title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Static can also use a form electroreception to sense sources of electromagnetic energy, enabling him to tell if a seemingly abandoned area is actually hot or not and if metal objects are present.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Static also possesses a form of technokinesis that allows him to manipulate electronics' electrical signals, such as turning them on or off, connecting multiple electronic devices, hear radio waves, tap into phone lines, mimic other electronic devices, and detonate them.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: In both the animated series and comic book, he is shown using his powers like an electric arc, which allows him to create plasma and mimicking blowtorches or plasma torches to cut and weld metal together.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: In "Static Shock", Static's powers grant him resistance or immunity to forms of mind control since the human brain is an electromagnetic organ. In the episode "Attack of the Living Brain Puppets", his best friend Richie Foley speculates that Static is immune to Madelyn Spaulding's psionic powers because his bioelectric field grants his brainwaves electromagnetic shielding. This ability would save Static again in the two-part episode "A League of Their Own", when one of Brainiac's mind control devices shorts out within seconds of being placed on Static. This ability was adapted into the comic book mythos, with Miss Martian being unable to track him and Static proving immune to Darkseid's Anti-Life Equation.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Static has repeatedly displayed the ability to absorb and/or alter energy from enemy attacks and redirect the energy at said enemy, even radiation, as certain kinds of radiation are electromagnetic radiation; In the "Teen Titans" comic series, he has even absorbed Kryptonite radiation from a poisoned Superboy and redirected it at an enemy. Static is able to use his powers to generate microwave energy to generate heat to combat ice attacks.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Virgil Hawkins is a highly gifted student with a particular interest in the sciences. He is a talented inventor and a natural strategist. Tim Drake has stated that his understanding of molecular and sub-atomic structures rivals the Flash's. According to the animated series, Virgil used to be an honors student before he got his powers, where-in his time as "Static" ate into his free time and, consequently, his grades.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Static's body has been shown to automatically heal itself, even from what would otherwise be lethal wounds, when drawing in large amounts of energy from a nearby energy source and energy to matter conversion.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Following the events of "Flashpoint", Static is given a new flying disk containing a holographic interface and is capable of collapsing into separate pieces or re-configuring into various forms for several uses and applications. In addition to allowing Static to remain in contact with Hardware, the disk also displays charts and other information relevant to the mission at hand. Virgil has also begun using a three-section staff, which can be activated by and used in conjunction with his powers, for use in close-range combat.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Static's primary weaknesses are insulators; wood, cloth, rubber, glass, fiberglass, plastics and ceramics, etc., as his powers have little or no effect on them, with wood proving the most difficult for him to electromagnetically manipulate on its own, though he can ignite it.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Static has a number of supporting characters, from best friends Rick Stone, Larry Wade, and Frieda Goren to sometime love interest Daisy Watkins.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: Static appears as a major character in the 2010 limited series "Milestone Forever", a project designed to detail the final fates of the Milestone launch characters prior to being assimilated into DC's continuity. In Static's tale, Virgil is attending his ten year high school reunion, and has given up his life of crime-fighting and is now pursuing a career in medicine. Rick (now going by his television moniker of "Richie") is also now working as a director in Los Angeles, and is open about his homosexuality. Without warning, Hotstreak (recently released from prison and now calling himself Firewheel), attacks the reunion, exclaiming that he now realizes that Static must have been one of his old classmates. Virgil briefly takes up the Static mantle again for one last fight with his old nemesis, and eventually defeats him. During this time, it is also revealed that Sharon is now married and pregnant, and that Robert has died. Rocket is implied to have taken over as the new Icon.


title: Static (DC Comics)

text: The story then skips ahead another ten years to show that Virgil is now married to Frieda and has two children, Larry and Sadie (both of whom have inherited his electrical abilities), and now works as a doctor. The story ends with the couple reflecting on their life, and Virgil playfully asking Frieda if she wants him to return to his role as Static. She simply smiles and tells him "absolutely not" and the two passionately kiss.


title: Leader of the Chinese Communist Party

text: The leader of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party is the highest-ranking official and head of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). Since 1982, the leader of the CCP is equivalent to the office of the General Secretary of the Central Committee. Since its formation in 1921, the leader's post has been titled as Secretary of the Central Bureau (1921–1922), Chairman (1922–1925, 1928–1931, and 1943–1982), and General Secretary (1925–1928, 1931–1943, and 1982 onwards).


title: Leader of the Chinese Communist Party

text: By custom the party leader has either been elected by the Central Committee or the Central Politburo. There were several name changes until Mao Zedong finally formalized the office of Chairman of the Central Committee. Since 1982, the CCP National Congress and its 1st CC Plenary Session has been the main institutional setting in which the CCP leadership are elected. From 1992 onwards, every party leader has been elected by a 1st CC Plenary Session. In the period 1928–45 the CCP leader was elected by conference, meetings of the Central Committee or by decisions of the Politburo. The last exception to this rule is Jiang Zemin, who was elected at the 4th Plenary Session of the 13th Central Committee in the aftermath of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests. Currently, to be nominated for the office of general secretary, one has to be a member of the Politburo Standing Committee.


title: Leader of the Chinese Communist Party

text: Despite breaching the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party, several individuals (who are not included in the list) have been "de facto" leaders of the CCP without holding formal positions of power. Wang Ming was briefly in charge in 1931 after Xiang Zhongfa was jailed by Kuomintang forces, while Li Lisan is considered to have been the real person in-charge for most of Xiang's tenure. Deng Xiaoping is the last CCP official to achieve this; he never served as chairman or general secretary, his highest post being Chairman of the Central Military Commission (commander-in-chief).


title: Leader of the Chinese Communist Party

text: References for when individuals were elected to the CCP leadership offices, the name of the offices and when they established and were abolished are found below:


title: Cassadee Pope

text: Cassadee Blake Pope (born August 28, 1989) is an American pop and country singer. She was the lead vocalist and songwriter of the pop band Hey Monday, with whom she released one studio album and two EPs. Pope embarked on a solo career in early 2012 and released the EP "Cassadee Pope" in May 2012. She took part in the third season of "The Voice" and became the first female winner in December 2012. Her debut solo country album, "Frame by Frame", was released in 2013 to a top 10 "Billboard" 200 charting. It debuted at No. 1 on Top Country Albums, with 43,000 copies sold in its first week.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: While attending Wellington High School in Wellington, Florida, Pope formed the band Blake with good friend Mike Gentile. The project disbanded before being signed and in 2008, she and Gentile along with Alex Lipshaw, Michael "Jersey" Moriarty, and Elliot James founded the pop punk band Hey Monday. Hey Monday released their first studio album, "Hold on Tight", in October 2008. Pope wrote two songs and co-wrote the other nine songs. She appeared in Fall Out Boy's video for "America's Suitehearts", from their 2008 album "Folie à Deux". She also provided guest vocals for The Cab's remix version of their song "Take My Hand" that appeared on Fall Out Boy's mixtape, "Welcome to the New Administration", and appeared in the music video for it the following summer of 2009. James left the band at the end of 2009. Hey Monday's first EP "Beneath It All" was to be released in August 2010; to promote the album the group toured the US and played on the 2010 Warped Tour. "The Christmas EP" was released on December 6, 2011, and later that month Hey Monday took an indefinite hiatus on good terms.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: In January and February 2012, Pope embarked on her first solo acoustic tour across the east and west coasts of the United States. She released her debut self-titled EP (self-labeled) on May 22, 2012, containing four songs written by Pope. She auditioned for season 3 of the singing competition "The Voice" during the summer and had all four coaches offer her a place on their teams; she ultimately picked country singer Blake Shelton. In the third live round, Pope performed "Over You", co-written by mentor Shelton. The song reached number one on the iTunes chart, knocking Psy's "Gangnam Style" down to number two. She was the only female contestant to advance to the Top 4 round where she performed "Stupid Boy" by country singer-songwriter Sarah Buxton, which also reached number one on iTunes. She advanced to "The Voice" finals, winning the title on the live finale results day in December. An album compiling her performances on The Voice entitled "The Voice: The Complete Season 3 Collection" reached No. 1 on the Heatseekers and sold 11,000 copies, and 8,000 more copies in the following week. Her self-titled EP also re-entered the chart at No. 42, selling 1,000 copies.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: In January 2013, Pope signed with country music label Republic Nashville; the lead single of her solo album, "Wasting All These Tears", was released on May 31, 2013. It debuted at number 37 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 7 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Songs chart. It sold 125,000 copies in first week of release. The album, "Frame by Frame", was released in October 2013. Pope spent most of 2014 touring with country artists Tim McGraw and Dierks Bentley. She also was featured on the album where she covered The Animal In Me.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: Pope released the lead single, "I Am Invincible" from her upcoming second studio album. During late 2015, Pope recorded a duet with Chris Young, titled "Think of You" for his 2015 album "I'm Comin' Over." This single became Pope's first song to peak at number one on the US Country Airplay chart in May 2016. In March 2017, Pope traveled to London and performed several times as part of the festival lineup, including an appearance on the main stage with Young.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: Pope's new EP, "Summer", was released on June 3, 2016, and the title track was released as a single on June 6, 2016.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: On July 24, 2016, Pope sang the Star Spangled Banner, the United States national anthem, before the Brickyard 400 NASCAR race at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: On October 16, 2016, Pope sang the Star Spangled Banner, the United States national anthem, before the Houston Texans and Colts game.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: Pope and Young were nominated for Best Country Duo/Group Performance for "Think of You", making her first contestant from "The Voice" to receive a Grammy nomination.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: On March 30, 2018, she independently released her first single in nearly 2 years, called "Take You Home". It was followed on August 10 by her second single of 2018, called "One More Red Light".


title: Cassadee Pope

text: In January 2010, Pope began dating drummer Rian Dawson, who is a member of the band All Time Low. They became engaged in February 2017. In July 2017, it was announced that the couple had ended their relationship.


title: Cassadee Pope

text: When it comes to Pope's influences she has said "I'm all over the place. I tend to go backwards a little bit and listen to Natalie Imbruglia's "Left of the Middle" and old Shania, Michelle Branch, Avril, Blink 182…I'm kind of all over the board. And then more recently I'm into the new Blake Shelton album, not gonna lie. Hunter Hayes and Taylor Swift." Pope also mentions Martina McBride as one of her influences.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: Fame is an American television series originally produced between January 7, 1982, and May 18, 1987, by Eilenna Productions in association with Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Television and sponsored by Yamaha musical instruments, which are prominently showcased in the episodes. The show is based on the 1980 motion picture of the same name. Using a mixture of comedy, drama and music, it followed the lives of the students and faculty at the New York City High School for the Performing Arts, now known as the Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School of Music & Art and Performing Arts. Most interior scenes were filmed in Hollywood, California. In all seasons except the third, the show filmed several exterior scenes on location in New York City.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: The popularity of the series around the world, most notably in the United Kingdom, led to several hit records and live concert tours by the cast. Despite its success, few of the actors maintained high-profile careers after the series was cancelled. Several of the cast members were seen again briefly in "Bring Back...Fame", a reunion special made for Channel 4 in the United Kingdom in 2008.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: The show was produced by MGM Television and aired Thursday nights at 8:00–9:00 on NBC beginning on January 7, 1982. NBC promoted its Thursday line-up ("Fame", "Cheers", "Taxi" [later "Night Court"], and "Hill Street Blues") as "The Best Night of Television on Television!" Despite glowing reviews from critics, ratings were less than impressive, and NBC cancelled it after only two seasons. However, by special arrangement with LBS Communications, MGM revived the series for first-run syndication in the fall of 1983, where it continued for four more seasons, with the last first-run episode airing in the US on May 18, 1987.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: Ira Steven Behr wrote 12 episodes of the series. He recalled: "I did three years on "Fame", which was a lot of fun and was also in syndication. We had no one looking over our shoulder. We got to do some wonderfully bizarre things on the show, and the only time they gave us any trouble was the last show I was going to write after I knew we were cancelled. It was going to be Road Warrior meets "Fame". It was a show that takes place in the future, and you could only sing for the state. It was a fascist society, and we were going to have motorcycles going through the school and have Iggy Pop as the guest star. It was great, and I was in the midst of writing the episode when somehow MGM read somewhere that we planned to burn down the sets, which was a lie. We were going to trash them a bit, but it wasn't the last episode. We had one more after that, and they stopped me from writing it."


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: Following its cancellation, two versions of the series were syndicated in reruns: the original hour-long episodes, which usually contained a primary plot, a subplot, and two or more musical numbers; and a second version, stripped of the musical numbers and the subplot and reduced to 30 minutes in length.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: The show's theme song was a pop hit for singer Irene Cara, having been featured in the motion picture. A re-recorded version of the theme, using similar instrumentation to the 1980 track, was used in the TV series and sung by co-star Erica Gimpel, who played Coco Hernandez.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: Although Gimpel left the series midway through the third season (after the show moved from NBC to first-run syndication in 1983), her opening vocals were still heard on the show for two more seasons. An updated version of the song, featuring a modern, synthesized hard-rock flavor, was introduced in the fall of 1985 and performed by new cast member Loretta Chandler (Dusty). This version ran for the final two seasons of "Fame".


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: "I Still Believe In Me", from an episode of the series titled "Passing Grade", was nominated for an Emmy Award for Best Original Song. It was performed by Erica Gimpel and Debbie Allen, and co-written by Gary Portnoy, who went on to co-write and sing the theme from "Cheers". In the United Kingdom, two singles credited to The Kids from "Fame", "Hi-Fidelity" and "Starmaker", peaked within the top ten of the UK Singles Chart.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: Four cast members from the original movie appeared in the television series. Lee Curreri portrayed the character Bruno Martelli, an introverted musical genius. Gene Anthony Ray portrayed Leroy Johnson, a tough hood from the projects with a natural talent for dance, who muscles his way into an audition and wins. In the film, Leroy is also semiliterate, but this was dropped in favor of him having "fourth-grade reading level" in the television series. Albert Hague played teacher Benjamin Shorofsky, a German music teacher who constantly battled with Bruno Martelli over musical styles. The final cast member from the film was Debbie Allen, who portrayed dance instructor Lydia Grant. Allen only appeared briefly in the movie, but her character was expanded in the series. She also became the show's original choreographer, in addition to directing several episodes and co-producing one season.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: Also, several characters were carried over from the movie, played by different actors. Irene Cara was offered the role of Coco Hernandez by the show's producers, but she politely declined, as she wished to focus on developing her budding singing career. The part was played by Erica Gimpel. Actor P. R. Paul played Montgomery McNeil in the series, while Paul McCrane portrayed the gay student in the film. The Montgomery character was changed for TV and was no longer gay. English teacher Elizabeth Sherwood was played in the film by actress Anne Meara, but in the series was played by actress Carol Mayo Jenkins.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: The character of Ralph Garci (Tommy Aguilar inheriting the role played in the film by Barry Miller) appeared in the first episode of the TV version, but was metamorphosed into the character of Danny Amatullo, (whose last name is after the associate producer Tony Amatullo) and played by Carlo Imperato. The character Doris Schwartz, played by Valerie Landsburg, was in the series, while the character Doris Finsecker appeared in the film version and was portrayed by Maureen Teefy.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the first season of "Fame" to DVD in Region 1 on November 1, 2005.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: 20th Century Fox, under license from MGM and MGM Television, released the complete first and second seasons of "Fame" on DVD in Region 1 and Region 2 on September 15, 2009. On January 12, 2010, Fox released seasons 1 and 2 in separate collections.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: DVD releases also followed a similar pattern in Europe and Australia. Due to licensing issues, all DVDs contain some unspecified music substitutions.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: The series won a number of Emmy awards, and in 1983 and 1984, it won the . Actress, director and choreographer Debbie Allen, who had a small role in the motion picture, but played a major character in the television version, also won several awards.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: On 27 December 2008, Channel 4 in the United Kingdom (despite "Fame" having originally been aired in Britain on BBC One) aired a 90-minute special titled "Bring Back...Fame", which sought out and reunited some of the original cast members of the television series.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: Hosted by Justin Lee Collins, and apparently filmed the previous summer, the show followed the presenter around the United States as he tracked down actors from the series and then staged a reunion. The program showed Collins appearing to surprise the former cast members in locations, including restaurants, a recording studio, a gym, LAX airport, and a cinema, before interviewing them and persuading them to take part in the reunion.


title: Fame (1982 TV series)

text: The actors featured were Debbie Allen, Carol Mayo Jenkins, Lee Curreri, Erica Gimpel, Valerie Landsburg, and Carlo Imperato. Also interviewed were Irene Cara and the mother of the late Gene Anthony Ray. Whether other actors from the series had also been approached but had declined to take part was not stated. Excerpts from the TV series were shown throughout the programme. The final scenes showed the six principal actors and a number of backing dancers taking part in a recreation of the title sequence of the TV programme.


title: Foodfight!

text: Foodfight! is a 2012 American computer-animated adventure comedy film produced by Threshold Entertainment and directed by Lawrence Kasanoff. The film features the voices of Charlie Sheen, Wayne Brady, Hilary Duff, Eva Longoria, Larry Miller, and Christopher Lloyd. "Foodfight!" takes place in the "Marketropolis" supermarket, which, after closing time, transforms into a city where all the citizens are "Ikes", personified well-known marketing icons. The story follows a cereal brand mascot, Dex Dogtective, who, along with his best friend, Daredevil Dan, bands together a group of "Ikes" in Marketropolis to fight against the forces of the evil Brand X, who threaten to take over the entire supermarket.


title: Foodfight!

text: After raising tens of millions of dollars in funding, "Foodfight!" had a troubled and much delayed production. The film was originally scheduled for a Christmas 2003 theatrical release; however, this failed to materialize, and later planned release dates were also missed. By September 2011, after the producers defaulted on a loan, creditors auctioned off the film's assets and all associated rights to Lionsgate.


title: Foodfight!

text: In 2012, the film had a low-key release, being direct-to-video in most territories. Its critical reception has been overwhelmingly negative, with most criticism directed towards the animation, humor, and excessive product placement. It has since been frequently discussed as one of the worst films of all time.


title: Foodfight!

text: When night falls at the supermarket Marketropolis, the store products' mascots ("Ikes") come to life and interact with each other. Heroic cereal mascot Dex Dogtective is about to propose to his girlfriend Sunshine Goodness, a raisin mascot, but she goes missing just before he is able to do so.


title: Foodfight!

text: Six months later, a Brand X representative called "Mr. Clipboard" arrives at Marketropolis and aggressively pushes Brand X's range of generic products to Leonard, the store's manager. In the world of the Ikes, the arrival of Lady X, the seductive Brand X detergent Ike, causes a commotion at Dex's club, the Copabanana.


title: Foodfight!

text: Brand X products begin to replace previous products, which is mirrored in the Ikes' world with the deaths of several Ikes. After Dex's friend Daredevil Dan, a chocolate squirrel, disappears, Dex begins to investigate. After rebuffing Lady X's attempts to bring him to Brand X's side, Dex is locked in a dryer with Dan to be melted, but the two manage to escape. Dan and Dex find out that Brand X contains an addictive and toxic secret ingredient.


title: Foodfight!

text: Dex and Dan attempt to initiate a product recall with Leonard's computer. A Brand X Ike cuts power just as they send the message. Dex then rallies the citizens of Marketropolis to fight the armies of Brand X in a massive food fight. The citizens win the battle by using the supermarket's electricity.


title: Foodfight!

text: Dex rescues Sunshine, who had been held hostage in the Brand X tower, and escapes with the help of Dan. Mr. Clipboard then enters the Ikes' world, but he is taken down by Dex, who discovers that he is a robot controlled by Lady X. Lady X reveals that she had previously been the hideous Ike of an unsuccessful brand of prunes, and had been stealing Sunshine's essence to create a new brand. Dex and Sunshine defeat her, reverting her to her original form. With Brand X defeated and a cure found that revives the killed Ikes, Dex and Sunshine finally get married.


title: Foodfight!

text: Additional voices are provided by Melissa Disney, Jennifer Keith, Bob Bergen, Susan Silo, Daniel Bernhardt, Jeff Bennett, Stephen Stanton, James Arnold Taylor, and John Bloom.


title: Foodfight!

text: Lawrence Kasanoff and a Threshold Entertainment employee, Joshua Wexler, created the concept in 1997. A $25 million joint investment into the project was made by Threshold and the Korean investment company Natural Image, with the producers expecting that foreign pre-sales and loans against the sales would provide the remaining portion of the budget. The estimated remainder was $50 million. Kasanoff also decided to produce and direct the film, despite having no prior experience in the animation field.


title: Foodfight!

text: The film was created and produced by the digital effects shop at Threshold, located in Santa Monica, California in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. In December 2002, Kasanoff reported that hard drives containing most unfinished assets from the film had been stolen, in what he called an act of "industrial espionage" and "an incredibly complex crime". An investigation, which included the United States Secret Service, was unable to find the thief. The film was supposed to be computer-animated, with an exaggerated use of "squash and stretch" to resemble the Looney Tunes shorts, but after production resumed in 2004, Kasanoff changed it to a style more centered in motion capture, with the result being that "he and animators were speaking two different languages".


title: Foodfight!

text: Lionsgate established a distribution deal and the financing company StoryArk represented investors who gave $20 million in funding to Threshold in 2005 due to the Lionsgate deal, the celebrity voice actors, and the product tie-ins. A release date in 2005 was later announced, but missed. Another distribution deal was struck in 2007, but again, nothing came of it. Lionsgate had a negative reaction to the delays. The investors had grown impatient due to the film production company defaulting on its secured promissory note and the release dates that were not met.


title: Foodfight!

text: Finally, in 2011, the film was auctioned for $2.5 million. StoryArk investors had ultimately invoked a clause in their contract that allowed the Fireman's Fund Insurance Company, which had insured "Foodfight!", to complete and release the film as inexpensively and quickly as possible. Animator Ken Bailey stated that "The film was already ruined. They were just trying to salvage what they could."


title: Foodfight!

text: The insurance company received the copyright to the film in 2012 and began releasing it and its associated merchandise. In June 2012, "Foodfight!" received a limited release in the United Kingdom, grossing approximately £15,000 of ticket sales on its single week in theatres. It was released on DVD in Europe that October with distribution by Boulevard Entertainment.


title: Foodfight!

text: In February 2013, the film was released on VOD and was released on DVD in the United States on May 7, 2013. Jake Rossen of "The New York Times" described the film's United States release as "a muted debut". The United States release was delayed because the American distributor, Viva Pictures, wanted to release it when Walmart could arrange for a satisfactory product display for the film. According to company president Victor Elizalde, Viva Pictures' modest investment of an unspecified sum had proved profitable.


title: Foodfight!

text: At the time the film was announced, it was denounced for taking product placement to the extreme, and doing it in a film targeted at children. Kasanoff responded to the controversy by noting that they were not paid money for the brand inclusion and therefore the addition of known brands did not constitute product placement, though the brands were expected to provide $100 million worth of cross-promotion.


title: Foodfight!

text: Since its release, "Foodfight!" has been heavily panned by critics and is considered one of the worst films ever made: "Mental Floss" included it in a list of "10 Really Bad Movies that Define 'Bad Movies'" in 2012 and it appeared in lists of the worst movies ever made on "Digital Trends" in 2017, MSN in 2018, "Fotogramas" in 2020 and "Time Out" in 2022. It has also been referred to as one of the worst animated films ever made by Indiewire in 2015, Comic Book Resources in 2021, and twice by "Screen Rant", in 2017 and 2020. In 2017, Rebecca Hawkes of "The Daily Telegraph" described "Foodfight!" as "the worst animated children's film ever made".


title: Foodfight!

text: A 2012 review by Kate Valentine of "Hollywood News" called it "by far the crappiest piece of crap I have ever had the misfortune to watch", and a 2013 article from "The New York Times" was similarly scathing, saying, "The animation appears unfinished [...] And the plot [...] is impenetrable and even offensive." The New York Times article also reported that "Foodfight!" has been "seized upon by Internet purveyors of bad cinema".


title: Foodfight!

text: Describing the film as "one of those fall-of-civilization moments", Nathan Rabin of "The A.V. Club" wrote in 2013 that: "the grotesque ugliness of the animation alone would be a deal-breaker even if the film weren't also glaringly inappropriate in its sexuality, nightmare-inducing in its animation, and filled with Nazi overtones and iconography even more egregiously unfit for children than the script's wall-to-wall gauntlet of crude double entendres and weird intimations of inter-species sex". Rabin revisited "Foodfight!" in a 2019 article, stating that it "was the kind of bad movie I live for. This is the kind of movie so unbelievably, surreally and exquisitely terrible that you want to share it with the rest of the world. I was put on earth to suffer through abominations like "Foodfight!" so that society as a whole might benefit from my Christ-like sacrifice."


title: Foodfight!

text: In 2020, "Esquire"s Tom Nicholson wrote that the film was ""The Room", rendered in horribly sharp polygons" and that it was "easily the most horrifically ugly, confusing and unsettling animated film ever made."


title: Foodfight!

text: Associated "Foodfight!" merchandise was produced and was sold in stores and online, with at least some being released several years prior to the film. There was also a Foodfight! video game planned for the GameCube, PlayStation 2 and Game Boy Advance. It was shown off at E3 2006, but was cancelled.


title: Poblano

text: The poblano ("Capsicum annuum") is a mild chili pepper originating in the state of Puebla, Mexico. Dried, it is called ancho or chile ancho, from the Spanish word "ancho" ("wide"). Stuffed fresh and roasted it is popular in "chiles rellenos poblanos".


title: Poblano

text: While poblanos tend to have a mild flavor, occasionally and unpredictably they can have significant heat. Different peppers from the same plant have been reported to vary substantially in heat intensity. The ripened red poblano is significantly hotter and more flavorful than the less ripe, green poblano.


title: Poblano

text: A closely related variety is the mulato, which is darker in color, sweeter in flavor, and softer in texture. The pasilla pepper is sometimes incorrectly called "poblano", particularly in the United States, but they are distinct from true poblano peppers.


title: Poblano

text: The bush has multiple stems and can reach in height. The fruit is long and wide. An immature poblano is dark purplish green in color, but the mature fruits eventually turn a red so dark as to be nearly black.


title: Poblano

text: Poblanos grow in hardiness zones 10–12 and do best with a soil pH between 7.0 and 8.5. They typically prefer full sunlight and may require additional support for the growing fruits during harvest in late summer. A poblano takes around 200 days from seed to harvest and requires soil temperatures of at least 64 °F (18 °C) to germinate.


title: Poblano

text: Preparation methods include: dried, stuffed, in "mole" sauces, or coated in whipped egg ("capeado") and fried. It is particularly popular during the Mexican independence festivities as part of a dish called "chiles en nogada", which incorporates green, white, and red ingredients corresponding to the colors of the Mexican flag. This may be considered one of Mexico's most symbolic dishes by its nationals. It is also usually used in the widely found dish "chile relleno". Poblanos are popular in the United States and can be found in grocery stores in the states bordering Mexico and in urban areas.


title: Poblano

text: After being roasted and peeled (which improves the texture by removing the waxy skin), poblano peppers are preserved by either canning or freezing. Storing them in airtight containers keeps them for several months. When dried, the poblano becomes a broad, flat, heart-shaped pod called a "chile ancho" (literally "wide chile" or "broad chile"). These dried ancho chiles are often ground into a powder used as flavoring in various dishes.


title: Poblano

text: "Poblano" is also the word for an inhabitant of Puebla, and "mole poblano" refers to the spicy chocolate chili sauce originating in Puebla.


title: Post office

text: A post office is a public facility and a retailer that provides mail services, such as accepting letters and parcels, providing post office boxes, and selling postage stamps, packaging, and stationery. Post offices may offer additional services, which vary by country. These include providing and accepting government forms (such as passport applications), and processing government services and fees (such as road tax, postal savings, or bank fees). The chief administrator of a post office is called a postmaster.


title: Post office

text: Before the advent of postal codes and the post office, postal systems would route items to a specific post office for receipt or delivery. During the 19th century in the United States, this often led to smaller communities being renamed after their post offices, particularly after the Post Office Department began to require that post office names not be duplicated within a state.


title: Post office

text: The term "post-office" has been in use since the 1650s, shortly after the legalisation of private mail services in England in 1635. In early modern England, post riders—mounted couriers—were placed, or "posted", every few hours along post roads at posting houses (also known as post houses) between major cities, or "post towns". These stables or inns permitted important correspondence to travel without delay. In early America, post offices were also known as stations. This term, as well as the term "post house", fell from use as horse and coach services were replaced by railways, aircraft, and automobiles.


title: Post office

text: Today, the term "post office" usually refers to government postal facilities providing customer service. "General Post Office" is sometimes used for the national headquarters of a postal service, even if the building does not provide customer service. A postal facility that is used exclusively for processing mail is instead known as a sorting office or delivery office, which may have a large central area known as a sorting or postal hall. Integrated facilities combining mail processing with railway stations or airports are known as mail exchanges.


title: Post office

text: In India, post offices are found in almost every village having panchayat (a "village council"), towns, cities, and throughout the geographical area of India. India's postal system changed its name to India Post after the advent of private courier companies in the 1990s. It is run by the Indian government's Department of Posts. India Post accepts and delivers inland letters, postcards, parcels, postal stamps, and money orders (money transfers). Few post offices in India offer speed post (fast delivery) and payments or bank savings services. It is also uncommon for Indian post offices to sell insurance policies or accept payment for electricity, landline telephone, or gas bills. Until the 1990s, post offices would collect fees for radio licenses, recruitment for government jobs, and the operation of public call telephone (PCO) booths. Postmen would deliver letters, money orders, and parcels to places that are within the assigned area of a particular post office but there are no post offices in the location. Each Indian post office is assigned a unique six-digit code called the Postal Index Number, or PIN. Each post office is identified by its PIN.


title: Post office

text: Private courier and delivery services often have offices as well, although these are usually not called "post offices", except in the case of Germany, which has fully privatised its national postal system.


title: Post office

text: As abbreviation "PO" is used, together with "GPO" for General Post Office and "LPO" for Licensed Post Office.


title: Post office

text: There is evidence of corps of royal couriers disseminating the decrees of Egyptian pharaohs as early as 2400BCE, and it is possible that the service greatly precedes that date. Similarly, there may be ancient organised systems of post houses providing mounted courier service, although sources vary as to precisely who initiated the practice.


title: Post office

text: In the Persian Empire, a Chapar Khaneh system existed along the Royal Road. Similar postage systems were established in India and China by the Mauryan and Han dynasties in the 2nd century BCE.


title: Post office

text: The Roman historian Suetonius credited Augustus with regularising the Roman transportation and courier network, the "Cursus Publicus". Local officials were obliged to provide couriers who would be responsible for their message's entire course. Locally maintained post houses () privately owned rest houses () and were obliged or honored to care for couriers along their way. The Roman emperor Diocletian later established two parallel systems: one providing fresh horses or mules for urgent correspondence and the other providing sturdy oxen for bulk shipments. The Byzantine historian Procopius, though not unbiased, records the "Cursus Publicus" system remained largely intact until it was dismantled in the Byzantine empire by the emperor Justinian in the 6th century.


title: Post office

text: The Princely House of Thurn and Taxis family initiated regular mail service from Brussels in the 16th century, directing the Imperial Post of the Holy Roman Empire. The British Postal Museum claims that the oldest functioning post office in the world is on High Street in Sanquhar, Scotland. The post office has functioned continuously since 1712, during which horses and stagecoaches were used to carry mail.


title: Post office

text: In parts of Europe, special postal censorship offices existed to intercept and censor mail. In France, such offices were known as cabinets noirs.


title: Post office

text: In many jurisdictions, mailboxes and post office boxes have long been in widespread use for drop-off and pickup (respectively) of mail and small packages outside post offices or when offices are closed. Germany's national postage system Deutsche Post introduced the Pack-Station for package delivery, including both drop-off and pickup, in 2001. In the 2000s, the United States Postal Service began to install Automated Postal Centers (APCs) in many locations in both post offices, for when they are closed or busy, and retail locations. APCs can print postage and accept mail and small packages.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: The Archduchy of Austria () was a major principality of the Holy Roman Empire and the nucleus of the Habsburg monarchy. With its capital at Vienna, the archduchy was centered at the Empire's southeastern periphery.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: Its present name originates from the Frankish term "Oustrich" - Eastern Kingdom (east of the Frankish kingdom). The Archduchy developed out of the Bavarian Margraviate of Austria, elevated to the Duchy of Austria according to the 1156 "Privilegium Minus" by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. The House of Habsburg came to the Austrian throne in Vienna in 1282 and in 1453 Emperor Frederick III, also the ruler of Austria, officially adopted the archducal title. From the 15th century onwards, all Holy Roman Emperors but one were Austrian archdukes and with the acquisition of the Bohemian and Hungarian crown lands in 1526, the Habsburg hereditary lands became the centre of a major European power.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: The Archduchy's history as an imperial state ended with the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806. It was replaced with the Lower and Upper Austria crown lands of the Austrian Empire.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: Located in the Danube basin, the ancient Roman province Pannonia Superior, Austria bordered on the Kingdom of Hungary beyond the March and Leitha rivers in the east. In the south it was confined by the Duchy of Styria, with the border at the historic Semmering Pass, while in the north the Bohemian Forest and the Thaya river marked the border with Bohemia and Moravia.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: In the west, the Upper Austrian part bordered on the Bavarian stem duchy. The adjacent Innviertel region belonged to the Bavarian dukes, until it was occupied by Austrian forces during the War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778 and incorporated into the archducal lands according to the Peace of Teschen. In the course of the German mediatisation in 1803, the Austrian archdukes also acquired the rule over the Electorate of Salzburg and the Berchtesgaden Provostry.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: After Austria was detached from Bavaria and established as an Imperial estate in 1156, the Babenberg dukes also acquired the neighbouring Duchy of Styria in 1192. After the extinction of the line in 1246 and the occupation by King Ottokar II of Bohemia, it was seized by the Habsburg king Rudolf I of Germany, who defeated Ottokar in the 1278 Battle on the Marchfeld and enfeoffed his son Albert I.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: In 1358/59 the Habsburg duke Rudolf IV, in response to the Golden Bull of 1356, already claimed the archducal title by forging the "Privilegium Maius". Rudolf aimed to achieve a status comparable to the Empire's seven prince-electors, the holders of the traditional Imperial 'arch'-offices (cf. Archchancellor); however, his attempts failed as the elevation was rejected by the Luxembourg emperor Charles IV. By the 1379 Treaty of Neuberg, his heirs divided the Habsburg lands, whereafter the Austrian duchy remained under the rule of the Albertinian line.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: On Epiphany 1453 Emperor Frederick III, regent of Austria for his minor Albertinian cousin Ladislaus the Posthumous, finally acknowledged the archducal title. It was then conferred to all Habsburg emperors and rulers, as well as to the non-ruling princes of the dynasty, however, it still did not carry the right to vote in the Imperial election.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: Frederick further promoted the rise of the Habsburg dynasty into European dimensions with the arrangement of the marriage between his son Maximilian I and Mary the Rich, heiress of Burgundy in 1477. After Maximilian's son Philip the Handsome in 1496 had married Joanna the Mad, Queen of Castile and the Crown of Aragon, his son Charles V could come into an inheritance "on which the sun never sets".


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: Nevertheless, Charles' younger brother Ferdinand I claimed his rights and became Archduke of Austria according to an estate distribution at the 1521 Diet of Worms, whereby he became regent over the Austrian archduchy and the adjacent Inner Austrian lands of Styria, Carinthia, Carniola and Gorizia (Görz). By marrying Princess Anna of Bohemia and Hungary, Ferdinand inherited both kingdoms in 1526. Also King of the Romans from 1531, he became the progenitor of the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg (Habsburg-Lorraine from 1745 on), which as Archdukes of Austria and Kings of Bohemia ruled as Holy Roman Emperors until the Empire's dissolution in 1806.


title: Archduchy of Austria

text: In 1804, Emperor Francis II of Habsburg who was also ruler of the lands of the Habsburg monarchy promoted his territories within the Holy Roman Empire together with his Kingdom of Hungary to the Austrian Empire in reaction to Napoleon I's proclamation of the French Empire; two years later Francis formally dissolved the Holy Roman Empire. The Archduchy of Austria continued to exist as a constituent crown land ("Kronland") within the empire, although it was divided into Upper and Lower Austria for administrative purposes. Hungary preserved its earlier status as "Regnum Independens". The title of archduke continued to be used by members of the imperial family and the archduchy was only formally dissolved in 1918 with the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the creation of the separate federal states of Lower and Upper Austria in the new Republic of German Austria.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: The Volkswagen CC, originally marketed as the Volkswagen Passat CC in its first generation, is a variant of the Volkswagen Passat that trades headroom and cargo space for a coupé-like profile and sweeping roofline. The CC debuted in January 2008, at the North American International Auto Show in Detroit and was discontinued after the 2017 model year.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: Volkswagen said the name CC stands for "Comfort Coupe", recognizing its combination of a coupe-like profile with four rather than two doors. While based on the Passat, and sharing its wheelbase, the CC is longer, lower, and wider than the Passat.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: While the CC has been replaced by the Arteon in most markets, the latter vehicle retains the CC nameplate in China.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: At its launch in 2008, Volkswagen forecast 300,000 sales over a period of seven years. The automaker expected that 60% of these sales (about 26,000 units per year) will come from the market of the United States. In China, the CC was released by FAW-Volkswagen on July 15, 2010, and was available in 1.8TSI and 2.0TSI trims.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: Compared to other midsize sedans in the marketplace, the 2013 Volkswagen CC was evaluated by Edmunds as "attractive and higher quality alternative ... though its smallish backseat and trunk may be deal-breakers ... [and] the sport tuned suspension is on the firm side." Automotive journalists describe the CC sedan's ride as "nearly sports car firm, with every bump and undulation sent directly to your backside."


title: Volkswagen CC

text: The car has a wheelbase and was available with a 1.4 L E85 TFSI (Finland and Sweden), 1.8 L petrol inline-four, 2.0 L petrol inline four, a 2.0 L inline four TDI engine in various drivetrain configurations, as well as with a 3.6 L VR6 engine producing with 4motion four-wheel drive and a six speed Direct-Shift Gearbox transmission.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: The North American market had the 2.0T I4 and 3.6 L VR6 engine as options. This version of the VR6 engine produced and of torque in both front wheel drive and 4MOTION versions, while the 2.0T produced and . Manual transmission was available in the 2.0T engine option only. It also came with automatic transmission.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: On the European market, the CC was offered with 4MOTION four-wheel-drive on the 2.0 L TDI engines. The model came with manual transmission and the model with Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG). An AdBlue version offering named BlueTDI was also produced. Availability varied by national markets.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: For the 2011 model year, the 2.0T in Europe was upgraded to by using the engine variant introduced in the Golf VI GTI.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: A facelift to the CC was presented at the LA Auto Show, and production started in January 2012. The front and rear were revised to make the CC look similar to the then current Volkswagen design, while the midsection was unchanged. Interior changes included a minor updates to the center console along with an updated ACC control panel. This design was also used in the Passat Alltrack.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: European engine options remain the same as for the 2011 Passat CC. Transmission options were carried over from the previous version, but the diesel automatic transmission now has with a free wheel function that is claimed to reduce fuel consumption by disengaging the clutch, when the driver lifts their foot from the accelerator.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: The XDS electronic differential brake that was also used in the Golf GTI was available on the CC as standard or optional equipment. Initially available only in V6 as an AWD alternative, but diesel versions became available during 2012. Availability of diesel 4WD varied by market.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: In January 2013, the optional 2.0 TDI was replaced by an uprated version with . The torque increased from . In 2015, this was again uprated to , this time from the new EA288 engine complying with the Euro 6 emissions standard that replaced the previous EA189. Maximum torque remained at . The was uprated to .


title: Volkswagen CC

text: The transmission with the V6 in the North American market was a traditional hydraulic automatic transmission, whereas in other markets, it was a DSG transmission.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: A specially-prepared CC was raced in the 2013 British Touring Car Championship season and also in later events. Drivers included Warren Scott, Tom Onslow-Cole, and Aiden Moffat.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: With only 3,900 units sold in 2015, the CC was one of the lowest selling models in the Volkswagen range.


title: Volkswagen CC

text: During November 2016, Volkswagen announced the Arteon would replace the CC. In May 2017, Volkswagen Australia announced the specifications for its new Arteon to replace the discontinued CC at the top end in the car maker's model line up. China would continue production on the CC name starting in August 2018 for the 2019 model year.


title: Kharif crop

text: Kharif crops, also known as monsoon crops or autumn crops, are domesticated plants that are cultivated and harvested in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh during the Indian subcontinent's monsoon season, which lasts from June to November depending on the area. Monsoon rains may begin as early as May in some parts of the Indian subcontinent, and crops are generally harvested from the third week of September to October. Rice, maize, and cotton are some of the major Kharif crops in India. Unlike the Rabi crops, which are grown in the winter, the kharif crops require good rainfall.


title: Kharif crop

text: The words "Kharif" and "rabi" both have their origins in the Arabic language. These came to be used in India with the ascent of the Mughal Empire in the Indian subcontinent and have been widely used ever since. "Kharif" literally means "autumn" in Arabic. The sowing happens during monsoon and reaping happens close to Autumn in the Indian subcontinent ; this proximity to Autumn reap season is called the Kharif period.


title: Kharif crop

text: The Kharif season varies by crop and region, starting at the earliest in May and ending at the latest in January. In India, the season is popularly considered to start in June and end in October. Kharif crops are usually sown at the beginning of the first rains during the advent of the south-west monsoon season, and they are harvested at the end of monsoon season (October–November).


title: Kharif crop

text: Monsoon sowing dates vary, occurring toward the end of May in the southern state of Kerala and reaching July in some north Indian states. In other regions like Maharashtra, the west coast of India, and Pakistan, which receive rains in June, Kharif crops are sown in May, June and July. In Bangladesh, Kharif crops are usually sown with the beginning of the first rains in June.


title: Kharif crop

text: These crops are dependent on the quantity of rainwater as well as its timing. Too much, too little, or rain at the wrong time may lay waste to the whole year's efforts.


title: Kharif crop

text: Rice is the most important Kharif crop of India. It is grown in rain-fed areas with hot and humid climates, especially the eastern and southern parts of India. Rice requires a temperature of during the growing season and during ripening. It needs rainfall from and needs a flooded field during the growth period.


title: Super 8 film

text: Super 8 mm film is a motion-picture film format released in 1965 by Eastman Kodak as an improvement over the older "Double" or "Regular" 8 mm home movie format.


title: Super 8 film

text: The film is nominally 8 mm wide, the same as older formatted 8 mm film, but the dimensions of the rectangular perforations along one edge are smaller, which allows for a greater exposed area. The Super 8 standard also allocates the border opposite the perforations for an oxide stripe upon which sound can be magnetically recorded.


title: Super 8 film

text: Unlike Super 35 (which is generally compatible with standard 35 mm equipment), the film stock used for Super 8 is not compatible with standard 8 mm film cameras.


title: Super 8 film

text: There are several varieties of the film system used for shooting, but the final film in each case has the same dimensions. The most popular system by far was the Kodak system.


title: Super 8 film

text: Launched in 1965 by Eastman Kodak at the 1964–65 Worlds Fair, Super 8 film comes in plastic light-proof cartridges containing coaxial supply and take-up spools loaded with of film, with 72 frames per foot, for a total of approximately 3,600 frames per film cartridge. This is enough film for 2.5 minutes at the professional motion picture standard of 24 frames per second, and for 3 minutes and 20 seconds of continuous filming at 18 frames per second (upgraded from standard 8 mm 16 frame/s) for amateur use. In 1973 the system was upgraded with a larger cartridge, which includes film with magnetic sound. In 1975 an even larger cartridge became available, which could be used in specifically designed cameras. The sound and the 200-foot cartridge system are no longer available, but the 50-foot silent cartridge system is still manufactured. Historically, Super 8 film was a reversal stock for home projection used primarily for the creation of home movies. It became an extremely popular consumer product in the late 1960s through the 1970s, but was largely replaced in the 1980s by the use of video tape. During the mid-to-late 1980s Super 8 began to re-emerge as an alternative method for movie production, beginning with its use in MTV music videos in 1981. In 1993 the company's Super8 Sound, now called Pro8mm, pioneered the use of the color negative in Super 8 by custom perforating and loading a variety of 35 mm film stocks into the Super 8 film cartridge. This included emulsions from Kodak, Fuji and Ilford. Today Super 8 color negative film is the main color stock used. There are also Super 8 reversal films available, including 100D Kodak Ektachrome and 200D Agfa color, as well as black-and-white (B&W) from Foma, ADOX and ORWO and Kodak.


title: Super 8 film

text: The Super 8 plastic cartridge is probably the fastest loading film system ever developed, as it can be loaded into the Super 8 camera in less than two seconds without the need to directly thread or touch the film. In addition, coded notches cut into the Super 8 film cartridge exterior allow the camera to recognize the film speed automatically. Not all cameras can read all the notches correctly, however, and there is some debate about which notches actually deliver the best results. Canon keeps an exhaustive list of their Super 8 cameras with detailed specifications on what film speeds can be used with their cameras. Usually, testing one cartridge of film can help handle any uncertainty a filmmaker may have about how well their Super 8 camera reads different film stocks. Color stocks were originally available only in tungsten (3400 K) Type A, and almost all Super 8 cameras come with a switchable daylight filter built in, allowing for both indoor and outdoor shooting.


title: Super 8 film

text: The original Super 8 film release was a silent system only, but in 1973 a sound on film version was released. The film with sound had a magnetic soundtrack and came in larger cartridges than the original cartridge in order to accommodate the sound recording head in the film path. Sound film requires a longer film path (for smoothing the film movement before it reaches the recording head) and a second aperture for the recording head. Sound cameras are compatible with silent cartridges, but not conversely. Sound film is typically filmed at a speed of 18 or 24 frames per second. Kodak discontinued the production of Super 8 sound film in 1997, citing environmental regulations as the reason. The adhesive used to bond the magnetic track to the film is environmentally hazardous.


title: Super 8 film

text: In 2005 Kodak announced the discontinuation of their most popular stock Kodachrome due to the decline of facilities equipped with K-14 process. Kodachrome was "replaced" by a new ISO 64 Ektachrome, which uses the simpler E-6 process. The last roll of Kodachrome was processed on January 18, 2011, (although announced last date of processing was December 30, 2010) in Parsons, Kansas, by the sole remaining lab capable of processing it. In December 2012, Kodak discontinued color reversal stock in all formats, including 35 mm and Super 8. However, in Spring of 2019, Kodak introduced Ektachrome 100D in super 8 and 16 mm formats, citing surges in demand.


title: Super 8 film

text: Today there is still a variety of Super 8 film stocks. Kodak sells one Super 8 color reversal stock, Ektachrome 100D, and three Super 8 color negative stocks cut from their Vision 3 film series, ISO 50, ISO 200 and ISO 500, which can be used in very low light. Kodak reformulated the emulsions for the B&W reversal stocks and made Tri-X (ISO 200). Film cut to Super 8 from other manufactured raw stock such as Fuji, Orwo, Adox, Agfa and Foma are also available. Pro8mm offers 7 color negative stocks made from Kodak and Fuji film. Color Reversal film for Super 8 is still available from several Super 8 specialty companies. Wittner Kinotechnik offers Super 8 made from a batch of Agfa Aviphot 200D, which is perforated and slit for Super 8, 8 mm and 16 mm formats. This film is loaded into Super 8 and Single cartridges by several of the specialty companies. Other stocks, such as the new Fuji reversal film, and existing supplies of Kodak 35 mm 100D are often made available in Super 8 by these specialty companies.


title: Super 8 film

text: The growing popularity and availability of non-linear editing systems has allowed film-makers and any user of film to shoot Super 8 film but edit in digital. This avoids much of the tedium of handling film and the damage to the film, which can occur when editing the actual film. Super 8 films may be transferred (scanned) to digital through a variety of processes, and then imported into computer-based editing and correction systems for post production. Today's systems can even scan Super 8 to 4K digital in a variety of formats.


title: Super 8 film

text: Fujifilm of Japan developed an alternative format called Single-8, which was released in 1965 as a different option to the Kodak Super 8 format.


title: Super 8 film

text: Single-8 cartridges, without a press plate, are of a different design from a Super 8 cartridge, resembling a cassette-style design (supply and take-up reels side by side) as opposed to Super 8's coaxial cartridge design (one reel on top of the other). Therefore, Single-8 film cartridges can only be used in Single-8 cameras. However, the film loaded in a Single-8 cartridge has exactly the same dimensions as Super 8 (though it is made of a thinner and stronger polyester base, rather than the acetate base of Super 8 film), and can be viewed in any Super 8 projector after processing. However, Fuji recommended that only tape splices be used when combining Single-8 footage with Super-8, as cement would cause damage to the Single-8 footage. Also, when jammed, Single-8 footage has a tendency to stretch in the projector, unlike the acetate-based Super-8 film, which simply breaks.


title: Super 8 film

text: Although never as popular as Super 8, the format existed in parallel. On June 2, 2009, Fuji announced the end of Single-8 motion picture film. Tungsten balanced 200 ASA Fuji RT200N ceased to be manufactured by May 2010. Daylight balanced 25 ASA Fujichrome R25N remained available until March 2012. Fuji's in-house processing service was available until September 2013.


title: Super 8 film

text: An instant 8 mm film released in 1977 by Polaroid, Polavision uses the same perforations as Super 8 mm film. It can be projected through a Super 8 mm projector if the film is transferred from the original cartridge to an 8 mm reel. However, because of the additive process, the picture will be much darker.


title: Super 8 film

text: Double Super 8 film (commonly abbreviated as DS8 or DS 8) is a 16 mm wide film but has Super 8 size sprockets.


title: Super 8 film

text: In amateur DS8 cameras, the film is used in the same way as standard 8 mm film in that the film is run through the camera twice, exposing one side on each pass. During processing, the film is split down the middle, and the two pieces spliced together to produce a single strip for projection in a Super 8 projector.


title: Super 8 film

text: The advantages of this system are the possibility of higher frame rates and rewinding film for double exposures or crossfades, which were very difficult or impossible with the super 8 film cartridges but possible with cameras using film spools. Since the film doesn't follow a diagonal path through the stacked spools of the super 8 cassette, the pin-registration of DS8 is considered to be superior to that of Super 8 film, and so picture stability is better.


title: Super 8 film

text: Also, camera manufacturers could use models already in production for double 8 mm film by enlarging the gate and slightly modifying the advancement mechanism for the use with Double Super 8 film (see comparison pictures in this segment).


title: Super 8 film

text: DS8 can also be used as an alternative film stock in modified 16 mm cameras and projectors, which allows for larger image sizes due to the narrower super 8 sprockets. Some of the formats taking advantage of this are Max DS8 and Ultra DS8.


title: Super 8 film

text: As Super 8 progressed to be used in HD and theatrical applications, a need arose for widescreen compatibility without having to use expensive optical adapters or excessive cropping. Since magnetic sound-striped film was no longer available, that area of the film could be used to expand the picture aspect ratio in a process similar to the creation of Super 16 from standard 16 mm film. The creators of Sleep Always experimented with widening the camera gate to expose into the sound track region to achieve this.


title: Super 8 film

text: In March 2005, Pro8mm introduced its own version of the widened gate, achieving aspect ratio of 1.58 and calling it Max8. Because top and bottom of the frame are meant to be cropped to achieve final 16:9 aspect ratio, the viewfinder is modified to show 16:9 frame markings. Pro8mm claims that shooting with Max8 and then cropping it to achieve 16:9 provides 20% increase in the size of the negative compared to regular Super8 cropped to 16:9.


title: Super 8 film

text: In 2015, Logmar of Denmark made a one-off batch of 50 "digicanical" pro-level Super 8 cameras to celebrate the 50th anniversary of Super 8. These cameras use a widened gate as well, providing an 11% increase in imaging area over the standard Super 8 frame and achieving aspect ratio of 1.5.


title: Super 8 film

text: In 2016, Eastman Kodak showed a concept for a new Super 8 camera, its first such camera in over 30 years. Although Kodak has neither confirmed nor denied it, Logmar is said to have assisted in the design of the transport and the camera's firmware. A working prototype was displayed at the 2017 Consumer Electronics Show, with Kodak hoping to begin production in spring 2017. However, nothing has been heard from Kodak concerning the camera, and the project is considered by many in the Super 8 community to be dead.


title: Super 8 film

text: Although Kodak launched Super 8 and had its own cameras, hundreds of other companies produced Super 8 camera, projection, editing, and sound equipment. Some of the more notable companies that made Super 8 equipment include: Canon, Bauer, Nizo, Super8 Sound (Pro8mm), Beaulieu, Leicina, Logmar, Ciro, Bolex, Goko, Hahnel, Wurker, Minolta, Minnette, Nikon. Most of these companies had long histories in the production of motion-picture equipment, dating back to the 1930s with 8 mm. In 1980, the consumer market for Super 8 collapsed. Most of the independent companies were forced into bankruptcy or merged, as the demand for Super 8 evaporated overnight. Some companies remained in business until 1985, when many gave up completely on movie-film equipment. A few later re-emerged, including Beaulieu, who, in 1985, introduced a new 7008 camera and Super 8 Sound that introduced a new version of its full-coat recorder, the Mag IV. The companies in which Super 8 was only a division simply closed. Kodak continued support for Super 8. A few products re-emerged with new features such as crystal sync and Max8. Several Canon models have also started to reappear as restoration efforts like the RhondaCam. Recently, new companies have started producing new Super 8 cameras. In 2015, Logmar introduced a limited-edition completely new Super 8 camera, and in 2016, Kodak showed a concept of a new Super 8 camera at the 2016 CES expo. There are literally millions of Super 8 cameras that are still available and viable because of manufacturing methods back in the 1960s and 1970s. These cameras can be found at specialized retailers and distributors and at auction sites such as eBay.


title: Super 8 film

text: Kodak currently offers one color reversal stock, Ektachrome 100D, three of its latest Vision 3 color negative stock, the 50D, 200T, and 500T, and Tri-X B&W reversal film in the Super 8 format. Several Super 8 specialty companies such as Pro8mm in Burbank CA, Wittner Cinetec in Hamburg, Germany, and Kahlfilm in Brühl, Germany, slit and perforate raw 35 mm film stock from Kodak, Fuji, ORWO, Agfa, and Foma and then repackage it in Kodak Super 8 cartridges. Adox has its own B&W film supply and provides this in its own Super 8 cartridge design by GKfilmCinevia. Retro 8 of Japan provides a similar service for Super 8 film in the Fuji Cartridge (Single8). There are now more varieties of Super 8 film available than ever before.


title: Super 8 film

text: In 2017, Kodak announced that Ektachrome will soon be available again in the Super 8 format. In Spring of 2019, Kodak officially released Ektachrome 100D in Super 8 and 16 mm formats.


title: Super 8 film

text: Super 8 film is available worldwide through specialty shops and online from major companies such as Amazon. It has become common to see it sold with processing prepaid and for it to be sold with scan-to-digital services at a variety of different levels from standard-definition digital to 4K data. It can even be purchased to include all the logistic associated with the process, including film processing, scanning and internet delivery of image and mail in and back services. This is a sample video done with the Super 8 film kit.


title: Super 8 film

text: In the beginning of 1965, Super 8 was introduced as a silent format. Over time, several companies began to offer sync sound options for Super 8 filmmaking. Two companies introduced comprehensive sound systems for Super 8. These were Super8 Sound Inc. led by Harvard film professor Bob Doyle and Optasound led by Richard Leacock at MIT. With double system, as it was called, sound and picture are recorded separately. This was fine for more professional applications and for education about film production, but for consumers it was simply too complex and expensive.


title: Super 8 film

text: In 1973 Kodak introduced Ektasound—magnetic recording on the actual Super 8 film. The sound track was added on the edge of the film opposite to the perforations. Standard 8mm had the stripe between the perforations and the edge of the film which made good contact with a magnetic head problematic. A balance stripe was added on the opposite edge to facilitate spooling of the film. The Ektasound cartridge was deeper than the silent cartridge to allow access of the camera's recording head. Thus, silent cameras could not accept Ektasound cartridges, but Ektasound cameras and projectors accepted silent cartridges. Projectors, that could record and play sound, appeared before sound cameras. The sound was recorded 18 frames in advance of the picture (as opposed to 56 frames for standard 8mm). This short distance of just 3 inches facilitated the relatively compact size of the later sound cartridges. Some projectors used the balance stripe to provide a second channel for stereo sound.


title: Super 8 film

text: Super 8mm was also specified with an optical sound track. This occupied the same location as the magnetic track. Picture to sound separation in this format was 22 frames. Projectors and cameras obviously could not record sound in this system, but optical sound package movies became briefly popular, particularly in Europe (mainly because they were cheaper to produce - though the projectors cost more). Although the optical sound should have been inferior in quality to magnetic sound (running at 3.6 inches per second for 24 frames per second), in practice it was often much better, largely because packaged movie magnetic sound was often poorly recorded.


title: Super 8 film

text: Although the 8mm format was originally intended for creating amateur films, condensed versions of popular cinema releases were available from the 1940s (in the Standard 8 format) until the mid-1980s, for projection at home. These were scenes from feature-length films generally edited to fit onto a reel that ran 8-9 minutes. Also popular were theatrical cartoons which could fit on the 200-foot reels without being edited. The 200-foot editions in black and white and silent were widely available and often sold in department stores such as Woolco in the $5.00-6.00 price range in the 1960s and 1970s. The leading companies releasing such films were Castle Films, owned by Universal Pictures and Ken Films, which licensed titles from 20th Century-Fox and other studios. The Walt Disney Studio released excerpts from many of their animated feature films in the 1970's, as well as some short subjects.


title: Super 8 film

text: Releases in color and with sound began appearing in the 1970's and by the end of the decade, demand for longer condensations resulted in reels being released, running approximately 16-18 minutes, sometimes with a second "part II" 400. The list price for the sound color films in 1980 were $39.95 for a single 200' film and $59.95 for a single 400' film, though most sellers sold them at a reduced price. The Walt Disney Studio, however, kept their releases at the 200-foot limit.


title: Super 8 film

text: Vintage silent films starring Charlie Chaplin, Buster Keaton, Mary Pickford, Rudolph Valentino, Lillian Gish, and other legends were available from companies specializing in them such as Blackhawk Films and included both short films and multi-reel complete feature-length movies. Full-length sound films, particularly those in color, were seldom released due to the fairly expensive price of such films although a small number were released by such companies as Viacom featuring stars with wide popularity such as John Wayne, Elvis Presley, and Katharine Hepburn. Most sound films that were released complete on Super 8 with multi reels were usually public domain titles such as My Man Godfrey, Of Human Bondage, and His Girl Friday and sold by smaller companies such as Thunderbird and Niles.


title: Super 8 film

text: The emergence of home video and the increasing available of cable television dramatically decreased the market for Super 8 films in America in the early 1980's which led to a quick fadeout in availability, although the format remained quite popular in England into the early years of the 21st century with Derann films releasing full-length versions of many Disney films and vintage Hollywood musicals.


title: Super 8 film

text: Starting in 1971 in-flight movies (previously 16 mm) were shown in Super 8 format until video distribution became the norm, until they were replaced by Video8 and later on, digital video. The films were printed with an optical sound track (amateur films use magnetic sound), and spooled into proprietary cassettes that often held an entire two-hour movie.


title: Super 8 film

text: Super 8 was most widely used for filming home movies. Some lower-budget television stations used Super 8 to film news stories. Today amateur usage of Super 8 has been replaced by digital, but the format is still regularly used by artists and students. Some seek to imitate the look of old home movies, or create a stylishly grainy look. Others want to create alternative looks for flashback sequences and altered states of consciousness. Some just like the idea of creating images in the classic style of using actual film. Super 8 is a relatively inexpensive film, making it popular among filmmakers working on a low budget who still want to achieve the classic look of real film.


title: Super 8 film

text: Super 8 has become quite common in theatrical features. Oliver Stone, for example, has used it in films such as "JFK", where his director of photography Robert Richardson employed it to evoke a period or to give a different look to scenes. The PBS series "Globe Trekker" uses approximately five minutes of Super 8 footage per episode. In the UK, broadcasters such as the BBC still occasionally make use of Super 8 in both drama and documentary contexts, usually for creative effect. A recent example of particular note is the 2005 BBC2 documentary series "Define Normal", which was shot largely on Super 8, with only interviews and special timelapse photography utilising more conventional digital formats.


title: Super 8 film

text: Thanks to over a dozen film stocks, the ease of function and finding a camera, and the ability to do high quality digital scanning to standard motion picture digital formats like 2K and 4K, DPX or ProRes 4444, Super 8 remains a popular format for creating a variety of interesting scenes. Super 8 provides an ideal, inexpensive medium for traditional stop-motion and cel animation and other types of filming speed effects not common to video cameras.


title: Super 8 film

text: To give further support to filmmakers dedicated to shooting on Super 8 mm film, many film festivals and screenings—such as the Flicker Film Festival, and Super Gr8 Film Festival—exist to give filmmakers a place to screen their Super 8 mm films. Many of these screenings shun video and are only open to films shot on film. Some require film to be turned in undeveloped and thus not permitting any editing, providing an additional challenge to the filmmaker. These include the Bentley Film Festival and straight 8, which runs screenings at the Cannes Film Festival and many other festivals and events worldwide, where a sound track is required to be supplied with a completed but unprocessed cartridge. In the 2005 Cannes Film Festival, a Super 8 short film ("The Man Who Met Himself") by British filmmaker Ben Crowe, shot on the now discontinued Kodachrome 40 format, was the first Super 8 film to be nominated for the Short Film Palme D'Or in the Official Selection.


title: Super 8 film

text: In the UK, the Cambridge International Super 8 Film Festival, with the support of the film industry, runs a competition program of more than 60 films every year. The festival also features work of Super 8 filmmakers, industry talks, and a workshop.


title: Super 8 film

text: The United States Super 8 Film + Digital Video Festival receives close to 100 Super 8 entries every year.


title: Super 8 film

text: A number of experimental filmmakers, such as Mason Shefa and Stan Brakhage, continue to work extensively in the format and festivals such as the Images Festival (Toronto), the Media City Film Festival (Windsor, Ont.), and TIE (based in Colorado) regularly project Super 8 films as part of their programming.


title: Super 8 film

text: In June 2010, the Super8 Shots film festival was launched in Galway, Ireland, the first Super 8 festival to occur in Ireland, and included classes on basics and uses of film through to processing your own film.


title: Super 8 film

text: Chicago 8: A Small Gauge Film Festival started in 2011, and will feature yearly programming of small gauge film from around the world.


title: Super 8 film

text: Super 8 can still be found at a few select higher educational institutions offering film production courses including the program at Chaffey College in Southern California. It is more common to find Super 8 film in art programs. These programs use the analog experience of film for its own creative potential rather than use Super 8 to teach traditional modern production methods. Art programs on many levels, such as this program put on in Santa Clarita California at ArtTree for students aged 10 to 15, teach the basic nature of film. Other programs such as "Do A Shot" sponsored by Pro8mm and Kodak give individuals a chance to experience film by lending film and cameras to a select group at film festivals and trade events like this film festival at The Art Center College of Art & Design.


title: Super 8 film

text: Several post-secondary institutions in the United States continue to utilize Super 8 in Film and Cinema programs. For example, both City College of San Francisco's Cinema Department and the University of North Texas' Radio, Television and Film Department require the use of Super 8.


title: Super 8 film

text: This experience provides students with the basics of film production and editing. Importantly, it also emphasizes the need for detailed pre-production planning, especially for in-camera edits. Further, the use of Super 8 leads students into the Regular 16 and Super 16 films shot in higher-level courses.


title: Super 8 film

text: The plot of the 2011 film "Super 8" involves a group of teenagers in the fictional Ohio town of Lillian filming their own Super 8 movie depicting their experience with a landlocked alien in the summer of 1979. One of the cameras featured in the film is a Kodak Ektasound 130 movie camera produced and sold by Kodak in the early 1970s.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Stereoscopy (also called stereoscopics, or stereo imaging) is a technique for creating or enhancing the illusion of depth in an image by means of stereopsis for binocular vision. The word "stereoscopy" derives . Any stereoscopic image is called a stereogram. Originally, stereogram referred to a pair of stereo images which could be viewed using a stereoscope.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Most stereoscopic methods present a pair of two-dimensional images to the viewer. The left image is presented to the left eye and the right image is presented to the right eye. When viewed, the human brain perceives the images as a single 3D view, giving the viewer the perception of 3D depth. However, the 3D effect lacks proper focal depth, which gives rise to the Vergence-Accommodation Conflict.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Stereoscopy is distinguished from other types of 3D displays that display an image in three full dimensions, allowing the observer to increase information about the 3-dimensional objects being displayed by head and eye movements.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Stereoscopy creates the illusion of three-dimensional depth from a pair of two-dimensional images. Human vision, including the perception of depth, is a complex process, which only begins with the acquisition of visual information taken in through the eyes; much processing ensues within the brain, as it strives to make sense of the raw information. One of the functions that occur within the brain as it interprets what the eyes see is assessing the relative distances of objects from the viewer, and the depth dimension of those objects. The "cues" that the brain uses to gauge relative distances and depth in a perceived scene include:


title: Stereoscopy

text: Stereoscopy is the production of the illusion of depth in a photograph, movie, or other two-dimensional image by the presentation of a slightly different image to each eye, which adds the first of these cues (stereopsis). The two images are then combined in the brain to give the perception of depth. Because all points in the image produced by stereoscopy focus at the same plane regardless of their depth in the original scene, the second cue, focus, is not duplicated and therefore the illusion of depth is incomplete. There are also mainly two effects of stereoscopy that are unnatural for human vision: (1) the mismatch between convergence and accommodation, caused by the difference between an object's perceived position in front of or behind the display or screen and the real origin of that light; and (2) possible crosstalk between the eyes, caused by imperfect image separation in some methods of stereoscopy.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Although the term "3D" is ubiquitously used, the presentation of dual 2D images is distinctly different from displaying an image in three full dimensions. The most notable difference is that, in the case of "3D" displays, the observer's head and eye movement do not change the information received about the 3-dimensional objects being viewed. Holographic displays and volumetric display do not have this limitation. Just as it is not possible to recreate a full 3-dimensional sound field with just two stereophonic speakers, it is an overstatement to call dual 2D images "3D". The accurate term "stereoscopic" is more cumbersome than the common misnomer "3D", which has been entrenched by many decades of unquestioned misuse. Although most stereoscopic displays do not qualify as real 3D display, all real 3D displays are also stereoscopic displays because they meet the lower criteria also.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Most 3D displays use this stereoscopic method to convey images. It was first invented by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1838,


title: Stereoscopy

text: Wheatstone originally used his stereoscope (a rather bulky device) with drawings because photography was not yet available, yet his original paper seems to foresee the development of a realistic imaging method:


title: Stereoscopy

text: For the purposes of illustration I have employed only outline figures, for had either shading or colouring been introduced it might be supposed that the effect was wholly or in part due to these circumstances, whereas by leaving them out of consideration no room is left to doubt that the entire effect of relief is owing to the simultaneous perception of the two monocular projections, one on each retina. But if it be required to obtain the most faithful resemblances of real objects, shadowing and colouring may properly be employed to heighten the effects. Careful attention would enable an artist to draw and paint the two component pictures, so as to present to the mind of the observer, in the resultant perception, perfect identity with the object represented. Flowers, crystals, busts, vases, instruments of various kinds, &c., might thus be represented so as not to be distinguished by sight from the real objects themselves.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Stereoscopy is used in photogrammetry and also for entertainment through the production of stereograms. Stereoscopy is useful in viewing images rendered from large multi-dimensional data sets such as are produced by experimental data. Modern industrial three-dimensional photography may use 3D scanners to detect and record three-dimensional information. The three-dimensional depth information can be reconstructed from two images using a computer by correlating the pixels in the left and right images. Solving the Correspondence problem in the field of Computer Vision aims to create meaningful depth information from two images.


title: Stereoscopy

text: These functions develop in early childhood. Some people who have strabismus disrupt the development of stereopsis, however orthoptics treatment can be used to improve binocular vision. A person's stereoacuity determines the minimum image disparity they can perceive as depth. It is believed that approximately 12% of people are unable to properly see 3D images, due to a variety of medical conditions. According to another experiment up to 30% of people have very weak stereoscopic vision preventing them from depth perception based on stereo disparity. This nullifies or greatly decreases immersion effects of stereo to them.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Stereoscopic viewing may be artificially created by the viewer's brain, as demonstrated with the Van Hare Effect, where the brain perceives stereo images even when the paired photographs are identical. This "false dimensionality" results from the developed stereoacuity in the brain, allowing the viewer to fill in depth information even when few if any 3D cues are actually available in the paired images.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Traditional stereoscopic photography consists of creating a 3D illusion starting from a pair of 2D images, a stereogram. The easiest way to enhance depth perception in the brain is to provide the eyes of the viewer with two different images, representing two perspectives of the same object, with a minor deviation equal or nearly equal to the perspectives that both eyes naturally receive in binocular vision.


title: Stereoscopy

text: To avoid eyestrain and distortion, each of the two 2D images should be presented to the viewer so that any object at infinite distance is perceived by the eye as being straight ahead, the viewer's eyes being neither crossed nor diverging. When the picture contains no object at infinite distance, such as a horizon or a cloud, the pictures should be spaced correspondingly closer together.


title: Stereoscopy

text: The advantages of side-by-side viewers is the lack of diminution of brightness, allowing the presentation of images at very high resolution and in full spectrum color, simplicity in creation, and little or no additional image processing is required. Under some circumstances, such as when a pair of images is presented for freeviewing, no device or additional optical equipment is needed.


title: Stereoscopy

text: The principal disadvantage of side-by-side viewers is that large image displays are not practical and resolution is limited by the lesser of the display medium or human eye. This is because as the dimensions of an image are increased, either the viewing apparatus or viewer themselves must move proportionately further away from it in order to view it comfortably. Moving closer to an image in order to see more detail would only be possible with viewing equipment that adjusted to the difference.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Prismatic, self-masking glasses are now being used by some cross-eyed-view advocates. These reduce the degree of convergence required and allow large images to be displayed. However, any viewing aid that uses prisms, mirrors or lenses to assist fusion or focus is simply a type of stereoscope, excluded by the customary definition of freeviewing.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Stereoscopically fusing two separate images without the aid of mirrors or prisms while simultaneously keeping them in sharp focus without the aid of suitable viewing lenses inevitably requires an unnatural combination of eye vergence and accommodation. Simple freeviewing therefore cannot accurately reproduce the physiological depth cues of the real-world viewing experience. Different individuals may experience differing degrees of ease and comfort in achieving fusion and good focus, as well as differing tendencies to eye fatigue or strain.


title: Stereoscopy

text: An autostereogram is a single-image stereogram (SIS), designed to create the visual illusion of a three-dimensional (3D) scene within the human brain from an external two-dimensional image. In order to perceive 3D shapes in these autostereograms, one must overcome the normally automatic coordination between focusing and vergence.


title: Stereoscopy

text: The stereoscope is essentially an instrument in which two photographs of the same object, taken from slightly different angles, are simultaneously presented, one to each eye. A simple stereoscope is limited in the size of the image that may be used. A more complex stereoscope uses a pair of horizontal periscope-like devices, allowing the use of larger images that can present more detailed information in a wider field of view. One can buy historical stereoscopes such as Holmes stereoscopes as antiques.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Some stereoscopes are designed for viewing transparent photographs on film or glass, known as "transparencies" or "diapositives" and commonly called "slides". Some of the earliest stereoscope views, issued in the 1850s, were on glass. In the early 20th century, 45x107 mm and 6x13 cm glass slides were common formats for amateur stereo photography, especially in Europe. In later years, several film-based formats were in use. The best-known formats for commercially issued stereo views on film are Tru-Vue, introduced in 1931, and View-Master, introduced in 1939 and still in production. For amateur stereo slides, the Stereo Realist format, introduced in 1947, is by far the most common.


title: Stereoscopy

text: The user typically wears a helmet or glasses with two small LCD or OLED displays with magnifying lenses, one for each eye. The technology can be used to show stereo films, images or games, but it can also be used to create a "virtual" display. Head-mounted displays may also be coupled with head-tracking devices, allowing the user to "look around" the virtual world by moving their head, eliminating the need for a separate controller. Performing this update quickly enough to avoid inducing nausea in the user requires a great amount of computer image processing. If six axis position sensing (direction and position) is used then wearer may move about within the limitations of the equipment used. Owing to rapid advancements in computer graphics and the continuing miniaturization of video and other equipment these devices are beginning to become available at more reasonable cost.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Head-mounted or wearable glasses may be used to view a see-through image imposed upon the real world view, creating what is called augmented reality. This is done by reflecting the video images through partially reflective mirrors. The real world view is seen through the mirrors' reflective surface. Experimental systems have been used for gaming, where virtual opponents may peek from real windows as a player moves about. This type of system is expected to have wide application in the maintenance of complex systems, as it can give a technician what is effectively "x-ray vision" by combining computer graphics rendering of hidden elements with the technician's natural vision. Additionally, technical data and schematic diagrams may be delivered to this same equipment, eliminating the need to obtain and carry bulky paper documents.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Augmented stereoscopic vision is also expected to have applications in surgery, as it allows the combination of radiographic data (CAT scans and MRI imaging) with the surgeon's vision.


title: Stereoscopy

text: A virtual retinal display (VRD), also known as a retinal scan display (RSD) or retinal projector (RP), not to be confused with a "Retina Display", is a display technology that draws a raster image (like a television picture) directly onto the retina of the eye. The user sees what appears to be a conventional display floating in space in front of them. For true stereoscopy, each eye must be provided with its own discrete display. To produce a virtual display that occupies a usefully large visual angle but does not involve the use of relatively large lenses or mirrors, the light source must be very close to the eye. A contact lens incorporating one or more semiconductor light sources is the form most commonly proposed. As of 2013, the inclusion of suitable light-beam-scanning means in a contact lens is still very problematic, as is the alternative of embedding a reasonably transparent array of hundreds of thousands (or millions, for HD resolution) of accurately aligned sources of collimated light.


title: Stereoscopy

text: There are two categories of 3D viewer technology, active and passive. Active viewers have electronics which interact with a display. Passive viewers filter constant streams of binocular input to the appropriate eye.


title: Stereoscopy

text: A shutter system works by openly presenting the image intended for the left eye while blocking the right eye's view, then presenting the right-eye image while blocking the left eye, and repeating this so rapidly that the interruptions do not interfere with the perceived fusion of the two images into a single 3D image. It generally uses liquid crystal shutter glasses. Each eye's glass contains a liquid crystal layer which has the property of becoming dark when voltage is applied, being otherwise transparent. The glasses are controlled by a timing signal that allows the glasses to alternately darken over one eye, and then the other, in synchronization with the refresh rate of the screen. The main drawback of active shutters is that most 3D videos and movies were shot with simultaneous left and right views, so that it introduces a "time parallax" for anything side-moving: for instance, someone walking at 3.4 mph will be seen 20% too close or 25% too remote in the most current case of a 2x60 Hz projection.


title: Stereoscopy

text: To present stereoscopic pictures, two images are projected superimposed onto the same screen through polarizing filters or presented on a display with polarized filters. For projection, a silver screen is used so that polarization is preserved. On most passive displays every other row of pixels is polarized for one eye or the other. This method is also known as being interlaced. The viewer wears low-cost eyeglasses which also contain a pair of opposite polarizing filters. As each filter only passes light which is similarly polarized and blocks the opposite polarized light, each eye only sees one of the images, and the effect is achieved.


title: Stereoscopy

text: This technique uses specific wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the right eye, and different wavelengths of red, green, and blue for the left eye. Eyeglasses which filter out the very specific wavelengths allow the wearer to see a full color 3D image. It is also known as spectral comb filtering or wavelength multiplex visualization or super-anaglyph. Dolby 3D uses this principle. The Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system has also used an improved version of this technology


title: Stereoscopy

text: In June 2012 the Omega 3D/Panavision 3D system was discontinued by DPVO Theatrical, who marketed it on behalf of Panavision, citing ″challenging global economic and 3D market conditions″.


title: Stereoscopy

text: Anaglyph 3D is the name given to the stereoscopic 3D effect achieved by means of encoding each eye's image using filters of different (usually chromatically opposite) colors, typically red and cyan. Red-cyan filters can be used because our vision processing systems use red and cyan comparisons, as well as blue and yellow, to determine the color and contours of objects. Anaglyph 3D images contain two differently filtered colored images, one for each eye. When viewed through the "color-coded" "anaglyph glasses", each of the two images reaches one eye, revealing an integrated stereoscopic image. The visual cortex of the brain fuses this into perception of a three dimensional scene or composition.


title: Stereoscopy

text: The ChromaDepth procedure of American Paper Optics is based on the fact that with a prism, colors are separated by varying degrees. The ChromaDepth eyeglasses contain special view foils, which consist of microscopically small prisms. This causes the image to be translated a certain amount that depends on its color. If one uses a prism foil now with one eye but not on the other eye, then the two seen pictures – depending upon color – are more or less widely separated. The brain produces the spatial impression from this difference. The advantage of this technology consists above all of the fact that one can regard ChromaDepth pictures also without eyeglasses (thus two-dimensional) problem-free (unlike with two-color anaglyph). However the colors are only limitedly selectable, since they contain the depth information of the picture. If one changes the color of an object, then its observed distance will also be changed.