title: Loïc Rémy

text: On 24 March 2008, due to an injury to Thierry Henry, Rémy was called up to the France national team by manager Raymond Domenech for friendly matches against England and Mali, with the latter match for France B, the squad's second team. Rémy appeared in the match against Mali coming on as a substitute in the 54th minute for Samir Nasri. After a string of uneventful call-ups to the senior team, on 2 June, Rémy finally made his national team debut against Nigeria coming on as a substitute in the team's 1–0 defeat. He scored his first goal on 9 October 2010 in a Euro 2012 qualification match against Romania, which ended 2–0.


title: Loïc Rémy

text: He was part of the French squad which reached the quarter-finals of the 2014 FIFA World Cup. He made his tournament debut in the final group game on 26 June, a goalless draw with Ecuador, playing the last 11 minutes in place of Antoine Griezmann. Rémy's only other appearance at the tournament came in the 74th minute of the quarter-final against Germany, replacing Yohan Cabaye as France lost 1–0.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: The Bristol Myers Squibb Company (BMS) is an American multinational pharmaceutical company. Headquartered in New York City, BMS is one of the world's largest pharmaceutical companies and consistently ranks on the "Fortune" 500 list of the largest U.S. corporations. For fiscal 2021, it had a total revenue of $46.4 billion.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Bristol Myers Squibb manufactures prescription pharmaceuticals and biologics in several therapeutic areas, including cancer, HIV/AIDS, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hepatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and psychiatric disorders.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: BMS's primary research and development (R&D) sites are located in Lawrence, New Jersey (formerly Squibb, near Princeton), Summit, New Jersey, formerly HQ of Celgene, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Redwood City, California, and Seville in Spain, with other sites in Devens and Cambridge, Massachusetts, East Syracuse, New York, Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium, Tokyo, Japan, Bangalore, India, and Wirral, United Kingdom. BMS previously had an R&D site in Wallingford, Connecticut (formerly Bristol-Myers).


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: The Squibb corporation was founded in 1858 by Edward Robinson Squibb in Brooklyn, New York. Squibb was known as an advocate of quality control and high purity standards early within the pharmaceutical industry. He went on to self-publish an alternative to the U.S. Pharmacopeia titled "Squibb's Ephemeris of Materia Medica," after failing to convince the American Medical Association to incorporate higher purity standards.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: "Materia Medica", Squibb products, and Edward Squibb's opinion on the fundamentals of pharmacy are found in many medical papers of the late 1800s. The "American Journal of Pharmacy" published more than one hundred papers of Squibb's research surrounding the industry.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: The sons of Edward Squibb sold the company to Lowell M. Palmer and Theodore Weicker in 1905, who incorporated the company. Around this time, the Squibb logo was developed, which represented the company's products of "uniformity, purity, efficacy, and reliability based on research."


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Squibb Corporation served as a major supplier of medical goods to the Union Army during the American Civil War, providing portable medical kits containing morphine, surgical anesthetics, and quinine for the treatment of malaria (which was endemic in most of the Eastern United States at that time).


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In 1887, Hamilton College graduates William McLaren Bristol and John Ripley Myers purchased the Clinton Pharmaceutical company of Clinton, New York. In May 1898, they decided to rename it Bristol, Myers and Company. Following Myers' death in 1899, Bristol changed the name to the Bristol-Myers Corporation.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: During the 1890s, the company introduced its first nationally recognized product Sal Hepatica, a laxative mineral salt, followed by Ipana toothpaste in 1901. Other divisions were Clairol (hair colors and haircare) and Drackett (household products such as Windex and Drano).


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In 1943, Bristol-Myers acquired Cheplin Biological Laboratories, a producer of acidophilus milk in East Syracuse, New York, and converted the plant to produce penicillin for the World War II Allied forces. After the war, the company renamed the plant Bristol Laboratories in 1945 and entered the civilian antibiotics market, where it faced competition from Squibb.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Penicillin production at the East Syracuse plant ended in 2005, when it became less expensive to produce overseas. As of 2010, the facility was used for the manufacturing process development and production of other biologic medicines for clinical trials and commercial use.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In 1999, then-U.S. President Bill Clinton awarded Bristol-Myers Squibb the National Medal of Technology, the nation's highest recognition for technological achievement, "for extending, and enhancing human life through innovative pharmaceutical research and development and for redefining the science of clinical study through groundbreaking and hugely complex clinical trials that are recognized models in the industry."


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In 2002, the company was involved in a lawsuit of illegally maintaining a monopoly on Taxol, its cancer treatment, and it was again sued for the antitrust lawsuit 5 years later, which cost the company $125 million for settlement.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Also in 2002, Bristol-Myers Squibb was involved in an accounting scandal that resulted in a significant restatement of revenues from 1999 to 2001. The restatement was the result of an improper booking of sales related to "channel stuffing" as the practice of offering excess inventory to customers to create higher sales numbers. The company has since settled with the United States Department of Justice and Securities and Exchange Commission, agreeing to pay $150 million, while neither admitting nor denying guilt.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: On October 24, 2002, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. restated earnings downward for parts of 2000 and 2001, while revising this year's earnings upward because of its massive inventory backlog imbroglio that spurred two government investigations. On March 15, 2004, Bristol-Myers Squibb Co. adjusted upward its fourth-quarter and full-year 2003 results after reversing an earlier decision about how to deal with accounting errors made in prior years.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: As part of a deferred prosecution agreement, the company was placed under the oversight of a monitor appointed by the U.S. attorney in w Jersey. In addition, the former head of the Pharma group, Richard Lane, and the ex-CFO, Fred Schiff, were indicted for federal securities violations.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In July 2006, an investigation of the company was made public, and the FBI raided the company's corporate offices. The investigation centered on the distribution of Plavix and charges of collusion. On September 12, 2006, the monitor, former Federal Judge Frederick B. Lacey, urged the company to remove then-CEO Peter Dolan over the Plavix dispute. Later that day, BMS announced that Dolan would indeed step down.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: The deferred prosecution agreement expired in June 2007 and the Department of Justice did not take any further legal action against the company for matters covered by the DPA. Under CEO Jim Cornelius, who was CEO following Dolan until May 2010, all executives involved in the "channel-stuffing" and generic competition scandals have since left the company.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In 2009, the company began a major restructuring focusing on the pharmaceutical business and biologic products, along with productivity initiatives and cost-cutting and streamlining business operations through a multiyear program of on-going layoffs. This was part of a business strategy launched in 2007 to transform the company from a large, diversified pharmaceutical company to a specialty biopharma company, which also included the closure of half of their manufacturing facilities. As another cost-cutting measure, Bristol-Myers Squibb also reduced health-care subsidies for retirees and plans to freeze their pension plan at the end of 2009.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: BMS is a "Fortune" 500 Company (#114 in 2010 list). "Newsweek's "2009 Green Ranking recognized Bristol-Myers Squibb as eighth among 500 of the largest United States corporations. Also, BMS was included in the 2009 Dow Jones Sustainability North America Index of leading sustainability-driven companies.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Lamberto Andreotti was named CEO in 2010; he had previously served as "president and COO responsible for all pharmaceutical operations worldwide."


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In 2010, Lou Schmukler joined Bristol-Myers Squibb as the president of global product development and design. Schmukler led the team that completed the company's strategic transformation to a specialty biopharmaceutical company that had begun in 2007. As of 2011, the company had a dozen manufacturing facilities and six product development sites.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Citing major developments and a market capitalization of US$87 billion and stock appreciation of 61.4%, Bristol-Myers Squibb was ranked as the best drug company of 2013 by "Forbes" magazine.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In December 2014, the company received FDA approval for the use of the PD-1 inhibitor nivolumab (Opdivo) in treating patients whose skin cancer cannot be removed or have not responded to previous drug therapies. In February 2015, the company initiated a research partnership with Rigel Pharmaceuticals which could generate more than $339 million. In March, the company obtained an exclusive opportunity to both licence and commercialise PROSTVAC, Bavarian Nordic's phase III prostate-specific antigen targeting cancer immunotherapy. Bavarian Nordic would receive an upfront payment of $60 million and incremental payments up to $230 million, if the overall survival of test patients exceeds that seen in Phase II tests. Bavarian could also receive milestone payments of between $110 million and $495 million, dependent on regulatory authorization, and these payments have the potential to total up to $975 million.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In May 2015, Dr. Giovanni Caforio became CEO of the company; Caforio was formerly the company's COO and succeeded Andreotti upon his retirement. Andreotti subsequently succeeded James Cornelius as executive chairman upon his retirement.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In late February 2017, "The Wall Street Journal" and "Fortune", among others, reported that activist investor Carl Icahn had taken a stake in the company, signaling a potential future takeover from the likes of Gilead Sciences.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In April 2018, the company reported net income of $1.5 billion, or 91 cents per share, for the first quarter of the year, thanks to the increased sales of their cancer drug Opdivo.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In August 2009, during a major restructuring activity, BMS acquired the biotechnology firm Medarex as part of the company's "String of Pearls" strategy of alliances, partnerships, and acquisitions. In November 2009, Bristol Myers Squibb announced that it was "splitting off" Mead Johnson Nutrition by offering BMY shareholders the opportunity to exchange their stock for shares in Mead Johnson. According to Bristol Myers Squibb, this move was expected to further sharpen the company's focus on biopharmaceuticals.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In October 2010, the company acquired ZymoGenetics, securing an existing product, as well as pipeline assets in hepatitis C, cancer, and other therapeutic areas.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Bristol Myers Squibb agreed to pay around $2.5 billion in cash to buy Inhibitex Inc. in attempt to compete with Gilead/Pharmasset to produce hepatitis C drugs. The settlement will be finished in 2 months for its Inhibitex's shareholders acceptance of 126% premium price of its price over the previous 20 trading days ended on January 6. On June 29, BMS extended its portfolio of diabetes treatments when it agreed to buy Amylin Pharmaceuticals for around in cash and pay to Eli Lilly to cover Amylin's debt and its outstanding collaboration-related obligations. AstraZeneca, which already collaborated on several diabetes treatments with BMS, agreed to pay US$3.4 billion in cash for the right to continue development of Amylin's products. Two years later, the company divested Amylin to AstraZeneca.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In February 2015, the company acquired Flexus Biosciences for $1.25 billion. As part of this deal, BMS will gain full rights to Flexus' lead small molecule IDO1-inhibitor, F001287. In November, the company acquired the cardiovascular disease drug developer Cardioxyl for up to $2.075 billion. The deal strengthens the BMS' critical pipelines with the phase II candidate for acute decompensated heart failure, CXL-1427.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In March 2016, the company announced it would acquire Padlock Therapeutics for up to $600 million. In early July, the company announced it would acquire Cormorant Pharmaceuticals for $520 million, boosting BMS' oncology offering through Cormorants monoclonal antibody targeted against interleukin-8.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In August 2017 the company acquired IFM Therapeutics for $300 million upfront, with contingency payments of $1.01 billion due on certain milestones – allowing BMS to better compete against Merck & Co's cancer rival treatment, Keytruda.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In early January 2019, the company announced it would acquire Celgene (NASDAQ:CELG) for $74 billion ($95 billion including debt), in a deal that would become the largest pharmaceutical-company acquisition ever. The Celgene acquisition aimed to be a refresher to the company's pipeline, helping to overcome from declining sales of Opdivo relative to competitor Keytruda. Under the terms of the deal, Celgene shareholders would receive one BMS share as well as $50 in cash for each Celgene share held, valuing Celgene at $102.43 a share; representing a 54% premium to the previous days closing price. Investor opposition to this acquisition, leading into an April 12 shareholder vote, appeared when BMS's second-largest investor, Wellington Management, voiced its opposition, followed by investor Starboard Value. In April 2019 BMS announced that 75% of its shareholders voted to approve the pending merger with Celgene. Transaction to close in the third quarter of 2019, subject to regulatory approvals. Newly issued BMS shares and CVRs will commence trading on the New York Stock Exchange, with the CVRs trading under the symbol 'BMYRT'.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: The strategic divestment of the company's consumer health business, UPSA, to Taisho completed in 2019. UPSA focused product delivery on France and the rest of Europe. As early as 2005, the company had divested individual consumer products, and its US- and Canada-focused consumer products business.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In August, the Amgen announced it would acquire the Otezla drug programme from Celgene for $13.4 billion, as part of Celgene and BMS's merger deal.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In February 2020, BMS and partner Biomotiv launched a new company called Anteros Pharmaceuticals, which focuses on creating inflammation and fibrosis medicines. In August, the business announced it would acquire Forbius and its TGF-beta 1 & TGF-beta 3 inhibitors. In October, BMS announced it would acquire cardiology company MyoKardia for $13.1 billion ($225 per share) gaining control of mavacamten, a cardiovascular drug for obstructive hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), and the development of two key treatments: danicamtiv (MYK-491) and MYK-224.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: In June 2022, BMS announced it would acquire Turning Point Therapeutics Inc for $4.1 billion in cash ($76 per share, a 122.5% premium to its last closing price), helping to boost its compliment of cancer drugs, specifically repotrectinib.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: The following is an illustration of the company's major mergers and acquisitions and historical predecessors:


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: For the fiscal year 2018,Bristol Myers Squibb reported earnings of US$1.007 billion, with an annual revenue of US$20.776 billion, an increase of 6.9% over the previous fiscal cycle. Bristol-Myers Squibb's shares traded at over $55 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$81.6 billion in October 2018. In 2018, 85% of the company's revenues came from just five products. In 2018, Bristol-Myers Squibb spent 36% of its total revenue on R&D expenses. Bristol-Myers Squibb ranked 145th on the Fortune 500 list of the largest United States corporations by revenue in 2018.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Bristol Myers Squibb reported Total CO2e emissions (Direct + Indirect) for the twelve months ending 31 December 2020 at 278 Kt (-6 /-2.1% y-o-y). The company aims to become net neutral carbon by 2040.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Bristol-Myers Squibb engages with the public and private sectors in a variety of settings including to promote research and development, academic funding, event sponsorship, philanthropy, and political lobbying.


title: Bristol Myers Squibb

text: Bristol-Myers Squibb, Johns Hopkins University and the Rockefeller Foundation are currently the subject of a $1 billion lawsuit from Guatemala for "roles in a 1940s U.S. government experiment that infected hundreds of Guatemalans with syphilis". A previous suit against the United States government was dismissed in 2011 for the Guatemala syphilis experiments when a judge determined that the U.S. government could not be held liable for actions committed outside of the U.S.


title: Great Balls of Fire

text: "Great Balls of Fire" is a 1957 popular song recorded by American rock and roll musician Jerry Lee Lewis on Sun Records and featured in the 1957 movie "Jamboree". It was written by Otis Blackwell and Jack Hammer. The Jerry Lee Lewis 1957 recording was ranked as the 96th greatest song ever by "Rolling Stone". The song is in AABA form. The song sold one million copies in its first 10 days of release in the United States making it one of the best-selling singles in the United States at that time.


title: Great Balls of Fire

text: The song is best known for Jerry Lee Lewis's original recording, which was recorded in the Sun Studio in Memphis, Tennessee, on October 8, 1957, using three personnel: Lewis (piano/vocals), Sidney Stokes (bass), and a session drummer, Larry Linn, instead of the usual Sun backups Jimmy Van Eaton (drums) and Roland Janes (guitar). Lewis was quoted in the book "JLL: His Own Story" by Rick Bragg, (pg 133), as saying "I knew Sidney Stokes but I didn't know him that well either, and I don't know what happened to them people. That's the last time I ever seen 'em. That's strange isn't it?" It was released as a 45rpm single on Sun 281 in November 1957. It reached No. 2 on the "Billboard" pop charts, No. 3 on the R&B charts, and No. 1 on the country charts. It also reached No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart, and appeared on the New Zealand Singles Chart and the Dutch Top 40.


title: Great Balls of Fire

text: The song was featured in a performance by Jerry Lee Lewis and his band in the 1957 Warner Brothers rock and roll film "Jamboree", which also featured Carl Perkins, Fats Domino, Buddy Knox, and Dick Clark. The recording was released in the UK on London Records.


title: Great Balls of Fire

text: In the 1986 film "Top Gun", LTJG Nick "Goose" Bradshaw (portrayed by Anthony Edwards) plays the song in a bar with his family and Pete "Maverick" Mitchell (Tom Cruise). The song is available on the "Top Gun" soundtrack special edition released in 1999. The song is performed again in the sequel, the 2022 film "" by Goose's son LT Bradley "Rooster" Bradshaw (portrayed by Miles Teller). Teller's performance is included on that film's soundtrack "", on which it is labeled as a live performance. Paramount Pictures later released the extended scene of Teller's performance as Rooster on YouTube on June 16, 2022.


title: AEW Rampage

text: AEW Rampage, also known as Friday Night Rampage or simply Rampage, is an American professional wrestling television program produced by the American promotion All Elite Wrestling (AEW). It airs every Friday at 10 p.m. Eastern Time (ET) on TNT in the United States. It is AEW's second weekly television show, positioned behind their flagship show, "Dynamite". "AEW Rampage" is the second professional wrestling program to air on TNT since the final episode of "WCW Monday Nitro" on March 26, 2001.


title: AEW Rampage

text: All Elite Wrestling (AEW) was officially announced and launched on January 1, 2019, and their weekly flagship television program, "Dynamite", began airing on TNT that October. On January 15, 2020, TNT's parent company WarnerMedia and AEW announced a US$175 million contract extension for "Dynamite" through 2023. As part of the new deal, it was also announced that AEW would be launching a second weekly television show.


title: AEW Rampage

text: In May 2021, AEW revealed their second weekly television show, and fourth program overall, as "AEW Rampage", which would begin airing on TNT on August 13 as a one-hour show on Fridays at 10pm Eastern Time (ET). During AEW's marquee event Double or Nothing on May 30, former WWE wrestler Mark Henry was announced to be a part of the "Rampage" commentary team as an analyst. On August 4, "Dynamite" and "Dark"s commentators Excalibur and Taz and wrestler Chris Jericho, who has served as a guest commentator several times on "Dynamite", were announced to join Henry as "Rampage"s four-man commentary team. AEW President and Chief Executive Officer Tony Khan said that the commentary team would not always be all four men, as Henry would also have other roles on the show, such as doing interviews. In September, AEW wrestler Ricky Starks replaced Henry on the commentary team, with Henry now just doing interviews on the show.


title: AEW Rampage

text: In an interview with "PWInsider", Khan stated that while "Rampage" would air live for most episodes, some episodes they would pre-tape, depending on the city that the preceding episode of "Dynamite" was held in. He also said that "Rampage" would serve as the go-home show for AEW's pay-per-views (PPV), due to the show airing two days before those events, in turn replacing "Dark", as although "Dark" normally airs on Tuesdays, it would instead air on Fridays during the week of a PPV to serve as the go-home show. Khan also said that WarnerMedia had asked him if he would rather expand Wednesday's "Dynamite" to three hours, but he rejected the notion, stating that he did not want to run "Dynamite" for that length as he really wanted that third hour as a separate show on a different night. He also claimed that "Rampage" would not be a secondary show to "Dynamite", and that it would be its partner or its equivalent. He further said that "Dynamite" and "Rampage" would be AEW's core properties, while their YouTube shows, "Dark" and "", would be their peripheral properties, essentially their developmental shows.


title: AEW Rampage

text: "Rampage" airs immediately following WWE's own Friday television program, "SmackDown", which airs on Fox. Although "Dynamite" had run against WWE's "NXT" from October 2019 to April 2021, there was expectation that there would be no overlap between "Rampage" and "SmackDown" in nearly the entire country unless the latter were to run over its scheduled time, which ends at 10pm ET, when "Rampage" begins broadcasting. To date, this has occurred only once, which was on October 15, 2021. That night, "SmackDown" aired a special episode titled "Supersized SmackDown", which extended its runtime to 10:30pm with the additional 30 minutes airing commercial free, therefore directly competing with "Rampage" for its first 30 minutes. "SmackDown" had also aired on Fox's sister channel FS1 due to the MLB playoffs airing on Fox, which also decreased "SmackDown"s normal average viewership. During the 30 minutes that the shows went head-to-head, "Rampage" beat "SmackDown" in the key demographic of viewers aged 18 to 49, drawing 328,000 views to "SmackDown"s 285,000 views.


title: AEW Rampage

text: It was initially announced that both "Dynamite" and "Rampage" would be moving to TNT's sister channel TBS, also owned by WarnerMedia, in January 2022. However, on September 23, 2021, it was revealed that "Rampage" would remain on TNT while only "Dynamite" would move to TBS.


title: AEW Rampage

text: The May 6 and May 13, 2022, episodes of "Rampage" were moved to 5:30 p.m. ET in order to accommodate TNT's coverage of the NHL Stanley Cup playoffs. The May 20 episode was moved to 7 p.m. ET to make way for TNT's coverage of the NBA Western Conference Finals.


title: AEW Rampage

text: The wrestlers featured on "AEW Rampage" take part in scripted feuds and storylines. Wrestlers are portrayed as heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters during scripted events that build tension and culminate in a wrestling match.


title: AEW Rampage

text: In the United States, "Rampage" currently airs live on Fridays on TNT at 10pm ET. The program was to move to TBS in January 2022, but in September, AEW announced that while "Dynamite" would move to TBS, "Rampage" would remain on TNT.


title: AEW Rampage

text: On September 25, 2019, AEW announced an international streaming deal with FITE TV primarily for regions outside of the United States and Canada via the "AEW Plus" package, which includes live streaming and replay access of "Dynamite" in simulcast with its U.S. airing. This was expanded to include "Rampage".


title: AEW Rampage

text: On August 9, 2021, PWInsider reported that TSN, which airs "Dynamite" in Canada, would stream "Rampage" online in simulcast with the U.S. through its website and TSN Direct service.


title: AEW Rampage

text: On July 3, 2021, WarnerTV Serie (known as TNT Serie until 24 September 2021) announced a deal to air "Rampage" on Monday nights in Germany.


title: AEW Rampage

text: On August 27, 2021, Sky Sport (owned by Comcast, which holds rights to a rival wrestling promotion, WWE in the United States) and AEW announced that "Rampage" would air on Mondays nights in Italy.


title: AEW Rampage

text: On January 1, 2022, AEW announced that "Rampage" would be broadcast every Tuesday night on ITV4 with repeats every Thursday night on ITV in the United Kingdom, it's also available to view on their streaming service ITV Hub.


title: AEW Rampage

text: On October 22, 2020, AEW reached an agreement with the digital platform Pluto TV, broadcasting its repeat events (including past pay-per-view) with commentators in Spanish from Latin America.


title: AEW Rampage

text: On October 1, 2021, "Rampage" began airing on Space, a WarnerMedia International channel in Brazil and on Space's Spanish feed, available throughout Latin America on Saturdays. On September 30, 2022, it was announced that AEW would stop airing on Space in Latin America on October 1, with Brazil following on December 30.


title: AEW Rampage

text: "Rampage" began airing on TNT Africa on October 2, 2021, in Sub-Saharan Africa. The show airs every Saturday morning at 10 AM CAT, one week after the U.S. broadcast.


title: AEW Rampage

text: In India, "Rampage" airs on Eurosport starting on August 15, 2021, and later at the same time as the American airing from August 21, 2021, every Saturday 7:30 AM IST. Eurosport is owned by Discovery Communications, which is set to acquire WarnerMedia later in 2021. "Rampage" began airing on Premier Sports in the Philippines in October 2021 On April 8, 2022, it was announced that as part of the AEW and NJPW working relationship that "Rampage" would air in Japan on NJPW World.


title: Dan McCafferty

text: William Daniel McCafferty (14 October 1946 – 8 November 2022) was a vocalist and songwriter best known as the lead singer for the Scottish hard rock band Nazareth from its founding in 1968 to his retirement from touring with the band in 2013.


title: Dan McCafferty

text: McCafferty was born in Dunfermline, Fife. Under the influence of artists such as Little Richard, Elvis Presley, Chuck Berry and Otis Redding, he became one of the founding members of Nazareth in 1968. He appeared on all of Nazareth's albums up to 2014 and toured with them for 45 years. He co-wrote some of the big Nazareth hits, including "Broken Down Angel", and "Bad Bad Boy". He released three solo albums.


title: Dan McCafferty

text: On 29 August 2013, Nazareth announced McCafferty's retirement from touring with the band due to health issues. He elaborated on the specifics of the health issues and the state of his situation in an interview with the UK music magazine, "Classic Rock". He stated that he had not suffered a stroke as had been reported in the press. He said that his chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) that has "worsened in recent years" had made him leave the stage in Switzerland in late August 2013 after only three songs, indicating that, "You don’t know when it's going to come on, but suddenly you can't breathe." Commenting about his most recent episode, at the Swiss festival, McCafferty maintained, "if you can't do the job you shouldn't be there — Nazareth's too big for that." McCafferty also revealed that another health problem was responsible for his onstage collapse at a concert in Canada in July 2013 – a burst stomach ulcer. He stated reflecting back on the incident, "I thought I'd be fine, but you lose so much blood when that happens." In addition McCafferty said that he expected Nazareth to continue on without him. "I really hope they get someone else," he declared. "I'm sure they will."


title: Dan McCafferty

text: Although McCafferty retired from performing, Nazareth fans can still hear his voice on their 2014 album "Rock 'n' Roll Telephone". The singer also revealed that he could record more new music, either with Nazareth or as a solo artist. He clarified: "To go into a studio and sing isn't like doing a gig. I could always make another record, but getting up to do an hour and three-quarters, and get people to pay money to come and see me — I can't do that." McCafferty expressed his appreciation to his fans near the end of the interview by saying: "Let everyone know I appreciate they've been there for all these years." He continued to sing live around the world and record on occasion. On 21 June 2019, he released a new music video titled "Tell Me". It was from the solo album "Last Testament", released on 18 October 2019, McCafferty's first solo album since 1987's "Into The Ring".


title: Extraterritoriality

text: In international law, extraterritoriality is the state of being exempted from the jurisdiction of local law, usually as the result of diplomatic negotiations.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Historically, this primarily applied to individuals, as jurisdiction was usually claimed on peoples rather than on lands. Extraterritoriality can also be partly applied to physical places, such as the immunity granted to diplomatic missions, military bases of foreign countries, or offices of the United Nations. The three most common cases recognized today internationally relate to the persons and belongings of foreign heads of state and government, the persons and belongings of ambassadors and other diplomats, and ships in international waters.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: In the past, pre-modern states generally claimed sovereignty over persons, creating something known as personal jurisdiction. As people move between borders, this led, in the framework of a territorial jurisdiction, to certain persons being under the laws of countries in which they did not reside. Extraterritoriality, in this sense, emerges from the interaction of these two conceptions of jurisdiction, personal and territorial, when laws are applied based on "who" a person is rather than "where" they are.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Extraterritoriality can now take various forms. Most famous are examples of diplomatic extraterritoriality, where diplomats and their belongings do not operate under the laws of their host nations, but rather, under the laws of the diplomat's nation.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Similarly, many nations claim the right to prosecute foreign combatants and violators of human rights under doctrines of universal jurisdiction, irrespective of the nationality of those persons or the place in which the alleged crimes occurred. This extends to domestic criminal codes as well: for example, the People's Republic of China claims the right to prosecute Chinese citizens for crimes committed abroad and Canada will prosecute sexual abuse of minors by a Canadian anywhere in the world.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: In some military and commercial agreements, nations cede legal jurisdiction for foreign bases or ports to other countries. For example, Japan cedes jurisdiction over American military bases on its soil in Okinawa to US military tribunals pursuant to a bilateral status of forces agreement.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: In maritime law, a ship in international waters is governed by the laws of the jurisdiction in which that ship is registered. This can be conceived of as a form of extraterritoriality, where a nation's jurisdiction extends beyond its border.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: During the 13th and 14th centuries, the Italian sea republics of Genoa, Venice and Pisa obtained extraterritoriality for their merchants who operated in designated quarters (Pera and Galata) in the Byzantine capital, Constantinople, as well as in Egypt and the Barbary states.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: A series of capitulations were made in the form of treaties between the Sublime Porte and Western nations, from the sixteenth through the early nineteenth centuries. The legal impenetrability of the Ottoman legal code created during the Tanzimat era began to weaken continuously through the spread of European empires and the prevalence of legal positivism.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: The laws and regulations created for Ottoman subjects to abide by often did not apply to European nationals conducting business and trade in the provinces of the empire, and thus various capitulations were brought into effect with respect to many foreign powers. The various overlapping governmental laws led to legal pluralism in which jurisdiction often was left up to the great powers to institute and organize their own legal structures to represent their citizens abroad.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: The capitulations ceased to have effect in Turkey in 1923, by virtue of the Treaty of Lausanne, and in Egypt they were abolished by the Montreux Convention in 1949.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: During the Second World War, the military personnel of the Allied forces within the British Raj were governed by their own military codes by the "Allied Forces Ordinance, 1942" and the members of the United States Armed Forces were entirely governed by their own laws, even in criminal cases.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Historically, the United States has had extraterritoriality agreements with 15 nations with non-Western legal systems: Algeria, Borneo, China, Egypt, Iran, Japan, Korea, Libya, Madagascar, Morocco, Samoa, Tanzania, Thailand, Tunisia, and the Ottoman Empire. Americans in the military or civilians working on American military bases overseas generally have extraterritoriality, so they can only be tried by the U.S. military. This is regulated by a status of forces agreement.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: The most famous cases of extraterritoriality in East Asia are those of 19th century China, Japan, and Siam, emerging from what is termed the "unequal treaties". The practice of extraterritoriality, however, was not confined to the 19th century or these nations, as the monarchs and governments of pre-modern East Asia primarily claimed sovereignty over people rather than tracts of land.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: The creation of extraterritoriality for treaty nations "was not introduced into East Asia "ex novo", but built atop a long-standing legal edifice". Jurisdiction in Qing China, with differential treatment for Han and Manchu subjects, was not determined by geography, but rather, by the identity of the subjects. For example, the ruling Manchu elite possessed legal privileges which placed them outside the jurisdiction of local ethnically Chinese administrators.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Before the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, which ended the First Opium War, foreign merchants were not satisfied with the state of the Qing legal system. British merchants were "suspicious of what they regarded as a tendency in the Qing legal order to impose collective responsibility; they were also resentful of the Qing practice of meting out capital punishment in cases of accidental manslaughter". After the "Lady Hughes" Affair – a controversial 1784 case where a British gunner was executed for killing two Chinese subjects – East India Company officials generally spirited away Britons before Qing officials could react.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Grants of extraterritoriality were regular in China. In the 1830s, when the Qing government concluded a treaty with the Uzbek khanate of Khoqand, it granted extraterritorial privileges to its traders. And in dealing with foreign merchants through the centuries, the Qing government rarely attempted to impose jurisdiction based on territorial sovereignty, instead entrusting the punishment of foreigners to the respective authority in practically all cases except homicide.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: At the negotiations of the Treaty of Nanjing, Qing negotiators readily extended a grant of extraterritoriality. Cassel writes "the imperial commissioner and Manchu nobleman Qiying readily conceded extraterritorial privileges to the British in an exchange of notes with Pottinger [the British plenipotentiary] at the time of the conclusion of the treaty". This was in line with Qing practices at the time, where sovereignty was held by peoples rather than imposed on lands.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: A more formal declaration of extraterritoriality was concluded in the 1843 Supplementary Treaty of the Bogue, which established that "Britons were to be punished according to English law and Chinese were to be 'tried and punished by their own laws'". These provisions only applied to the treaty ports, since foreigners were barred from entering the Chinese interior.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Under imperial edict earlier in the year, these privileges were extended to most western countries. Other nations wanted reassurances and guarantees. For example, the United States negotiated the 1844 Treaty of Wanghia, which stated in article 21:


title: Extraterritoriality

text: The Wanghia treaty included an exception for American trading in opium and also subjected American ships trading outside treaty ports to confiscation by the Chinese government in articles 33 and 3. Similarly, the French also pursued protections in the Treaty of Huangpu, which further introduced a distinction between criminal and civil jurisdiction (non-existent in Qing dynasty law) and gave Frenchmen the full protections of Chinese law outside concessionary areas.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: The 1858 Sino-British Treaty of Tientsin, which ended the Second Opium War, expanded the rights of western visitors. They were permitted to enter the Chinese interior after passporting. However, extraterritorial rights were not extended outside the treaty ports. Similar rights were granted to the interested western powers due to the "most-favoured-nation" clause: all privileges the Qing empire granted to one power were automatically granted to the others. In 1868, when the Tientsin treaties were renegotiated, British merchants clamoured to lift the travel restrictions on the Chinese interior. The Qing position was adamantly opposed, unless extraterritoriality was also abolished. No compromise was reached; and the Qing government was successful in preventing foreigners from visiting the Chinese interior with extraterritorial privileges.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Extraterritorial rights were not limited to Western nations. Under the 1871 Sino-Japanese Treaty of Tientsin, Japan and China granted each other reciprocal extraterritorial rights. China itself imposed reciprocal extraterritoriality rights for its own citizens in Joseon Korea. However, in 1895, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki after the First Sino-Japanese War, China gave up its extraterritorial rights in Japan, without reciprocity.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: By far the most important of the treaty ports established after 1842 was Shanghai, where the vague extraterritoriality provisions of the various treaties were most sophisticatedly implemented. The two main courts judging extraterritorial cases were the Shanghai Mixed Court and the British Supreme Court for China. Similar courts were established for treaty countries, e.g. the United States Court for China. These had jurisdiction over the concession areas, which formally remained under Qing sovereignty. Initially, Chinese people who committed crimes in, say, the British zone, were remanded to Chinese authorities.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: By the early 20th century, some Western powers were willing to relinquish extraterritorial rights given Chinese legal reform. For example, the 1902 Sino-British "Mackay treaty"'s article 12 read:


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Qing law did not make a formal distinction between criminal and civil law. While efforts at legal reform were pursued in earnest in the last decade of the Qing dynasty, what was actually enacted failed to meaningfully address this lack of law regarding contracts, trade, or commerce.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: After the collapse of the Chinese government in 1911 and the ensuing administrative vacuum, the Chinese members of the Mixed Court were subsequently appointed by the Western powers, placing all inhabitants of the international settlement under "de facto" foreign jurisdiction. The success of the Northern Expedition in increasing the authority of the Chinese republic in the mid-1920s led to many governments giving up their more minor treaty ports without a fight. However, the treaty powers were unwilling to give up Shanghai, or their privileges within it, which remained the most prominent economic centre and treaty port, even as the others were disestablished. It was only after a confrontation between Shanghai police and Nationalist demonstrators in 1925 that Chinese authorities refused to enforce the verdicts of the Mixed Court; this led to its disestablishment in 1927 and replacement with a Chinese-run local court.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: In 1921, at the Conference on the Limitation of Armament in Washington, an international treaty called the Nine-Power Treaty was signed expressing the willingness of the parties to end extraterritoriality in China once a satisfactory legal system was established by China. As a result, a commission was established in 1926 that published a detailed report containing its findings and recommendations for the Chinese legal system.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Extraterritoriality in China for non-diplomatic personnel ended at various times in the 20th century.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Germany and Austria-Hungary lost their rights in China in 1917 after China declared war on them. The Soviet Union Russia made secret agreements that kept its rights until 1960, although publicity falsely stated that it gave them up in 1924.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: In 1929 the Nationalist government announced its goal of ending extraterritoriality. Negotiations with Britain, the main holder of such rights, went slowly. They ended with the Japanese invasion of 1937, as Japan seized Shanghai and the main treaty ports where extraterritoriality was in operation. When Britain and the United States went to war with Japan in late 1941, they became formal allies of China and made ending extraterritoriality an urgent goal. The United States focused on protecting its immigration restrictions. Britain sought and failed to secure guarantees for the freedom of its commerce. Both the U.S. and Britain relinquished extraterritorial rights with new treaties in 1943: the Sino-American Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extraterritorial Rights in China and the Sino-British Treaty for the Relinquishment of Extra-Territorial Rights in China. Other countries quickly followed.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: The legacy of this for jurisdictional control continues to the modern day. Cassel writes, "extraterritoriality has left many policy-makers in mainland China with a legacy of deeply felt suspicions toward international law, international organisations, and more recently, human rights". With part of its legitimacy resting on claims to strengthening national sovereignty and territorial integrity, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China explicitly states that foreigners must abide by PRC law. And the PRC government claims the right, under article 10 of its criminal code, to prosecute Chinese citizens for crimes against the criminal code which are committed abroad, even if already punished for the crime. These emerge from significant claims of the importance of national sovereignty, a reaction to its abridgement in the past, where almost no nations emphasise the importance of their sovereignty more than China does today.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Japan recognized extraterritoriality in the treaties concluded with the United States, the United Kingdom, France, Netherlands, and Russia in 1858, in connection with the concept of the "most favoured nation". Various commercial treaties extended extraterritorial protections in Japan with various parties, including with Peru, in 1873. Most countries exercised extraterritorial jurisdiction through consular courts. Britain established the British Court for Japan in 1879.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: In 1887, only 2,389 non-Chinese foreigners lived in Japan, with strict limitations on freedom of movement. These limitations meant that foreigners in Japan were not able to commit crime with impunity, in contrast with China, where foreigners were granted the ability to travel to the interior after passporting. Rather, it was in the context of the Japanese state's desire to eliminate all competing jurisdictions and calls for legal reform based on the models of those jurisdictions that Japan's government desired to abolish foreign courts.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Having convinced the Western powers that its legal system was "sufficiently modern", Japan succeeded in reforming its unequal status with Britain through the 1894 Anglo-Japanese Treaty of Commerce and Navigation, in which London would relinquish its Japanese extraterritorial rights within five years. Similar treaties were signed with other extraterritorial powers around the same time. These treaties all came into effect in 1899, ending extraterritoriality in Japan.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: After the Allied victory in 1945, the Mutual Security Assistance Pact, and its successor treaties, between the United States, to the modern day, grant US military personnel on American bases in Okinawa extraterritorial privileges.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: King Mongkut (Rama IV) of Siam signed the Bowring Treaty granting extraterritorial rights to Britain in 1855. Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk, British Consul-General from 1859 to 1864, gives an account of his judicial training and responsibilities in a letter to his cousin dated 6 September 1860. Unequal treaties were later signed with 12 other European powers and with Japan. Extraterritoriality came to end in 1917 with respect to the German Empire and Austria-Hungary.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: In 19251926, the treaties were revised to provide for consular jurisdiction to be terminated, and nationals of the parties to the treaty were to come under the jurisdiction of Thai courts after the introduction of all Thai legal codes and a period of 5 years thereafter. By 1930, extraterritoriality was in effect no longer in force. After absolute monarchy was replaced by constitutional monarchy in the bloodless Siamese revolution of 1932, the constitutional government promulgated a set of legal codes, setting the stage for new treaties signed in 19371938 which canceled extraterritorial rights completely.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Contrary to popular belief, diplomatic missions do not generally enjoy full extraterritorial status and are not sovereign territory of the represented state.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Countries which have ceded some control over their territory (for example, the right to enter at will for law enforcement purposes) without ceding sovereignty include:


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Special concessions are sometimes made for cemeteries and memorials. National governments can also own property or special concessions in other host countries without gaining any sort of legal jurisdiction or sovereignty, in which case they are treated similarly to other private property owners. For example, ownership of land under the John F. Kennedy Memorial at Runnymede, England, was given to the United States by the United Kingdom, but required an Act of Parliament (the John F. Kennedy Memorial Act 1964) to do so, because the land was part of the Crown Estate, which cannot otherwise be given away for free. Another example of these types of special concessions are the numerous cemeteries and monuments administered by the American Battle Monuments Commission. These are located in Belgium, Cuba, France, Gibraltar, Italy, Luxembourg, Mexico, Morocco, the Netherlands, Panama, Papua New Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon Islands, Tunisia, and the United Kingdom. The most popular site among these is the Normandy American Cemetery and Memorial in France. Land under the Canadian National Vimy Memorial and surrounding 100 hectares was gifted by France to Canada.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: A similar case is the French domains of St Helena: the Government of France bought land property on St. Helena island to commemorate the exile of Napoleon Bonaparte there.


title: Extraterritoriality

text: Internal cases (both parties are part of the same unitary sovereign state but have different border control and legal systems):


title: English orthography

text: English orthography is the writing system used to represent spoken English, allowing readers to connect the graphemes to sound and to meaning. It includes English's norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalisation, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation.


title: English orthography

text: Like the orthography of most world languages, English orthography has a broad degree of standardisation. This standardisation began to develop when movable type spread to England in the late 15th century. However, unlike with most languages, there are multiple ways to spell every phoneme, and most letters also have multiple pronunciations depending on their position in a word and the context.


title: English orthography

text: This is partly due to the large number of words that have been borrowed from a large number of other languages throughout the history of English, without successful attempts at complete spelling reforms, and partly due to accidents of history, such as some of the earliest mass-produced English publications being typeset by highly trained, multilingual printing compositors, who occasionally used a spelling pattern more typical for another language. For example, the word "ghost" was previously spelled "gast" in English, until the Flemish spelling pattern was unintentionally substituted, and happened to be accepted. Most of the spelling conventions in Modern English were derived from the phonetic spelling of a variety of Middle English, and generally do not reflect the sound changes that have occurred since the late 15th century (such as the Great Vowel Shift). As a result of this, many words are spelled the way that they were pronounced more than 600 years ago, instead of being spelled like they are pronounced in the 21st century.


title: English orthography

text: Despite the various English dialects spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most recognised variations being British and American spelling, and its overall uniformity helps facilitate international communication. On the other hand, it also adds to the discrepancy between the way English is written and spoken in any given location.


title: English orthography

text: Letters in English orthography usually represent a particular phoneme. For example, "at" consists of 2 letters and , which represent and , respectively.


title: English orthography

text: Sequences of letters may perform this role as well as single letters. Thus, in "thrash" , the digraph (two letters) represents . In "hatch" , the trigraph represents .


title: English orthography

text: Less commonly, a single letter can represent multiple successive sounds. The most common example is , which normally represents the consonant cluster (for example, in "tax" ).


title: English orthography

text: The same letter (or sequence of letters) may be pronounced differently when occurring in different positions within a word. For instance, represents at the end of some words ("tough" ) but not in others ("plough" ). At the beginning of syllables, is pronounced , as in "ghost" . Conversely, is never pronounced in syllable onsets other than in inflected forms, and is almost never pronounced in syllable codas (the proper name "Pittsburgh" is an exception).


title: English orthography

text: Some words contain silent letters, which do not represent any sound in modern English pronunciation. Examples include the in "talk", "half", "calf", etc., the in "two" and "sword", as mentioned above in numerous words such as "though", "daughter", "night", "brought", and the commonly encountered silent (discussed further below).


title: English orthography

text: Another type of spelling characteristic is related to word origin. For example, when representing a vowel, represents the sound in some words borrowed from Greek (reflecting an original upsilon), whereas the letter usually representing this sound in non-Greek words is the letter . Thus, "myth" is of Greek origin, while "pith" is a Germanic word.


title: English orthography

text: Other examples include pronounced (which is most commonly ), and pronounced (which is most commonly or )—the use of these spellings for these sounds often mark words that have been borrowed from Greek.


title: English orthography

text: Some researchers, such as Brengelman (1970), have suggested that, in addition to this marking of word origin, these spellings indicate a more formal level of style or register in a given text, although Rollings (2004) finds this point to be exaggerated as there would be many exceptions where a word with one of these spellings, such as for (like "telephone"), could occur in an informal text.


title: English orthography

text: Spelling may also be useful to distinguish between homophones (words with the same pronunciation but different meanings), although in most cases the reason for the difference is historical and was not introduced for the purpose of making a distinction.


title: English orthography

text: For example, "heir" and "air" are pronounced identically in most dialects, but, in writing, they are distinguished from each other by their different spellings.


title: English orthography

text: Another example is the pair of homophones "pain" and "pane", where both are pronounced but have two different spellings of the vowel . Often, this is because of the historical pronunciation of each word where, over time, two separate sounds became the same but the different spellings remained: "pain" used to be pronounced as , with a diphthong, and "pane" as , but the diphthong merged with the long vowel in "pane", making "pain" and "pane" homophones ("pane"–"pain" merger). Later became a diphthong .


title: English orthography

text: In written language, this may help to resolve potential ambiguities that would arise otherwise (cf. "He's breaking the car" vs. "He's braking the car").


title: English orthography

text: Nevertheless, many homophones remain that are unresolved by spelling (for example, the word "bay" has at least five fundamentally different meanings).


title: English orthography

text: Some letters in English provide information about the pronunciation of other letters in the word. Rollings (2004) uses the term "markers" for such letters. Letters may mark different types of information.


title: English orthography

text: For instance, in "once" indicates that the preceding is pronounced , rather than the more common value of in word-final position as the sound , such as in "attic" .


title: English orthography

text: A single letter may even fill multiple pronunciation-marking roles simultaneously. For example, in the word "ace", marks not only the change of from to , but also of from to . In the word "vague", marks the long sound, but keeps the hard rather than soft.


title: English orthography

text: Doubled consonants usually indicate that the preceding vowel is pronounced short. For example, the doubled in "batted" indicates that the is pronounced , while the single of "bated" gives . Doubled consonants only indicate any lengthening or gemination of the consonant sound itself when they come from different morphemes, as with the in "unnamed" ("un"+"named").


title: English orthography

text: Any given letters may have dual functions. For example, in "statue" has a sound-representing function (representing the sound ) and a pronunciation-marking function (marking the as having the value opposed to the value ).


title: English orthography

text: Like many other alphabetic orthographies, English spelling does not represent non-contrastive phonetic sounds (that is, minor differences in pronunciation which are not used to distinguish between different words).


title: English orthography

text: Although the letter is pronounced by some speakers with aspiration at the beginning of words, this is never indicated in the spelling, and, indeed, this phonetic detail is probably not noticeable to the average native speaker not trained in phonetics.


title: English orthography

text: However, unlike some orthographies, English orthography often represents a very abstract underlying representation (or morphophonemic form) of English words.


title: English orthography

text: In these cases, a given morpheme (i.e., a component of a word) has a fixed spelling even though it is pronounced differently in different words. An example is the past tense suffix -, which may be pronounced variously as , , or (for example, "bath" , "bathed" , "pay" , "payed" , "hate" , "hated" ). As it happens, these different pronunciations of - can be predicted by a few phonological rules, but that is not the reason why its spelling is fixed.


title: English orthography

text: Another example involves the vowel differences (with accompanying stress pattern changes) in several related words. For instance, "photographer" is derived from "photograph" by adding the derivational suffix -. When this suffix is added, the vowel pronunciations change largely owing to the moveable stress:


title: English orthography

text: Other examples of this type are the - suffix (as in "agile" vs. "agility", "acid" vs. "acidity", "divine" vs. "divinity", "sane" vs. "sanity"). See also: Trisyllabic laxing.


title: English orthography

text: Another example includes words like "mean" and "meant" , where is pronounced differently in the two related words. Thus, again, the orthography uses only a single spelling that corresponds to the single morphemic form rather than to the surface phonological form.


title: English orthography

text: English orthography does not always provide an underlying representation; sometimes it provides an intermediate representation between the underlying form and the surface pronunciation. This is the case with the spelling of the regular plural morpheme, which is written as either - (as in "tat, tats" and "hat, hats") or - (as in "ass, asses"). Here, the spelling - is pronounced either or (depending on the environment, e.g., "tats" and "ays" ) while - is usually pronounced (e.g. "asses" ). Thus, there are two different spellings that correspond to the single underlying representation || of the plural suffix and the three surface forms. The spelling indicates the insertion of before the in the spelling -, but does not indicate the devoiced distinctly from the unaffected in the spelling -.


title: English orthography

text: The abstract representation of words as indicated by the orthography can be considered advantageous since it makes etymological relationships more apparent to English readers. This makes writing English more complex, but arguably makes reading English more efficient. However, very abstract underlying representations, such as that of Chomsky & Halle (1968) or of underspecification theories, are sometimes considered too abstract to accurately reflect the communicative competence of native speakers. Followers of these arguments believe the less abstract surface forms are more "psychologically real" and thus more useful in terms of pedagogy.


title: English orthography

text: English has some words that can be written with accents. These words are mostly loanwords, usually from French. As they become increasingly naturalised, there is an increasing tendency to omit the accent marks, even in formal writing. For example, "rôle" and "hôtel" originally had accents when they were borrowed into English, but now the accents are almost never used. The words were originally considered foreign—and some people considered that English alternatives were preferable—but today their foreign origin is largely forgotten. Words most likely to retain the accent are those atypical of English morphology and therefore still perceived as slightly foreign. For example, "café" and "pâté" both have a pronounced final , which would otherwise be silent under the normal English pronunciation rules. However, "café" is now sometimes facetiously pronounced , while in "pâté", the acute accent is helpful to distinguish it from "pate".


title: English orthography

text: Further examples of words sometimes retaining diacritics when used in English are: "Ångström" (partly because the scientific symbol for this unit of measurement is "Å"), "appliqué", "attaché", "blasé", "bric-à-brac", "Brötchen", "cliché", "crème", "crêpe", "façade", "fiancé(e)", "flambé", "jalapeño", "naïve", "naïveté", "né(e)", "papier-mâché", "passé", "piñata", "protégé", "résumé", "risqué", "über-", and "voilà". Italics, with appropriate accents, are generally applied to foreign terms that are uncommonly used in or have not been assimilated into English: for example, "adiós, crème brûlée, pièce de résistance, raison d'être, über, vis-à-vis," and "belles-lettres."


title: English orthography

text: It was formerly common in American English to use a diaeresis to indicate a hiatus, e.g. "coöperate", "daïs", and "reëlect". "The New Yorker" and "Technology Review" magazines still use it for this purpose, even though it is increasingly rare in modern English. Nowadays, the diaeresis is normally left out ("cooperate"), or a hyphen is used ("co-operate") if the hiatus is between two morphemes in a compound word. It is, however, still common in monomorphemic loanwords such as "naïve" and "Noël".


title: English orthography

text: Written accents are also used occasionally in poetry and scripts for dramatic performances to indicate that a certain normally unstressed syllable in a word should be stressed for dramatic effect, or to keep with the metre of the poetry. This use is frequently seen in archaic and pseudoarchaic writings with the "-ed" suffix, to indicate that the should be fully pronounced, as with "cursèd".


title: English orthography

text: The acute and grave accents are occasionally used in poetry and lyrics: the acute to indicate stress overtly where it might be ambiguous (rébel vs. rebél) or nonstandard for metrical reasons (caléndar); the grave to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced (warnèd, parlìament).


title: English orthography

text: In certain older texts (typically British), the use of the ligatures and is common in words such as "archæology", "diarrhœa", and "encyclopædia", all of Latin or Greek origin. Nowadays, the ligatures have been generally replaced by the digraphs and ("encyclopaedia", "diarrhoea") in British English or just ("encyclopedia", "diarrhea") in American English, though both spell some words with only ("economy", "ecology") and others with and ("paean", "amoeba", "oedipal", "Caesar"). In some cases, usage may vary; for instance, both "encyclopedia" and "encyclopaedia" are current in the UK.


title: English orthography

text: Partly because English has never had any official regulating authority for spelling, such as the Spanish "Real Academia Española", the French "Académie française", and the German "Rat für deutsche Rechtschreibung", English spelling, compared to many other languages, is quite irregular and complex. Although French, among other languages, presents a similar degree of difficulty when "encoding" (writing), English is more difficult when "decoding" (reading), as there are clearly many more possible pronunciations of a group of letters. For example, in French, (as in "true", but short), can be spelled ("ou", "nous", "tout", "choux"), but the pronunciation of each of those sequences is always the same. In English, can be spelled in up to 24 different ways, including ("spook", "truth", "suit", "blues", "to", "shoe", "group", "through", "few") (see Sound-to-spelling correspondences below), but all of these have other pronunciations as well (e.g., as in "foot", "us", "build", "bluest", "so", "toe", "grout", "plough", "sew") (See the Spelling-to-sound correspondences below). Thus, in unfamiliar words and proper nouns, the pronunciation of some sequences, being the prime example, is unpredictable to even educated native English speakers.


title: English orthography

text: Attempts to regularise or reform the spelling of English have usually failed. However, Noah Webster popularised more phonetic spellings in the United States, such as "flavor" for British "flavour", "fiber" for "fibre", "defense" for "defence", "analyze" for "analyse", "catalog" for "catalogue", and so forth. These spellings already existed as alternatives, but Webster's dictionaries helped standardize them in the US. (See American and British English spelling differences for details.)


title: English orthography

text: Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other irregularities in spelling that make it tricky to learn. English contains, depending on dialect, 24–27 consonant phonemes and 13–20 vowels. However, there are only 26 letters in the modern English alphabet, so there is not a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. Many sounds are spelled using different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters. For example, represents two different sounds (the voiced and voiceless dental fricatives) (see Pronunciation of English "th"), and the voiceless alveolar sibilant can be represented by or .


title: English orthography

text: It is, however, not (solely) the shortage of letters which makes English spelling irregular. Its irregularities are caused mainly by the use of many different spellings for some of its sounds, such as /uː/, /iː/ and /oʊ/ ("too, "true, "shoe, "flew, "through; "sleeve", "leave", even", "seize", "siege"; "stole, "coal", "bowl", "roll", old", "mould"), and the use of identical sequences for spelling different sounds (over", oven", "move").


title: English orthography

text: Furthermore, English no longer makes any attempt to anglicise the spellings of loanwords, but preserves the foreign spellings, even when they do not follow English spelling conventions like the Polish in "Czech" (rather than "*Check") or the Norwegian in "fjord" (although "fiord" was formerly the most common spelling). In early Middle English, until roughly 1400, most imports from French were respelled according to English rules (e.g. "bataille"–"battle", "bouton"–"button", but not "double", or "trouble"). Instead of loans being respelled to conform to English spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling, e.g. "ski", adopted from Norwegian in the mid-18th century. It used to be pronounced , similar to the Norwegian pronunciation, but the increasing popularity of the sport after the mid-20th century helped the pronunciation replace it.


title: English orthography

text: There was also a period when the spelling of a small number of words was altered to make them conform to their perceived etymological origins. For example, was added to "debt" (originally "dette") to link it to the Latin , and in "island" to link it to Latin instead of its true origin the Old English word "īġland". in "ptarmigan" has no etymological justification whatsoever, only seeking to show Greek origin despite being a Gaelic word.


title: English orthography

text: The spelling of English continues to evolve. Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to the way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols have in the International Phonetic Alphabet. As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing "foreign" words in English, and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, "Hindu" used to be spelled "Hindoo", and the name "Maria" used to be pronounced like the name "Mariah", but was changed to conform to this system. This only further complicates the spelling, however. On the one hand, words that retained anglicised spellings may be misread in a hyperforeign way. On the other hand, words that are respelled in a 'foreign' way may be misread as if they are English words, e.g. "Muslim" was formerly spelled "Mooslim" because of its original pronunciation.


title: English orthography

text: Commercial advertisers have also had an effect on English spelling. They introduced new or simplified spellings like "lite" instead of "light", "thru" instead of "through", and "rucsac" instead of "rucksack". The spellings of personal names have also been a source of spelling innovations: diminutive versions of women's names that sound the same as men's names have been spelled differently: "Nikki" and "Nicky", "Toni" and "Tony", "Jo" and "Joe". The differentiation in between names that are spelled differently but have the same phonetic sound may come from modernisation or different countries of origin. For example, "Isabelle" and "Isabel" sound the same but are spelled differently; these versions are from France and Spain respectively.


title: English orthography

text: As an example of the irregular nature of English spelling, can be pronounced at least nine different ways: in "out", in "soul", in "soup", in "touch", in "could", in "four", in "journal", in "cough", and in "famous" (See Spelling-to-sound correspondences). In the other direction, can be spelled in at least 18~21 different ways: "be ("cede), "ski ("machine), "bologna , "algae, "quay, "beach", "bee, "deceit", "people", "key, "keyed", "field" ("hygiene), "amoeba", "chamois" , "dengue , "beguine", "guyot", and ynambu" (See Sound-to-spelling correspondences). (These examples assume a more-or-less standard non-regional British English accent. Other accents will vary.)


title: English orthography

text: Sometimes everyday speakers of English change a counterintuitive pronunciation simply because it is counterintuitive. Changes like this are not usually seen as "standard", but can become standard if used enough. An example is the word "miniscule", which still competes with its original spelling of "minuscule", though this might also be because of analogy with the word "mini".


title: English orthography

text: Inconsistencies and irregularities in English pronunciation and spelling have gradually increased in number throughout the history of the English language. There are a number of contributing factors. First, gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the Great Vowel Shift, account for a tremendous number of irregularities. Second, relatively recent loan words generally carry their original spellings, which are often not phonetic in English. The Romanization of languages (e.g., Chinese) has further complicated this problem, for example when pronouncing Chinese proper names (of people or places).


title: English orthography

text: The regular spelling system of Old English was swept away by the Norman Conquest, and English itself was supplanted in some spheres by Norman French for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French. English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, and kept their French spellings. The spelling of Middle English, is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled in different ways, sometimes even in the same sentence. However, these were generally much better guides to the then-pronunciation than modern English spelling is.


title: English orthography

text: For example, , normally written , is spelled with an in "one", "some", "love", etc., due to Norman spelling conventions which prohibited writing before due to the graphical confusion that would result. ( were written identically with two minims in Norman handwriting; was written as two letters; was written with three minims, hence looked like , etc.). Similarly, spelling conventions also prohibited final . Hence the identical spellings of the three different vowel sounds in "love", "move", and "cove" are due to ambiguity in the Middle English spelling system, not sound change.


title: English orthography

text: In 1417, Henry V began using English, which had no standardised spelling, for official correspondence instead of Latin or French which had standardised spelling, e.g. Latin had one spelling for "right" ("rectus"), Old French as used in English law had six and Middle English had 77. This motivated writers to standardise English spelling, an effort which lasted about 500 years.


title: English orthography

text: There was also a series of linguistic sound changes towards the end of this period, including the Great Vowel Shift, which resulted in the in "ate", for example, changing from a pure vowel to a diphthong. These changes for the most part did not detract from the rule-governed nature of the spelling system; but, in some cases, they introduced confusing inconsistencies, like the well-known example of the many pronunciations of ("tough", "through", "though", "cough", "plough", etc.). Most of these changes happened before the arrival of printing in England. However, the arrival of the modern printing press in 1476 froze the current system, rather than providing the impetus for a realignment of spelling with pronunciation. Furthermore, it introduced further inconsistencies, partly because of the use of typesetters trained abroad, particularly in the Low Countries. For example, the in "ghost" was influenced by Flemish. The addition and deletion of a silent "e" at the ends of words was also sometimes used to make the right-hand margin line up more neatly.


title: English orthography

text: By the time dictionaries were introduced in the mid-17th century, the spelling system of English had started to stabilise. By the 19th century, most words had set spellings, though it took some time before they diffused throughout the English-speaking world. In "The Mill on the Floss" (1860), English novelist George Eliot satirised the attitude of the English rural gentry of the 1820s towards orthography:


title: English orthography

text: Mr. Tulliver did not willingly write a letter, and found the relation between spoken and written language, briefly known as spelling, one of the most puzzling things in this puzzling world. Nevertheless, like all fervid writing, the task was done in less time than usual, and if the spelling differed from Mrs. Glegg's,–why, she belonged, like himself, to a generation with whom spelling was a matter of private judgment.


title: English orthography

text: The modern English spelling system, with its national variants, spread together with the expansion of public education later in the 19th century.


title: English orthography

text: The most notorious multigraph in the English language is the tetragraph , which can be pronounced in at least ten different ways, six of which are illustrated in the construct, "Though the tough cough and hiccough plough him through", which is quoted by Robert A. Heinlein in "The Door into Summer" to illustrate the difficulties facing automated speech transcription and reading. "Ough" itself is a word, an exclamation of disgust similar to "ugh", though rarely known or used. The following are typical pronunciations of this string of letters:


title: English orthography

text: The place name Loughborough uses two different pronunciations of : the first has the sound as in "cuff" and the second rhymes with "thorough".


title: English orthography

text: In a generative approach to English spelling, Rollings (2004) identifies twenty main orthographic vowels of stressed syllables that are grouped into four main categories: "Lax", "Tense", "Heavy", "Tense-R".


title: English orthography

text: For instance, can represent the lax vowel , tense , heavy , or tense-r . Heavy and tense-r vowels are the respective lax and tense counterparts followed by .


title: English orthography

text: Tense vowels are distinguished from lax vowels with a "silent" that is added at the end of words. Thus, in "hat" is lax , but when is added in the word "hate" is tense . Heavy and tense-r vowels follow a similar pattern, e.g. in "car" is heavy , followed by silent in "care" is . represents two different vowel patterns, one being , the other . There is no distinction between heavy and tense-r and in the pattern does not have a heavy vowel.


title: English orthography

text: Besides silent , another strategy for indicating tense and tense-r vowels, is the addition of another orthographic vowel forming a digraph. In this case, the first vowel is usually the main vowel while the second vowel is the "marking" vowel. For example, "man" has a lax (), but the addition of (as the digraph ) in "main" marks the as tense (). These two strategies produce words that are spelled differently but pronounced identically, which helps differentiate words that would otherwise be homonyms, as in "mane" (silent strategy), "main" (digraph strategy) and "Maine" (both strategies).


title: English orthography

text: Besides the 20 basic vowel spellings, Rollings (2004) has a reduced vowel category (representing the sounds ) and a miscellaneous category (representing the sounds and +V, +V, V+V).


title: English orthography

text: To reduce dialectal difficulties, the sound values given here correspond to the conventions at . This table includes when they represent vowel sounds. If no information is given, it is assumed that the vowel is in a stressed syllable.


title: English orthography

text: Deriving the pronunciation of an English word from its spelling requires not only a careful knowledge of the rules given below (many of which are not explicitly known even by native speakers: speakers merely learn the spelling of a word along with its pronunciation) and their many exceptions, but also:


title: English orthography

text: † Nearly 80% of Americans pronounce "luxurious" with , while two thirds of British people use . Half the American speakers pronounce "luxury" as , the rest says <br>


title: English orthography

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> According to the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 75% of Americans pronounce "almond" as .<br>


title: English orthography

text: The following table shows for each sound the various spelling patterns used to denote it, starting with the prototypical pattern(s) followed by others in alphabetical order. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique (such as for , for , for ). An ellipsis () stands for an intervening consonant.


title: English orthography

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> In 2008, 61% of British people pronounced "diphthong" as , though phoneticians prefer .


title: English orthography

text: <nowiki>***</nowiki> The majority of British people, and the great majority of younger ones, pronounce "crescent" as .


title: English orthography

text: ††† The primarily spoken-only abbreviation of "usual" has no standardised spelling, but is often spelled "uzhe".


title: English orthography

text: Sorted more or less from close to open sounds in the vowel diagram. Nasal vowels used by some speakers in words of French origin such as "enceinte" (), are not included.


title: 2023 AFC U-20 Asian Cup

text: The 2023 AFC U-20 Asian Cup will be the 41st edition of the AFC U-20 Asian Cup (including previous editions of the AFC Youth Championship and AFC U-19 Championship), the biennial international youth football championship organised by the Asian Football Confederation (AFC) for the men's under-20 national teams of Asia. This edition will be the first to be played as an under-20 tournament, as the AFC proposed to switch the tournament from under-19 to under-20 starting from 2023. Moreover, the tournament was also rebranded from the "AFC U-19 Championship" to the "AFC U-20 Asian Cup". On 25 January 2021, the AFC announced that Uzbekistan would retain hosting rights for the 2023 edition after the cancellation of the 2020 AFC U-19 Championship due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: 2023 AFC U-20 Asian Cup

text: A total of 16 teams will play in the tournament. The top four teams of the tournament will qualify for the 2023 FIFA U-20 World Cup in Indonesia as the AFC representatives besides Indonesia who automatically qualified as hosts. If Indonesia manages to reach the semi-finals, a repechage play-in will take place between the 4 losing quarter-finalists, the winner of which will qualify for the FIFA U-20 World Cup.


title: 2023 AFC U-20 Asian Cup

text: The draw of the final tournament was held on 26 October 2022, 12:00 UZT (), in Tashkent, Uzbekistan. The 16 teams were drawn into four groups of four teams, with the teams seeded according to their performance in the 2018 AFC U-19 Championship final tournament and qualification, with the hosts Uzbekistan automatically seeded and assigned to Position A1 in the draw.


title: 2023 AFC U-20 Asian Cup

text: Players born on or after 1 January 2003 and on or before 31 December 2007 were eligible to compete in the tournament. Each team must register a squad of minimum 18 players and maximum 23 players, minimum three of whom must be goalkeepers.


title: 2023 AFC U-20 Asian Cup

text: Teams were ranked according to points (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss), and if tied on points, the following tie-breaking criteria were applied, in the order given, to determine the rankings:


title: 2023 AFC U-20 Asian Cup

text: The following five teams from AFC qualified for the 2023 FIFA U-20 World Cup including host Indonesia.


title: Labour law

text: Labour laws (also known as labor laws or employment laws) are those that mediate the relationship between workers, employing entities, trade unions, and the government. Collective labour law relates to the tripartite relationship between employee, employer, and union.


title: Labour law

text: Individual labour law concerns employees' rights at work also through the contract for work. are social norms (in some cases also technical standards) for the minimum socially acceptable conditions under which employees or contractors are allowed to work. Government agencies (such as the former US Employment Standards Administration) enforce labour law (legislature, regulatory, or judicial).


title: Labour law

text: Following the unification of the city-states in Assyria and Sumer by Sargon of Akkad into a single empire ruled from his home city circa 2334 BC, common Mesopotamian standards for length, area, volume, weight, and time used by artisan guilds in each city was promulgated by Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC), Sargon's grandson, including for shekels. Code of Hammurabi Law 234 (c. 1755–1750 BC) stipulated a 2-shekel prevailing wage for each 60-gur (300-bushel) vessel constructed in an employment contract between a shipbuilder and a ship-owner. Law 275 stipulated a ferry rate of 3-gerah per day on a charterparty between a ship charterer and a shipmaster. Law 276 stipulated a 2-gerah per day freight rate on a contract of affreightment between a charterer and shipmaster, while Law 277 stipulated a -shekel per day freight rate for a 60-gur vessel. In 1816, an archeological excavation in Minya, Egypt (under an Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire) produced a Nerva–Antonine dynasty-era tablet from the ruins of the Temple of Antinous in Antinoöpolis, Aegyptus that prescribed the rules and membership dues of a burial society "collegium" established in Lanuvium, Italia in approximately 133 AD during the reign of Hadrian (117–138) of the Roman Empire.


title: Labour law

text: A "collegium" was any association in ancient Rome that acted as a legal entity. Following the passage of the "Lex Julia" during the reign of Julius Caesar as Consul and Dictator of the Roman Republic (49–44 BC), and their reaffirmation during the reign of Caesar Augustus as "Princeps senatus" and Imperator of the Roman Army (27 BC–14 AD), "collegia" required the approval of the Roman Senate or the Emperor in order to be authorized as legal bodies. Ruins at Lambaesis date the formation of burial societies among Roman Army soldiers and Roman Navy mariners to the reign of Septimius Severus (193–211) in 198 AD. In September 2011, archeological investigations done at the site of the artificial harbour Portus in Rome revealed inscriptions in a shipyard constructed during the reign of Trajan (98–117) indicating the existence of a shipbuilders guild. Rome's La Ostia port was home to a guildhall for a "corpus naviculariorum", a "collegium" of merchant mariners. "Collegium" also included fraternities of Roman priests overseeing ritual sacrifices, practicing augury, keeping scriptures, arranging festivals, and maintaining specific religious cults.


title: Labour law

text: Labour law arose in parallel with the Industrial Revolution as the relationship between worker and employer changed from small-scale production studios to large-scale factories. Workers sought better conditions and the right to join a labour union, while employers sought a more predictable, flexible and less costly workforce. The state of labour law at any one time is therefore both the product of and a component of struggles between various social forces.


title: Labour law

text: As England was the first country to industrialize, it was also the first to face the often appalling consequences of the industrial revolution in a less regulated economic framework. Over the course of the late 18th and early to the mid-19th century the foundation for modern labour law was slowly laid, as some of the more egregious aspects of working conditions were steadily ameliorated through legislation. This was largely achieved through the concerted pressure from social reformers, notably Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 7th Earl of Shaftesbury, and others.


title: Labour law

text: A serious outbreak of fever in 1784 in cotton mills near Manchester drew widespread public opinion against the use of children in dangerous conditions. A local inquiry presided over by Dr Thomas Percival, was instituted by the justices of the peace for Lancashire, and the resulting report recommended the limitation of children's working hours. In 1802, the first major piece of labour legislation was passed − the Health and Morals of Apprentices Act. This was the first, albeit modest, step towards the protection of labour. The act limited working hours to twelve a day and abolished night work. It required the provision of a basic level of education for all apprentices, as well as adequate sleeping accommodation and clothing.


title: Labour law

text: The rapid industrialisation of manufacturing at the turn of the 19th century led to a rapid increase in child employment, and public opinion was steadily made aware of the terrible conditions these children were forced to endure. The Cotton Mills and Factories Act 1819 was the outcome of the efforts of the industrialist Robert Owen and prohibited child labour under nine years of age and limited the working hours to twelve. A great milestone in labour law was reached with the Factories Act 1833, which limited the employment of children under eighteen years of age, prohibited all night work, and, crucially, provided for inspectors to enforce the law. Pivotal in the campaigning for and the securing of this legislation were Michael Sadler and the Earl of Shaftesbury. This act was an important step forward, in that it mandated skilled inspection of workplaces and rigorous enforcement of the law by an independent governmental body.


title: Labour law

text: A lengthy campaign to limit the working day to ten hours was led by Shaftesbury and included support from the Anglican Church. Many committees were formed in support of the cause and some previously established groups lent their support as well. The campaign finally led to the passage of the Factory Act 1847, which restricted the working hours of women and children in British factories to effectively 10 hours per day.


title: Labour law

text: These early efforts were principally aimed at limiting child labour. From the mid-19th century, attention was first paid to the plight of working conditions for the workforce in general. In 1850, systematic reporting of fatal accidents was made compulsory, and basic safeguards for health, life and limb in the mines were put in place from 1855. Further regulations, relating to ventilation, fencing of disused shafts, signalling standards, and proper gauges and valves for steam-boilers and related machinery were also set down.


title: Labour law

text: A series of further Acts, in 1860 and 1872 extended the legal provisions and strengthened safety provisions. The steady development of the coal industry, an increasing association among miners, and increased scientific knowledge paved the way for the Coal Mines Act of 1872, which extended the legislation to similar industries. The same Act included the first comprehensive code of regulation to govern legal safeguards for health, life and limb. The presence of more certified and competent management and increased levels of inspection were also provided for.


title: Labour law

text: By the end of the century, a comprehensive set of regulations was in place in England that affected all industries. A similar system (with certain national differences) was implemented in other industrializing countries in the latter part of the 19th century and the early 20th century..


title: Labour law

text: The basic feature of labour law in almost every country is that the rights and obligations of the worker and the employer are mediated through a contract of employment between the two. This has been the case since the collapse of feudalism. Many contract terms and conditions are covered by legislation or common law. In the US for example, the majority of state laws allow for employment to be "at-will", meaning the employer can terminate an employee from a position for any reason so long as the reason is not explicitly prohibited, and, conversely, an employee may quit at any time, for any reason (or for no reason), and is not required to give notice.


title: Labour law

text: A major issue for any business is to understand the relationship between the worker and the master. There are two types of workers, independent contractors and employees. They are differentiated based on the level of control the master has on them. Workers provided tools and resources, closely supervised, paid regularly, etc., are considered employees of the company. Employees must act in the best interest of the employer.


title: Labour law

text: One example of employment terms in many countries is the duty to provide written particulars of employment with the "essentialia negotii" (Latin for "essential terms") to an employee. This aims to allow the employee to know concretely what to expect and what is expected. It covers items including compensation, holiday and illness rights, notice in the event of dismissal and job description.


title: Labour law

text: The contract is subject to various legal provisions. An employer may not legally offer a contract that pays the worker less than a minimum wage. An employee may not agree to a contract that allows an employer to dismiss them for illegal reasons.


title: Labour law

text: Intellectual property is the vital asset of the business, employees add value to the company by creating Intellectual Property. As per Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), Intellectual Property is personal property. Intellectual property is used as competitive advantage by big companies to protect themselves from rivalry. Given the conditions, if the worker is in the agent-principal relationship, he is the employee of the company, and if the employee's invention is in the scope of employment i.e. if the employee creates a new product or process to increase the productivity and create organizations' wealth by utilizing the resources of the company, then the Intellectual property solely belongs to the company. New business products or processes are protected under Patents.


title: Labour law

text: There are differing opinions on what constitutes a patentable invention. One area of disagreement is with respect to software inventions, but there have been court cases that have established some precedents. For example, in the case "Diamond v. Diehr" the United States Supreme Court decided that Diehr is patent- eligible because they improved the existing technological process, not because they were implemented on a computer.


title: Labour law

text: Many jurisdictions define the minimum amount that a worker can be paid per hour. Algeria, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, France, Greece, Hungary, India, Ireland, Japan, South Korea, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Paraguay, Portugal, Poland, Romania, Spain, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United States, Vietnam, Germany (in 2015) and others have laws of this kind. The minimum wage is set usually higher than the lowest wage as determined by the forces of supply and demand in a free market and therefore acts as a price floor. Each country sets its own minimum wage laws and regulations, and while a majority of industrialized countries has a minimum wage, many developing countries do not.


title: Labour law

text: Minimum wages are regulated and stipulated in some countries that lack explicit laws. The United States of America is regulated by the Fair Labor Standars Act and has explicit laws, whereas other countries such as Sweden might lack explicit laws. In Sweden minimum wages are negotiated between the labour market parties (unions and employer organizations) through collective agreements that also cover non-union workers at workplaces with collective agreements. At workplaces without collective agreements there exist no minimum wages. Non-organized employers can sign substitute agreements directly with trade unions but far from all do. The Swedish case illustrates that in countries without statutory regulation part of the labour market may not have regulated minimum wages, as self-regulation only applies to workplaces and employees covered by collective agreements (in Sweden about 90 per cent of employees).


title: Labour law

text: National minimum wage laws were first introduced in the United States in 1938, Brazil in 1940 India in 1948, France in 1950 and in the United Kingdom in 1998. In the European Union, 18 out of 28 member states have national minimum wages as of 2011.


title: Labour law

text: The living wage is higher than the minimum wage and is designed so that a full-time worker should be able to support themselves and a small family at that wage.


title: Labour law

text: The maximum number of hours worked per day or other time intervals are set by law in many countries. Such laws also control whether workers who work longer hours must be paid additional compensation.


title: Labour law

text: Before the Industrial Revolution, the workday varied between 11 and 14 hours. With the growth of industrialism and the introduction of machinery, longer hours became far more common, reaching as high as 16 hours per day.


title: Labour law

text: The eight-hour movement led to the first law on the length of a working day, passed in 1833 in England. It limited miners to 12 hours and children to 8 hours. The 10-hour day was established in 1848, and shorter hours with the same pay were gradually accepted thereafter. The 1802 Factory Act was the first labour law in the UK.