title: Fashion Nova

text: In December 2019, the United States Department of Labor launched an investigation and found that some Fashion Nova suppliers or subcontractors hired workers who were paid as little as $2.77 an hour and that the suppliers owed $3.8 million in back wages to hundreds of workers.


title: Fashion Nova

text: In 2020, Fashion Nova pledged to donate $1 million to a number of social justice organizations, including Black Lives Matter, Know Your Rights Camp, and the NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund.


title: Fashion Nova

text: In August 2020, Fashion Nova announced reforms to its contracting practices in support of California's proposed bill, SB 1399, that includes a mandate that its contractors and subcontractors agree to random independent audits and that their workers are paid the applicable minimum wage, which in Los Angeles is scheduled to rise to $15 an hour for employers of all size in 2021. Fashion Nova also established a toll-free hotline for workers to report abuses as well as a system of penalties for those who violate its reform efforts.


title: Fashion Nova

text: Founder Richard Saghian rarely speaks with reporters but is known to collect real estate, including homes previously owned by Avicii and Netflix executive Ted Sarandos. He is not married and has no children.


title: Fashion Nova

text: In November 2018, Fashion Nova released its line with rapper Cardi B. The collection launched at a "Party with Cardi" event, with performances by Cardi B, Saweetie, and Brianna Perry. It was a very successful launch, selling out in seconds. Since this collaboration, Fashion Nova has been endorsed by many celebrities and influencers such as Teyana Taylor, Blac Chyna, and Christina Milian. The store has a seasonal Halloween costume line, making its items debut alongside its most popular ambassadors at Halloween events.


title: Fashion Nova

text: Fashion Nova launched a second season of the Cardi B collection in May 2019, with performances by Cardi B, YG, Blueface, and Lil Nas X.


title: Fashion Nova

text: In April 2020, Fashion Nova created Fashion Nova Cares, an initiative focused on supporting social causes. That same month, Fashion Nova Cares partnered with Cardi B to donate $1,000 an hour for over 40 days to those affected by COVID-19, donating a total of $1 million.


title: Fashion Nova

text: In October 2020, Playboy filed a complaint against Fashion Nova Inc. in Los Angeles, for its trademark rights in its Bunny costume. The Bunny mark contains the costume's "iconic bunny ears, tail, ribbon name tag, wrist cuffs, corset, and bowtie collar," according to the lawsuit.


title: Fashion Nova

text: In November 2020, Fashion Nova released its line with Megan Thee Stallion, including statement pieces and an assortment of crafted denim for those and taller. The collection reportedly generated $1.2 million in sales within the first 24 hours of availability.


title: Fashion Nova

text: Megan Thee Stallion and Fashion Nova partnered again in March 2021 for the rapper's "Women on Top" philanthropic initiative, which seeks to empower women by supporting their educational and business endeavors through scholarships, grants, and donations. Every day throughout Women's History Month, Fashion Nova Cares provided $25,000 or more to female entrepreneurs, students, and women-focused charities. She also launched a swimwear line in June.


title: Rhianne Barreto

text: Rhianne Gabrielle H Barreto (born 25 March 1998) is an English actress. Her work includes the film "Share" (2019), the ITV drama "Honour" (2020), and the BBC One series "The Outlaws" (2021–).


title: Rhianne Barreto

text: Barreto is one of nine siblings born in Kensington and Chelsea. Her mother Tracey Barreto is English and her father Ramsey Barreto was born in Iraq and is of Indian and Portuguese heritage. She attended Bishop Ramsey School, the National Youth Theatre and the BRIT School.


title: Rhianne Barreto

text: In 2018, Barreto was named as one of the "Screen International" Stars of Tomorrow. She appeared in the 2019 Amazon Prime Video action drama series "Hanna" (2019) and won the Breakthrough Performance award at the 2019 Sundance Film Festival for her role in "Share". She co-starred alongside Keeley Hawes in the 2020 ITV drama series "Honour", in which she played the sister of real-life murder victim Banaz Mahmod. She is one of the seven members of the ensemble cast in the comic crime thriller "The Outlaws", which premiered on BBC One and Amazon Prime Video in 2021. A second series was filmed concurrently.


title: Second Modi ministry

text: The Second Ministry of Narendra Modi is the Council of Ministers headed by Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi that was formed after the 2019 general election which was held in seven phases in 2019. The results of the election were announced on 23 May 2019 and this led to the formation of the 17th Lok Sabha. The swearing-in ceremony was arranged in the courtyards of Rashtrapati Bhavan at Raisina Hill. The heads of the states of BIMSTEC countries were invited as guests of honor for this ceremony.


title: Second Modi ministry

text: On 7 July 2021, the government went through a ministry expansion with several big names dropped and new faces sworn in. Many current ministers were also given promotion for their good work.


title: Second Modi ministry

text: These are the Ministers which were part of the First Modi ministry but were not included in the Second Modi ministry. These includes


title: Second Modi ministry

text: Sushma Swaraj announced in November 2018 to not contest the 2019 General election due to her health related issues. Arun Jaitley also gave his ill health as reason for excluding from ministry. Uma Bharti became National Vice-president of BJP and did not contest the elections.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: LoanDepot Park is a retractable roof stadium located in Miami, Florida. It is the home of Major League Baseball's Miami Marlins. It is located on on the site of the former Miami Orange Bowl in Little Havana about west of Downtown Miami. Construction was completed in March 2012 for the 2012 season.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: LoanDepot Park was LEED certified as the greenest MLB park in 2012. The building is the sixth MLB stadium to have a retractable roof. With a seating capacity of 37,442, it is the third-smallest stadium in Major League Baseball by official capacity, and the smallest by actual capacity.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The facility hosted a second-round pool of the 2013 World Baseball Classic, a first-round pool of the 2017 World Baseball Classic, and hosted the 2017 Major League Baseball All-Star Game. The park also hosts soccer matches, fundraising galas, and other events during the winter. It also hosted the Miami Beach Bowl from 2014 through 2016.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Prior to the construction of LoanDepot Park, the Marlins played home games at what was originally known as Joe Robbie Stadium in Miami Gardens, which was known by a number of different names during the Marlins' tenure there. Joe Robbie Stadium was built in 1987 as home to the Miami Dolphins of the National Football League (NFL), and was designed as a multi-purpose stadium built primarily for football, but its design also accommodated baseball and soccer. Dolphins founder Joe Robbie believed it was a foregone conclusion that MLB would come to South Florida, so he wanted the stadium designed to make any necessary renovations for baseball as seamless as possible. The Marlins arrived in 1993 and during their time at the stadium, the Marlins drew more than 3 million people in their inaugural season and also won two World Series titles, in 1997 and 2003. The stadium continues to be home to the Dolphins, and since 2008, the Miami Hurricanes from the University of Miami.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Since the advent of Major League Baseball in Miami, multiple issues were raised regarding the unsuitability of Joe Robbie Stadium for professional baseball. Among those cited were the poor seat and sight-line configuration for baseball viewing, references to Miami's NFL team such as the logos and color scheme remaining visible in the stadium despite being in baseball configuration, and poor fan environment due to the distance of the action in relation to the seats. The climate in Miami during baseball season was not conducive for the sport and the audience, as games were often either played in heat or would be rained out, owing to the tropical climate in South Florida. These were suspected by the Florida Marlins for having poor fan attendance, as well as players’ performance at home games. By 2004, the Florida Marlins were the only team in baseball playing in an NFL-configured sporting stadium.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: After original owner Wayne Huizenga claimed he lost more than $30 million on the team, he sold the Marlins in early 1999 to John W. Henry. Thereafter, the Marlins began a concerted effort to get their own baseball-only venue. Henry's vision included a retractable roof, believed by this time to be essential due to South Florida's climate and baseball's summertime schedule. Several ideas were explored on where a new ballpark should be built. The team's desire to leave their original home made for an awkward business relationship over leasing issues with Huizenga, who continued to own the then-named Pro Player Stadium. By January 2002, Henry's stadium proposals were effectively scrapped when MLB Commissioner Bud Selig engineered a three-franchise ownership swap—Henry left to own the Boston Red Sox, while Montreal Expos owner Jeffrey Loria took over the Marlins.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Loria and president David Samson continued the search for a new, baseball-only retractable-roof ballpark. The Marlins' second World Series championship in 2003 created some local exuberance for a new ballpark. Then, in January 2004, the City of Miami proposed building a baseball-only stadium for the Marlins at the site of the Miami Orange Bowl that would adjoin the existing football stadium along its northern flank.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: In December 2004, Miami's NFL team notified the Marlins of its intention to terminate the lease at Joe Robbie Stadium by 2010, potentially leaving the Marlins without a stadium to host its home games. In the ensuing years between 2004 and 2009, the Marlins negotiated with local and state officials regarding funding the construction of a baseball-specific stadium before the termination of its lease at Joe Robbie Stadium. In 2005, Marlins owner Jeffrey Loria and president David Samson failed to come to an agreement with local and state officials regarding the funding of a baseball-specific stadium. Subsequently, the Marlins explored relocation options in the ensuing years from Las Vegas, Portland, and San Antonio. The specter of relocation pushed Charlie Crist, then Governor of Florida and other local mayors to release statements in favor of public funding for the new stadium.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: After the Marlins explored other options, including at the former site of the Miami Arena, in August 2007, the Miami Hurricanes announced they were leaving the Orange Bowl, which made the newly-vacant site the most attractive option for local governments.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: In February 2008, the Miami city commission and the Miami-Dade county commission came to an initial agreement to fund the new stadium. The Orange Bowl was subsequently demolished in March 2008 to make way for the new ballpark. A delay in the public funding of the ballpark was caused by a lawsuit filed in the Miami-Dade circuit court by a local car dealer, upon which the circuit court judge ruled in favor of the Marlins in November 2008. That following March in 2009, both the city and the county commission finalized approval for the sale of bonds for funding of the stadium, along with the Florida Marlins to be renamed the Miami Marlins upon the opening of the new stadium. Construction began with a groundbreaking ceremony in July 2009. The total cost of construction for the ballpark was estimated to be $634 million, with 80% of that funded by the city and the county. Due to the structure of the bonds financed over 40 years, it was estimated that the principal and the interest paid by the city and county would accrue to $2.4 billion over the lifetime of the bonds. Between 2009 and 2010, a series of leaked documents from Major League Baseball showed a disparity between the Marlins’ intake in MLB revenue sharing compared to the operating costs of the franchise, suggesting a willful misrepresentation of the Marlins’ profit margins under the Loria ownership as well as Loria and Samson's mismanagement of the Marlins in order to leverage the local government to provide a lion's share of the funding for the stadium. During the 2011–12 offseason, Mayor of Miami Regalado publicized details of the contract and expressed concern regarding certain clauses dedicated to the parking facilities and the maintenance of the stadium. Marlins Park began operations on April 4, 2012, for Opening Day of the 2012 season.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: In 2017, the Loria ownership announced its intention to sell the Miami Marlins. A group of investors led by Derek Jeter and Bruce Sherman took over the Marlins organization in August 2017. Changes to the stadium, including a new color scheme, moving the Home Run sculpture, and obtaining naming rights to the stadium were achieved during the Jeter regime.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: On March 31, 2021, the Marlins announced that it had sold naming rights to Marlins Park to LoanDepot, renaming the facility LoanDepot Park; terms of the agreement were not disclosed. The naming rights to the stadium reportedly brings $10 million per annum to the Marlins.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: LoanDepot Park has the distinction of being the first MLB park designed in what stadium planners are calling the "contemporary" architectural style. The architecture is intended to make a statement about the present-day culture of the city in which the stadium stands. It rejects the nostalgic idiom of the 20 consecutive new (plus three renovated) retro ballparks that opened in the two decades after Camden Yards was built. Owner Jeffrey Loria, who spearheaded the design, wanted his building to be "different and experimental." Loria said, "I thought it was time for baseball to be innovative."


title: LoanDepot Park

text: In early 2008, Loria happened to be in London at the same time as some architects from Populous who were there on another project. The group met in a hotel lobby to begin discussing design ideas. Loria described the meeting:


title: LoanDepot Park

text: When it all started, the architects came to me and asked what I had envisioned. Was I looking to have a retro stadium? Did we have that in mind? I said, "No retro, no art-deco, no looking back. Miami is a spectacular city, looking ahead. We need to be looking forward. I'd like to see us build a great, 'contemporary' building."


title: LoanDepot Park

text: We had to think about some kind of design for it and what it might look like ... I really did not want it to be just another ballpark. I wasn't interested in a 1970s or '80s doughnut ... I wanted it to be a statement of what Miami is all about—a contemporary city. Miami is an important American city and architecture makes your city great. The idea was to create something very contemporary.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Loria then sketched his idea of a round building on a napkin and told the architects to bring him back some real drawings. Exec architect Earl Santee, who was present at the meeting, said, "Mr. Loria told us to make a piece of art."


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The architects returned to their Kansas City offices and began brainstorming in April 2008. "We were waiting for a client willing to break the [retro] mold", said Greg Sherlock, the project's lead designer at Populous. Loria "sort of let us do our thing and explore something unique. We knew from the beginning that this was going to be something new and different." As a result, classic elements such as redbrick, limestone, and muted forest-green seats or fences, would not be found anywhere in Marlins Park. Any visible steel trusses would be functionally required to be that way, unlike retro-style trusses which tend to be exposed and bare for aesthetics. According to Sherlock, the structure would convey "that a ballpark doesn't necessarily have to be bricks and steel to translate a message about its location. It can be interpreted in a fresh way." The stadium would also not be symmetrical like the "cookie-cutter" stadiums of the pre-Camden, modern era.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Populous began conducting feasibility studies for their "primary design objectives." The top objective was creating ""a ballpark that is quintessentially Miami,"" which meant, according to a list of adjectives that the architects drew up: "palms, destination, diverse, recreation, and beach." A similar list was drawn up for the Little Havana neighborhood around the future park: "Cuba, pastels, canopies, organic, and everything is unique." They created a presentation for the Marlins tailored to Loria's background in the art business with concepts such as "the site is a gallery space with the ballpark representing gallery walls", and "pure art ... pure color ... pure baseball." Four different initial designs were presented, all of which were stark departures from previous ballpark architecture. Both the Marlins' and Populous' favorite choice was a design of an angular white-curves-and-glass facade—a metaphor for the "water merging with land" landscape of the Miami area—which was close to what eventually became the final design.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: "For the first time, you can embrace art and architecture and baseball in one building form," Santee said. "It's not just the art in the building, but the building itself is a piece of art."


title: LoanDepot Park

text: In this particular case, we didn't adopt anything stylistically. It's sculpture quality, and with sculpture, there are no rules. We wanted an experience that connects the fan experience to the city of Miami and its people and its climate and culture.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The ballpark is intended to embody Miami so much that its emblematic features would look out-of-place if they were put in other cities.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: "We used Miami as an excuse to do things that other cities couldn't get away with," team President David Samson said. "Everywhere you look, it's things that if they were anywhere else, people would say, 'You can't do that.' In Miami, people say, 'Oh, that's Miami.' You have to take advantage where you are."


title: LoanDepot Park

text: "Marlins Park is all about Miami," said Sherlock. The exterior is a sculptural monument consisting of gleaming white stucco, steel, aluminum, and glass. The inclining elliptical form avoids creating many rigid, right angles. Angled, cantilevered pedestrian ramps also form elegant geometric shapes. "It's consistent with the essence of the buildings that are down here – white plaster and graceful forms, which are somewhat of an abstraction of the look and feel of Miami Deco", Sherlock continued. Even the parking-garage walls are tiled in Miami-Deco pastels that connect with Little Havana.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: As visitors walk from the outside in, they step right on metaphors for Miami's topography, including concrete pavers that in general are either green or blue ("grass" or "sea"). They walk past landscaping that evokes the "beach"—there's even sand—in places. There's cobalt-blue glass at eye level ("ocean"), the stucco and concrete ("land" or "buildings"), and the paler blue-gray glass at the upper levels ("sky"). The seats are also cobalt-blue, facing the naturally green, Bermuda grass field.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: When Marlins fans first realized that the original colors of the team would not appear on the seats in the new stadium—and ultimately not on the new uniforms either—some angrily started a petition known as "Project Teal." But Samson said it was necessary to ignore fans' complaints: "I think any time you do something new and different, the knee-jerk reaction from bloggers or people who post comments is negative. But we have blinders on. This ballpark would have never been built if we had listened to the negativity."


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Loria, a notable art dealer, took the four bright primary colors off the palette of the late Catalan surrealist, Joan Miró, to conveniently label different zones around the park—green (outfield), red (third-base line), yellow (first-base line) and blue (behind home plate). "If you look carefully, in those sections, they dissolve into the next color, and the colors mix," Loria said. Wide open plazas at the east and colorful west ends of the building, as well as a 360° concourse inside called the Promenade encourages fans to walk around—and to intermingle at stops such as the bars or the bobblehead museum. Dazzling colors are found throughout the interior, including fluorescent lime-green fences, and in modernist & contemporary works of art—including the much-debated animatronic home-run sculpture—that relate to baseball and Miami.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: "My idea was to have people use their eyes and encourage them to use their eyes," said Loria. "We wanted a ballpark filled with great baseball, great entertainment, and occasionally, some images to be seen and enjoyed. It's not about an art gallery. But it's about images relating to the game. There are a few of them in the park."


title: LoanDepot Park

text: A nightclub featuring loud music and a swimming pool just beyond the left field fence brings a touch of South Beach into the park. "Taste of Miami" food court includes such local cuisine as Cuban sandwiches, pork sandwiches, and stone crabs. There's even an aquarium inside the walls of home plate backstop containing live, tropical fish.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: LoanDepot Park pays tribute to the two football stadiums closely associated with the team's stadium history. It transfers over "The Bermuda Triangle" quirk of what was then Sun Life Stadium's outfield fence as a nod to their team's early years. However, instead of straight lines, the new "triangle" is a wave-like shape that smoothly curves upwardly around the base of the large home-run sculpture, making the nook appear necessary to the design of the asymmetrical fence. The height of the tall wall varies from to . There are also commemorations to the beloved old Orange Bowl both inside and outside of the park.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: A critical design point addresses the tropical climate of South Florida. Fans are provided with the comfort they longed for at Sun Life Stadium with a retractable roof, retractable-glass wall panels that offer a panoramic view of Downtown Miami, and a huge air-conditioning system. The stadium is also said to be designed to withstand strong hurricanes.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: "If our ballpark would speak, its first words would be, '¡Hola, Miami!,'" Loria said during a new-era ceremony.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Instead of framing new technology with nostalgic elements as in retro parks, LoanDepot Park emphasizes the future. Besides electronic mixed-media artwork, technology is also unmistakably used for commercial purposes. As a way to market to Latino fans, many digital menu boards on the concession stands continuously switch from English to Spanish and back. Also, there are no hand-operated advertisement signs; ads are all computerized.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Santee explains:It's really just how technology is everywhere. You don't see any static ad panels in this building. It's all video-based, IPTV-based. It's all connected. The technology is the blood of the building. It flows through every vein, every piece of building.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: What it means is that [stadium operators] could run a third-inning (concession) special and it would pop up ... You could have the whole building with one sponsor for one moment, if you wanted to. Or you could do zones. It gives them maximum flexibility for however they want to present their partners as well as themselves.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: As part of its forward-thinking design, the venue is an efficient, environmentally-friendly green building in its use of materials, waste, and operation. The selection of building materials included sealants, paint, and adhesives with low VOC (volatile organic compounds) to maximize good indoor-air quality. A white rubber membrane lining the roof reflects rays to reduce "heat-island effect." The extensive glass facade allows in natural light during the day and reduces reliance on artificial light. The suites are built with replenishable bamboo paneling instead of hardwood. Most construction waste was hauled away to recycling centers during the building phase.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Palm trees and other native plant species around the building encourage biodiversity. Levy Restaurants, which runs some of the kitchens, gets most of its fresh-food supply directly from local farms that are within a radius of the stadium. Approximately of water a year are saved with the use of 249 waterless urinals.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: An early aim of the new ballpark was to become the first retractable-roof ballpark to be Silver Certified by Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED). On May 25, 2012, Marlins Park surpassed that goal by officially becoming the first MLB stadium—and the first retractable-roof stadium in any sport—to achieve LEED Gold Certification, anointing the facility as the most sustainable ballpark in MLB. The LEED-NC (New Construction) rating system credited the stadium with 40 points toward certification, the highest total of any LEED-certified park in the majors—the retro-contemporary ballparks of Oracle Park, Target Field and Nationals Park are the only others to achieve LEED certification.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Although they were publicly seeking silver, Loria had privately challenged engineers to shoot for the higher gold certification. The most difficult aspect of achieving gold, though—and one the design team had doubt it would be able to accomplish—was concerning the energy required to operate the retractable roof. Populous thought renewable energy would be a part of the sustainability equation but the park opened without solar panels. However, engineers optimized lighting, mechanical controls, and electrical aspects enough to achieve a 22.4% reduction in energy usage, which exceeded the 14% required for certification.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The U.S. Green Building Council noted an innovation which earned the facility three credits: Throughout areas of the stadium, including the clubhouses, the floor is made of a synthetic pouring made from recycled Nike shoes. The Council presented Loria with a plaque to signify the entire gold-certification achievement.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: A lot of people have often thought this [LEED Gold Certification] is an award. I'd like to think about this as 'the organization has earned its Ph. D,' because earning one of these is not an easy task. The team that's up here did some amazing things to bring this plaque to the building.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: "It was our desire from the onset to not only build America's greatest new ballpark, but also its most environmentally friendly," said Loria.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Since sod was first laid down in early February 2012, the grass has had difficulty growing under the frequently-closed roof. Planners had selected a strain of Bermuda grass—named Celebration—for its reputation of doing well in the shade. Even so, with the grass receiving only about 4 hours per day of sunlight, some of the sod kept turning brown. The worst-affected area is in deep right field where patches of dead sod have been replaced multiple times. Grow lights are pointed by groundskeepers on the area to nurse it to health on non-game days. As of 2014, the Bermuda grass has been replaced with Platinum TE Paspalum. Paspalum is better able to tolerate shaded areas.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: During the first months of games played at the new park, at least four leaks showed themselves in the retractable roof. Fans sitting in at least four seating sections still got wet under the drippy roof on rainy days. Leaks have progressively appeared under different spots as stadium workers kept plugging them by opening up the roof panels and patching the joints.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: We knew going in that other retractable-roof ballparks had to make adjustments for one or two years to get their field right. We hoped that we'd get it right the first time. So far it's not right. We're going to keep working and find a way to make it better.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: In time for the start of the 2016 MLB season, the park underwent a $500,000 renovation, mainly to lower and move in the outfield walls. The changes were studied and enacted after Marlins players complained to president David Samson that their long balls were not resulting in as many doubles or home runs as in other parks. Since 2012, the park has logged the second fewest home runs of all Major League ballparks, behind San Francisco's Oracle Park. The renovation, engineered by the Populous architectural firm that designed the original park, eliminated the "Bermuda Triangle" in center field and reduced the length from home plate to the center field wall from to . The walls around the outfield were lowered from heights up to to as low as , which will allow outfielders to make leaping grabs for long balls. The dimensions down the left- and right-field lines and in the power alleys were not altered, retaining the park's reputation as a pitcher's park.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: On December 4, 2019, the team announced that the field surface would be converted to Shaw Sports B1K, an artificial turf surface installed by the Arizona Diamondbacks for Chase Field in 2019, and for the Texas Rangers in their new Globe Life Field. Also, the team announced that the center- and right-center field fences would be moved in, with the center-field fence being moved from 407 feet (124 m) to 400 feet (122 m), and the right-center field fence being moved from 392 feet (119 m) to 387 feet (118 m). The changes came after only 173 home runs were hit in 2019, which was the third-lowest mark in the league that season.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The Marlins' front office commissioned several works of art and other notable features around the stadium.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Marlins Park hosted Pool 2 during the second round of the 2013 World Baseball Classic on March 12–16, 2013.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: In September 2013, Henderson Álvarez pitched a no-hitter against the Detroit Tigers, recording four strikeouts and one walk. The game was scoreless up to the 9th inning. In the bottom of 9th, with the Marlins at bat and the bases loaded, Luke Putkonen surrendered the game-winning run by unleashing a wild pitch, allowing Marlins right fielder Giancarlo Stanton to score from 3rd base. This no-hitter was unusual in that it ended with a walk-off wild pitch. This was the first no-hitter to be pitched at Marlins park, with the next no-hitter being pitched by Marlins pitcher Edinson Vólquez in June 2017.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The Marlins and their fans experienced the first rain delay at Marlins Park on April 6, 2015. During a sold-out Opening Day game against the Atlanta Braves, a shower moved over the stadium with the roof open. The bottom of the 2nd inning was interrupted for 16 minutes while the roof was closed; the field, however, was sufficiently wet to cause players to slip several times during the remainder of the game, a 2–1 Braves victory.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: On June 20, 2016, Marlins Park saw the most-ever home runs hit in one game at the park, with eight in a 5–3 win by the Colorado Rockies over the Marlins. This also set a Major League record for solo home runs accounting for all the scoring in a game, surpassing the previous record of five.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: From March 9 to 13, 2017, Marlins Park hosted Pool C in the four-pool, first round of the 2017 World Baseball Classic.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Marlins Park hosted the 2017 Major League Baseball All-Star Game in July 2017. This was the first time the Miami Marlins hosted the midsummer classic, after the 2000 All-Star Game was moved to Atlanta.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The Miami Beach Bowl college football bowl game was played at Marlins Park every December from 2014 through 2016. The bowl was moved to Frisco, Texas for 2017 and is now known as the Frisco Bowl.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: On November 23, 2019, the FIU Panthers upset the Miami Hurricanes 30–24 in a nonconference football game.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The stadium hosted its first non-baseball event when Venezuela and Nigeria national teams played a match on November 14, 2012. The field was configured for soccer by covering the infield dirt, placing one goal near the Marlins' dugout on the third-base side and the other in front of the visitors' bullpen in right field.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: In January 2013, Marlins Park began hosting the Miami Soccer Challenge as part of a three-year partnership with Global Football Challenge.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: The stadium was scheduled to host the 22nd annual World Music Awards on December 22, 2012, but the event was canceled due to logistical and multiple visa issues, as well as the stated intent to observe the national mourning of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: On April 20, 2013, the park hosted "America's Night of Hope" with Joel and Victoria Osteen, an annual stadium event for Joel Osteen Ministries.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Jennifer Lopez and Marc Anthony headlined “One Voice: Somos Live! A Concert For Disaster Relief” a benefit concert to raise money for Feeding America, Save the Children, Habitat for Humanity, United Way, UNICEF, and Unidos for Puerto Rico in the wake of natural disasters in Puerto Rico, as well as the southern United States, Mexico, and other areas of the Caribbean on October 14, 2017. The benefit concert was broadcast on Telemundo and Univision.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Marlins Park has hosted Monster Jam events since February 2018 as part of their stadium championship tours.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Jehovah's Witnesses hosted the "Love Never Fails" convention at the stadium on May 24–26 and July 5–7, 2019.


title: LoanDepot Park

text: Temporary seating was erected in center field for Opening Night of Super Bowl LIV on January 27, 2020.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: Hypostomus plecostomus, also known as the suckermouth catfish or the common pleco, is a tropical freshwater fish belonging to the armored catfish family (Loricariidae), named for the longitudinal rows of armor-like scutes that cover the upper parts of the head and body (the lower surface of head and abdomen is naked soft skin). Although the name "Hypostomus plecostomus" is often used to refer to common plecostomus sold in aquarium shops, most are actually members of other genera.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: Suckermouth catfish are of little or no value as a food fish, although they are at least occasionally consumed over their native range. A demand exists for them, however, as a bottom cleaner in the aquarium trade.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: This species' native range is tropical northeastern South America; it naturally occurs in northeastern Brazil, the Guianas, and Trinidad and Tobago. Confusingly, the name "Hypostomus plecostomus" (or "Plecostomus plecostomus") has sometimes been incorrectly used for several more-or-less similar loricariid catfishes, both in the popular and scientific literature. For example, it has sometimes been suggested that it occurs in southern Central America, but this is an entirely separate species, "Hemiancistrus aspidolepis" (also known under another synonym, "Hypostomus panamensis").


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: Some Loricariidae species have been widely introduced to several countries around the world and reported as "H. plecostomus". It is erroneous, and the concerned species belong to the genus "Pterygoplichthys" (either "P. pardalis", "P. disjunctivus", "P. anisitsi" or "P. multiradiatus"). In the United States, a "Pterygoplichthys" species has been introduced to some regions in the South, most likely released by aquarists into the local waters. For example, they are present in a lake in the neighborhood of Hammock Trace Preserve in Melbourne, Florida. In Texas, reproducing populations occur in spring-influenced habitats of the San Antonio River (Bexar County), Comal Springs (Comal County), San Marcos River (Hays County), and San Felipe Creek (Val Verde County), as well as in drainage canals in the Rio Grande Valley and Houston.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: The same identification issues have spread in the literature regarding the invasive catfishes in Taiwan, with "H. plecostomus" being one of the numerous names used to designate the species: DNA studies showed the alien fishes were actually "P. pardalis" and "P. disjunctivus" (that hybridise extensively).


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: "H. plecostomus" prefer to live in water between 72 and 86 degrees Fahrenheit (~22.2 to 30 degrees Celsius), with a pH between 6.5 and 7.5.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: "Hypostomus plecostomus" is named for its sucker-like mouth, which allows it to adhere to a surface, as well as to hold and rasp at food. This omnivorous species feeds on algae, aquatic plants, and small crustaceans.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: "Hypostomus plecostomus" is one of many species of fish that is able to breathe air. "Hypostomus plecostomus" relies on its gills for respiration in normal and slightly hypoxic water, and the less oxygen present in the water, the more frequently it surfaces to breathe air. The air is taken to the stomach where the oxygen is absorbed, and the air can be kept in the stomach to increase buoyancy, which may help it to feed on vegetation.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: "H. plecostomus" is one of a number of species commonly referred to as "plecostomus" or "common pleco" by aquarists. These fish are sold when they are young and small, but in the wild, they can grow to be a maximum size of . In captivity, however, a full-grown "Hypostomus plecostomus" only reaches 15 inches (38 cm) on average, which could be explained by the subpar oxygen levels in most home aquaria and other practices of bad fish husbandry. In the aquarium trade, this dark-colored, bottom-feeding, nocturnal catfish is often purchased for its ability to clean algae from fish tanks but also contributes a lot of waste to the nitrogen cycle. They are difficult for other fish to harass, both due to the semi-aggressive nature of the fish as well as its thick armor.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: In Bangladesh, the species, among some other suckermouth catfishes has become invasive. The government is currently on its way to impose a ban on the farming, hatchling production, breeding, marketing and trading of the fish. It has also raised serious concern in India.


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: A large variety of common names is used to describe "H. plecostomus", where plecostomus and the shortened "pleco" are interchangeable in all common names. The names include:


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: The species' scientific name, "Hypostomus plecostomus", is derived from the Latin "hypo" (meaning "under"), "stoma" (meaning "mouth"), and "pleco" (meaning "pleated").


title: Hypostomus plecostomus

text: Many of the common names used to identify "Hypostomus plecostomus" are also used for other species, which augments the confusion surrounding "H. plecostomus" and other Loricariidae such as "H. punctatus", "Pterygoplichthys multiradiatus" and "P. pardalis". In 2012, Weber, Covain, and Fisch-Muller showed the type series of Carl Linnaeus was heterogenous and comprised two species: "H. plecostomus" (for which the authors designate a lectotype) and "H. watwata".


title: Ensō

text: In Zen, an is a circle that is hand-drawn in one or two uninhibited brushstrokes to express a moment when the mind is free to let the body create.


title: Ensō

text: The symbolizes absolute enlightenment, strength, elegance, the universe, and (the void). It is characterised by a minimalism born of Japanese aesthetics.


title: Ensō

text: Drawing is a disciplined-creative practice of Japanese ink painting, . The tools and mechanics of drawing the are the same as those used in traditional Japanese calligraphy: One uses an ink brush to apply ink to (a thin Japanese paper).


title: Ensō

text: The circle may be open or closed. In the former case, the circle is incomplete, allowing for movement and development as well as the perfection of all things. Zen practitioners relate the idea to , the beauty of imperfection. When the circle is closed, it represents perfection, akin to Plato's perfect form, the reason why the circle was used for centuries in the construction of cosmological models (see Ptolemy).


title: Ensō

text: Usually, a person draws the in one fluid, expressive stroke. When drawn according to the (cursive) style of Japanese calligraphy, the brushstroke is especially swift. Once the is drawn, one does not change it. It evidences the character of its creator and the context of its creation in a brief, continuous period of time. Drawing is a spiritual practice that one might perform as often as once per day.


title: Ensō

text: This spiritual practice of drawing or writing Japanese calligraphy for self-realization is called . exemplifies the various dimensions of the Japanese "wabi-sabi" perspective and aesthetic: "fukinsei" (asymmetry, irregularity), "kanso" (simplicity), "koko" (basic; weathered), "shizen" (without pretense; natural), "yugen" (subtly profound grace), "datsuzoku" (freedom), and "seijaku" (tranquility).


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: Mercury(II) fulminate, or Hg(CNO), is a primary explosive. It is highly sensitive to friction, heat and shock and is mainly used as a trigger for other explosives in percussion caps and detonators. Mercury(II) cyanate, though its chemical formula is identical, has a different atomic arrangement; the cyanate and fulminate anions are isomers.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: First used as a priming composition in small copper caps beginning in the 1820s, mercury fulminate quickly replaced flints as a means to ignite black powder charges in muzzle-loading firearms. Later, during the late 19th century and most of the 20th century, mercury fulminate became widely used in primers for self-contained rifle and pistol ammunition; it was the only practical detonator for firing projectiles until the early 20th century. Mercury fulminate has the distinct advantage over potassium chlorate of being non-corrosive, but it is known to weaken with time, by decomposing into its constituent elements. The reduced mercury which results forms amalgams with cartridge brass, weakening it, as well. Today, mercury fulminate has been replaced in primers by more efficient chemical substances. These are non-corrosive, less toxic, and more stable over time; they include lead azide, lead styphnate, and tetrazene derivatives. In addition, none of these compounds require mercury for manufacture, supplies of which can be unreliable in wartime.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: Mercury(II) fulminate is prepared by dissolving mercury in nitric acid and adding ethanol to the solution. It was first prepared by Edward Charles Howard in 1800. The crystal structure of this compound was determined only in 2007.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: Silver fulminate can be prepared in a similar way, but this salt is even more unstable than mercury fulminate; it can explode even under water and is impossible to accumulate in large amounts because it detonates under its own weight.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: The thermal decomposition of mercury(II) fulminate can begin at temperatures as low as 100 °C, though it proceeds at a much higher rate with increasing temperature.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: A possible reaction for the decomposition of mercury(II) fulminate yields carbon dioxide gas, nitrogen gas, and a combination of relatively stable mercury salts.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: In the 1955 comedy film "Mister Roberts", Ensign Frank Pulver test fires a fulminate of mercury firecracker and blows up the ship's laundry, spreading soap suds across three decks.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: In the TV Western series "Have Gun - Will Travel", Season 4 Episode 10 "Crowbait", Russell Collins plays prospector Crowbait, who is carrying fulminated mercury. Paladin worries about being blown up while taking a pack sack off.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: In the episode of "Breaking Bad" titled "Crazy Handful of Nothin', Walter White uses mercury (II) fulminate to blow up Tuco Salamanca's headquarters. In a "Breaking Bad" "MythBusters" special, it was stated that silver fulminate had been added as the mercury fulminate alone did not detonate, busting the myth.


title: Mercury(II) fulminate

text: In the 1972 episode of "Mannix", called "A Walk in the Shadows", fulminated mercury is determined by police to be the explosive material used in a murder, by blowing up a boat. It is also used to make parcel bombs in the 2015 final episode of "Lewis", "What Lies Tangled".


title: William Hung

text: William Hing Cheung Hung (; born January 13, 1983) is a Hong Kong motivational speaker and former singer who gained fame in 2004 as a result of his unsuccessful audition singing Ricky Martin's hit song "She Bangs" on the third season of the television series "American Idol".


title: William Hung

text: At the time of his audition, Hung was a civil engineering student at UC Berkeley. After his spirited audition to be the next "American Idol", he won the support of many fans, ironically, based on his perceived lack of musical talent. Hung voluntarily left university to pursue a music career. His recording career was marked by negative critical reaction.


title: William Hung

text: He brought his own career as a musician to an end when in 2011 he accepted a job opportunity as a technical crime analyst for the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, and decided to pursue law enforcement. Since then, Hung has reflected positively on his pop music career.


title: William Hung

text: After growing up in the Sha Tin district of British Hong Kong, Hung moved with his family to the Van Nuys area in Los Angeles, California, at age 11. He was a civil engineering student at University of California, Berkeley, when he competed on the US television contest series "American Idol". He exited college to pursue his music career and later graduated from California State University, Northridge with a degree in mathematics. Hung later completed an MBA from Marist College.


title: William Hung

text: Hung was married to Jian Teng on June 18, 2014. Prior to this marriage, he had already gone through a divorce. This second marriage also ended in divorce.


title: William Hung

text: While studying civil engineering at the University of California, Berkeley, Hung auditioned for the third season of "American Idol" in San Francisco in September 2003, becoming the final auditioner on the show of January 15, 2004.


title: William Hung

text: "I want to make music my living," said Hung, before he started singing and dancing to Ricky Martin's "She Bangs". As judges Randy Jackson and Paula Abdul tried to restrain their laughter, judge Simon Cowell dismissed Hung's performance, remarking "You can't sing, you can't dance, so what do you want me to say?", to which Hung replied, "Um, I already gave my best, and I have no regrets at all." Jackson and Abdul applauded his positive attitude, with Abdul remarking, "That's the best attitude yet." Hung's response to Cowell's criticism starkly contrasts with the often confrontational rejoinders of other contestants. Hung added, "...you know, I have no professional training of singing and dancing," eliciting mock surprise from Cowell, who replied, "No? Well, this "is" the surprise of the century." Hung was not admitted through to the next round.


title: William Hung

text: Hung rapidly gained a cult following. A William Hung fan site, set up by realtor Don Chin and his wife Laura, recorded over four million hits within its first week. Remixes of Hung's audition performance topped song request lists at a number of radio stations.


title: William Hung

text: Hung subsequently appeared on several television programs including "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", "On Air with Ryan Seacrest", "Entertainment Tonight", "George Lopez", the "Late Show with David Letterman", "Countdown with Keith Olbermann", "The Howard Stern Radio Show", "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", "Dateline NBC", "Arrested Development" and CBS's "The Early Show". Hung was featured in several national magazines and newspapers; he was parodied on "Saturday Night Live", "Mad TV", "Celebrity Deathmatch", and "The Fairly OddParents". He was reportedly invited to perform at MTV's Asia Awards held in mid-February.


title: William Hung

text: An online petition to bring Hung back to "American Idol" included more than 100,000 signatures by late February. Hung was brought back to "American Idol" as part of a mid-season special titled "Uncut, Uncensored and Untalented", airing March 1, 2004. The special documented what it was like to experience the audition process and, in Hung's case, emerge as an inadvertent celebrity.


title: William Hung

text: At the 2006 Artichoke Festival in Castroville, California, Hung was crowned the Artichoke King; Marilyn Monroe had previously received a similar honor.


title: William Hung

text: William Hung was offered a $25,000 advance on a record deal from Koch Entertainment in 2004, and released three albums on that label in 2004 and 2005. His first album was "Inspiration". Produced by Giuseppe D, it was recorded over a March 2004 weekend with Hung singing vocals over karaoke music. To promote it, Hung performed before nearly 20,000 fans during half-time at a Golden State Warriors basketball game on April 6 and performed "She Bangs", included on the album, on such shows as "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno". The album received highly negative reviews, but ultimately went on to sell about 200,000 copies and reached Number One on "Billboard"'s Top Independent Album Chart. His two follow-up albums were far less successful, as "Hung for the Holidays" (a Christmas album) only sold 35,000 copies, despite a national promotion campaign including appearances on "The Howard Stern Show", and "Miracle: Happy Summer from William Hung" (another karaoke cover album) only sold 7,000. In a February 2006 interview, he said he was working on a fourth album of 5 or 6 tracks, but none was released, and he retired in 2011.


title: William Hung

text: Hung appeared in commercials for the search engine Ask.com, the Game Show Network (spoofing Freddie Mercury and singing an off-key "We Are the Champions"), as well as the mobile phone service provider Cingular Wireless. He also appeared to sing "Take Me Out to the Ballgame" in May 2004 at the Rogers Centre for the Toronto Blue Jays.


title: William Hung

text: His first movie, a low-budget Hong Kong period comedy called "Where is Mama's Boy" (2004), was released in January 2005. Hung played a good-natured village kid who sells Chinese pancakes to pay his mother's medical bills. His character gets discovered as a singer, and helps a woman protect her business from her jealous, conniving elder sister. In the film, Hung played opposite veteran Hong Kong actress Nancy Sit and parodied his own "American Idol" performance with the song "Siu Beng" (Cantonese) ("Chinese Pancake"), an allusion to his "American Idol" audition song, "She Bangs". Despite solid financial backing and the involvement of Nancy Sit, the film was a box office flop.


title: William Hung

text: Lampooning his own career, Hung later made appearances in "Airline", "Arrested Development", and "George Lopez".


title: William Hung

text: In 2011, Hung became a technical crime analyst for the Los Angeles County Sheriff's Department, and retired from music. Hung remains optimistic about his new career path, and states he does not regret that his music career has ended. "I showed that even the Average Joe could succeed," he remarked on his short-lived time as a pop star.


title: William Hung

text: Hung later joined the Los Angeles County Department of Public Health around 2014. In 2017, Hung became a motivational speaker; he has been booked as a keynote speaker for groups such as the Asian Realtors Association of America.


title: William Hung

text: On April 7, 2016, he made a surprise performance of "She Bangs" on the American Idol season 15 finale.


title: William Hung

text: Commentator Emil Guillermo claimed that Hung may not have gained as much attention had he been of another race, and his popularity may be derived from his being a representation of the Asian stereotype, characterized by nerdiness, bucked teeth, studiousness, speaking with a strong "fresh off the boat" accent, and lacking singing talent or rhythm. Documentary filmmaker James Hou commented, "As Asian Americans, we look through this racial lens, and we see this guy who embodies all the stereotypes we're trying to escape from."


title: William Hung

text: Some analysts have argued that Hung's career arose out of mockery, and that the media exploited him as a joke rather than as a talented or inspirational figure. Ron Lin, former editor in chief of the UC Berkeley's "Daily Californian" asserts: " really difficult for Asian American males to break through and (Hung) may not be the most appealing example."


title: William Hung

text: Amber Eliza Watts suggested that Hung's cult following derived from him being the antithesis of everything "Idol" represented, with his lack of musical talent and odd looks, and how unlike other audition failures he was not arrogantly expecting to be made a pop star, he just wanted to sing. In a 2008 "American Idol" extra, in response to the question, "Why do you think it is that people gravitate towards William Hung so much?", Hung stated, "I believe it's my attitude and charisma, I tell people constantly, media, everywhere I go, just never give up on your dream."


title: Pisco sour

text: A pisco sour is an alcoholic cocktail of Peruvian origin that is typical of Peruvian cuisine. The drink's name comes from "pisco", which is its base liquor, and the cocktail term "sour", about sour citrus juice and sweetener components. The Peruvian pisco sour uses Peruvian "pisco" as the base liquor and adds freshly squeezed lemon juice, simple syrup, ice, egg white, and Angostura bitters. The Chilean version is similar, but uses Chilean "pisco" and Pica lime, and excludes the bitters and egg white. Other variants of the cocktail include those created with fruits like pineapple or plants such as coca leaves.


title: Pisco sour

text: Although the preparation of pisco-based mixed beverages possibly dates back to the 1700s, historians and drink experts agree that the cocktail as it is known today was invented in the early 1920s in Lima, the capital of Peru, by the American bartender Victor Vaughen Morris. Morris left the United States in 1903 to work in Cerro de Pasco, a city in central Peru. In 1916, he opened Morris' Bar in Lima, and his saloon quickly became a popular spot for the Peruvian upper class and English-speaking foreigners. The oldest known mentions of the pisco sour are found in newspaper and magazine advertisements, dating to the early 1920s, for Morris and his bar published in Peru and Chile. The pisco sour underwent several changes until Mario Bruiget, a Peruvian bartender working at Morris' Bar, created the modern Peruvian recipe for the cocktail in the latter part of the 1920s by adding Angostura bitters and egg whites to the mix.


title: Pisco sour

text: Cocktail connoisseurs consider the pisco sour a South American classic. Chile and Peru both claim the pisco sour as their national drink, and each asserts ownership of the cocktail's base liquor—pisco; consequently, the pisco sour has become a significant and oft-debated topic of Latin American popular culture. Media sources and celebrities commenting on the dispute often express their preference for one cocktail version over the other, sometimes just to cause controversy. Some pisco producers have noted that the controversy helps promote interest in the drink. The two kinds of pisco and the two variations in the style of preparing the pisco sour are distinct in both production and taste. Peru celebrates a yearly public holiday in honor of the cocktail on the first Saturday of February.


title: Pisco sour

text: The term "sour" refers to mixed drinks containing a base liquor (bourbon or some other whiskey), lemon or lime juice, and a sweetener. "Pisco" refers to the base liquor used in the cocktail. The word as applied to the alcoholic beverage comes from the Peruvian port of Pisco. In the book "Latin America and the Caribbean", historian Olwyn Blouet and political geographer Brian Blouet describe the development of vineyards in early Colonial Peru and how in the second half of the sixteenth century a market for the liquor formed owing to the demand from growing mining settlements in the Andes. Subsequent demand for a stronger drink caused Pisco and the nearby city of Ica to establish distilleries "to make wine into brandy", and the product received the name of the port from where it was distilled and exported.


title: Pisco sour

text: The first grapevines were brought to Peru shortly after its conquest by Spain in the 16th century. Spanish chroniclers from the time note the first winemaking in South America took place in the "hacienda" Marcahuasi of Cuzco. The largest and most prominent vineyards of the 16th and 17th century Americas were established in the Ica valley of south-central Peru. In the 1540s, Bartolomé de Terrazas and Francisco de Carabantes planted vineyards in Peru. Carabantes also established vineyards in Ica, where Spaniards from Andalucia and Extremadura introduced grapevines into Chile.


title: Pisco sour

text: Already in the 16th century, Spanish settlers in Chile and Peru began producing aguardiente distilled from fermented grapes. Since at least 1764, Peruvian aguardiente was called "pisco" after its port of shipping; the usage of the name "pisco" for aguardiente then spread to Chile. The right to produce and market pisco, still made in Peru and Chile, is the subject of ongoing disputes between the two countries.


title: Pisco sour

text: According to historian Luciano Revoredo, the preparation of pisco with lemon dates as far back as the 18th century. He bases his claim on a source found in the "Mercurio Peruano" which details the prohibition of aguardiente in Lima's "Plaza de toros de Acho", the oldest bullring in the Americas. At this time, the drink was named "Punche" (Punch), and was sold by slaves. Revoredo further argues this drink served as the predecessor of the Californian pisco punch, invented by Duncan Nicol in the Bank Exchange Bar of San Francisco, California. According to a 1921 news clip from the "West Coast Leader", an English-language newspaper from Peru, a saloon in San Francisco's Barbary Coast red-light district was known for its Pisco sours during "the old pre-Volstead days". Culinary expert Duggan McDonnell considers that this attributes the popularity (not origin) of a pisco cocktail in San Francisco dating as far back as before the 1906 earthquake that destroyed the Barbary Coast. A recipe for a pisco-based punch, including egg whites, was found by researcher Nico Vera in the 1903 Peruvian cookbook "Manual de Cocina a la Criolla"; consequently, McDonnell considers that "[i]t is entirely possible that the 'Cocktail' that came to be the pisco sour ... had been prepared for a reasonable time in Lima before being included in a cookbook."


title: Pisco sour

text: The pisco sour originated in Lima, Peru. It was created by bartender Victor Vaughen Morris, an American from a respected Mormon family of Welsh ancestry, who moved to Peru in 1904 to work in a railway company in Cerro de Pasco. Americans emigrated to the bustling Andean mining hub of Cerro de Pasco, then the second-largest city in Peru, for work in the business ventures established by the tycoon Alfred W. McCune. Morris, who worked as a floral shop manager in Salt Lake City, joined McCune's project to construct what was then the highest-altitude railway in the world and ease the city's export of its precious metals. During celebrations for the railway's completion in July 1904, Morris, tasked with overseeing the festivities, recalled first mixing pisco in a cocktail beverage after the nearly 5,000 American and Peruvian attendees (including local celebrities and dignitaries) consumed all of the available whiskey.


title: Pisco sour

text: Morris relocated to the Peruvian capital, Lima, with his Peruvian wife and three children in 1915. A year later, he opened a saloon—Morris' Bar—which became popular with both the Peruvian upper class and English-speaking foreigners. Morris, who often experimented with new drinks, developed the pisco sour as a variant of the whiskey sour. Chilean historian Gonzalo Vial Correa also attributes the pisco sour's invention to "Gringo" Morris from the Peruvian Morris Bar, but with the minor difference of naming him William Morris.


title: Pisco sour

text: Some discrepancy exists on the exact date when Morris created the popular cocktail. Mixologist Dale DeGroff asserts the drink was invented in 1915, but other sources argue this happened in the 1920s. The Chilean web newspaper "El Mercurio Online" specifically contends historians attribute the year of the drink's invention as 1922, adding that "one night Morris surprised his friends with a new drink he called "pisco sour", a formula which mixes the Peruvian "pisco" with the American "sour"" (in Spanish: ""Una noche Morris sorprendió a sus amigos con una nueva bebida a la que llamó pisco sour, una fórmula que funde lo peruano del pisco con el 'sour' estadounidense."").


title: Pisco sour

text: The pisco sour's initial recipe was that of a simple cocktail. According to Peruvian researcher Guillermo Toro-Lira, "it is assumed that it was a crude mix of pisco with lime juice and sugar, as was the whiskey sour of those days." As the cocktail's recipe continued to evolve, the bar's registry shows that customers commented on the continuously improving taste of the drink. The modern Peruvian version of the recipe was developed by Mario Bruiget, a Peruvian from Chincha Alta who worked under the apprenticeship of Morris starting on July 16, 1924. Bruiget's recipe added the Angostura bitters and egg whites to the mix. Journalist Erica Duecy writes that Bruiget's innovation added "a silky texture and frothy head" to the cocktail.


title: Pisco sour

text: Morris used advertisements to promote his bar and invention. The oldest known mention of the pisco sour appears in the September 1920 edition of the Peruvian magazine "Hogar". Another old advertisement appears in the April 22, 1921, edition of the Peruvian magazine "Mundial". In the magazine, not only is the pisco sour described as a white-colored beverage but its invention is attributed to "Mister Morris." Later, in 1924, with the aid of Morris' friend Nelson Rounsevell, the bar advertised its locale and invention in Valparaíso, Chile. The advertisement featured in the Valparaíso newspaper "South Pacific Mail", owned by Rounsevell. By 1927, Morris' Bar had attained widespread notability for its cocktails, particularly the pisco sour. Brad Thomas Parsons writes that "the registry at the Morris Bar was filled with high praise from visitors who raved about the signature drink."


title: Pisco sour

text: Notable attendees of Morris' Bar included the writers Abraham Valdelomar and José María Eguren, the adventurers Richard Halliburton and Dean Ivan Lamb, the anthropologist Alfred Kroeber, and the businessmen Elmer Faucett and José Lindley. In his memoir, Lamb recalls his experience with the pisco sour in Morris' Bar, commenting that it "tasted like a pleasant soft drink" and that he felt disoriented after drinking a second one despite a bartender's stern objection that "one was usually sufficient."


title: Pisco sour

text: Over time, competition from nearby bars and Victor Morris' deteriorating health led to the decline and fall of his enterprise. Due to his worsening constitution, Morris delegated most of the bartending to his employees. Adding to the problem, nearby competitors, such as the Hotel Bolívar and the Hotel Lima Country Club, housed bars that took clientele away from Morris' Bar. Moreover, Toro-Lira discovered that Morris accused four of his former bartenders of intellectual property theft after they left to work in one of these competing establishments. In 1929, Morris declared voluntary bankruptcy and closed his saloon. A few months later, on June 11, Victor Vaughen Morris died of cirrhosis.


title: Pisco sour

text: Historian Luis Alberto Sánchez writes that, after Morris closed his bar, some of his bartenders left to work in other locales. Bruiget began working as a bartender for the nearby Grand Hotel Maury, where he continued to serve his pisco sour recipe. His success with the drink led local Limean oral tradition to associate the Hotel Maury as the original home of the pisco sour. Sánchez, who in his youth also frequented Morris' Bar, writes in his memoir that two of Morris' other apprentices, Leonidas Cisneros Arteta and Augusto Rodríguez, opened their own bars.


title: Pisco sour

text: As other former apprentices of Morris found work elsewhere, they also spread the pisco sour recipe. Since at least 1927, pisco sours started being sold in Chile, most notably at the Club de la Unión, a high-class gentlemen's club in downtown Santiago. During the 1930s, the drink made its way into California, reaching bars as far north as the city of San Francisco. Restaurateur Victor Jules Bergeron, Jr., remembers serving pisco sours at the original Trader Vic's tiki bar in Oakland, in 1934, to a traveler who had read about the cocktail in "Life" magazine. By at least the late 1960s, the cocktail also found its way to New York.


title: Pisco sour

text: Beatriz Jiménez, a journalist from the Spanish newspaper "El Mundo", indicates that back in Peru, the luxury hotels of Lima adopted the pisco sour as their own in the 1940s. An oil bonanza attracted foreign attention to Peru during the 1940s and 1950s. In his 1943 guidebook promoting "inter-American understanding" during the Second World War, explorer Earl Parker Hanson writes that pisco and "the famous pisco sour" were favored by foreigners residing in Peru. Among the foreign visitors to Lima were renowned Hollywood actors who were fascinated by the pisco sour. Jiménez recollected oral traditions claiming an inebriated Ava Gardner had to be carried away by John Wayne after drinking too many pisco sours. Ernest Hemingway and Orson Welles are said to have been big fans of what they described as "that Peruvian drink." In his autobiography, actor Ray Milland recalls drinking the cocktail in Lima's Government Palace during the Bustamante presidency of the 1940s, first finding it "a most intriguing drink" and then, after delivering a "brilliant dedication speech" whose success he partly attributed to the cocktail, charmingly referred to it as "the lovely pisco sour."


title: Pisco sour

text: In 1969, Sánchez wrote that the Hotel Maury still served the "authentic" Pisco sour from Morris' Bar. Pan American World Airways included the pisco sour in a drinking tips section for the 1978 edition of its "Encyclopedia of Travel" guidebook, warning travelers to Peru that "[t]he pisco sour looks innocent, but is potent." Bolivian journalist Ted Córdova Claure wrote, in 1984, that the Hotel Bolívar stood as a monument to the decadence of the Peruvian oligarchy (in Spanish: ""Este hotel es un monumento a la decadencia de la oligarquía peruana.""). He noted the locale as being the traditional home of the pisco sour and recommended it as one of the best hotels in Lima. Nowadays, the Hotel Bolivar continues to offer the cocktail in its "El Bolivarcito" bar, while the Country Club Lima Hotel offers the drink in its "English Bar" saloon.


title: Pisco sour

text: The pisco sour has three different methods of preparation. The Peruvian pisco sour cocktail is made by mixing Peruvian pisco with Key lime juice, simple syrup, egg white, Angostura bitters (for garnish), and ice cubes. The Chilean pisco sour cocktail is made by mixing Chilean Pisco with limón de Pica juice, powdered sugar, and ice cubes. Daniel Joelson, a food writer, and critic, contends that the major difference between both pisco sour versions "is that Peruvians generally include egg whites, while Chileans do not." The version from the International Bartenders Association, which lists the pisco sour among its "New Era Drinks," is similar to the Peruvian version, but with the difference that it uses lemon juice, instead of lime juice, and does not distinguish between the two different types of pisco.


title: Pisco sour

text: Considerable differences exist in the pisco used in the cocktails. According to food and wine expert Mark Spivak, the difference is in how both beverages are produced; whereas "Chilean pisco is mass-produced," the Peruvian version "is made in small batches." Cocktail historian Andrew Bohrer focuses his comparison on taste, claiming that "[i]n Peru, pisco is made in a pot still, distilled to proof, and un-aged; it is very similar to grappa. In Chile, pisco is made in a column still and aged in wood; it is similar to a very light cognac." Chilean oenologist Patricio Tapia adds that while Chilean pisco producers usually mix vine stocks, Peruvian producers have specific pisco types that use the aromatic qualities of vines such as Yellow Muscat and Italia. Tapia concludes this is why Peruvian pisco bottles denote their vintage year and the Chilean versions do not.


title: Pisco sour

text: Variations of the pisco sour exist in Peru, Bolivia, and Chile. There are adaptations of the cocktail in Peru using fruits such as "maracuya" (commonly known as passion fruit), "aguaymanto", and apples, or traditional ingredients such as the coca leaf. Lima's Hotel Bolivar serves a larger version of the cocktail, named "pisco sour catedral", invented for hurried guests arriving from the nearby Catholic cathedral. In Chile, variants include the Ají Sour (with a spicy green chili), Mango sour (with mango juice), and Sour de Campo (with ginger and honey). In Bolivia, the Yunqueño variant (from its Yungas region) replaces the lime with orange juice.


title: Pisco sour

text: Cocktails similar to the pisco sour exist in Chile and Peru. The Chilean piscola is made by mixing pisco with cola. The Algarrobina cocktail, popular in northern Peru, is made from pisco, condensed milk, and sap from the Peruvian "algarroba" tree. Other Peruvian pisco-based cocktails include the "chilcano" (made with pisco and ginger ale) and the "capitán" (made with pisco and vermouth). Another similar cocktail, from the United States, is the Californian pisco punch, originally made with Peruvian pisco, pineapples, and lemon.


title: Pisco sour

text: Duggan McDonnell describes the pisco sour as "Latin America's most elegant cocktail, frothy, balanced, bright yet rich," adding that "Barkeeps throughout Northern California will attest that they have shaken many a Pisco sour. It is the egg white cocktail of choice and an absolutely beloved one by most." Australian journalist Kate Schneider writes that the pisco sour "has become so famous that there is an International Pisco Sour Day celebration on the first Saturday in February every year, as well as a Facebook page with more than 600,000 likes." According to Chilean entrepreneur Rolando Hinrichs Oyarce, owner of a restaurant-bar in Spain, "The pisco sour is highly international, just like Cebiche, and so they are not too unknown" (Spanish: ""El pisco sour es bastante internacional, al igual que el cebiche, por lo tanto no son tan desconocidos""). In 2003, Peru created the ""Día Nacional del Pisco Sour"" (National Pisco Sour Day), an official government holiday celebrated on the first Saturday of February. During the 2008 APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting, Peru promoted its pisco sour with widespread acceptance. The cocktail was reportedly the preferred drink of the attendees, mostly leaders, businessmen, and delegates.


title: Pisco sour

text: Victor Vaughen Morris is considered by most historians to be the inventor of the pisco sour cocktail. Nonetheless, the cocktail's traditional origin story is complicated with findings that suggest otherwise. Based on the recipe from the 1903 Peruvian cookbook "Manual de Cocina a la Criolla", researcher Nico Vera considers that "the origin of the Pisco Sour may be a traditional creole cocktail made in Lima over 100 years ago." Based on the clipping from the 1921 "West Coast Leader" news article, McDonnell considers it possible that the pisco sour may have actually originated in San Francisco, considering additionally that during this time the city experienced a "burst of cocktail creativity," the whiskey sour cocktail "was plentiful and ubiquitous," and "the fact that Pisco was heralded as a special spirit" in the city.


title: Pisco sour

text: In defense of Morris, journalist Rick Vecchio considers that "even if there was something very similar and pre-existing" to Morris' pisco cocktail, it should not be doubted that he "was the first to serve, promote and perfect what today is known as the Pisco Sour." McDonnell also considers that, regardless of its exact origin, the pisco sour "belongs to Peru." According to culture writer Saxon Baird, a bust in honor of Morris stands in Lima's Santiago de Surco district "as a testament to Morris' contribution to modern Peruvian culture and the country he called home for more than half his life."


title: Pisco sour

text: Despite this, an ongoing dispute exists between Chile and Peru over the origin of the pisco sour. In Chile, a local story developed in the 1980s attributing the invention of the pisco sour to Elliot Stubb, an English steward from a sailing ship named "Sunshine". Chilean folklorist and historian Oreste Plath contributed to the legend's propagation by writing that, according to the Peruvian newspaper "El Comercio de Iquique", in 1872, after obtaining leave to disembark, Stubb opened a bar in the then-Peruvian port of Iquique and invented the pisco sour while experimenting with drinks. Nevertheless, researcher Toro-Lira argues that the story was refuted after it was discovered "El Comercio de Iquique" was actually referring to the invention of the whiskey sour. The story of Elliot Stubb and his alleged invention of the whiskey sour in Iquique is also found in a 1962 publication by the University of Cuyo, Argentina. An excerpt from the newspaper's story has Elliot Stubb stating, "From now on ... this shall be my drink of battle, my favorite drink, and it shall be named Whisky Sour" (in Spanish: ""En adelante dijo Elliot — éste será mi trago de batalla, — mi trago favorito —, y se llamará Whisky Sour."").


title: Pisco sour

text: Some pisco producers have expressed that the ongoing controversy between Chile and Peru helps promote interest in the liquor and its geographical indication dispute.


title: Pisco sour

text: American celebrity chef Anthony Bourdain drew attention to the cocktail when, in an episode of his Travel Channel program "", he drank a pisco sour in Valparaíso, Chile, and said: "that's good, but ... next time, I'll have a beer." The broadcaster Radio Programas del Perú reported that Jorge López Sotomayor, the episode's Chilean producer and Bourdain's travel partner in Chile, said Bourdain found the pisco sour he drank in Valparaíso boring and not worth the effort (in Spanish: ""A mí me dijo que el pisco sour lo encontró aburrido y que no valía la pena.""). Lopez added that Bourdain had recently arrived from Peru, where he drank several pisco sours which he thought tasted better than the Chilean version.


title: Pisco sour

text: In 2010, Mexican singer-songwriter Aleks Syntek humorously posted on Twitter that the pisco sour is Chilean and, after receiving critical responses to his statement, apologized and mentioned he was only joking. Mexican television host and comedian Adal Ramones also joked about pisco sour, about the 2009 Chile–Peru espionage scandal, on November 17, 2009. Ramones, a fan of Peruvian Pisco, when asked about the espionage, asked what Chileans were spying on in Peru, suggesting it might be how to make a pisco sour (in Spanish: ""¿Qué quieren espiar los chilenos? ¿Cómo hacer pisco sour?""). In 2017, when told pisco sour was "totally Chilean" by an interviewer at a Chilean radio station, British musician Ed Sheeran commented that he preferred the Peruvian pisco sour.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: The Coup d'état of 18 Brumaire brought Napoleon Bonaparte to power as First Consul of France. In the view of most historians, it ended the French Revolution and led to the Coronation of Napoleon as Emperor. This bloodless "coup d'état" overthrew the Directory, replacing it with the French Consulate. This occurred on 9 November 1799, which was 18 Brumaire, Year VIII under the short-lived French Republican calendar system.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: After Habsburg-controlled Austria declared war on France on 12 March 1799, emergency measures were adopted and the pro-war Jacobin faction triumphed in the April election. With Napoleon and the republic's best army engaged in the Egypt and Syria campaign, France suffered a series of reverses on the battlefield in the spring and summer of 1799. The Coup of 30 Prairial VII (18 June) ousted the Jacobins and left Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, a member of the five-man ruling Directory, the dominant figure in the government. France's military situation improved following the Second Battle of Zurich, fought on 25–26 September. As the prospect of invasion receded, the Jacobins feared a revival of the pro-peace Royalist faction. When Napoleon returned to France on 9 October, both factions hailed him as the country's savior.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: Dazzled by Napoleon's campaign in the Middle East, the public received him with an ardor that convinced Sieyès he had found the general indispensable to his planned coup. However, from the moment of his return, Napoleon plotted a coup within the coup, ultimately gaining power for himself rather than Sieyès.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: Probably the weightiest possible obstacles to a coup were in the army. Some generals, such as Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, honestly believed in republicanism; others, such as Jean Bernadotte, believed themselves capable of governing France. Napoleon worked on the feelings of all, keeping secret his own intentions.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: Before the coup, troops were conveniently deployed around Paris. The plan was, first, to persuade the Directors to resign, then, second, to get the Council of Ancients and the Council of Five Hundred (the upper and lower houses of the legislature) to appoint a pliant commission that would draw up a new constitution to the plotters' specifications.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: On the morning of 18 Brumaire, Lucien Bonaparte falsely persuaded the Councils that a Jacobin coup was at hand in Paris, and induced them to depart for the safety of the suburban Château de Saint-Cloud. Napoleon was charged with the safety of the two Councils and given command of all available local troops.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: Later that morning, Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès and Roger Ducos resigned as Directors. The now former 1797–1799 2nd Minister of Foreign Affairs Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord, a close ally of Napoleon, pressured Director Paul Barras to do the same.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: The resignation of three of the five Directors on day one of the coup prevented a quorum and thus practically abolished the five-man Directory, but the two Jacobin Directors, Louis-Jérôme Gohier and Jean-François-Auguste Moulin, continued to protest furiously. Both men were arrested on day two by Napoleon's ally General Jean Victor Marie Moreau, and by the following day, they were compelled to give up their resistance.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: By the following day, the deputies had for the most part realized that they were facing an attempted coup rather than being protected from a Jacobin rebellion. Faced with their refusal to submit, Napoleon stormed into the chambers, escorted by a small force of grenadiers. While perhaps unplanned, this proved to be the coup within the coup: from this point, this was a military affair.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: Napoleon found the Ancients resistant "despite a massive show of military strength." He was met with heckling as he addressed them with such "home truths" as, "the Republic has no government" and, most likely, "the Revolution is over." One deputy called out, "And the Constitution?" Napoleon replied, referring to earlier parliamentary coups, "The Constitution! You yourselves have destroyed it. You violated it on 18 Fructidor; you violated it on 22 Floreal; you violated it on 30 Prairial. It no longer has the respect of anyone."


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: Napoleon's reception by the Council of Five Hundred was even more hostile. His grenadiers entered just as the legality of Barras's resignation was being challenged by the Jacobins in the chamber. Upon entering, Napoleon was first jostled, then outright assaulted. By some accounts, he came close to fainting. It was not Napoleon himself, but his brother Lucien, president of the council, who called upon the grenadiers to defend their leader. Napoleon escaped, but only through the use of military force.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: A motion was raised in the Council of Five Hundred to declare Napoleon an outlaw. At this point, Lucien Bonaparte apparently slipped out of the chamber and told the soldiers guarding the Councils that the majority of the Five Hundred were being terrorized by a group of deputies brandishing daggers. According to Michael Rapport, "He pointed to Napoleon's bloody, pallid face as proof; although at least one account mentions Napoleon scratching his own face in frustration and rage until he drew blood. Then, in a theatrical gesture, Lucien seized a sword and promised to plunge it through his own brother's heart if he were a traitor." Lucien ordered the troops to expel the violent deputies from the chamber. Grenadiers under the command of General Joachim Murat marched into the Orangerie and dispersed the council. This was effectively the end of the Directory.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: The Ancients passed a decree that adjourned the Councils for three months, appointed Napoleon, Sieyès, and Ducos provisional consuls, and named the Corps législatif. Some tractable members of the Five Hundred, rounded up afterwards, served to give these measures the confirmation of their House. Thus the Directory and the Councils came to an end.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: With the Council routed, the plotters convened two commissions, each consisting of twenty-five deputies from the two Councils. The plotters essentially intimidated the commissions into declaring a provisional government, the first form of the consulate with Napoleon, Sieyès, and Ducos as Consuls. The lack of reaction from the streets proved that the revolution was, indeed, over. "A shabby compound of brute force and imposture, the 18th Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay applauded, by the French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more than to be wisely and firmly governed." Resistance by Jacobin officeholders in the provinces was quickly crushed. Twenty Jacobin deputies were exiled, and others were arrested. The commissions then drew up the "short and obscure Constitution of the Year VIII", the first of the constitutions since the Revolution without a Declaration of Rights.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: Bonaparte thus completed his coup within a coup by the adoption of a constitution under which the First Consul, a position he was sure to hold, had greater power than the other two. In particular, he appointed the Senate and the Senate interpreted the constitution. The Sénat conservateur allowed him to rule by decree, so the more independent Conseil d'État and Tribunat were relegated to unimportant roles. It led ultimately to the rise of the First French Empire.


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: In 1852, Karl Marx wrote "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte" about a much later event, the coup d'état of 1851 against the


title: Coup of 18 Brumaire

text: Second Republic by Napoleon III, who was Napoleon's nephew. Marx considered Louis Napoleon a trifling politician compared to his world-conquering uncle, as expressed in Marx's oft-quoted opening "bon mot": "Hegel remarks somewhere that all great world-historic facts and personages appear, so to speak, twice. He forgot to add: the first time as tragedy, the second time as farce."


title: Varun Kapoor

text: Varun Kapoor is an Indian television actor known for playing Sanskaar Maheshwari in Colors TV's "Swaragini - Jodein Rishton Ke Sur" and Dr. Veer Malhotra in "Savitri Devi College & Hospital".


title: Varun Kapoor

text: Kapoor is a Gujarati who was born and brought up in Ahmedabad, Gujarat. He did his schooling from St. Kabir School, Vadodara and graduated in Electronic engineering from Sinhgad College of Engineering, Pune. He went to Bloomington for further studies.


title: Varun Kapoor

text: Kapoor has played the role of Varun in "Kis Desh Mein Hai Meraa Dil", Neil in "Tujh Sang Preet Lagai Sajna", Varun in "Bayttaab Dil Kee Tamanna Hai", Shaurya in "Na Aana Is Des Laado", Kabir in "Humse Hai Liife", Mahish/Mahishasura in "" and Danny Vyas in "Saraswatichandra".


title: Varun Kapoor

text: From 2015 to 2016, he portrayed Sanskaar Maheshwari in "Swaragini - Jodein Rishton Ke Sur" opposite Helly Shah for which he was awarded the Best Actor Male at Golden Petal Awards 2016.


title: Varun Kapoor

text: From 2017 to 2018, Kapoor played the role of Dr. Veer Malhotra in "Savitri Devi College & Hospital" on Colors TV opposite Swarda Thigale.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Thermodynamic equilibrium is an axiomatic concept of thermodynamics. It is an internal state of a single thermodynamic system, or a relation between several thermodynamic systems connected by more or less permeable or impermeable walls. In thermodynamic equilibrium there are no net macroscopic flows of matter or of energy, within a system or between systems. In a system that is in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, no macroscopic change occurs.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Systems in mutual thermodynamic equilibrium are simultaneously in mutual thermal, mechanical, chemical, and radiative equilibria. Systems can be in one kind of mutual equilibrium, while not in others. In thermodynamic equilibrium, all kinds of equilibrium hold at once and indefinitely, until disturbed by a thermodynamic operation. In a macroscopic equilibrium, perfectly or almost perfectly balanced microscopic exchanges occur; this is the physical explanation of the notion of macroscopic equilibrium.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: A thermodynamic system in a state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium has a spatially uniform temperature. Its intensive properties, other than temperature, may be driven to spatial inhomogeneity by an unchanging long-range force field imposed on it by its surroundings.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: In systems that are at a state of non-equilibrium there are, by contrast, net flows of matter or energy. If such changes can be triggered to occur in a system in which they are not already occurring, the system is said to be in a meta-stable equilibrium.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Though not a widely named "law," it is an axiom of thermodynamics that there exist states of thermodynamic equilibrium. The second law of thermodynamics states that when an isolated body of material starts from an equilibrium state, in which, portions of it are held at different states by more or less permeable or impermeable partitions, and a thermodynamic operation removes or makes the partitions more permeable, then it spontaneously reaches its own, new state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium, and this is accompanied by an increase in the sum of the entropies of the portions.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Classical thermodynamics deals with states of dynamic equilibrium. The state of a system at thermodynamic equilibrium is the one for which some thermodynamic potential is minimized (in the absence of an applied voltage), or for which the entropy ("S") is maximized, for specified conditions. One such potential is the Helmholtz free energy ("A"), for a closed system at constant volume and temperature (controlled by a heat bath):


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Another potential, the Gibbs free energy ("G"), is minimized at thermodynamic equilibrium in a closed system at constant temperature and pressure, both controlled by the surroundings:


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: where "T" denotes the absolute thermodynamic temperature, "P" the pressure, "S" the entropy, "V" the volume, and "U" the internal energy of the system. In other words, formula_3 is a necessary condition for chemical equilibrium under these conditions (in the absence of an applied voltage).


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Thermodynamic equilibrium is the unique stable stationary state that is approached or eventually reached as the system interacts with its surroundings over a long time. The above-mentioned potentials are mathematically constructed to be the thermodynamic quantities that are minimized under the particular conditions in the specified surroundings.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Often the surroundings of a thermodynamic system may also be regarded as another thermodynamic system. In this view, one may consider the system and its surroundings as two systems in mutual contact, with long-range forces also linking them. The enclosure of the system is the surface of contiguity or boundary between the two systems. In the thermodynamic formalism, that surface is regarded as having specific properties of permeability. For example, the surface of contiguity may be supposed to be permeable only to heat, allowing energy to transfer only as heat. Then the two systems are said to be in thermal equilibrium when the long-range forces are unchanging in time and the transfer of energy as heat between them has slowed and eventually stopped permanently; this is an example of a contact equilibrium. Other kinds of contact equilibrium are defined by other kinds of specific permeability. When two systems are in contact equilibrium with respect to a particular kind of permeability, they have common values of the intensive variable that belongs to that particular kind of permeability. Examples of such intensive variables are temperature, pressure, chemical potential.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: A contact equilibrium may be regarded also as an exchange equilibrium. There is a zero balance of rate of transfer of some quantity between the two systems in contact equilibrium. For example, for a wall permeable only to heat, the rates of diffusion of internal energy as heat between the two systems are equal and opposite. An adiabatic wall between the two systems is 'permeable' only to energy transferred as work; at mechanical equilibrium the rates of transfer of energy as work between them are equal and opposite. If the wall is a simple wall, then the rates of transfer of volume across it are also equal and opposite; and the pressures on either side of it are equal. If the adiabatic wall is more complicated, with a sort of leverage, having an area-ratio, then the pressures of the two systems in exchange equilibrium are in the inverse ratio of the volume exchange ratio; this keeps the zero balance of rates of transfer as work.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: A radiative exchange can occur between two otherwise separate systems. Radiative exchange equilibrium prevails when the two systems have the same temperature.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: A collection of matter may be entirely isolated from its surroundings. If it has been left undisturbed for an indefinitely long time, classical thermodynamics postulates that it is in a state in which no changes occur within it, and there are no flows within it. This is a thermodynamic state of internal equilibrium. (This postulate is sometimes, but not often, called the "minus first" law of thermodynamics. One textbook calls it the "zeroth law", remarking that the authors think this more befitting that title than its more customary definition, which apparently was suggested by Fowler.)


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: Such states are a principal concern in what is known as classical or equilibrium thermodynamics, for they are the only states of the system that are regarded as well defined in that subject. A system in contact equilibrium with another system can by a thermodynamic operation be isolated, and upon the event of isolation, no change occurs in it. A system in a relation of contact equilibrium with another system may thus also be regarded as being in its own state of internal thermodynamic equilibrium.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: The thermodynamic formalism allows that a system may have contact with several other systems at once, which may or may not also have mutual contact, the contacts having respectively different permeabilities. If these systems are all jointly isolated from the rest of the world those of them that are in contact then reach respective contact equilibria with one another.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: If several systems are free of adiabatic walls between each other, but are jointly isolated from the rest of the world, then they reach a state of multiple contact equilibrium, and they have a common temperature, a total internal energy, and a total entropy. Amongst intensive variables, this is a unique property of temperature. It holds even in the presence of long-range forces. (That is, there is no "force" that can maintain temperature discrepancies.) For example, in a system in thermodynamic equilibrium in a vertical gravitational field, the pressure on the top wall is less than that on the bottom wall, but the temperature is the same everywhere.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: A thermodynamic operation may occur as an event restricted to the walls that are within the surroundings, directly affecting neither the walls of contact of the system of interest with its surroundings, nor its interior, and occurring within a definitely limited time. For example, an immovable adiabatic wall may be placed or removed within the surroundings. Consequent upon such an operation restricted to the surroundings, the system may be for a time driven away from its own initial internal state of thermodynamic equilibrium. Then, according to the second law of thermodynamics, the whole undergoes changes and eventually reaches a new and final equilibrium with the surroundings. Following Planck, this consequent train of events is called a natural thermodynamic process. It is allowed in equilibrium thermodynamics just because the initial and final states are of thermodynamic equilibrium, even though during the process there is transient departure from thermodynamic equilibrium, when neither the system nor its surroundings are in well defined states of internal equilibrium. A natural process proceeds at a finite rate for the main part of its course. It is thereby radically different from a fictive quasi-static 'process' that proceeds infinitely slowly throughout its course, and is fictively 'reversible'. Classical thermodynamics allows that even though a process may take a very long time to settle to thermodynamic equilibrium, if the main part of its course is at a finite rate, then it is considered to be natural, and to be subject to the second law of thermodynamics, and thereby irreversible. Engineered machines and artificial devices and manipulations are permitted within the surroundings. The allowance of such operations and devices in the surroundings but not in the system is the reason why Kelvin in one of his statements of the second law of thermodynamics spoke of "inanimate" agency; a system in thermodynamic equilibrium is inanimate.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: It is often convenient to suppose that some of the surrounding subsystems are so much larger than the system that the process can affect the intensive variables only of the surrounding subsystems, and they are then called reservoirs for relevant intensive variables.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: It is useful to distinguish between global and local thermodynamic equilibrium. In thermodynamics, exchanges within a system and between the system and the outside are controlled by intensive parameters. As an example, temperature controls heat exchanges. "Global thermodynamic equilibrium" (GTE) means that those intensive parameters are homogeneous throughout the whole system, while "local thermodynamic equilibrium" (LTE) means that those intensive parameters are varying in space and time, but are varying so slowly that, for any point, one can assume thermodynamic equilibrium in some neighborhood about that point.


title: Thermodynamic equilibrium

text: If the description of the system requires variations in the intensive parameters that are too large, the very assumptions upon which the definitions of these intensive parameters are based will break down, and the system will be in neither global nor local equilibrium. For example, it takes a certain number of collisions for a particle to equilibrate to its surroundings. If the average distance it has moved during these collisions removes it from the neighborhood it is equilibrating to, it will never equilibrate, and there will be no LTE. Temperature is, by definition, proportional to the average internal energy of an equilibrated neighborhood. Since there is no equilibrated neighborhood, the concept of temperature doesn't hold, and the temperature becomes undefined.