smallpox virus from its antigens and is able to fight the smallpox disease much more efficiently.


title: Cowpox

text: The cowpox virus contains 186 thousand base pairs of DNA, which contains the information for about 187 genes. This makes cowpox one of the most complicated viruses known. Some 100 of these genes give instructions for key parts of the human immune system, giving a clue as to why the closely related smallpox is so lethal. The vaccinia virus now used for smallpox vaccination is sufficiently different from the cowpox virus found in the wild as to be considered a separate virus.


title: Cowpox

text: While the vaccination's popularity increased exponentially, so did its monetary value. This was realized by the British Parliament, which compensated Jenner 10,000 pounds for the vaccination. In addition, they later compensated Jenner an additional 20,000 pounds. In the coming years, Jenner continued advocacy for his vaccination over the still popular inoculation. Eventually, in 1840, the inoculation became banned in England and was replaced with the cowpox vaccination as the main medical solution to combat smallpox. The cowpox vaccination saved the British Army thousands of soldiers, by making them immune to the effects of smallpox in upcoming wars. The cowpox also saved the United Kingdom thousands of pounds.


title: Cowpox

text: Kinepox is an alternative term for the smallpox vaccine used in early 19th-century America. Popularized by Jenner in the late 1790s, kinepox was a far safer method for inoculating people against smallpox than the previous method, variolation, which had a 3% fatality rate.


title: Cowpox

text: In a famous letter to Meriwether Lewis in 1803, Thomas Jefferson instructed the Lewis and Clark Expedition to "carry with you some matter of the kine-pox; inform those of them with whom you may be, of its efficacy as a preservative from the smallpox; & encourage them in the use of it..." Jefferson had developed an interest in protecting American Indians from smallpox, having been aware of epidemics along the Missouri River during the previous century. A year before his special instructions to Lewis, Jefferson had persuaded a visiting delegation of North American Indian chieftains to be vaccinated with kinepox during the winter of 1801–1802. Unfortunately, Lewis never got the opportunity to use kinepox during the pair's expedition, as it had become inadvertently inactive—a common occurrence in a time before vaccines were stabilized with preservatives such as glycerol or kept at refrigeration temperatures.


title: Cowpox

text: Today, the virus is found in Europe, mainly in the UK. Human cases are very rare (though in 2010 a laboratory worker contracted cowpox) and most often contracted from domestic cats. Human infections usually remain localized and self-limiting, but can become fatal in immunosuppressed patients. The virus is not commonly found in cattle; the reservoir hosts for the virus are woodland rodents, particularly voles. Domestic cats contract the virus from these rodents. Symptoms in cats include lesions on the face, neck, forelimbs, and paws, and, less commonly, upper respiratory tract infections. Symptoms of infection with cowpox virus in humans are localized, pustular lesions generally found on the hands and limited to the site of introduction. The incubation period is nine to ten days. The virus is most prevalent in late summer and autumn.


title: Cowpox

text: Immunity to cowpox is gained when the smallpox vaccine is administered. Although the vaccine now uses vaccinia virus, the poxviruses are similar enough that the body becomes immune to both cow- and smallpox.


CISSP (Certified Information Systems Security Professional) is an independent information security certification granted by the International Information System Security Certification Consortium, also known as (ISC)².


title: Certified Information Systems Security Professional

text: In June 2004, the CISSP designation was accredited under the ANSI . It is also formally approved by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) in their Information Assurance Technical (IAT), Managerial (IAM), and System Architect and Engineer (IASAE) categories for their DoDD 8570 certification requirement.


text: In May 2020, The UK National Academic Recognition Information Centre assessed the CISSP qualification as a Level 7 award, the same level as a Masters degree. The change will enable cyber security professionals to use the CISSP certification towards higher education course credit and also open up new opportunities for roles that require or recognize master’s degrees.


text: In the mid-1980s, a need arose for a standardized, vendor-neutral certification program that provided structure and demonstrated competence. In November 1988, the Special Interest Group for Computer Security (SIG-CS), a member of the Data Processing Management Association (DPMA), brought together several organizations interested in this goal. The International Information Systems Security Certification Consortium or "(ISC)²" formed in mid-1989 as a non-profit organization.


text: By 1990, the first working committee to establish a "Common Body of Knowledge" (CBK) had been formed. The first version of the CBK was finalized by 1992, and the CISSP credential was launched by 1994.


text: The CISSP curriculum breaks the subject matter down into a variety of Information Security topics referred to as domains. The CISSP examination is based on what (ISC)² terms the Common Body of Knowledge (or CBK). According to (ISC)², "the CISSP CBK is a taxonomy – a collection of topics relevant to information security professionals around the world. The CISSP CBK establishes a common framework of information security terms and principles that allow information security professionals worldwide to discuss, debate and resolve matters pertaining to the profession with a common understanding."


text: From 1st May 2021 there will be a domain refresh that will impact the weighting of the domains, the domains themselves will not change.


text: From 2015 to early 2018, the CISSP curriculum was divided into eight domains similar to the latest curriculum above. The only domain to have changed its name was "Security Engineering," which in the 2018 revision was expanded to "Security Architecture and Engineering."


text: Holders of CISSP certifications can earn additional certifications in areas of speciality. There are three possibilities:


text: As of 1st July 2021, there were 2,158 (ISC)² members holding the CISSP-ISSAP certification worldwide.


text: As of 1st July 2021, there were 1,272 (ISC)² members holding the CISSP-ISSEP certification worldwide.


text: As of 1st July 2021, there were 1,324 (ISC)² members holding the CISSP-ISSMP certification worldwide.


text: The standard exam costs $749 US as of 2021. On completion of the exam, to gain certification you need to complete an endorsement process to evidence at least five years experience within a mix of the domains. A dispensation can be claimed for one year with the relevant academic qualification. The final step is payment of the annual maintenance fee of $125 (as of 2020).


text: The CISSP credential is valid for three years; holders renew either by submitting 40 Continuing Professional Education (CPE) credits per year over three years or re-taking the exam.


text: In 2005, "Certification Magazine" surveyed 35,167 IT professionals in 170 countries on compensation and found that CISSPs led their list of certificates ranked by salary. A 2006 "Certification Magazine" salary survey also ranked the CISSP credential highly, and ranked CISSP concentration certifications as the top best-paid credentials in IT.


text: In 2008, another study came to the conclusion that IT professionals with CISSP (or other major security certifications) and at least 5 years of experience tend to have salaries around US, about US (or 26%) higher than IT professionals with similar experience levels who do not have such certificates. Note that any actual cause-and-effect relationship between the certificate and salaries remains unproven.


text: As of 2017, a study by CyberSecurityDegrees.com surveyed some 10,000 current and historical cyber security job listings that preferred candidates holding CISSP certifications. CyberSecurityDegrees found that these job openings offered an average salary of more than the average cyber security salary.


text: ANSI certifies that CISSP meets the requirements of ANSI/ISO/IEC Standard 17024, a personnel certification accreditation program.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: Suppasit was born on 21 February 1991. He graduated secondary school from Kasetsart University Laboratory School.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: For his Bachelor's degree, Suppasit studied at Kasetsart University, majoring in industrial engineering where he graduated with First-Class Honors (Gold medal). He continued to pursue his Master's degree in industrial engineering at Chulalongkorn University where he also served as a Teaching Assistant in statistics under the university's Faculty of Engineering. Currently, he is studying for his PhD degree in industrial engineering at Chulalongkorn University.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: Suppasit initially started out in the entertainment industry by appearing in various commercial advertisements and music videos. He was also cast in the Thai version of the Australian mock-dating reality show Taken Out, "Take Me Out Thailand" and its spin-off show "Take Me Out Reality". Suppasit then began his acting career in the Thai boys' love (BL) series "I Am Your King" in 2017. The following year, he was cast in his first main role in the BL series, "What The Duck: The Series" (2018), as "Pree". Due to the series' popularity, it was confirmed that a second season would start filming. "What The Duck 2: The Final Call", premiered on March 18, 2019, on LINE TV.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: In early 2019, it was announced that Suppasit would star as "Tharn" - one of the main protagonists of GMM One's and LINE TV's "". The series immediately gained attention within Thailand as well as international audiences. Suppasit and his co-star Kanawut won "Best Kiss Scene" at the 2020 LINE TV Awards for a scene in "" and they were also the first BL couple to appear in the February issue of Harper's Bazaar Thailand. With the positive response to TharnType, a second season for the series titled "Tharntype The Series 2: 7 Years of Love" was announced and it premiered on November 6, 2020.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: In 2021, Suppasit starred in a short action film titled "Undefeated" by Garena Free Fire Thailand, along with Urassaya Sperbund and Luke Voyage. Suppasit also played the lead role of "Maen" in the mini-series "Super แม้น" (Super Maen) under the "Drama For All" project by Thai PBS. The project aimed to expand a communication boundary in the society, giving everyone equal access including the visually impaired and people with hearing disabilities.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: Suppasit is set to star in the romantic comedy series "Love Me Again" by VIU Thailand with Lapassalan Jiravechsoontornkul and "The Ocean Eyes", a series about the life of marine veterinarians, where he will also serve as the executive producer along with global filmmakers Rick McCallum of the Star Wars prequel trilogy, Herbert Primig and screenwriter Henry Gilroy as well as the Korean-Thai collaboration BL drama "Love Is Like A Cat", with members of the South Korean boy band Just B, JM and Geonu, and Korean actor Kim Kyoung Seok.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: Suppasit made his official debut as a singer upon the release of his first single titled ""Season of You"" on August 1, 2020. The song and music video were launched through a global press conference with the hashtag #SeasonOfYouGlobalPress trending number 1 on Twitter worldwide and in 16 other locations. It became the most tweeted hashtag on that day with over 1.2 million tweets.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: He went on to release other singles namely "Nan Na" (ft. NiceCNX), "Good Day", "THANOS", written and produced by Wan Thanakrit, and his first self-composed song, "Summer Fireworks".


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: On 1 August 2021, in celebration of the first anniversary of his official debut as a singer, Suppasit released his debut album titled "365" together with the music video of the album's promotional single, ""Drowning"". The album ranked at #3 on the worldwide iTunes album chart. It charted at # 1 in 18 countries, also entering the top 100 charts in 43 locations. With the success of the album, Suppasit became the first and only Thai artist to debut an album that reached # 13 on iTunes' Global Digital Artist Ranking. Five of the songs from the album made it to Billboard's World Digital Song Sales chart where the song ""Drowning"" rose to No. 4, closely followed by ""Missing You"" ft. Zom Marie (No. 5), ""Let Me Be"" ft. Autta (No. 6), ""More and More"" (No. 7) and finally ""Time Machine"" (No. 8). Suppasit is the first Thai artist to have entered this chart.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: On 5 October 2021, Mew Suppasit Studio launched the "Global Collaboration Project" wherein Suppasit will be working and doing music collaborations with various international artists. The first single under this project is "SPACEMAN", produced and written by English electronic music duo HONNE. Suppasit did the first live performance of the song at the annual Asia Song Festival 2021, where he was chosen as the representative artist of Thailand. Upon its release on iTunes, "SPACEMAN" entered the charts in over 40 locations and went up to #1 in 20 locations. It was also # 7 in the worldwide iTunes song chart. "SPACEMAN" made it to Billboard's Hot Trending Songs chart for 8 consecutive weeks, peaking at #2 in the weekly chart and #1 in the 24-hour chart, making Suppasit the first Thai and Southeast Asian act to enter the said chart.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: For the second part of his Global Collaboration Project, Suppasit worked with Korean singer-songwriter Sam Kim who, aside from featuring in the song, also wrote and produced their collaboration single titled ""Before 4:30 (She Said...)"". It entered the iTunes song chart in 53 locations, peaking at #1 in 21 countries, breaking Suppasit's previous record with "SPACEMAN". Additionally, the song also made it to #1 in the iTunes R&B song chart in 41 locations including the USA and #10 in the worldwide iTunes song chart. The music video, starring Suppasit and Kim alongside Miss Universe Thailand 2021 Anchilee Scott-Kemmis, was officially launched through a press conference held at River Park, ICONSIAM on December 20, 2021. The livestream of the press conference amassed over 2.9 million views in the Chinese microblogging website Weibo.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: "Before 4:30 (She Said...)" launched on two genre-specific Billboard charts at the same time as well as in the Hot Trending Songs chart. The song debuted at No. 4 on the R&B Digital Song Sales chart and at No. 8 on the R&B/Hip-Hop Digital Song Sales chart. Suppasit is the first Thai artist to achieve this feat.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: On 25 February 2021, Suppasit released a music video for his cover of Ed Sheeran's "Afterglow". The music video was criticized by online social media users for its similarity to another music video done by NCT's Jaehyun on his cover of "I Like Me Better" by Lauv. Suppasit later retracted the said video and held a press conference to acknowledge the similarity while denying that it was intentional. In November 2021, Suppasit and his studio filed a prosecution case against 10 people online for defamation and violation of Computer Act.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: On 5 May 2020, a management team was launched under the name "Mew Suppasit Studio", wherein Suppasit himself is the CEO. The team will be in charge of future official appearances regarding Suppasit and his endeavors.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: In September 2020, Suppasit appeared on the cover of Cosmopolitan Indonesia for their 23rd anniversary issue. He is the first male to be on the cover of Cosmopolitan Indonesia as well as the first Thai male to appear on the cover of ELLE Thailand magazine.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: Suppasit, along with June Teeratee, served as the MC of Workpoint TV's music program T-Pop Stage from its opening stage on February 8, 2021 until April 5, 2021.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: Suppasit is the current brand ambassador of Skechers Thailand since 2020 and one of the ambassadors of Candy Home Appliances since 2021. He was a campaign ambassador for Shopee Thailand, and a presenter for Playmore Thailand and Garena Free Fire Thailand. He was also named as the Brand Friend and presenter of TARO Fish Snack and the cosmetics brand Yves Rocher Thailand.


title: Suppasit Jongcheveevat

text: In 2022, Suppasit was chosen as the representative of the young generation in Thailand for Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC). He was also announced as the newest brand ambassador for CP Brand (Chili Pork Bologna) as well as the new presenter for Gangnam Clinic's Pure Whitening Cream. In September, on the occasion of the 5th anniversary of the online shopping application ThisShop, Suppasit was introduced as their new brand ambassador.


title: Glob (programming)

text: In computer programming, glob () patterns specify sets of filenames with wildcard characters. For example, the Unix Bash shell command mv *.txt textfiles/ moves (mv) all files with names ending in codice_1 from the current directory to the directory codice_2. Here, codice_3 is a wildcard standing for "any string of characters except /" and codice_4 is a glob pattern. The other common wildcard is the question mark (codice_5), which stands for one character. For example, mv ?.txt shorttextfiles/ will move all files named with a single character followed by codice_1 from the current directory to directory codice_7, while ??.txt would match all files whose name consists of 2 characters followed by codice_1.


title: Glob (programming)

text: In addition to matching filenames, globs are also used widely for matching arbitrary strings (wildcard matching). In this capacity a common interface is codice_9.


title: Glob (programming)

text: The glob command, short for "global", originates in the earliest versions of Bell Labs' Unix. The command interpreters of the early versions of Unix (1st through 6th Editions, 1969–1975) relied on a separate program to expand wildcard characters in unquoted arguments to a command: "/etc/glob". That program performed the expansion and supplied the expanded list of file paths to the command for execution.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Glob was originally written in the B programming language. It was the first piece of mainline Unix software to be developed in a high-level programming language. Later, this functionality was provided as a C library function, codice_10, used by programs such as the shell. It is usually defined based on a function named codice_11, which tests for whether a string matches a given pattern - the program using this function can then iterate through a series of strings (usually filenames) to determine which ones match. Both functions are a part of POSIX: the functions defined in POSIX.1 since 2001, and the syntax defined in POSIX.2. The idea of defining a separate match function started with wildmat (wildcard match), a simple library to match strings against Bourne Shell globs.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Traditionally, globs do not match hidden files in the form of Unix dotfiles; to match them the pattern must explicitly start with codice_12. For example, codice_3 matches all visible files while codice_14 matches all hidden files.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Normally, the path separator character ( on Linux/Unix, MacOS, etc. or on Windows) will never be matched. Some shells, such as Bash have functionality allowing users to circumvent this.


title: Glob (programming)

text: The ranges are also allowed to include pre-defined character classes, equivalence classes for accented characters, and collation symbols for hard-to-type characters. They are defined to match up with the brackets in POSIX regular expressions.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Unix globbing is handled by the shell per POSIX tradition. Globbing is provided on filenames at the command line and in shell scripts. The POSIX-mandated codice_15 statement in shells provides pattern-matching using glob patterns.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Some shells (such as the C shell and Bash) support additional syntax known as alternation or brace expansion. Because it is not part of the glob syntax, it is not provided in codice_15. It is only expanded on the command line before globbing.


title: Glob (programming)

text: The original DOS was a clone of CP/M designed to work on Intel's 8088 and 8086 processors. Windows shells, following DOS, do not traditionally perform any glob expansion in arguments passed to external programs. Shells may use an expansion for their own builtin commands:


title: Glob (programming)

text: Windows and DOS programs receive a long command-line string instead of argv-style parameters, and it is their responsibility to perform any splitting, quoting, or glob expansion. There is technically no fixed way of describing wildcards in programs since they are free to do what they wish. Two common glob expanders include:


title: Glob (programming)

text: Most other parts of Windows, including the Indexing Service, use the MS-DOS style of wildcards found in CMD. A relic of the 8.3 filename age, this syntax pays special attention to dots in the pattern and the text (filename). Internally this is done using three extra wildcard characters, . On the Windows API end, the equivalent is , and corresponds to its underlying . (Another fnmatch analogue is .) Both open-source msvcrt expanders use , so 8.3 filename quirks will also apply in them.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Standard SQL uses a glob-like syntax for simple string matching in its codice_18 operator, although the term "glob" is not generally used in the SQL community. The percent sign () matches zero or more characters and the underscore () matches exactly one.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Many implementations of SQL have extended the codice_18 operator to allow a richer pattern-matching language, incorporating character ranges (), their negation, and elements of regular expressions.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Globs do not include syntax for the Kleene star which allows multiple repetitions of the preceding part of the expression; thus they are not considered regular expressions, which can describe the full set of regular languages over any given finite alphabet.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Globs attempt to match the entire string (for example, matches S.DOC and SA.DOC, but not POST.DOC or SURREY.DOCKS), whereas, depending on implementation details, regular expressions may match a substring.


title: Glob (programming)

text: The original Mozilla proxy auto-config implementation, which provides a glob-matching function on strings, uses a replace-as-RegExp implementation as above. The bracket syntax happens to be covered by regex in such an example.


title: Glob (programming)

text: Beyond their uses in shells, globs patterns also find use in a variety of programming languages, mainly to process human input. A glob-style interface for returning files or an fnmatch-style interface for matching strings are found in the following programming languages:


title: Rutger Hauer filmography

text: The filmography of Rutger Hauer lists all his performances as an actor in films, television films, and television series from 1969 to his death, and in upcoming posthumous films.


title: Rutger Hauer filmography

text: Hauer said in the documentary film "Blond, Blue Eyes" (2006) that, from the beginning of his acting career, he has turned down most of the roles which held little interest for him. He has rarely accepted a role for the money. Hauer has also said he might have been brilliant in only two or three films. He considers his performance in " The Legend of the Holy Drinker" (1988) to have been one of these instances of brilliance.


title: Jilla

text: Jilla () is a 2014 Indian Tamil-language action drama film written and directed by R. T. Neason and produced by R. B. Choudary through the company Super Good Films. Starring Mohanlal and Vijay athe film revolves around the conflict between crime boss and his adopted son, a police officer whose life and approach towards law change after a violent incident. The film co-stars Kajal Aggarwal, Soori, Mahat, Nivetha Thomas, Sampath Raj and Pradeep Rawat. The film features soundtrack composed by D. Imman, with Ganesh Rajavelu and Don Max handling cinematography and editing respectively.


title: Jilla

text: The film released on 10 January 2014 and received generally positive reviews from critics, who praised the cast performances (particularly Mohanlal and Vijay), background score and action sequences, while the length was criticized and consequently trimmed by ten minutes. "Jilla" completed a 100-day theatrical run on 19 April 2014. The film had earned 85 crore in its entire run at the box office. The film was a commercial success. It was also screened in Japan in 2020.


title: Jilla

text: Shakthi is the adopted son of a Madurai-based crime boss, Sivan and is also his right-hand man, bodyguard and driver. Sivan lives happily with Shakthi, his wife, his son and daughter Vignesh and Mahalaskhmi. Shakthi hates the police due to a police officer killing his father, who was Sivan's driver, in his childhood. His hatred is such that he hates the khaki colour (which is worn by policemen in India), constantly teases his friend Gopal, who gets selected as a constable, and even loses romantic interest on a woman named Shanthi after he finds out that she is a police inspector. However, when Sivan is insulted by Ajay Rathore, a newly appointed police commissioner of Madurai, he forces Shakthi to become an IPS officer to save his crime syndicate and prove the commissioner's words wrong.


title: Jilla

text: Reluctantly taking charge as ACP of Madurai City East, Shakthi gives free rein to Sivan and his henchmen, who wreak havoc over Madurai, until one of their activities inadvertently causes a gas leak which destroys a school and some nearby buildings, killing several people, including women and children. The incident, along with the assault of a woman by Sivan's henchmen when she had come to the police station to lodge a complaint against Sivan for killing her husband, causes Shakthi to take up the path of an honest and upright police officer. He thrashes Sivan's henchmen who assaulted the woman. Shakthi's new persona is not liked by Sivan and after a heated argument between the two, he disowns Shakthi. A cat-and-mouse game then begins between Sivan and Shakthi, with Sivan and his henchmen, determined to humiliate Shakthi at every opportunity, while Shakthi, assisted by Shanthi and Gopal, tries to rid Sivan's influence in Madurai. Shakthi is soon promoted to ASP for his efforts.


title: Jilla

text: Later, Shakthi finds out that Sivan's other adopted son, a minister Aadhi Kesavan is plotting to kill Sivan in revenge for Sivan killing his police officer father (the same police officer who killed Shakthi's father) in his childhood. Since Shakthi had inadvertently thwarted his earlier plans to kill Sivan, he also plans to get Shakthi killed at the hands of Sivan by killing Sivan's son Vignesh and putting the blame on Shakthi for Vignesh's death. Unfortunately for Aadhi, Sivan learns about his plan and reconciles with Shakti, where they fight Aadhi's henchmen and Aadhi. Shakthi beats up Aadhi and gives him to Sivan to kill. Sivan gives Aadhi a choice to kill himself. Aadhi takes up the choice and slits his throat thereby killing him. Shakthi reluctantly arrests a reformed Sivan for his misdeeds, on Sivan's request.


title: Jilla

text: Upon the completion of "Velayudham" (2011), Vijay announced his next project to be with Nesan, who had worked in "Velayudham" as an assistant to director Jayam Raja. The project however commenced only two years later, after Vijay completed three other films. Neason described "Jilla" as a "Madurai-based movie" and also revealed that right from 2009, he had this story line about two powerful characters and their emotional interaction, making it his second directorial after "Muruga" (2007). Vijay who had several collaborations with R. B. Choudary decided to produce the film. Vairamuthu was chosen to pen the lyrics for a song in "Jilla", who would be writing a song for a Vijay-starrer after 12 years. Mohanlal liked the script and accepted the film. Raju Sundaram will be choreographing the dance sequences in the film.


title: Jilla

text: Nisha Agarwal was rumored to be performing in the film, but she denied these rumors on Twitter, stating that she had not been approached for a film role. Kajal Aggarwal and Poornima Bhagyaraj were also slated to perform in the film. Gautam Kurup was signed up as the second antagonist. Niveda Thomas said that she would be playing the daughter of Mohanlal's character and sister of Vijay's character. Due to clash of dates, cinematographer Natarajan Subramaniam was replaced by R. Ganesh. During a photoshoot with the main cast, Nesan announced that filming would take place in Madurai, Chennai and Andhra Pradesh, while songs would be filmed overseas.


title: Jilla

text: The opening ceremony for the film was held on 11 March 2013 at R. B. Choudary's Chennai office. The first schedule of film shooting took off on 13 May in Madurai and Karaikudi with Mohanlal and Poornima Bhagyaraj. Vijay was reported to join by the end of the month, but this didn't materialise. For the next schedule the film crew shifted to a Chennai-based studio where large sets resembling the city of Madurai were built up for the film. In September 2013, it was reported that Vijay and Kajal Aggarwal would be playing police officers in the film.


title: Jilla

text: The fourth schedule of the film was supposed to start on 14 August. However, the shooting got cancelled due to heavy rain. In October it was reported that 80% of the film had been completed with only the song sequences remaining.


title: Jilla

text: "Jilla" was released on 9 January 2014 in France, Singapore and Canada, and worldwide on 10 January 2014. The satellite rights of the film were purchased by Sun TV for a record price of .


title: Jilla

text: "Jilla" received generally positive reviews from critics and audience. Sify stated that the film is a "Mass Masala Entertainer" and wrote, ""Jilla" is masala entertainment and a full course meal that leaves you with a smile on your face", calling it "a perfect outing with your family this festival season and rated 4/5". "The Times of India" gave 3.5 stars out of 5 and stated "As far as commercial films are concerned, "Jilla" is definitely assured filmmaking", while adding, "the main issue with "Jilla" is that it is overlong. Neason, probably in an effort to make it a wholesome entertainer, keeps packing in scenes oblivious to the running time. "Ananda Vikatan" rated the film 41 out of 100.


title: Jilla

text: "Indiaglitz" gave 3.25/5 and stated that the film is racy and pure family entertainer and movie entertains all audience". Behindwoods gave 2.75 out of 5 and stated, "The charismatic screen presence of Vijay and Mohanlal,enjoyable musical tracks and comedy scenes and power packed action sequences marks "Jilla" that satisfies audience. "Bangalore Mirror" gave 3.5 out of 5 and called it "a perfect festival film that has all the trappings of a blockbuster"


title: Jilla

text: International Business Times gave 4/5 and stated Vijay's and Mohanlal's performances makes the movie entertaining to the audience. Gautaman Bhaskaran of "Hindustan Times" gave the film 3/5 stars and stated, "Vijay and Mohanlal captivating style and powerful performance makes the movie a solid family entertainer". S Saraswathi of "Rediff" gave 3.5/5 and wrote, "Vijay and Mohanlal easily keep the audience entertained with their powerful performances, both equally confident and secure in their own ability, undoubtedly making the film a solid commercial entertainer for the masses."


title: Jilla

text: "Jilla"<nowiki>'</nowiki>s opening netted around in Tamil Nadu alone. "IB Times" stated it opened well in Kerala too. It grossed around worldwide on its opening day and worldwide in its extended five-day weekend. In Chennai city alone, the film netted in the first week with an average theater occupancy of 97% and stood first for the weekend. The second week had an occupancy of 85-90% in the city and netted around The film still stood at the number ten position in Chennai by the third week resulting in a total collection of . "Jilla" grossed around by the fourth week in Kerela. After 8 weeks at the Chennai box office, the film netted around


title: Jilla

text: "Jilla" released at 44 screens in UK. The film collected "Jilla" has grossed £4,815 from five screens in its third weekend at the UK box office. It had a collection of £243,029 () in 17 days. In Australia. The film has grossed a total of A$43,899 in 17 days at the Australian box office. "Jilla" opened at Number 2 in Malaysian Box Office and was released in 69 screens. "Jilla" has made from 36 screens in the first weekend.


title: Jilla

text: In a meeting with his fans' association at Srikakulam in January 2014, Chiranjeevi announced that he wants V. V. Vinayak to direct the remake of "Jilla" (2014) starring himself and his son Ram Charan after the 2014 Indian general elections. It was supposed to be Chiranjeevi's 150th film as an actor. Chiranjeevi opted to choose a script that would reflect the sentiments of Telugu people and walked out from the remake. Charan felt uncomfortable to reprise a role where he has to oppose his father and being dissatisfied with the story, he dropped the remake's proposal.


title: Jilla

text: In late March 2014, R. T. Neason, the director of the original, wanted to direct the Telugu remake bankrolled by Super Good Films. Neason wanted Nandamuri Balakrishna and N. T. Rama Rao Jr. to reprise the roles played by Mohanlal and Vijay in the original respectively. Its possibility was doubtful because of the strained relationship between Balakrishna and Rama Rao Jr. in the past few years. After the release of "Gopala Gopala" (2015), its co-producer Sharat Marar acquired the remake rights of "Jilla" and approached Daggubati Venkatesh and Ravi Teja with the proposal of its remake to be directed by Veeru Potla.


title: Jilla

text: In the past, Potla approached both Venkatesh and Ravi Teja with a storyline in July 2014 which upon their consent was developed into a script, which remained in scripting stage according to Ravi Teja as of late September 2014. Kona Venkat was reported to pen the remake's screenplay. Ravi Teja evinced interest to be a part of the remake and the film's production was expected to begin in April 2015. However, there were reports stating that "Jilla" would be dubbed into Telugu with a duration of 140 minutes including a separate comedy track on Brahmanandam with Vijay. Also, Rama Rao Jr.'s elder brother Nandamuri Kalyan Ram planned to remake "Jilla" in Telugu with Balakrishna after arranging a special screening for the latter.


title: Jilla

text: The Telugu dubbed version was confirmed in mid April 2015. Tamatam Kumar Reddy and Prasad Sannidhi of Sri Obuleswara Productions acquired the Telugu dubbing rights while R. B. Chowdary was announced to present the film. A separate track shot was shot with Vijay and Brahmanandam. Shashank Vennelakanti penned the dialogues for the Telugu dubbed version. After considering many other titles, "Jilla" was retained for the Telugu dubbed version.


title: EdX

text: edX is an American massive open online course (MOOC) provider created by Harvard and MIT. It hosts online university-level courses in a wide range of disciplines to a worldwide student body, including some courses at no charge. It also conducts research into learning based on how people use its platform. edX runs on the free Open edX open-source software platform. 2U is the parent company, with edX operating as its global online learning platform and primary brand for products and services.


title: EdX

text: edX was founded in May 2012 by scientists from MIT and Harvard. Gerry Sussman, Anant Agarwal, Chris Terman, and Piotr Mitros taught the first edX course on circuits and electronics from MIT, drawing 155,000 students from 162 countries. In 2013 they partnered with Stanford and in June 2013 they reached 1 million students. edx.org released as open source, creating Open edX.


title: EdX

text: In October 2014 edX announced Professional Education courses, and in March 2015 it partnered with Microsoft.


title: EdX

text: In January 2018, edX partnered with Microsoft and General Electric to provide subsidized online courses and guaranteed job interviews.


title: EdX

text: On October 10, 2018, edX introduced nine Master's degrees on the platform. The degree programs can be completed fully online and are offered by universities such as Georgia Institute of Technology and University of California San Diego.


title: EdX

text: On January 10, 2020, edX launched two MicroBachelors programs. The programs offer undergraduate level courses which can lead to university credit for degree seeking students.


title: EdX

text: On June 29, 2021, edX and 2U announced they had entered into a definitive agreement to join. 2U would acquire edX's assets for $800M in cash.


title: EdX

text: On November 16, 2021, 2U completed its previously announced acquisition of the edX business and website from the nonprofit organization.


title: EdX

text: edX courses consist of weekly learning sequences. Each learning sequence is composed of short videos interspersed with interactive learning exercises, where students can immediately practice the concepts from the videos. The courses often include tutorial videos that are similar to small on-campus discussion groups, an online textbook, and an online discussion forum where students can post and review questions and comments to each other and teaching assistants. Where applicable, online laboratories are incorporated into the course. For example, in edX's first MOOC—a circuits and electronics course—students built virtual circuits in an online lab.


title: EdX

text: edX offers certificates of successful completion and some courses are credit-eligible. Whether or not a college or university offers credit for an online course is within the sole discretion of the school. edX offers a variety of ways to take courses, including verified courses where students have the option to audit the course (no cost) or to work toward an edX Verified Certificate (fees vary by course). edX also offers XSeries Certificates for completion of a bundled set of two to seven verified courses in a single subject (cost varies depending on the courses).


title: EdX

text: More than 150 schools, nonprofit organizations, and corporations offer or plan to offer courses on the edX website. As of July 2020, there were 3,000 courses available for its 33 million registered students.


title: EdX

text: In addition to educational offerings, edX is used for research into learning and distance education by collecting learners' clicks and analyzing the data, as well as collecting demographics from each registrant. A team of researchers at Harvard and MIT, led by David Pritchard and Lori Breslow, released their initial findings in 2013. EdX member schools and organizations also conduct their own research using data collected from their courses. Research focuses on improving retention, course completion and learning outcomes in traditional campus courses and online.


title: EdX

text: edX has engaged in a number of partnerships with educational institutions in the United States, China, Mongolia, Japan, and more to use edX courses in "blended classrooms". In blended learning models, traditional classes include an online interactive component. San Jose State University (SJSU) partnered with edX to offer 6.00xL "Introduction to Computer Science and Programming", as a blended course at SJSU and released an initial report on the project in February 2013. Initial results showed a decrease in failure rates from previous semesters. The percentage of students required to retake the course dropped from 41% under the traditional format to 9% for those taking the edX blended course. In Spring 2013, Bunker Hill Community College and Massachusetts Bay Community College implemented a SPOC, or small private online course. The colleges incorporated an MIT-developed Python programming course on edX into their campus-based courses, and reported positive results.


title: EdX

text: Open edX platform is the open-source platform software developed by edX and made freely available to other institutions of higher learning that want to make similar offerings. On June 1, 2013, edX open sourced its entire platform. The source code can be found on GitHub. The platform was originally developed by Piotr Mitros, as a research project at MIT, with maintenance transferred to edX in 2012.


title: EdX

text: The Open edX server-side software is almost entirely based on "Python, with Django as the web application framework".


title: EdX

text: edX is led by 2U CEO, Christopher "Chip" J. Paucek. edX Founder and former CEO Anant Agarwal currently serves as Chief Open Education Officer.


title: EdX

text: In late 2013, several countries and private entities announced their adoption of the edX open source platform to launch new initiatives. Ten Chinese universities joined to form an online education initiative in China, called XuetangX. 120 higher education institutions in France joined under the direction of the French Ministry of Education to offer online courses throughout France, the Queen Rania Foundation for Education and Development (QRF) created Edraak as the first MOOC portal for the Arab world, the International Monetary Fund is using the edX platform to pilot online training courses in economics and finance, and Tenaris corporation is using the platform to expand its corporate training and education for its employees.


title: EdX

text: As of March 2021, edX has more than 150 partners, including universities, for-profit organizations and NGOs.


title: Tehsil

text: A tehsil (, also known as tahsil, taluka, or taluk) is a local unit of administrative division in some countries of South Asia. It is a subdistrict of the area within a district including the designated populated place that serves as its administrative centre, with possible additional towns, and usually a number of villages. The terms in India have replaced earlier terms, such as "pargana" ("pergunnah") and "thana".


title: Tehsil

text: In Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, a newer unit called mandal (circle) has come to replace the system of tehsils. It is generally smaller than a tehsil, and is meant for facilitating local self-government in the panchayat system. In West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, community development blocks are the empowered grassroots administrative unit, replacing tehsils.


title: Tehsil

text: As an entity of local government, the tehsil office (panchayat samiti) exercises certain fiscal and administrative power over the villages and municipalities within its jurisdiction. It is the ultimate executive agency for land records and related administrative matters. The chief official is called the "tehsildar" or, less officially, the "talukdar" or "taluka muktiarkar". Taluk or tehsil can be considered sub-districts in the Indian context. In some instances, tehsils overlap with "blocks" (panchayat union blocks or panchayat development blocks) and come under the land and revenue department, headed by the tehsildar; and blocks come under the rural development department, headed by the block development officer and serve different government administrative functions over the same or similar geographical area.


title: Tehsil

text: Although they may on occasion share the same area with a subdivision of a revenue division, known as revenue blocks, the two are distinct. For example, Raipur district in Chhattisgarh state is administratively divided into 13 tehsils and 15 revenue blocks. Nevertheless, the two are often conflated.


title: Tehsil

text: India, as a vast country, is subdivided into many states and union territories for administrative purposes. Further "divisions" of these states are known as districts. These districts (jilla/zilla) are again divided into many subdivisions, viz tehsils or talukas. These subdivisions are again divided into gram panchayats or village panchayaths. Initially, this was done for collecting land revenue and administration purposes. But now these subdivisions are governed in tandem with other departments of government like education, agriculture, irrigation, health, police, etc. The different departments of state government generally have offices at tehsil or taluka level to facilitate good governance and to provide facilities to common people easily.


title: Tehsil

text: In India, the term "tehsil" is commonly used in all northern states. In Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, "taluka or taluk" is more common. In Eastern India, instead of tehsils, the term Subdivisions are used in Bihar, Assam, Jharkhand, and West Bengal, as well as large parts of Northeast India. In Arunachal Pradesh, they are called "circles".


title: Tehsil

text: Tehsil/tahsil and taluka/taluk and the variants are used as English words without further translation. Since these terms are unfamiliar to English speakers outside the subcontinent, the word "county" has sometimes been provided as a gloss, on the basis that a tehsil, like a county, is an administrative unit hierarchically above the local city, town, or village, but subordinate to a larger state or province. India and Pakistan have an intermediate level of hierarchy (or more than one, at least in parts of India): the district, also sometimes translated as "county". In neither case is the analogy very exact.


title: Tehsil

text: Tehsildar is the chief or key government officer of each tehsil or taluka. In some states different nomenclature like talukdar, mamledar, amaldar, mandal officer is used. In many states of India, the tehsildar works as a magistrate. Each taluka will have an office called taluka office or tehsil office or tehsildar office at a designated place within taluka area known as taluka headquarters. Tehsildar is the incharge of taluka office. This is similar to district office or district collector at district level.


title: Tehsil

text: Throughout India, there is a three-tier local body/Panchayati Raj system within the state. At the top is the jilla/zilla panchayat (parishad). Taluka/Mandal Panchayat/Community Development Block is the second layer of this system and below them are the gram panchayats or village panchayats. These panchayats at all three levels have elected members from eligible voters of particular subdivisions. These elected members form the bodies which help the administration in policy-making, development works, and bringing grievances of the common public to the notice of the administration.


title: Tehsil

text: Nayabat is the lower part of tehsil which have some powers like tehsil. It can be understood as tehsil is the sub-district of a district, similarly, Nayabat is the sub-tehsil of a tehsil.


title: International non-governmental organization

text: An international non-governmental organization (INGO) is an organization which is independent of government involvement and extends the concept of a non-governmental organization (NGO) to an international scope.


text: NGOs are independent of governments and can be seen as two types: "advocacy NGOs", which aim to influence governments with a specific goal, and "operational NGOs", which provide services. Examples of NGO mandates are environmental preservation, human rights promotions or the advancement of women. NGOs are typically not-for-profit, but receive funding from companies or membership fees. Many large INGOs have components of operational projects and advocacy initiatives working together within individual countries.


text: The technical term "international organizations" describes intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and include groups such as the United Nations or the International Labour Organization, which are formed by treaties among sovereign states. In contrast, INGOs are defined as "any internationally operating organization which is not established by inter-governmental agreement".


text: An INGO may be founded by private philanthropy, such as the Carnegie, Rockefeller, Gates and Ford Foundations, or as an adjunct to existing international organizations, such as the Catholic or Lutheran churches. A surge in INGOs for economic development occurred during World War II, some of which would later become large organizations like SOS Children's Villages, Oxfam, Catholic Relief Services, Care International and Lutheran World Relief. The number of INGOs grew from 6,000 in 1990 to 26,000 in 1999, and a 2013 report estimated about 40,000.


text: Except for incorporation under national laws, no current formal legal status exists for INGOs, which can lead to complications in international law.


text: In 1910, the Union of International Associations (UIA) were the first to suggest that a "super-national" status be given to international organizations with diplomatic intentions without governmental influence. The International Law Association (ILA) modified this, adding that this "super-national" organizational status may be adopted for associations formed for no profit.


text: The main focus of INGOs is to provide relief and developmental aid to developing countries. Health-related projects such as HIV/AIDS awareness, prevention and treatment, clean water, and malaria prevention—and education-related projects such as schools for girls and providing books—help to provide the social services that the country's government does not provide. International non-governmental organizations are some of the first responders to natural disasters, like hurricanes and floods, or crises that need emergency relief. Other organizations, like the International Justice Mission, are working to make judicial systems more effective and legitimate. Still others, such as those promoting micro-finance and education, directly impact citizens and communities by developing skills and human capital while encouraging citizen empowerment and community involvement.


text: NGOs, in general, account for over 15% of total international development aid, which is linked to economic development. As of 2007, aid (partly contributed to by INGOs) over the past thirty years is estimated to have increased the annual growth rate of the bottom billion by one percent.


text: Given they are usually supported by donations, a popular concern about INGOs is where the money goes and whether it is spent efficiently. High administrative costs can be an indication of inefficiency, enrichment of employees at the expense of beneficiaries, embezzlement or misdirection of funds to corrupt local officials or dictatorship. Numerous attempts have been made to remedy the accountability of INGOs surrounding where and for what their money is being used. Websites like Charity Navigator and GiveWell attempt to provide transparency as to how much goes to administrative costs, what activities money is spent on, whether more donations would be helpful, and how cost-effective the activities are compared to other charities or potential activities.


text: Another criticism is that many of the people benefiting from INGOs have no way to influence those activities and hold the organizations accountable. (for example by threatening to withhold donations). Some charitable organizations solicit the participation of local communities to avoid problems related to intercultural competence, and avoid unintended consequences due to lack of buy-in or lack of knowledge about local conditions.


text: In March 2015, the "European Journal of International Relations" criticized the impact of INGOs on government decision-making, claiming they are slowing integration of developing countries into the global economy.


title: England national under-19 football team

text: England national under-19 football team, also known as England under-19s or England U19(s), represents England in association football at under-19 age level and is controlled by the Football Association, the governing body for football in England. Primarily, it competes to qualify for the annual UEFA European Under-19 Championship.


title: England national under-19 football team

text: The group winners and runners-up advanced to the semi-finals and qualify for the 2023 FIFA U-20 World Cup.


title: England national under-19 football team

text: The following players were named in the squad for qualifiers against Montenegro, Georgia and Denmark, to be played between 21–27 September 2022.


title: England national under-19 football team

text: The following players have previously been called up to the England under-19 squad and remain eligible.


title: Pomade

text: Pomade (; French "pommade") or pomatum is a greasy, waxy, or water-based substance that is used to style hair. Pomade generally gives the user's hair a shiny and slick appearance. It lasts longer than most hair-care products, and often requires multiple washes for complete removal. The pomades of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries consisted mainly of bear fat or lard. Lanolin, beeswax, and petroleum jelly have been used extensively in the manufacture of modern pomades. The stiffening properties of pomades make sculptured hairstyles such as the pompadour waves (hairstyle) possible.


title: Pomade

text: The English word "pomade" is derived from French "pommade" meaning "ointment", itself arising from the Latin "pomum" (fruit, apple) via the Italian "pomata" or "pomo" (meaning "apple"—as the original ointment recipe contained mashed apples). Modern pomades may contain fragrances, but they are usually not particularly fruity.


title: Pomade

text: During the Roman era, soap was used as a pomade by some European tribes. In the 19th century, bear fat was usually the main pomade ingredient. In 1873 UK company Morgan's Pomade was established selling Hair Darkening Pomade across the world. By the early 20th century, petroleum jelly, beeswax, and lard were more commonly used. Early 20th century examples of pomades include Murray's Superior Pomade (originating in 1925), Sweet Georgia Brown Hair Dressing Pomade (originating in 1934) and Royal Crown Pomade (originating in 1936). Dixie Peach Hair Pomade was popular with teenage boys in the U.S. from World War II through the 1960s.


title: Pomade

text: Pomades were much more popular in the 1920s to 1950s than they are today, although they have made a comeback in the 2010s with recent alternations to the marketplace, which feature not only traditionally manufactured petroleum and oil-based pomades but also modern water-soluble pomades. Compared to oil-based pomades, water-based pomades wash out more easily.


title: Pomade

text: Hairstyles from the 20th and 21st centuries involving the use of pomade include the ducktail, pompadour, and quiff. The Pompadour was a cultural phenomenon in the mid-1950s to 1964 and was worn by young actors and those in the new musical genre, Rock and Roll. Examples can be seen on Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry and James Dean. In the 1980s, Rockabilly style Rock and Roll and the pompadour had a resurgence and was worn by musicians such as Brian Setzer and Chris Isaak.


title: Pomade

text: The reemergence of popular pomade use coincides with the rise in popularity of the disconnected undercut hairstyle. The hairstyle is characterized by buzzed or faded sides, and a much longer top which is disconnected from the side hairs. The undercut hairstyle was first popularized in the early 20th century as affordable barbershops used the newly invented hair clipper to quickly and cheaply shave the sides of men's heads; leaving long top hairs that would be styled with pomade. During the 2010s, the style was featured in many popular period movies, especially World War II films, and in shows such as "Peaky Blinders". Celebrities such as athlete David Beckham and actor Brad Pitt were seen donning this style of hair.


title: Pomade

text: The heavy hold and slick look of pomade is very well suited to control the long hair of most undercut styles.


title: Pomade

text: Today's pomades fall under two main categories with some subcategories, the traditional oil-based pomade and the newer water-based and gel pomades.


title: Pomade

text: Traditional oil-based pomades are generally subdivided into three more groups: heavy hold, medium hold, and light hold. Heavier pomades generally have a higher wax content and better hold their shape throughout the day. The higher wax content usually results in a lower shine pomade. Light holds, sometimes called a brilliantine, have a higher oil content and therefore are usually more shiny. This type of pomade has a wet look and a lower hold. Some prominent modern oil-based pomades are "Reuzel, Lockhart's," and "Murray's."


title: Pomade

text: The water-based pomades are split between gel-based pomades (Orthodox) and water-based (Unorthodox) pomades. Gel pomades come in different degrees of hold. Firm hold pomades dry much more stiff and are better at holding a particular style. However, they are generally less malleable and can only be restyled during the day by wetting the hair. These pomades generally contain hardening agents such as polyvinyl pyrolidone or vinyl pyrolidone. Some popular gel pomades include "Suavecito",


title: Pomade

text: Unorthodox water-based pomades mimic the malleable qualities of oil-based pomades while still being able to be easily washed out like a gel pomade. Popular unorthodox water-based pomades include "O'Douds", "Shear Revival", "Lockharts", and "Flagship" pomades.


title: Pomade

text: The rise in popularity of pomade led to the emergence of an online pomade community. The online pomade community is centered around YouTube, Etsy, and Reddit. YouTube channels centering around pomades and hair culture center around reviewing different pomades and discussing hair styling tips. Some prominent YouTube channels such as "The Pomp" have released their own lines of pomade. The Reddit community is a much more interactive space where members of the community can ask about other users opinions on certain pomades. Members also sell and trade pomades with each other on this site. Etsy is home to micro-brewers of pomades. The term micro-brewer in the pomade world refers to small handmade operations that sell online. The ease of creating pomade and the ready availability of traditional pomade materials allows for a low barrier of entry into the pomade industry.


title: Pomade

text: Unlike hair spray and hair gel, pomade does not dry, keeps the hairstyle flexible and can last much longer. Pomade is used to style hair (including mustaches, sideburns, and beards), giving it a darker, slicker, shinier look, and is often associated with the slick men's hairstyles of the early to mid-20th century. Because of its greasy or waxy nature, pomade can last through several washings, although it is easily removed using de-greasers such as high-detergent shampoos, dishwashing liquids, or any shampoos designed for oily hair. Due to the difficulty of washing pomade out of the hair, water-based and water-soluble pomades were introduced to the market and feature fewer wax substances. These products are more easily washable but often do not give the same versatility, shine, and strength of hold offered by the traditional petrolatum-based products.


title: Pomade

text: Some pomade products, such as mustache wax, are marketed for a specific use, while products such as Ultra Sheen, are marketed for specific consumers. Pomade is often used with Afro-textured hair to keep it from drying out. All these products come in various textures and consistencies, and essentially achieve the same effect as either hair wax or pomade.


title: Pomade

text: Traditionally, the difference between hair wax and pomade was that pomade gave the hair a slicker, shinier appearance, while wax gave a looser, more texturized and matte finish. Today the difference between pomade and hair wax is becoming somewhat ambiguous especially since many heavier pomades contain beeswax. Hair wax and pomade are closely related, however, with pliability their main common property. This differentiates both wax and pomade from gel and hairspray, both of which are not designed to be restyled once the product is applied.


title: X chromosome

text: The X chromosome is one of the two sex-determining chromosomes (allosomes) in many organisms, including mammals (the other is the Y chromosome), and is found in both males and females. It is a part of the XY sex-determination system and XO sex-determination system. The X chromosome was named for its unique properties by early researchers, which resulted in the naming of its counterpart Y chromosome, for the next letter in the alphabet, following its subsequent discovery.


title: X chromosome

text: It was first noted that the X chromosome was special in 1890 by Hermann Henking in Leipzig. Henking was studying the testicles of "Pyrrhocoris" and noticed that one chromosome did not take part in meiosis. Chromosomes are so named because of their ability to take up staining ("chroma" in Greek means "color"). Although the X chromosome could be stained just as well as the others, Henking was unsure whether it was a different class of object and consequently named it "X element", which later became X chromosome after it was established that it was indeed a chromosome.


title: X chromosome

text: The idea that the X chromosome was named after its similarity to the letter "X" is mistaken. All chromosomes normally appear as an amorphous blob under the microscope and take on a well defined shape only during mitosis. This shape is vaguely X-shaped for all chromosomes. It is entirely coincidental that the Y chromosome, during mitosis, has two very short branches which can look merged under the microscope and appear as the descender of a Y-shape.


title: X chromosome

text: It was first suggested that the X chromosome was involved in sex determination by Clarence Erwin McClung in 1901. After comparing his work on locusts with Henking's and others, McClung noted that only half the sperm received an X chromosome. He called this chromosome an "accessory chromosome", and insisted (correctly) that it was a "proper" chromosome, and theorized (incorrectly) that it was the male-determining chromosome.


title: X chromosome

text: Luke Hutchison noticed that a number of possible ancestors on the X chromosome inheritance line at a given ancestral generation follows the Fibonacci sequence. A male individual has an X chromosome, which he received from his mother, and a Y chromosome, which he received from his father. The male counts as the "origin" of his own X chromosome (formula_1), and at his parents' generation, his X chromosome came from a single parent (formula_2). The male's mother received one X chromosome from her mother (the son's maternal grandmother), and one from her father (the son's maternal grandfather), so two grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (formula_3). The maternal grandfather received his X chromosome from his mother, and the maternal grandmother received X chromosomes from both of her parents, so three great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (formula_4). Five great-great-grandparents contributed to the male descendant's X chromosome (formula_5), etc. (Note that this assumes that all ancestors of a given descendant are independent, but if any genealogy is traced far enough back in time, ancestors begin to appear on multiple lines of the genealogy, until eventually, a population founder appears on all lines of the genealogy.)


title: X chromosome

text: The X chromosome in humans spans more than 153 million base pairs (the building material of DNA). It represents about 800 protein-coding genes compared to the Y chromosome containing about 70 genes, out of 20,000–25,000 total genes in the human genome.


title: X chromosome

text: Each person usually has one pair of sex chromosomes in each cell. Females typically have two X chromosomes, whereas males typically have one X and one Y chromosome. Both males and females retain one of their mother's X chromosomes, and females retain their second X chromosome from their father. Since the father retains his X chromosome from his mother, a human female has one X chromosome from her paternal grandmother (father's side), and one X chromosome from her mother. This inheritance pattern follows the Fibonacci numbers at a given ancestral depth.


title: X chromosome

text: Genetic disorders that are due to mutations in genes on the X chromosome are described as X linked. If the X chromosome has a genetic disease gene, it always causes illness in male patients, since men have only one X chromosome and therefore only one copy of each gene. Females, instead, may stay healthy and only be carrier of genetic illness, since they have another X chromosome and possibility to have healthy gene copy. For example, hemophilia and red-green colorblindness run in family this way.


title: X chromosome

text: The X chromosome carries hundreds of genes but few, if any, of these have anything to do directly with sex determination. Early in embryonic development in females, one of the two X chromosomes is permanently inactivated in nearly all somatic cells (cells other than egg and sperm cells). This phenomenon is called X-inactivation or Lyonization, and creates a Barr body. If X-inactivation in the somatic cell meant a complete de-functionalizing of one of the X-chromosomes, it would ensure that females, like males, had only one functional copy of the X chromosome in each somatic cell. This was previously assumed to be the case. However, recent research suggests that the Barr body may be more biologically active than was previously supposed.


title: X chromosome

text: The partial inactivation of the X-chromosome is due to repressive heterochromatin that compacts the DNA and prevents the expression of most genes. Heterochromatin compaction is regulated by Polycomb Repressive Complex 2 (PRC2).


title: X chromosome

text: The following are some of the gene count estimates of human X chromosome. Because researchers use different approaches to genome annotation their predictions of the number of genes on each chromosome varies (for technical details, see gene prediction). Among various projects, the collaborative consensus coding sequence project (CCDS) takes an extremely conservative strategy. So CCDS's gene number prediction represents a lower bound on the total number of human protein-coding genes.


title: X chromosome

text: The following is a partial list of genes on human chromosome X. For complete list, see the link in the infobox on the right.


title: X chromosome

text: It is theorized by Ross et al. 2005 and Ohno 1967 that the X chromosome is at least partially derived from the autosomal (non-sex-related) genome of other mammals, evidenced from interspecies genomic sequence alignments.


title: X chromosome

text: The X chromosome is notably larger and has a more active euchromatin region than its Y chromosome counterpart. Further comparison of the X and Y reveal regions of homology between the two. However, the corresponding region in the Y appears far shorter and lacks regions that are conserved in the X throughout primate species, implying a genetic degeneration for Y in that region. Because males have only one X chromosome, they are more likely to have an X chromosome-related disease.


title: X chromosome

text: It is estimated that about 10% of the genes encoded by the X chromosome are associated with a family of "CT" genes, so named because they encode for markers found in both tumor cells (in cancer patients) as well as in the human testis (in healthy patients).


title: X chromosome

text: Sex linkage was first discovered in insects, e.g., T. H. Morgan's 1910 discovery of the pattern of inheritance of the white eyes mutation in "Drosophila melanogaster". Such discoveries helped to explain x-linked disorders in humans, e.g., haemophilia A and B, adrenoleukodystrophy, and red-green color blindness.


title: X chromosome

text: XX male syndrome is a rare disorder, where the SRY region of the Y chromosome has recombined to be located on one of the X chromosomes. As a result, the XX combination after fertilization has the same effect as a XY combination, resulting in a male. However, the other genes of the X chromosome cause feminization as well.


title: X chromosome

text: X-linked endothelial corneal dystrophy is an extremely rare disease of cornea associated with Xq25 region. Lisch epithelial corneal dystrophy is associated with Xp22.3.


title: X chromosome

text: Adrenoleukodystrophy, a rare and fatal disorder that is carried by the mother on the x-cell. It affects only boys between the ages of 5 and 10 and destroys the protective cell surrounding the nerves, myelin, in the brain. The female carrier hardly shows any symptoms because females have a copy of the x-cell. This disorder causes a once healthy boy to lose all abilities to walk, talk, see, hear, and even swallow. Within 2 years after diagnosis, most boys with Adrenoleukodystrophy die.