title: Pixel art

text: In addition to pixel art influenced by video games, pixel artists (or graphicians) in the demoscene continued to make pixel art for demos and cracktros. Some demoscene pixel artists active in the 1990s have cited movies and urban graffiti as important influences for their art, particularly in designing logos. In addition to copying sprites from existing video games, demoscene pixel artists also copied the work of popular artists and illustrators such as Ian Miller and Simon Bisley. Competition gradually became an increasingly important part of demoscene gatherings, including pixel art (graphics) competitions, and as teenagers and young adults were the major demographic in these gatherings, a lot of demoscene pixel art referenced familiar fantasy, science fiction and cyberpunk tropes. Demoscene competitions had a major effect in shaping the direction of pixel art, as prominent artists would look for ways to innovate, display superior technique, overcome technical restrictions and, in many cases, aim for photorealism through painstaking anti-aliasing.


title: Pixel art

text: As the internet gradually became more available in the 1990s, pixel artists and demosceners would gradually begin to spread their pixel art via websites, instant messaging and online file sharing. While the demoscene was arguably most popular among young males, an online movement began in the late 1990s known as pixel dolls or 'dollz', which was popular among young females. The increased popularity of online chatting and personal webpages at a time before digital cameras were common led to an increased demand for personal representation through personalized avatars. These avatars often took the form of pixel dolls, being pixel art characters that could be outfitted with different clothing and accessories. As pixel dolls grew more and more common, many pixel artists gradually began to develop this as an independent artform.


title: Pixel art

text: The 2000s were a pivotal decade for pixel art establishing itself as an artform practiced around the world, separate from other forms of digital art. In particular, the Pixelation forum and Pixel Joint gallery are credited as the most influential English-speaking online communities, connecting pixel artists all over the world in a way that the mostly western European demoscene movement had not. Pixelation was a webforum where artists could share pixel art to give and receive feedback. Its main focus was critiquing, developing skills and understanding of pixel art, more so than simply sharing art for the sake of admiration, entertainment or competition. Pixel Joint is an online gallery where members can submit personal work and comment on other members' pixel art. It has features such as weekly challenges, a forum, a hall of fame and a monthly top 10 pixel art competition based on member voting.


title: Pixel art

text: Over time, the overlapping but separate communities on Pixelation and Pixel Joint were engaged in online discourse about the nature of pixel art, inspiring widely shared tutorials and arguably contributing to a new paradigm that was different to the pixel art of the 1990s. A major concern was to establish pixel art as its own medium and/or art form, separate from other types of digital art, such as oekaki. In particular, highly restricted palettes (e.g. a maximum 8 or 16 colors) were argued by some to be a defining feature of pixel art. One example is the so-called "8 colour gentlemen's club", consisting of pixel artists who celebrated pixel art with 8 colours. The use of transparent layers and smudging tools were also considered non-pixel art and unacceptable for the Pixel Joint gallery. Whereas the demoscene had, to a large degree, revolved around physical gatherings and groups of artists, musicians and programmers collaborating, pixel art communities on Pixel Joint and Pixelation were based mostly on online interaction among individual artists. On Pixel Joint, pixel art made through collaboration between artists was not accepted in the gallery, but considered a separate pursuit. The relatively strict ideas of what constituted acceptable pixel art, enforced by moderators on Pixel Joint, led to repeated conflict but also contributed to pixel art standing out as a separate medium at a time when many types of digital paintings were shared on the internet, on websites like DeviantArt. In particular, several prominent artists mention Cure's tutorials as significant for learning about pixel art as a separate art medium or art form.


title: Pixel art

text: After the golden age of the demoscene pixel art in the 1990s, many notable pixel artists of that milieu took a break from pixel art in the 2000s - although some made an early transition to join Pixelation and Pixel Joint, such as Gas 13 and Tomic. While activity did decline, the demoscene continued to explore pixel art on platforms from the late 1980s and early 1990s, particularly using the Commodore 64 and Atari computers.


title: Pixel art

text: Pixel doll communities grew rapidly during the 2000s, in large part due to the continued growth of forums, message boards and chat services. With websites like the Doll Palace, Eden Enchanted, DeviantArt, and many personal websites, pixel dolls was increasingly recognized as a new art form, with public feedback, competition, tutorials, best practices, and rules of conduct. The 2000s were arguably the height of pixel doll popularity, in part because of various online communities that made use of pixel dolls for avatars and the popularity of internet forums in an age before social media. Despite this, there was relatively little interaction between the pixel doll communities and other pixel art communities such as Pixel Joint, Pixelation, or the demoscene.


title: Pixel art

text: In video games for computers and consoles during the 2000s, pixel art was largely abandoned in favor of more modern graphics, particularly based on 3D. Many professional game artists who had been working with pixel art either left the industry or switched to other forms of digital art. This arguably contributed to pixel art establishing itself as an independent art form, practiced mostly by independent artists rather than game industry employees. There are a few notable exceptions, such as Habbo Hotel, which inspired a great amount of isometric pixel art, and Advance Wars, for Game Boy Advance.


title: Pixel art

text: The popularity of pixel art accelerated during the 2010s. One major contribution to this trend was the success of several 'retro' pixel art games such as (2011), Fez (2012), Papers, Please (2013), Shovel Knight (2014), Owlboy (2016), Stardew Valley (2016), and Octopath Traveler (2018). Many of these games combined low-resolution game assets with non-pixel art (NPA) elements such as filters, high definition UI, or special effects. The increased attention on pixel art in media and the game industry coincided with the rapid growth of pixel art communities. Owlboy's art director, Simon Andersen, explained that he wanted to show the advantages of the pixel as an art medium, pushing the potential of the artistic technique and showcase pixel art done properly, without millions of colors or 3D captures. In contrast, the heavily stylized and abstract "Superbrothers: Sword & Sworcery EP" made extensive use of filters and non-pixel art graphics. Superbrothers: "Sword and Sworcery" also allowed players to share various in-game achievements on Twitter, the #sworcery hashtag went viral, contributing to the renewed interest in pixel art in video games.


title: Pixel art

text: Pixel Joint and Pixelation remained important communities with a growing number of contributors, but the 2010s saw the rise of new communities on Reddit, DeviantArt, Instagram, and Twitter. While Pixelation in particular had a core of very dedicated, often professional, pixel artists, and Pixel Joint had moderators who accepted or rejected submissions to its online gallery, new pixel art communities in social media were naturally less cohesive, yet more open. Not only did social media contribute significantly to the continued growth of pixel art, and more traffic to older pixel art websites, but websites like Tumblr, Twitter, and Instagram also gave significant global attention to new pixel artists outside of the traditional pixel art communities, such as Waneella and Pixel Jeff.


title: Pixel art

text: During the 2010s, the demoscene arguably entered a silver age, as several older artists returned to their hobbies after a hiatus. In addition, the increasing popularity of pixel art in this decade also attracted new artists to the demoscene, who had not been active during the 1990s and 2000s. It is important to note that the demoscene and its graphics competitions never stopped, but the 2010s could nevertheless be considered a period of rejuvenation.


title: Pixel art

text: As advanced digital painting software like Photoshop became more widely available and easier to use, the pixel doll community split into a group of artists using traditional pixel art, known as pixel-shaders, and a group of artists using more advanced tools, known as tool-shaders. As internet forums lost popularity and drawn avatars were increasingly replaced by photos in internet communities, the pixel dolling community gradually became less active in this decade.


title: Pixel art

text: Perhaps because of the rise of pixel art in video games and in social media, pixel art was also seen in other areas of popular culture and even made its way to public museums. Ivan Dixon and Paul Robertson received international attention for making a pixel art version of The Simpsons' introduction sequence. Eboy became well known for their isometric pixel art displays, often used for advertisement or sold as independent art. The work of pixel artists such as Octavi Navarro and Gustavo Viselner was featured in major newspapers and magazines. French urban artist Invader received international attention for his urban pixel art mosaics, seen around the world. Among 1980s-inspired synthwave artists and groups, pixel art was used to make music videos, such as Valenberg's work for Pertubator and a Gunship music video by pixel artists Jason Tammemagi, Gyhyom, Mary Safro, and Waneella. In 2012, the Smithsonian Institution museum of Washington created an exhibition called The Art of Video Games, attended by almost 700,000 people.


title: Pixel art

text: Although some commenters had predicted the decline of "retro" pixel art after a wave of pixel art games in the 2010s, pixel art has continued to remain popular in the current decade. One major contributing factor seems to have been the COVID 19 pandemic, as people around the world spent more time online, playing games, using social media and developing new hobbies. A second contributing factor seems to have been the rise of NFTs, as pixel art became an inexpensive way to produce large numbers of artworks. As the market for NFTs grew rapidly, many pixel artists embraced the new technology as a new source of income. Many notable professional artists also expressed skepticism and disapproval of NFTs, citing environmental factors, pyramid scheme claims, and money laundering as reasons for rejecting offers. One of the most profiled examples of pixel artists expressing opposition to NFTs is Castpixel, citing environmental effects and artificial scarcity. Furthermore, as is the case with other forms of digital art, pixel artists have also discovered many cases of plagiarism and fraud by actors who download pixel art without permission to sell as NFTs. Although discussion around pixel art theft is not new, the issue has certainly become more controversial with the rise of NFTs.


title: Pixel art

text: Perhaps linked to the increased influence and attraction of social media platforms like Twitter, Mastodon, Reddit, and Instagram, older pixel art communities on Pixelation and DeviantArt declined in the 2020s. Discord became an important platform for pixel art communities like Pixel Joint, PAD (Pixel Art Discord), LoSpec, and Trigonomicon. In the early fall of 2022, Pixelation announced the closing of its webforum and a transition to Twitter.


title: Pixel art

text: Pixel art continued to be a popular style in games across platforms, with releases such as Eastward (2021), (2022), Songs of Conquest (2022), Vikings on Trampolines (2022), and Loop Hero (2021). Some argued that the recent wave of pixel art games, released thirty years after the release of the SNES, was largely influenced by nostalgia and freedom from publishers, responding to unoriginal stories in modern video game blockbusters and wanting to integrate contemporary themes, such as ecological concerns and representation of queer characters.


title: Pixel art

text: Pixel art typically involves a more careful and deliberate placement of pixels compared to other forms of digital art. Artists use different brush sizes (e.g. 1x1 or 2x2 pixels) and a variety of tools, such as free-hand / pencil, lines, and rectangles. One key difference between pixel art and other digital art is that pixel artists tend to apply a single color at a time, avoiding tools such as soft edges, smudging, and blurring. Agreeing on which tools and techniques are considered non-pixel art (NPA) is something that has caused considerable disagreement in the past. For example, applying layers with different filters that adjust hue or light values is considered a non-pixel art technique, but the resulting art may still be considered pixel art if there's a clear foundation of deliberate placement of pixels. To preserve the careful pixel placement, pixel art is preferably stored in a file format utilizing lossless data compression. The JPEG format, for example, is often avoided because of its compression, as it introduces visible artifacts in the image.


title: Pixel art

text: Different restrictions are central to pixel art, and these are often traced back to technical limitations of hardware such as Amiga, Commodore 64, NES, and early computers. The two most common restrictions are resolution and palette, and pixel artists often work with a significantly reduced canvas size and number of colors compared to other digital artists. (Lee, p. 276) Examples include Commodore 64 restrictions (320x200 resolution, 16 colors), original ZX Spectrum restrictions (256x192 pixels, 15 colors), and GameBoy restrictions (160x144 pixels, 4 colors).


title: Pixel art

text: Some artists start the process of pixelling by drawing line-art, while others begin by blocking in simple shapes and big clusters. Traditionally, pixel art was done on a single layer, similar to painting on a canvas, but modern software permits work with multiple layers, potentially adding animation or transparency to the foreground while keeping a static background.


title: Pixel art

text: To deal with the various restrictions of pixel art, such as reduced resolution or colors, pixel artists have traditionally employed a number of techniques specific to the artform. One widely used technique is "dithering", combining two colors in a repeating pixel pattern, such as checkerboard or stripes, to effectively create a third color when seen from a distance. Other common techniques include anti-aliasing (AA), where strong edges are manually softened by manually placing pixels, and sub-pixelling, changing colors of pixels to create an illusion of movement.


title: Pixel art

text: Because pixel art is a flexible medium, pixel artists can often imitate styles from traditional media, such as impressionism or pointilism in oil painting or cross hatching in embroidery. Pixel art is not a style itself, but a broad artistic medium. However, there are different styles within pixel art that revolve around pixel placement. One common distinction in style is the use of clusters. A cluster is a field of connected pixels with the same exact color. The opposite of a cluster is an isolated pixel (1x1) surrounded by pixels of other colors. Cluster size has become an important marker of pixel art styles, where some pixel art uses large clusters and avoids isolated (orphan) pixels, whereas other works use clusters of all sizes in combination with isolated pixels, or even rely primarily on isolated pixels and small clusters for a more grainy, noisy texture. Styles that rely more on small clusters and isolated pixels often have similarities with pointillism and impressionism, whereas pixel art with larger clusters and geometric shapes have similarities with cubism and suprematism. Although some artists have been known for championing a particular style, it is important to note that many pixel artists alternate between different styles in their works.


title: Pixel art

text: Pixel art is a flexible medium and shares traditions of figure drawing, landscapes and abstract with traditional media. However, certain genres have emerged as particularly popular. These genres often overlap, but include:


title: Pixel art

text: Essentially all raster graphics editors can be used in some way for pixel art, some of which include features designed to make the process easier. See Comparison of raster graphics editors for a list of notable raster graphics editors. The following notable programs were designed specifically to facilitate drawing pixel art.


title: Daniel Theis

text: Daniel Theis (born April 4, 1992) is a German professional basketball player for the Indiana Pacers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). After seven seasons in the Basketball Bundesliga where he was a four-time All Star and three-time champion, Theis signed with the Boston Celtics of the NBA where he played for four seasons before a trade brought him to the Chicago Bulls in March 2021. The Bulls traded Theis to the Houston Rockets in August 2021, who in turn traded Theis back to the Celtics in February 2022. With the Celtics, he reached the NBA Finals during his second stint with the team.


title: Daniel Theis

text: Theis made his debut in the German top-tier level league, the Basketball Bundesliga, during the 2010–11 season. Theis primarily gained playing time with Braunschweig's development squad, where he played alongside his older brother, Frank, from 2010 to 2012. He earned the "Eurobasket.com" website's All-2.Pro B Most Improved Player of the Year honors in 2011. In Braunschweig, Theis was also a teammate of fellow future NBA player Dennis Schröder.


title: Daniel Theis

text: Following his breakout season with Ulm, Theis signed with fellow German Bundesliga club Brose Bamberg. In the 2014 off-season, he played in the 2014 NBA Summer League for the Washington Wizards' summer league team.


title: Daniel Theis

text: In the 2014–15 season, Theis won his first German League championship with Brose Baskets. Brose beat FC Bayern Munich 3–2 in the German League Finals. In April 2015, he signed a fresh two-year deal with the Bamberg team, and he won two more German championships with Bamberg, in 2016 and 2017.


title: Daniel Theis

text: On July 20, 2017, Theis signed with the Boston Celtics. He made his NBA debut on October 18 against the Milwaukee Bucks. On March 12, 2018, Theis suffered a torn meniscus in his left knee, and missed the remainder of the 2017–18 season after Theis repaired his left knee lateral meniscus in a surgery.


title: Daniel Theis

text: On October 29, 2018, Theis was found to have a slight tear of the plantar fascia in his right foot and was scheduled to be out indefinitely, but he returned shortly after the injury on November 11 vs. the Portland Trail Blazers.


title: Daniel Theis

text: On July 17, 2019, the Boston Celtics announced that they had re-signed Theis, along with former Brose Bamberg teammate Brad Wanamaker. The contract was reported to be worth $10 million in total for the 2019–20 and 2020–21 seasons.


title: Daniel Theis

text: Two thirds through the season, on February 21, 2020, Theis had a career-high 25 points and 16 rebounds in a win against the Minnesota Timberwolves. Celtics coach Brad Stevens said that Theis complemented the rest of the starters, playing in a way that "fits the other guys perfect."


title: Daniel Theis

text: On March 25, 2021, Theis was traded to the Chicago Bulls in a three-team trade involving the Washington Wizards. By April 12, he had worked his way into the starting lineup against the Memphis Grizzlies. On April 26, Theis scored 23 points and had 12 rebounds and 5 assists in a 110–102 victory against the Miami Heat.


title: Daniel Theis

text: On February 10, 2022, the Boston Celtics re-acquired Theis from the Rockets in exchange for Bruno Fernando, Enes Freedom, and Dennis Schröder. Theis and the Celtics reached the NBA Finals, but lost to the Golden State Warriors in 6 games.


title: Daniel Theis

text: On July 9, 2022, Theis was traded, alongside Nik Stauskas, Aaron Nesmith, Malik Fitts, Juwan Morgan and a 2023 first-round pick, to the Indiana Pacers in exchange for Malcolm Brogdon.


title: Daniel Theis

text: Theis was a member of the junior national teams of Germany. With Germany's junior national teams, he played at the 2011 FIBA Europe Under-20 Championship, and the 2012 FIBA Europe Under-20 Championship.


title: Daniel Theis

text: On July 27, 2014, Theis made his first appearance with the senior German national basketball team in a game against Finland. With Germany's senior team, he played at the EuroBasket 2015 qualification tournament.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: Jesús David Ferreira Castro (born December 24, 2000) is an American professional soccer player who plays as a forward for Major League Soccer club FC Dallas and the United States national team.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: Born in Colombia, Ferreira moved to Dallas, Texas, at the age of 10 after his father, David Ferreira, signed with FC Dallas. He joined the club's youth side and progressed through the ranks before signing a homegrown contract in 2016. He scored his first professional goal on his debut in June 2017 against Real Salt Lake. In 2018, Ferreira was loaned to United Soccer League side Tulsa Roughnecks where he scored six goals in 14 matches, including his first career hat-trick. The next season, Ferreira returned to FC Dallas and broke through as a starter under coach Luchi Gonzalez. In January 2022, Ferreira signed a designated player contract with Dallas.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: Ferreira made his senior debut for the United States in February 2020 against Costa Rica. He was then part of the under-23 side that failed to qualify for the Summer Olympics in March 2020. Ferreira scored his first two goals for the United States in January 2021 against Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: Ferreira moved from Colombia to Dallas when he was 10 years old. He signed a homegrown player contract with FC Dallas on November 17, 2016. He made his professional debut on June 3, 2017, as a 71st minute substitute during a 6–2 win over Real Salt Lake, scoring his first goal in the 89th minute of the game.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: In May 2018, Ferreira was loaned to Tulsa Roughnecks FC and scored his first goal for Tulsa on August 18, 2018, against Real Monarchs and his first career hat-trick on September 5, 2018, against Seattle Sounders FC 2.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: Ferreira recorded his first career MLS brace on August 29, 2021, scoring twice in a 5-3 victory over Austin FC.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: On January 18, 2022, Ferreira signed a designated player contract with FC Dallas, keeping him at the club until 2025. Ferreira was selected as MLS player of the week in week 4 of the 2022 season after recording a hat-trick and an assist for FC Dallas in their 4–1 victory over the Portland Timbers.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: Prior to obtaining United States citizenship, Ferreira attended United States Soccer Federation youth camps. In 2016, Ferreira was called up to the United States under-17 squad. In 2019, Ferreira received a call-up to the United States under-23 team ahead of qualifying games for the 2020 Summer Olympics. After that had been postponed due to Covid, he was called up again to the 2020 CONCACAF Men's Olympic Qualifying Championship team. The team would fail to qualify for the Olympics.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: Ferreira made his first senior U.S. camp in January 2020. On February 1, 2020, he made his senior international debut for the United States in its friendly against Costa Rica. On January 31, 2021, Ferreira scored his first and second goals at that level and was named Man of the Match in a game following his second January camp with the senior team.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: On June 10, 2022, Ferreira scored his first international hat-trick by scoring four goals against Grenada during the 2022–23 CONCACAF Nations League.


title: Jesús Ferreira

text: Jesús is the son of David Ferreira, a professional player who played for clubs including América de Cali, Atlético Paranaense, FC Dallas and the Colombia national team. In December 2019, the younger Ferreira received U.S. citizenship.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: Blackfoot is an American Southern rock band from Jacksonville, Florida, formed in 1969. Though they primarily play with a Southern rock style, they are also known as a hard rock act. The band's classic lineup consisted of guitarist and vocalist Rickey Medlocke, guitarist Charlie Hargrett, bassist Greg T. Walker, and drummer Jackson Spires.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: They had a number of successful albums during the 1970s and early 1980s, including "Strikes" (1979), "Tomcattin'" (1980) and "Marauder" (1981).


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During the spring of 1969, Rickey Medlocke and Greg T. Walker met New York City native Charlie Hargrett in Jacksonville and organized the band "Fresh Garbage", featuring Medlocke on drums and vocals, Walker on bass, Hargrett on guitar and Ron Sciabarasi on keyboards. They played most of their shows at The Comic Book Club on Forsyth Street.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: That autumn, Fresh Garbage dissolved following the departure of Sciabarasi, who was drafted and sent to Vietnam. However, Medlocke, Walker and Hargrett regrouped and formed the band "Hammer", with Medlocke switching to vocalist/guitarist and with new recruits Jakson Spires (drums; born on April 12, 1951, died on March 16, 2005), DeWitt Gibbs (keyboards) and Jerry Zambito (guitars) joining the band. Gibbs and Zambito had previously played together in Tangerine. They soon relocated to Gainesville, Florida, to be the house band of Dub's, a well-known topless bar on the outskirts of town.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: At about the beginning of 1970, the band relocated to Manhattan after a friend, who was working in a music publishing company, told her boss about the band and he had them move to New York City.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During the early spring of the same year, the band, after learning of another band on the West Coast named Hammer, decided to change their name to Blackfoot to represent the American Indian heritage of its members: Jakson Spires (from Oklahoma) had a Cheyenne/French father and a Cherokee mother; Rickey Medlocke's father was Lakota Sioux and Blackfoot Indian, and his mother's side is Creek/Cherokee, Scottish and Irish; Greg "Two Wolf" Walker is part Eastern (Muskogee) Creek, a tribe recognized by the state of Florida, but not federally. Charlie Hargrett was the only white man of the original, classic line-up.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: When the band failed to acquire a contract as a result of their relocation, Gibbs quit the band and Medlocke began playing rhythm guitar full-time.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During the spring of 1971, Medlocke and Walker accepted an offer to join Lynyrd Skynyrd and Blackfoot ended for a time. Still in New Jersey, Charlie Hargrett played briefly in "No Name" a band formed around him. They rehearsed at Bondy's House nearby in Morristown and included New Jersey locals Steve Bondy on guitar, Bert Carey on bass and Andy Peebles on drums. "No Name" played covers as well as original songs briefly in Budd Lake & Stanhope, New Jersey. There was a brief attempt to regroup during 1972, but Medlocke quit again and Walker joined the band Cross Country for a short period. Hargrett remained in the north, living in Hackettstown, New Jersey.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During August 1972, Blackfoot's old friend and roadie, John Vassiliou, visited Hargrett with Reidsville, North Carolina bassist Leonard Stadler from the band Blackberry Hill. Hargrett decided to relocate to North Carolina and invited Medlocke, who had left Lynyrd Skynyrd by this time, to reform Blackfoot with Stadler on bass guitar and Spires returning as drummer. Danny Johnson (later with the bands Derringer and Steppenwolf), from a Louisiana group, Axis, was employed as second guitarist. But Medlocke soon decided to be both main vocalist and guitarist again, and so Johnson's tenure with the band was brief.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During the summer of 1973, Stadler quit the band after a tumor was discovered on one of his lungs. It later dissolved, but Stadler decided to leave secular music to join a gospel group. He eventually became a Methodist minister. Greg T. Walker was invited to rejoin at this juncture.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: By 1974, the band had returned their base of operations to the Northeast (Northern New Jersey) and Medlocke developed nodes on his vocal cords and temporarily lost his voice. Another singer, Patrick Jude, was brought into the band. After a brief time, Medlocke was able to sing again and Jude was dismissed. Soon afterward, Medlocke and Walker sent producers/session players Jimmy Johnson and David Hood a copy of Blackfoot's material. Johnson and Hood had worked with Medlocke and Walker in Muscle Shoals, Alabama when they were there recording with Lynyrd Skynyrd. "No Reservations" was released by the company Island Records during 1975 as part of a deal organized by Blackfoot's then manager Lou Manganiello, and their second record album, "Flying High", was vended by Epic Records company during 1976. Both record albums were produced by Johnson and Hood.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: By late 1975, the group was living back in Gainesville, Florida. During 1977, they communicated with Black Oak Arkansas' manager, Butch Stone, who hired them as the backing group for one of his clients, Ruby Starr, who had been a backup singer for Black Oak but was now becoming self-employed. After the stint with Ruby ended during 1978, they met Brownsville Station manager Al Nalli and his partner Jay Frey, who got them a contract with Atco Records.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: "Blackfoot Strikes", produced by Al Nalli and engineered by Brownsville Station drummer Henry Weck, was recorded in Nalli's basement studio in Ann Arbor, Michigan and was completed by January 1979. It was destined to be the band's most commercially successful effort. The song "Train, Train", written by Rickey's grandfather, "Shorty" Medlocke, became their first success and best known song. "Highway Song" proved to be another success for them later that year.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: The group toured frequently during 1979; late during the year they opened for the band The Who at the Silverdome in Pontiac, Michigan, while developing their next album, "Tomcattin", which was released during 1980. They went on to release the album "Marauder" during 1981 and "Highway Song" during 1982.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During the early 1980s, the "Southern rock" genre was considered passe by the pop music press, so the band began attempting to change their style somewhat. They decided to add keyboards to the group once again. Organist Ken Hensley (ex-Uriah Heep) was contacted and agreed to join during 1982 in time for their next record album, "Siogo". But the poor sales for "Siogo" had the band thinking they might have to "modernize" for the new MTV generation. It was thought that perhaps Hargrett with his "biker type" appearance might not be appropriate for television. Hargrett reluctantly decided to end his employment with the band during January 1984, having not played on their next album, "Vertical Smiles", which had been recorded in Atlanta in late 1983 with former Yes band's engineer Eddy Offord. This album was rejected by Atco. But the revamped version, which was finally released in October 1984, also failed to sell well.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: Ken Hensley, no longer accustomed to Blackfoot's intense tour schedule, quit by late 1984 and was replaced by former Axe band's singer/guitarist Bobby Barth. But by December 1985, with their popularity waning and good-quality engagements becoming few, the band decided to quit. During February 1986 the Blackfoot company was dissolved. Medlocke decided to continue with a new team that included Doug "Bingo" Bare (keyboards, synthetics, backup vocals, ex-Whiteface), Jerry "Wizzard" Seay (bass, backing vocals, from Mother's Finest) and Harold Seay (drums, percussion). For their 1987 album "Rick Medlocke and Blackfoot" (their final album for Atlantic Records), the new group was attempting a more radio-style 1980s rock music sound. Jeff Stevens played bass guitar for one track.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During 1988, Wizzard and Seay quit and Gunner Ross (drums, percussion), bassist Mark Mendoza (formerly of The Dictators) and Neal Casal (guitar) were employed. Mendoza quit by the end of the year and Rikki Mayr (ex-Lizzy Borden band) began playing bass for the band during early 1989.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: By 1992, Medlocke had revamped the team yet again and hired three other players: guitarist Mark Woerpel (former front man for the band Warp Drive out of Milwaukee, who had also done some studio work for Medlocke for earlier albums), Benny Rappa (drums, percussion, a former Whiteface player) and Tim Stunson on bass guitar. Another new album, "After the Reign", was released during 1994 by the company Wildcat and, like "Medicine Man", had something of the band's old style. Also during 1994, the Rhino Records collection "Rattlesnake Rock N' Roll: The Best of Blackfoot" was released.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: By 1996, Blackfoot was: Medlocke, drummer Stet Howland, John Housley (from Ragady Ann) for lead and rhythm guitar and Bryce Barnes (from Edwin Dare) for bass guitar. That same year, Medlocke rejoined Lynyrd Skynyrd, this time as a guitarist. But he continued to tour with Blackfoot honoring all dates booked through 1997, then disbanded the group to concentrate on Lynyrd Skynyrd.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: "Live On The King Biscuit Flower Hour", a 1983 concert recording, was released during early 1998, and EMI released "Live" during 2000, also culled from the band's heyday.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During 2004 a second resurrection of Blackfoot occurred with original members Jakson Spires, Greg T. Walker and Charlie Hargrett. Medlocke was not available, so the lead vocals role was given to Bobby Barth (band member of Axe). Spires died suddenly on March 16, 2005, at age 53, of an aneurysm, but the band decided to persevere. In compliance with the will of Spires, Austrian drummer Christoph Ullmann was hired as the new drummer.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During 2006, the band toured and was joined by Skinny Molly's Jay Johnson (the son of Jimmy Johnson, their original co-producer) for guitar and vocals after Barth was sidelined for a shoulder and neck operation. Barth resumed performing later that year, as Johnson stayed on for a short time. During November 2006, Ullman left to return to Austria and was succeeded by Mark McConnell. In April 2007 Blackfoot dismissed Johnson and McConnell. That year the band toured and consisted of bassist Walker, Hargrett, Barth and drummer Michael Sollars. Later that year a live DVD was released. In 2009 Scott Craig was employed as drummer to succeed Sollars.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: During the spring of 2010, Barth was forced to undergo emergency back surgery. Former Lynyrd Skynyrd guitarist Mike Estes and current vocalist/guitarist for Skinny Molly was then employed for lead vocals/guitar and Kurt Pietro (drummer of Skinny Molly) replaced Scott Craig on drums. In the summer of 2011 Charlie Hargrett was replaced by Randy Peak.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: In 2012, Rickey Medlocke reformed Blackfoot with a completely new line-up (see Members below), with him acting as their producer.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: Walker, Hargrett, Estes and Pietro subsequently regrouped under the band name Fired Guns. In 2015, Walker, Hargrett, Barth and Ullman began performing together again under the band name Warrior's Pride. Medlocke continues to perform with Lynyrd Skynyrd.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: On August 5, 2016, Blackfoot released their first album in 20 years, "Southern Native". The video for the song and samples were released on August 2, 2016, via regular channels and social media.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: Although there are no founding members of the band in its current lineup, Medlocke joins the band onstage for certain concerts.


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: In 2021, Rickey Medlocke and company revised the line up once again- enlisting some experienced southern rockers from the upstate of South Carolina:


title: Blackfoot (band)

text: The new lineup made their live debut at Gottrocks in Greenville, South Carolina on June 11, 2021, with an 82 minute set including two songs (In The Night, Payin' For It) that were never previously performed in concert.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: The original Visual Basic (also referred to as Classic Visual Basic) is a third-generation event-driven programming language from Microsoft known for its Component Object Model (COM) programming model first released in 1991 and declared legacy during 2008. Microsoft intended Visual Basic to be relatively easy to learn and use. Visual Basic was derived from BASIC and enables the rapid application development (RAD) of graphical user interface (GUI) applications, access to databases using Data Access Objects, Remote Data Objects, or ActiveX Data Objects, and creation of ActiveX controls and objects.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: A programmer can create an application using the components provided by the Visual Basic program itself. Over time the community of programmers developed third-party components. Programs written in Visual Basic can also make use of the Windows API, which requires external functions declarations.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: The final release was version 6 in 1998. On April 8, 2008, Microsoft stopped supporting Visual Basic 6.0 IDE. The Microsoft Visual Basic team still maintains compatibility for Visual Basic 6.0 applications through its "It Just Works" program on supported Windows operating systems.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: In 2014, some software developers still preferred Visual Basic 6.0 over its successor, Visual Basic .NET. Visual Basic 6.0 was selected as the most dreaded programming language by respondents of Stack Overflow's annual developer survey in 2016, 2017, and 2018.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: A dialect of Visual Basic, Visual Basic for Applications (VBA), is used as a macro or scripting language within several Microsoft and ISV applications, including Microsoft Office.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: Like the BASIC programming language, Visual Basic was designed to have an easy learning curve. Programmers can create both simple and complex GUI applications.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: Programming in VB is a combination of visually arranging components or controls on a form, specifying attributes and actions for those components, and writing additional lines of code for more functionality. Since VB defines default attributes and actions for the components, a programmer can develop a simple program without writing much code. Programs built with earlier versions suffered performance problems, but faster computers and native code compilation has made this less of an issue. Though VB programs can be compiled into native code executables from version 5 on, they still require the presence of around 1 MB of runtime libraries. Core runtime libraries are included by default in Windows 2000 and later, but extended runtime components still have to be installed. Earlier versions of Windows (95/98/NT), require that the runtime libraries be distributed with the executable.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: Forms are created using drag-and-drop techniques. A tool is used to place controls (e.g., text boxes, buttons, etc.) on the form (window). Controls have attributes and event handlers associated with them. Default values are provided when the control is created, but may be changed by the programmer. Many attribute values can be modified during run time based on user actions or changes in the environment, providing a dynamic application. For example, code can be inserted into the form resize event handler to reposition a control so that it remains centered on the form, expands to fill up the form, etc. By inserting code into the event handler for a keypress in a text box, the program can automatically translate the case of the text being entered, or even prevent certain characters from being inserted.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: Visual Basic can create executables (EXE files), ActiveX controls, or DLL files, but is primarily used to develop Windows applications and to interface with database systems. Dialog boxes with less functionality can be used to provide pop-up capabilities. Controls provide the basic functionality of the application, while programmers can insert additional logic within the appropriate event handlers. For example, a drop-down combination box automatically displays a list. When the user selects an element, an event handler is called that executes code that the programmer created to perform the action for that list item. Alternatively, a Visual Basic component can have no user interface, and instead provide ActiveX objects to other programs via Component Object Model (COM). This allows for server-side processing or an add-in module.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: The runtime recovers unused memory using reference counting, which depends on variables passing out of scope or being set to "Nothing", avoiding the problem of memory leaks that are possible in other languages. There is a large library of utility objects, and the language provides basic support for object-oriented programming. Unlike many other programming languages, Visual Basic is generally not case-sensitive—though it transforms keywords into a standard case configuration and forces the case of variable names to conform to the case of the entry in the symbol table. String comparisons are case sensitive by default. The Visual Basic compiler is shared with other Visual Studio languages (C, C++). Nevertheless, by default the restrictions in the IDE do not allow creation of some targets (Windows model DLLs) and threading models, but over the years, developers have bypassed these restrictions.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: Visual Basic 1.0 was introduced in 1991. The drag and drop design for creating the user interface is derived from a prototype form generator developed by Alan Cooper and his company called "Tripod". Microsoft contracted with Cooper and his associates to develop Tripod into a programmable form system for Windows 3.0, under the code name "Ruby" (no relation to the later Ruby programming language). Tripod did not include a programming language at all. Microsoft decided to combine Ruby with the Basic language to create Visual Basic. The Ruby interface generator provided the "visual" part of Visual Basic, and this was combined with the "EB" Embedded BASIC engine designed for Microsoft's abandoned "Omega" database system. Ruby also provided the ability to load dynamic link libraries containing additional controls (then called "gizmos"), which later became the VBX interface.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: Microsoft has developed derivatives of Visual Basic for use in scripting. Visual Basic itself is derived heavily from BASIC, and subsequently has been replaced with a .NET platform version.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: Earlier versions of Visual Basic (prior to version 5) compiled the code to P-Code only. The P-Code is interpreted by the language runtime. The benefits of P-Code include portability and smaller binary file sizes, but it usually slows down the execution, since having a runtime adds an additional layer of interpretation. Visual Basic applications require Microsoft Visual Basic runtime MSVBVMxx.DLL, where xx is the relevant version number, either 50 or 60. MSVBVM60.dll comes as standard with Windows in all editions from Windows 98 to Windows 10 (some editions of Windows 7 do not include it). A Windows 95 machine would however require inclusion with the installer of whichever DLL was needed by the program. Visual Basic 5 and 6 can compile code to either native or P-Code but in either case the runtime is still required for built in functions and forms management.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: All versions of the Visual Basic development environment from 1.0 to 6.0 were retired by Microsoft by 2008, and are therefore no longer supported. The associated runtime environments are also unsupported, except for the Visual Basic 6 core runtime environment, which Microsoft officially supports for the lifetime of Windows 8, Windows 10 and Windows 11. Third party components that shipped with Visual Studio 6.0 are not included in this support statement. Some legacy Visual Basic components may still work on newer platforms, despite being unsupported by Microsoft and other vendors. Documentation for Visual Basic 6.0, its application programming interface and tools is best covered in the last MSDN release before Visual Studio.NET 2002. Later releases of MSDN focused on .NET development and had significant parts of the Visual Basic 6.0 programming documentation removed as the language evolved, and support for older code ended. Although vendor support for Visual Basic 6 has ended, and the product has never been supported on the latest versions of Windows, key parts of the environment still work on newer platforms. It is possible to get a subset of the development environment working on 32-bit and 64-bit versions of Windows Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10 and Windows 11.


title: Visual Basic (classic)

text: This snippet makes a counter that moves up 1 every second (a label and a timer control need to be added to the form for this to work) until the form is closed or an integer overflow occurs:


title: Aml Ameen

text: Aml Eysan Ameen (; born 30 July 1985) is a British actor. He is best known for his roles as Trevor (Trife) in "Kidulthood" (2006), Lewis Hardy in the ITV television series "The Bill", Capheus in the first season of the Netflix original series "Sense8", and Alby in "The Maze Runner" (2014).


title: Aml Ameen

text: Ameen was born in London, England, to Jamaican and Vincentian parents. He studied acting at the Barbara Speake Stage School, an independent school in London. As a child he appeared in the West End in shows such as "Oliver!" and "Jolson". At the age of 11, he performed on stage with Michael Jackson at the 1996 BRIT Awards in a performance famously invaded by Pulp's singer Jarvis Cocker.


title: Aml Ameen

text: Ameen's first acting role came in 2002 ITV police series "The Bill", and he made another guest stint in 2004 before joining the series full-time in 2006 as PC Lewis Hardy, his most famous and popular role to date. Lewis Hardy is a headstrong character who has swapped his life as a street kid to try to make a difference on the right side of the law. He has a few problems with authority and regularly bumps heads with his seniors, most especially frequent beat partner PC Roger Valentine. After Hardy was put undercover and was shot, he was transferred to Operation Trident.


title: Aml Ameen

text: Soon after his guest appearance on The Bill in 2004, he portrayed the character Terry in "Bella and the Boys", He also made one-off guest appearances in BBC soap "EastEnders" and medical drama "Holby City". He also starred in the British youth-centred film "Kidulthood" as the central character Trife, while he also appeared in "Second Chance" and "Red Tails" for a special appearance.


title: Aml Ameen

text: In April 2008, he played a leading role in the BBC Three teen drama "Dis/Connected", playing Anthony, an 18-year-old college student from London who faces gang trouble on the streets, as well as losing his friend when she commits suicide.


title: Aml Ameen

text: Ameen featured in a film on Channel 4 called "Fallout", part of their Disarming Britain mini-season. The "London Lite" paper described this as his most memorable performance. He featured as AJ in "Silent Witness" Series 12 Parts 1 and 2. He portrayed a youth worker trying to make a difference in the gang and knife community which presides in South London, and became friends with Leo, one of the senior pathologists doing community service for drunk driving.


title: Aml Ameen

text: In June 2008, Ameen began Actors Student Alliance, a drama school set up to discover and teach untapped talent in London. From its inception, the school produced a short film and a theatre showcase for its students. Within its second year, the school expanded into a management company.


title: Aml Ameen

text: Ameen performed at the Tricycle Theatre on the "Not Black and White" season in October 2009. Described as "exceptionally charismatic Aml Ameen the freshest, most inspiring voice in the play" by "Time Out London", he received outstanding reviews in the national press. Ameen starred in Jason Barrett's British feature film "The Naked Poet", in which he played character Ryan. For this performance, he won Best Actor at the VIPF Awards in 2010.


title: Aml Ameen

text: Ameen also starred in David E. Kelley's legal drama "Harry's Law" in the first season, which began to air on NBC during the 2011 television season.


title: Aml Ameen

text: Ameen's first Hollywood film role is in George Lucas's "Red Tails" (2012), about the African American Tuskegee airman in World War II. He played Alby in the 2014 film adaptation of the young adult, science-fiction, dystopian novel, "The Maze Runner".


title: Aml Ameen

text: In 2015, Ameen was one of the eight central characters in the initial run of the Netflix series "Sense8", produced by the Wachowskis and J. Michael Straczynski. However, conflicts with Lana Wachowski resulted in his "abrupt" firing and replacement with Toby Onwumere after filming two episodes of the second season in 2016.


title: Aml Ameen

text: In 2018, Ameen starred as a young Jamaican named "D" in the film "Yardie". The film was based on Victor Headley's 1992 cult novel of the same name. Actor Idris Elba made his directorial debut with the film in London and Jamaica.


title: Aml Ameen

text: Ameen's own debut as a director was announced in November 2020. "Boxing Day" was released on 3 December 2021 and, as the writer, Ameen used elements from his own life, "I kind of draw from inspiration from different moments in my family [..] my parents got divorced when I was 15, not when I was 28, so I just kind of reconstructed everything a little bit to suit the film and to suit the dramatic purposes. But a lot of the characters [...] are based on my real sister, my real father." The film stars Ameen, Aja Naomi King, Leigh-Anne Pinnock (in her film debut), Marianne Jean-Baptiste, Stephen Dillane and Martina Laird. "Boxing Day" received mixed reviews.


title: Aml Ameen

text: In addition to his theatrical work Ameen has used his voice to shed light on issues within the industry. In 2022, he featured in a BBC radio 4 documentary "My name Is Ricardo P Lloyd".


title: Aml Ameen

text: He was named one of "The Times" newspaper's "Ones To Watch" for 2006, and won "Best actor in a TV performance" at the 2007 Screen Nation Awards. Additionally, he presented an award at the Mobo Awards 2006.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Marilyn Milian (born May 1, 1961) is an American television personality, lecturer, and retired Florida Circuit Court judge. Since March 12, 2001, Milian has presided over the American courtroom television series "The People's Court". She is the first Hispanic arbitrator to preside over a court show.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian became the presiding judge on "The People’s Court" during the current edition's fourth season in 2001, replacing Jerry Sheindlin, and has been with the program ever since; she surpassed Joseph Wapner, the original presiding arbitrator, during the 2012–13 season as the longest serving judge across the entire history of the series.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian was born in Manhattan to Cuban parents Jorge, a general contractor, and Georgina Milian. She spoke Spanish before learning English and is fluent in both languages. The family moved from Astoria, Queens, to Miami when she was eight years old. She graduated from St. Brendan High School.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian earned her undergraduate degree in psychology from the University of Miami. She then attended Georgetown University Law Center, earning her J.D. She spent a year working at Harvard Law School, where she served as director of training for the Guatemala Project. She was responsible for training the Guatemalan trial judiciary, defense, and prosecution bar in investigatory and trial techniques.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian was appointed assistant state attorney for the Dade County State Attorney's Office by Janet Reno, who was then the county's state attorney. After ten years in that position, she then worked for the Miami County Court, serving in the domestic violence, criminal, and civil divisions. In 1999, Florida governor Jeb Bush appointed Milian to the Miami Circuit Court, where she served in the Criminal Division. In 2001, she replaced Jerry Sheindlin as judge of "The People's Court," and became the first Hispanic judge on any English-language television court show. Milian is listed as an adjunct faculty member of the University of Miami School of Law, teaching litigation skills.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian serves as presiding judge in the second life of the courtroom show "The People's Court", the first arbitration-based reality court show and the second-longest running court show in history. Milian has presided over the program since spring 2001, which was late in "The People's Court"s 17th season (or fourth season of the revived version of the show).


title: Marilyn Milian

text: "The People's Court" has featured several arbitrators, with Milian currently holding the title of the longest-presiding arbitrator over the series. By completion of the show's 28th season (2012–13), Milian had completed twelve and a half seasons presiding over the program, officially making her the longest-running judge on "The People's Court". The late Joseph Wapner, the show's original judge, was the previous holder of this record. By spring of 2021, she reached 20 years as presiding judge over the program.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: In contrast to "The People's Court"s previous arbiters, Milian is considerably more animated in her role, but she's also known for being levelheaded and logical in her observations and handling of the cases. Although engaging for the most part, Milian also dishes out a good-natured, lively sass at the litigants and does not tolerate any disrespect from them.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian explains Americans' fascination with the court show genre: "We are a fast-food nation. People love to see resolution, they want to watch someone who has done wrong confronted and see justice prevail … all in an hour."


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian was portrayed by Cecily Strong in a 2017 "Saturday Night Live" parody of "The People's Court" where she presided over a case between President Donald Trump and three judges of the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit.


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian is married to John Schlesinger, a former assistant United States attorney who was elected to the 11th Judicial Circuit Court for Miami-Dade County, Florida, the same position that Milian held before retiring to host "The People's Court". They live in Coral Gables, Florida with their three children. She travels to Stamford, Connecticut, bimonthly for three days of taping of "The People's Court".


title: Marilyn Milian

text: Milian is the spokesperson for the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Safe Online Surfing (FBI-SOS) campaign. In 2019, she appeared on the daytime version of "Who Wants to Be A Millionaire?", winning $5,000 for Camp Fiesta, a Florida summer camp that is free for children with cancer.


title: Diva Zappa

text: Diva Muffin Zappa (born July 30, 1979) is an American artist and actress who has also recorded a one-off comedy single. She is the youngest child of musician Frank Zappa and wife Gail Zappa.


title: Diva Zappa

text: Diva Zappa was born in Los Angeles. She has three older siblings: sister Moon, and brothers Dweezil, and Ahmet.


title: Diva Zappa

text: According to Frank, she was given the name "Diva" "because of the loud quality of her voice. She's audible at 300 yards." Diva Zappa won an award at age 12 in a poster contest to raise awareness about child abuse and neglect.


title: Diva Zappa

text: Diva's father Frank died in 1993. Following the death of her mother Gail in October 2015, Diva and her brother Ahmet were awarded control of the Zappa Family Trust with shares of 30% each, while Moon and Dweezil were given smaller shares of 20% each. As beneficiaries only, Moon and Dweezil will not receive distributions from the trust until it is profitable per the trust agreement; in 2016, it was still in debt and they must seek permission from Ahmet, the trustee, to earn money with their father's music or from merchandise bearing his name. The uneven divide of the trust has resulted in several conflicts between Zappa's children, including a feud between Dweezil and Ahmet over Dweezil's use of his father's music in live performances. In a 2016 interview with the "Los Angeles Times", Diva Zappa said her primary role in the trust is to be present when her father's work is highlighted.


title: Diva Zappa

text: Diva Zappa's first film appearance was in the 1998 film "Anarchy TV", along with her older siblings. Since then, she has also appeared in "" (1998), "National Lampoon's Pledge This!" (2006), as well as various TV shows including "Felicity", "Brothers & Sisters", and "The Mighty Boosh".


title: Diva Zappa

text: In 1999, Diva released a comedy single called "When the Ball Drops" about her "hunt for someone to make out with on the Millennium". Tipper Gore played drums on the recording and Kristin Gore sang backup vocals.


title: Diva Zappa

text: Since 2002, Diva has run her own website/business called "Hand Made Beauty" where she sells her own self-designed and made clothing. The clothing is primarily knitted or crocheted, and consists of hats, ponchos and skirts. A percentage of all sales are donated to the Creative Visions Foundation. She was initially taught how to knit by actress Laurie Metcalf. She does not plan her work, preferring instead to work in a spontaneous manner. In 2011, Zappa had her first UK show of "contemporary knitwear art and couture canvases" with an exhibition titled "Bruce" at the Maison Bertaux Gallery in Soho. The exhibition featured an embroidered photograph of her brother Dweezil playing guitar.


title: Diva Zappa

text: A full-length dress Diva knitted was worn to the 2009 Grammy Awards by Chloé Trujillo, the wife of Metallica bassist Robert Trujillo. She also made a cape for Diablo Cody.


title: Diva Zappa

text: On October 29, 2013, she appeared in the UK premiere of her late father's orchestral work "200 Motels" at the Royal Festival Hall, London, playing the role of Groupie 2 (Lucy).


title: Auto-da-fé

text: An auto-da-fé ( ; from Portuguese , meaning 'act of faith'; ) was the ritual of public penance carried out between the 15th and 19th centuries of condemned heretics and apostates imposed by the Spanish, Portuguese, or Mexican Inquisition as punishment and enforced by civil authorities. Its most extreme form was death by burning.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: From the 8th to the 15th centuries, much of Spain was controlled by Muslims, under whose laws Jews and Christians were given dhimmi status. This meant that they were required to pay a special tax, the jizya, for "protection", intended, as Islamic legal texts indicated, to remind them of their submission. The tax was imposed on the "people of the Book", as Jews and Christians were known, to humble them.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: Jews could sometimes rise to important positions in the political structure; anti-Jewish violence could also erupt. In the 1066 Granada massacre, much of the Jewish population of Granada was killed by a Muslim mob.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: The treatment of religious minorities varied depending on the era. For example, during their time of ascendance, the Almohads assumed the title of caliph, introduced a series of severe religious measures, and sought to strengthen their states through religious unification, which meant compelling the Jews and Christians to either convert to Islam or be expelled. Around the 11th century, growing suspicions of Jews prompted Christians to unite against the Muslims and Jews. From that point, Spain became a political soup of different powers and territories, each with its own policies regarding the status of Jews and Muslims. By the 13th century almost all of modern Spain was under Christian rule. Ferdinand III of Castile boasted of being the king of three religions. This tolerance, however, did not last long.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: In the 14th century, Dominican and Franciscan priests called on Christians to expel the Jews from Spain, blaming Jews for social problems and stirring the Christian majority to destroy synagogues, burn Jews alive, and impose forced conversion. Jews would be forced to attend sermons and have Christian preachers outline what the Christians viewed as the errors of their ways.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: New laws segregated the Jewish population and limited the occupations that were still open to them, with the ultimate goal of conversion. More than 100,000 Jews converted. Once converted, these New Christians joined the "conversos" class, who were afforded the legal and social privileges of a full Christian in society. Many New Christians took advantage of their elevation in status and embraced Christian privileges. After a few generations, the converted Jews identified as nothing more or less than "regular" Christians, and Spain was almost uniformly Christian.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: This uniformity brought with it new sources of anxiety. "The mistrust of the Jew as an outsider gave way to an even more alarming fear of the converso as an insider". The differences between religious classes had formerly been very clear. Laws and customs codified Christian dominance in Spain. Once the Jews converted, however, many Christian Spaniards believed that they no longer knew whom they could trust and who could possibly be a treacherous heretic at heart.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: In an attempt to assuage these fears, Limpieza de sangre (Purity of Blood) laws were put in place that traced the bloodline of Christians New and Old to see if they had Jewish ancestry. In doing so, Spain divided its Christian class along ethnic and religious lines, "othering" those with Jewish blood much as it had prior to conversion. Influential Christians believed that there was something different in the essence and soul of the person that could not be cured by religious conversion. With these laws came the resurgence of the blood libel.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: On 1 November 1478, Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile received permission from Pope Sixtus IV to name inquisitors throughout their domains in order to protect Catholicism as the one true Christian faith. The decree originally applied to the Crown of Castile—the domain of Isabella—but in 1483 Ferdinand extended it to his domain of the Crown of Aragon. "Autos-da-fé" became quite popular throughout the Spanish realm, competing with bullfights for the public's attention and attended by royalty. Though Ferdinand's action met with occasional resistance and resulted in the assassination of the inquisitor Pedro de Arbués by converted Jews in 1485, between 1487 and 1505 the processing and trying of more than 1,000 heretics was recorded by the Barcelona chapter, of whom only 25 were ultimately absolved.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: Once granted permission from the Pope to conduct inquisitions, the monarchs began establishing permanent trials and developing bureaucracies to carry out investigations in most of the cities and communities in their empire. The first Iberian "auto-da-fé" took place in Seville in 1481: the six accused were found guilty and executed. Later, Franciscan missionaries brought the Inquisition to the New World.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: The exact number of people executed by the Inquisition is not known. Juan Antonio Llorente, the ex-secretary of the Holy Office, gave the following numbers for the Inquisition excluding the American colonies, Sicily and Sardinia: 31,912 burnt, 17,696 burned in effigy, and 291,450 reconciled "de vehementi" (i.e., following an act of penance). Later in the nineteenth century, José Amador de los Ríos gave even higher numbers, stating that between the years 1484 and 1525 alone, 28,540 were burned in person, 16,520 burned in effigy and 303,847 penanced. However, after extensive examinations of archival records, modern scholars provide lower estimates, indicating that fewer than 10,000 were actually executed during the whole history of the Spanish Inquisition, perhaps around 3,000.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: The Portuguese Inquisition was established in 1536 and lasted officially until 1821. Its influence was much weakened by the late 18th century under the government of the Marquês de Pombal.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: "Autos-da-fé" also took place in Goa, New Spain, the State of Brazil, and the Viceroyalty of Peru. Contemporary historians of the Conquistadors, such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo, recorded them. Although records are incomplete, one historian estimates that about 50 people were executed by the Mexican Inquisition.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: The "auto-da-fé" was a major aspect of the tribunals, and the final step in the Inquisition process. It involved a Catholic Mass, prayer, a public procession of those found guilty, and a reading of their sentences.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: An Inquisition usually began with the public proclamation of a grace period of 40 days. Anyone who was guilty or knew of someone who was guilty was urged to confess. If the accused were charged, they were presumed guilty. Officials could apply torture during the trial. Inquisitors were required to hear and record all testimony. Proceedings were to be kept secret, and the identity of witnesses was not known to the accused.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: Officials proclaimed the prisoner's sentence after the trial and administered it in an "auto-da-fé". The "auto-da-fé" was not an impromptu event, but thoroughly orchestrated. Preparations began a month in advance and only occurred when the inquisition authorities believed there were enough prisoners in a given community or city. The ritual took place in public squares or esplanades and lasted several hours with ecclesiastical and civil authorities in attendance.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: An all-night vigil would be held in or near the city's plaza, with prayers, ending in Mass at daybreak and a breakfast feast prepared for all who joined in.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: The ceremony of public penitence then began with a procession of prisoners, who bore elaborate visual symbols on their garments and bodies. These symbols were called sanbenito, and were made of yellow sackcloth. They served to identify the specific acts of heresy of the accused, whose identities were kept secret until the very last moment. In addition, the prisoners usually had no idea what the outcome of their trial had been or their sentencing.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: The prisoners were taken to a place called the "quemadero" or burning place, sometimes located outside the city walls. There the sentences were read. Prisoners who were acquitted or whose sentence was suspended would fall on their knees in thanksgiving, but the condemned would be punished. Artistic representations of the "auto-da-fé" usually depict physical punishment such as whipping, torture, and burning at the stake.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: The "auto-da-fé" was also a form of penitence for the public viewers, because they too were engaging in a process of reconciliation and by being involved were given the chance to confront their sins and be forgiven by the Church.


title: Auto-da-fé

text: The "auto-da-fé", usually represented as a heretic being burned at the stake, is a symbol used widely in the arts, especially in Europe.


title: Todd Young

text: Todd Christopher Young (born August 24, 1972) is an American attorney and politician serving as the senior United States senator for Indiana, a seat he has held since 2017. A member of the Republican Party, Young previously served as the U.S. representative for . He was elected to the United States Senate in the November 8, 2016, general election, succeeding retiring Republican Dan Coats. From 2019 to 2021, he served as the chair of the National Republican Senatorial Committee. Young was reelected in 2022.


title: Todd Young

text: Young was born August 24, 1972, in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, the second of three children of Nancy R. (née Pierce) and Bruce H. Young. He lived in Marion County, Indiana, for several years before settling in Hamilton County, Indiana, where he attended public schools and won a state soccer championship. In 1990, Young graduated from Carmel High School in Carmel, Indiana.


title: Todd Young

text: After graduating from high school, Young enlisted in the United States Navy and reported for duty in Newport, Rhode Island. In May 1991, he received an appointment from the Secretary of the Navy to attend the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, where his classmates elected him a class officer and he earned a varsity letter as a member of Navy's NCAA Division I soccer team. He graduated "cum laude" in 1995, earning a B.S. in political science, and accepted a commission in the U.S. Marine Corps.


title: Todd Young

text: Upon graduating from Annapolis, Young trained for six months at the Basic School in Quantico, Virginia. In 1996, he completed the Naval Intelligence Officer Basic Course in Dam Neck, Virginia. Young then led the intelligence department of VMU-2, an unmanned aerial vehicle squadron based in Cherry Point, North Carolina. In 2000 while stationed in the Chicago area, Young earned an MBA from the University of Chicago Graduate School of Business.


title: Todd Young

text: Young was honorably discharged from active duty in 2000 as a U.S. Marine Captain. After leaving active duty, Young spent a year in London, attending the University of London's Institute of United States Studies. After writing a thesis on the economic history of Midwestern agriculture, in 2001 Young received his MA in American politics.


title: Todd Young

text: In the summer of 2001, Young traveled to former Communist countries in Eastern Europe where he studied the transition from centrally planned economies to free markets through an executive education program with the Leipzig Graduate School of Management, the first private business school in eastern Germany. He worked as an adjunct professor of public affairs at Indiana University's School of Public and Environmental Affairs and attended law school at night. In 2004, he joined Indiana-based Crowe Chizek and Company as a management consultant, helping state and local government clients improve service delivery to Indiana citizens.


title: Todd Young

text: In 2006, Young earned his J.D. from the Indiana University Robert H. McKinney School of Law, where he was President of the school's Federalist Society chapter. Upon graduation he joined the Paoli, Indiana-based firm Tucker and Tucker, P.C. Young is a member of the 2007 class of the Indiana Leadership Forum.


title: Todd Young

text: In 2001, he moved to Washington, D.C., where he briefly worked at The Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank. Then he became a staffer for U.S. senator Richard Lugar. In 2003, Young volunteered for Mitch Daniels's campaign for governor of Indiana. He was a delegate to the Indiana Republican state convention. From 2007 to 2010, Young served as Assistant Deputy Prosecutor for Orange County, Indiana. In 2007, Young founded a fiscal responsibility advocacy group, the National Organization for People vs. Irresponsible Government Spending.


title: Todd Young

text: On January 26, 2009, Young announced that he would run for the United States congressional seat in Indiana's 9th district as a Republican.


title: Todd Young

text: Young competed with fellow Republicans Mike Sodrel and Travis Hankins for the party's nomination for Congress and won, challenging incumbent Democrat Baron Hill in the general election. Young received endorsements from former Vice President Dan Quayle as well as Lieutenant Governor Becky Skillman, Attorney General Greg Zoeller, Secretary of State Todd Rokita, Auditor Tim Berry, and Treasurer Richard Mourdock.


title: Todd Young

text: Young won the primary and general elections, defeating incumbent Baron Hill on November 2, 2010, and was seated in the 112th Congress in January 2011.


title: Todd Young

text: Young is a member of the Republican Main Street Partnership along with three other Republican senators. The Main Street Partnership is considered to be an association of moderate Republicans. In 2013 the "National Journal" gave Young an overall composite rating of 69% conservative and 31% liberal, an economic rating of 69% conservative and 30% liberal, a social rating of 57% conservative and 42% liberal, and a foreign policy rating of 77% conservative and 15% liberal.


title: Todd Young

text: In the 112th Congress, Young voted with the Republican Party 95% of the time. During the 113th Congress, the Human Rights Campaign, which rates politicians' support for LGBT issues, rated Young 30%, indicating a mixed record. In July 2012, Young took over as the lead sponsor of the REINS Act, a bill that passed the House in 2011 and would require congressional approval for rules with greater than $100 million in economic impact.


title: Todd Young

text: In the 112th Congress, Young was a member of the House Budget Committee and the House Armed Services Committee. On the latter, he focused on seapower, electronic warfare, and military grand strategy of the United States. During the first session of the 112th Congress, he employed one of the German Marshall Fund's Congressional Fellows as military legislative aide.


title: Todd Young

text: In 2010, Young stated that he was uncertain what was causing the observed heating of the planet, that it could be sunspots or normal cycles of nature, and that "the science is not settled." That same year he signed a pledge sponsored by Americans for Prosperity promising to vote against any global warming legislation that would raise taxes.


title: Todd Young

text: In 2011, he voted for the Energy Tax Prevention Act of 2011. In 2014, he said that it is "not necessarily the case" that there is a scientific consensus on climate change.


title: Todd Young

text: When he introduced the Fairness for American Families Act, Young argued that "rather than driving healthcare costs down, the individual mandate is imposing a new tax and burdensome costs on middle class families" and therefore "hardworking Americans deserve the same exemptions that President Obama is unilaterally granting to businesses and labor unions."


title: Todd Young

text: Rather than run for reelection to the House, Young announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination in the 2016 election to fill the Senate seat of the retiring Dan Coats. Also filing for the Republican primary was U.S. Representative Marlin Stutzman. Although Young was certified as having submitted enough signatures to qualify for the primary ballot, that official certification was challenged, and a tally by the Associated Press concluded that Young had fallen short. The state Election Commission scheduled a hearing on the challenge for February 19, 2016. The commission voted down the challenge with a 2–2 vote and Young remained on the ballot.


title: Todd Young

text: Young easily defeated Stutzman in the May 3 primary, taking 67% of approximately one million votes cast. He was initially slated to face former U.S. Representative Baron Hill, whom Young had defeated in 2010 to win his congressional seat, but on July 11, Hill announced he was dropping out of the Senate race. Hill was replaced by Evan Bayh, who had held the seat from 1999 to 2011. Young defeated Bayh in the November 8 general election, winning 52% of the vote to Bayh's 42%.


title: Todd Young

text: On January 3, 2017, Young was sworn into the United States Senate in the 115th Congress by Vice President Joe Biden. Young was ranked the ninth most bipartisan Senator in the first session of the 115th Congress by the Bipartisan Index, a metric created by the Lugar Center and Georgetown's McCourt School of Public Policy to assess congressional bipartisanship. GovTrack noted that during the same period, Young joined more bipartisan bills than any other freshman Senator.


title: Todd Young

text: Young planned to vote in support of certifying the Electoral College count on January 6, 2021. Young also said he supported efforts to create a bipartisan "Election Integrity Committee" to review the 2020 presidential election. While entering the US Capitol to participate in the certification on January 6, 2021, Young was accosted by pro-Trump protestors. He was questioned as to why he would vote to support the count, claiming voter fraud. Young explained that "When it comes to the law, our opinions don’t matter — the law matters." The "South Bend Tribune's" editorial board wrote "Young was right to reject the move that Braun had embraced — but his words should have come two months earlier, not at the last minute. That would have been upholding his duty and fulfilling his oath of office." Young, however, publicly acknowledged Biden as President-elect immediately following the official Electoral College tally on December 15, 2020. He was participating in the count when the storming of the Capitol happened. Upon the storming, Young tweeted "This is not a peaceful protest – it is violence and reprehensible. It must stop." Young then voted in support of certifying the count when Congress was able to return to session. In the wake of the attack, Young would not comment on if he supported using the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution to remove Trump, stating that he trusted the Vice President and Trump cabinet members to "conscientiously and legally carry out their duties until Jan. 20."


title: Todd Young

text: In 2022, Young cosponsored, with Democratic Senate Majority Leader Chuck Schumer (NY), the CHIPS and Science Act, a $280 billion bill intended to promote basic and advanced technology research and development, with a focus on the American semiconductor industry, aiming to outcompete China in technological fields in the coming years. Young had also been involved in stalled efforts along similar lines on a bill known as United States Innovation and Competition Act in 2021. The CHIPS and Science Act passed the Senate on July 27, 2022, and was signed into law by Joe Biden on August 9, 2022.


title: Todd Young

text: Young is a member of Republican Main Street Partnership, a group that presents what it describes as centrist Republican solutions in politics; it is considered a center to center-right Republican organization. He has a lifetime conservative grade of 83% from the American Conservative Union. He was given a 0% grade in 2016 by the progressive Americans for Democratic Action. The American Conservative Union, a fiscally conservative political action committee, has given Young a 80% lifetime rating. As of April 2020, according to Five ThirtyEight, Young voted with President Trump's position on legislation about 84% of the time. The nonpartisan "National Journal" determined, based on its 2013 voting analysis, that Young has a composite 69% conservative score and a 31% liberal score.


title: Todd Young

text: Young opposes abortion. He was endorsed by the National Right to Life Committee (NRLC), which gave him a 100% rating in 2018; he has a 0% rating from the abortion rights groups NARAL Pro-Choice America and Planned Parenthood. Young also believes that employers with religious objections should not be required to provide birth control to their female employees. He was a co-sponsor of legislation to defund Planned Parenthood and voted to prohibit federal funding for Planned Parenthood. Young believes "Roe v. Wade" was wrongly decided. On the day the 2022 overturning of "Roe v. Wade" was announced, he called it "a monumental day for the protection of life in America" and that the Supreme Court had "corrected a historic injustice."


title: Todd Young

text: The National Rifle Association (NRA) endorsed Young for Senate in 2016 and has given him an "A+" rating. In 2018, Gun Owners of America, a gun rights organization, gave Young a 50% score while the NRA gave him a much higher 100% rating.


title: Todd Young

text: Young opposes the DREAM Act and a pathway to citizenship for the nearly 12 million undocumented immigrants in the United States. NumbersUSA, which wants to restrict and reduce immigration, has given him a lifetime 80% rating while the Federation for American Immigration Reform, which also seeks to restrict immigration, gave him a 100% score; the American Immigration Lawyers Association, which supports immigration reform, gave Young a 33% rating. UnidosUS, formerly La Raza, which supports immigration reform, gave Young a 59% rating in 2014. Young has said he wants an immigration system based on merit and job skills. In 2018, he introduced a bill cosponsored with Senator Ted Cruz to end family separations at the border that resulted from President Trump's "zero tolerance" policy.


title: Todd Young

text: The organization On the Issues considers Young to be neutral on the issue of same-sex marriage; he was given a 30% rating by Human Rights Campaign (HRC), which supports same-sex marriage and gay rights, indicating a mixed record. In 2016, the HRC gave him a 2% rating. Young believes same-sex marriage should be left to the states to decide. He said that he supports the current policy allowing gays and lesbians to serve openly in the military. In 2016, Young was among the Republicans who voted with Democrats in favor of a spending amendment to uphold President Obama's executive order prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation for federal contractors. He was one of 30 Republicans who voted for an amendment to prohibit discrimination by federal contractors, but voted against a similar amendment in a military spending bill. In 2022, he was one of 12 Republicans voting to advance the Respect for Marriage Act, legislation to codify same-sex marriage into federal law.


title: Todd Young

text: In March 2019, Young was one of twelve senators to cosponsor a resolution that would impose a constitutional amendment limiting the Supreme Court to nine justices. The resolution was introduced following multiple Democratic presidential candidates expressing openness to the idea of expanding the seats on the Supreme Court.


title: Todd Young

text: In July 2017, Young voted in favor of the Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act that placed sanctions against Russia together with Iran and North Korea.


title: Todd Young

text: Young supported an Anti-Boycott Act, which would make it illegal for U.S. companies to engage in boycotts against Israel and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.


title: Todd Young

text: Young condemned the genocide of the Rohingya Muslim minority in Myanmar and called for a stronger response to the crisis.


title: Todd Young

text: In February 2019, Young was one of seven senators to reintroduce legislation requiring sanctions on Saudi officials involved in the killing of Jamal Khashoggi and seeking to address support for the Yemen civil war through prohibiting some weapons sales to Saudi Arabia and U.S. military refueling of Saudi coalition planes. In May 2019, he was also one of seven Republicans who attempted to override President Trump's veto of the resolution regarding Yemen. In June 2019, Young was one of seven Republicans to vote to block President Trump's Saudi arms deal providing weapons to Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Jordan, and was one of six Republicans to vote against an additional 20 arms sales. In 2020, he was one of eight Republicans who voted with Democrats for a resolution limiting the president's ability to strike Iran.


title: Todd Young

text: In 2021, Young introduced bipartisan legislation with Senator Tim Kaine that would repeal the 1991 and 2002 authorizations of war, which have been used by the executive to wage prolonged conflict in the Middle-East without congressional approval.


title: Todd Young

text: On May 28, 2021, Young voted against creating an independent commission to investigate the 2021 United States Capitol attack.


title: Todd Young

text: Todd Young and Jennifer Tucker, niece of former vice-president Dan Quayle, married in 2005. The couple has four children.


title: Todd Young

text: As of 2018, according to OpenSecrets.org, Young's net worth was negative, owing more than $1.3 million.


title: Balthazar (magus)

text: Saint Balthazar; also called Balthasar, Balthassar, and Bithisarea, was according to Western Christian tradition one of the biblical Magi along with Caspar and Melchior who visited the infant Jesus after he was born. Balthazar is traditionally referred to as the King of Macedonia and gave the gift of myrrh to Jesus. In the Roman Catholic Church, he is regarded as a saint (as are the other two Magi).


title: Balthazar (magus)

text: The Gospel of Matthew does not give the names of the Magi (or even how many there were), but their traditional names are ascribed to a Greek manuscript from 500 AD translated into Latin and commonly accepted as the source of the names. In this original manuscript, Balthazar is called Bithisarea, which later developed into Balthazar in Western Christianity. Balthazar was described in the 8th century by Saint Bede as being "[of] black complexion, with [a] heavy beard" with the "myrrh he held in his hands prefigured the death of the Son of man".


title: Balthazar (magus)

text: As part of the Magi, Balthazar followed the Star of Bethlehem first to the palace of Herod the Great who instructed them to return to him when they had found the Child Jesus. When they arrive at the house, the Magi worshipped him and presented their gifts. Balthazar gave the gift of myrrh, which symbolised the future death of a king, as myrrh was an expensive item at the time. Following his return to his own country, avoiding King Herod, it is purported that Balthazar celebrated Christmas with the other members of the Magi in Armenia in 54 AD but later died on 6 January 55 AD, aged 112. The feast day of Balthazar is also 6 January, as the date of his death.


title: Balthazar (magus)

text: Balthasar and Gaspar are characters in the 1880 novel "" and the various film adaptions of the novel, which chronicles his later years.


title: Balthazar (magus)

text: Balthazar, along with the other Magi, are purported to be buried in the Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral following his remains being moved from Constantinople by Eustorgius I in 344 AD to Milan. In 1164, Holy Roman Emperor Fredrick Barbarossa moved them to Cologne. Balthazar is commemorated on Epiphany with the other members of the Magi but in Catholicism, Balthazar's feast day is on 6 January because it was the day that he died.


title: Balthazar (magus)

text: Many traditionally Christian countries stage pageants that include roles for the three wise men. In mainland European countries it is customary for Balthazar, based on Saint Bede's description of him, to be portrayed by a person in blackface. In a tradition dating from the Middle Ages dark skinned people were described as bringers of gold. In the 21st century, a number of campaigns in Spain pushed for a black person to play Balthazar rather than a person in blackface, which potentially goes against the tradition that local city councillors play the role.


title: Balthazar (magus)

text: Since King Balthazar, in traditional pictorial representations from the Late Middle Ages, is represented as a black person (as an integrating or cosmopolitan graphic symbol, in the tradition that the "wise men" or "magi" who worshipped Jesus in Bethlehem represented the peoples of the whole world), fitting in with this traditional icon motivated his representation in the cavalcades of Three Wise Men by a person made up in black. In many Spanish towns that custom continues, while others now ask a prominent resident of African descent to take on this role in the cavalcades.


title: Endospore

text: An endospore is a dormant, tough, and non-reproductive structure produced by some bacteria in the phylum Bacillota. The name "endospore" is suggestive of a spore or seed-like form ("endo" means 'within'), but it is not a true spore (i.e., not an offspring). It is a stripped-down, dormant form to which the bacterium can reduce itself. Endospore formation is usually triggered by a lack of nutrients, and usually occurs in gram-positive bacteria. In endospore formation, the bacterium divides within its cell wall, and one side then engulfs the other. Endospores enable bacteria to lie dormant for extended periods, even centuries. There are many reports of spores remaining viable over 10,000 years, and revival of spores millions of years old has been claimed. There is one report of viable spores of "Bacillus marismortui" in salt crystals approximately 250 million years old. When the environment becomes more favorable, the endospore can reactivate itself into a vegetative state. Most types of bacteria cannot change to the endospore form. Examples of bacterial species that can form endospores include "Bacillus cereus", "Bacillus anthracis", "Bacillus thuringiensis", "Clostridium botulinum", and "Clostridium tetani".


title: Endospore

text: The endospore consists of the bacterium's DNA, ribosomes and large amounts of dipicolinic acid. Dipicolinic acid is a spore-specific chemical that appears to help in the ability for endospores to maintain dormancy. This chemical accounts for up to 10% of the spore's dry weight.


title: Endospore

text: Endospores can survive without nutrients. They are resistant to ultraviolet radiation, desiccation, high temperature, extreme freezing and chemical disinfectants. Thermo-resistant endospores were first hypothesized by Ferdinand Cohn after studying "Bacillus subtilis" growth on cheese after boiling the cheese. His notion of spores being the reproductive mechanism for the growth was a large blow to the previous suggestions of spontaneous generation. Astrophysicist Steinn Sigurdsson said "There are viable bacterial spores that have been found that are 40 million years old on Earth – and we know they're very hardened to radiation." Common antibacterial agents that work by destroying vegetative cell walls do not affect endospores. Endospores are commonly found in soil and water, where they may survive for long periods of time. A variety of different microorganisms form "spores" or "cysts", but the endospores of low G+C gram-positive bacteria are by far the most resistant to harsh conditions.


title: Endospore

text: Some classes of bacteria can turn into exospores, also known as microbial cysts, instead of endospores. Exospores and endospores are two kinds of "hibernating" or dormant stages seen in some classes of microorganisms.


title: Endospore

text: The bacterial life cycle does not necessarily include sporulation. Sporulation is usually triggered by adverse environmental conditions, so as to help the survival of the bacterium. Endospores exhibit no signs of life and can thus be described as cryptobiotic. Endospores retain viability indefinitely and they can germinate into vegetative cells under the appropriate conditions. Endospores have survived thousands of years until environmental stimuli trigger germination. They have been characterized as the most durable cells produced in nature.


title: Endospore

text: Bacteria produce a single endospore internally. The spore is sometimes surrounded by a thin covering known as the exosporium, which overlies the "spore coat". The spore coat, which acts like a sieve that excludes large toxic molecules like lysozyme, is resistant to many toxic molecules and may also contain enzymes that are involved in germination. In "Bacillus subtilus" endospores, the spore coat is estimated to contain more than 70 coat proteins, which are organized into an inner and an outer coat layer. The X-ray diffraction pattern of purified "B. subtilis" endospores indicates the presence of a component with a regular periodic structure, which Kadota and Iijima speculated might be formed from a keratin-like protein. However, after further studies this group concluded that the structure of the spore coat protein was different from keratin. When the "B. subtilis" genome was sequenced, no ortholog of human keratin was detected. The "cortex" lies beneath the spore coat and consists of peptidoglycan. The "core wall" lies beneath the cortex and surrounds the protoplast or "core" of the endospore. The core contains the spore chromosomal DNA which is encased in chromatin-like proteins known as SASPs (small acid-soluble spore proteins), that protect the spore DNA from UV radiation and heat. The core also contains normal cell structures, such as ribosomes and other enzymes, but is not metabolically active.


title: Endospore

text: Up to 20% of the dry weight of the endospore consists of calcium dipicolinate within the core, which is thought to stabilize the DNA. Dipicolinic acid could be responsible for the heat resistance of the spore, and calcium may aid in resistance to heat and oxidizing agents. However, mutants resistant to heat but lacking dipicolinic acid have been isolated, suggesting other mechanisms contributing to heat resistance are also at work. Small acid-soluble proteins (SASPs) are found in endospores. These proteins tightly bind and condense the DNA, and are in part responsible for resistance to UV light and DNA-damaging chemicals.


title: Endospore

text: Visualising endospores under light microscopy can be difficult due to the impermeability of the endospore wall to dyes and stains. While the rest of a bacterial cell may stain, the endospore is left colourless. To combat this, a special stain technique called a Moeller stain is used. That allows the endospore to show up as red, while the rest of the cell stains blue. Another staining technique for endospores is the Schaeffer-Fulton stain, which stains endospores green and bacterial bodies red. The arrangement of spore layers is as follows:


title: Endospore

text: The position of the endospore differs among bacterial species and is useful in identification. The main types within the cell are terminal, subterminal, and centrally placed endospores. Terminal endospores are seen at the poles of cells, whereas central endospores are more or less in the middle. Subterminal endospores are those between these two extremes, usually seen far enough towards the poles but close enough to the center so as not to be considered either terminal or central. Lateral endospores are seen occasionally.


title: Endospore

text: Examples of bacteria having terminal endospores include "Clostridium tetani", the pathogen that causes the disease tetanus. Bacteria having a centrally placed endospore include "Bacillus cereus". Sometimes the endospore can be so large the cell can be distended around the endospore. This is typical of "Clostridium tetani".


title: Endospore

text: Under conditions of starvation, especially the lack of carbon and nitrogen sources, a single endospore forms within some of the bacteria through a process called sporulation.


title: Endospore

text: When a bacterium detects environmental conditions are becoming unfavourable it may start the process of endosporulation, which takes about eight hours. The DNA is replicated and a membrane wall known as a "spore septum" begins to form between it and the rest of the cell. The plasma membrane of the cell surrounds this wall and pinches off to leave a double membrane around the DNA, and the developing structure is now known as a forespore. Calcium dipicolinate, the calcium salt of dipicolinic acid, is incorporated into the forespore during this time. The dipicolinic acid helps stabilize the proteins and DNA in the endospore. Next the peptidoglycan cortex forms between the two layers and the bacterium adds a spore coat to the outside of the forespore. In the final stages of endospore formation the newly forming endospore is dehydrated and allowed to mature before being released from the mother cell. The cortex is what makes the endospore so resistant to temperature. The cortex contains an inner membrane known as the core. The inner membrane that surrounds this core leads to the endospore's resistance against UV light and harsh chemicals that would normally destroy microbes. Sporulation is now complete, and the mature endospore will be released when the surrounding vegetative cell is degraded.


title: Endospore

text: Endospores are resistant to most agents that would normally kill the vegetative cells they formed from. Unlike persister cells, endospores are the result of a morphological differentiation process triggered by nutrient limitation (starvation) in the environment; endosporulation is initiated by quorum sensing within the "starving" population. Most disinfectants such as household cleaning products, alcohols, quaternary ammonium compounds and detergents have little effect on endospores. However, sterilant alkylating agents such as ethylene oxide (ETO), and 10% bleach are effective against endospores. To kill most anthrax spores, standard household bleach (with 10% sodium hypochlorite) must be in contact with the spores for at least several minutes; a very small proportion of spores can survive longer than 10 minutes in such a solution. Higher concentrations of bleach are not more effective, and can cause some types of bacteria to aggregate and thus survive.