title: General anaesthesia

text: To maintain an open airway and regulate breathing, some form of breathing tube is inserted after the patient is unconscious.


title: General anaesthesia

text: To enable mechanical ventilation, an endotracheal tube is often used, although there are alternative devices that can assist respiration, such as face masks or laryngeal mask airways.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Generally, full mechanical ventilation is only used if a very deep state of general anaesthesia is to be induced for a major procedure, and/or with a profoundly ill or injured patient.


title: General anaesthesia

text: That said, induction of general anaesthesia usually results in apnea and requires ventilation until the drugs wear off and spontaneous breathing starts.


title: General anaesthesia

text: In other words, ventilation may be required for both induction and maintenance of general anaesthesia or just during the induction.


title: General anaesthesia

text: However, mechanical ventilation can provide ventilatory support during spontaneous breathing to ensure adequate gas exchange.


title: General anaesthesia

text: General anaesthesia can also be induced with the patient spontaneously breathing and therefore maintaining their own oxygenation which can be beneficial in certain scenarios (e.g. difficult airway or tubeless surgery). Spontaneous ventilation has been traditionally maintained with inhalational agents (i.e. halothane or sevoflurane) which is called a gas or inhalational induction. Spontaneous ventilation can also be maintained using intravenous anaesthesia (e.g. propofol). Intravenous anaesthesia to maintain spontaneous respiration has certain advantages over inhalational agents (i.e. suppressed laryngeal reflexes) however it requires careful titration. Spontaneous Respiration using Intravenous anaesthesia and High-flow nasal oxygen (STRIVE Hi) is a technique that has been used in difficult and obstructed airways.


title: General anaesthesia

text: General anaesthesia reduces the tonic contraction of the orbicularis oculi muscle, causing lagophthalmos (incomplete eye closure) in 59% of peoples. In addition, tear production and tear-film stability are reduced, resulting in corneal epithelial drying and reduced lysosomal protection. The protection afforded by Bell's phenomenon (in which the eyeball turns upward during sleep, protecting the cornea) is also lost. Careful management is required to reduce the likelihood of eye injuries during general anaesthesia. Some of the methods to prevent eye injury during general anesthesia includes, taping eyelid shut, use of eye ointment, specialty designed eye protective goggle.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Paralysis, or temporary muscle relaxation with a neuromuscular blocker, is an integral part of modern anaesthesia. The first drug used for this purpose was curare, introduced in the 1940s, which has now been superseded by drugs with fewer side effects and, generally, shorter duration of action. Muscle relaxation allows surgery within major body cavities, such as the abdomen and thorax, without the need for very deep anaesthesia, and also facilitates endotracheal intubation.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Acetylcholine, a natural neurotransmitter found at the neuromuscular junction, causes muscles to contract when it is released from nerve endings. Muscle paralytic drugs work by preventing acetylcholine from attaching to its receptor. Paralysis of the muscles of respiration—the diaphragm and intercostal muscles of the chest—requires that some form of artificial respiration be implemented. Because the muscles of the larynx are also paralysed, the airway usually needs to be protected by means of an endotracheal tube.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Paralysis is most easily monitored by means of a peripheral nerve stimulator. This device intermittently sends short electrical pulses through the skin over a peripheral nerve while the contraction of a muscle supplied by that nerve is observed. The effects of muscle relaxants are commonly reversed at the end of surgery by anticholinesterase drugs, which are administered in combination with muscarinic anticholinergic drugs to minimize side effects. Examples of skeletal muscle relaxants in use today are pancuronium, rocuronium, vecuronium, cisatracurium, atracurium, mivacurium, and succinylcholine.Novel neuromuscular blockade reversal agents such as sugammadex may also be used; it works by directly binding muscle relaxants and removing it from the neuromuscular junction. Sugammadex was approved for use in the United States in 2015, and rapidly gained popularity. A study from 2022 has shown that Sugammadex and neostigmine are likely similarly safe in the reversal of neuromuscular blockade.


title: General anaesthesia

text: The duration of action of intravenous induction agents is generally 5 to 10 minutes, after which spontaneous recovery of consciousness will occur. In order to prolong unconsciousness for the duration of surgery, anaesthesia must be maintained. This is achieved by allowing the patient to breathe a carefully controlled mixture of oxygen and a volatile anaesthetic agent, or by administering intravenous medication (usually propofol). Inhaled anaesthetic agents are also frequently supplemented by intravenous analgesic agents, such as opioids (usually fentanyl or a fentanyl derivative) and sedatives (usually propofol or midazolam). Propofol can be used for total intravenous anaesthetia (TIVA), therefore supplementation by inhalation agents is not required. General anesthesia is usually considered safe; however, there are reported cases of patients with distortion of taste and/or smell due to local anesthetics, stroke, nerve damage, or as a side effect of general anesthesia.


title: General anaesthesia

text: At the end of surgery, administration of anaesthetic agents is discontinued. Recovery of consciousness occurs when the concentration of anaesthetic in the brain drops below a certain level (this occurs usually within 1 to 30 minutes, mostly depending on the duration of surgery).


title: General anaesthesia

text: In the 1990s, a novel method of maintaining anaesthesia was developed in Glasgow, Scotland. Called target controlled infusion (TCI), it involves using a computer-controlled syringe driver (pump) to infuse propofol throughout the duration of surgery, removing the need for a volatile anaesthetic and allowing pharmacologic principles to more precisely guide the amount of the drug used by setting the desired drug concentration. Advantages include faster recovery from anaesthesia, reduced incidence of postoperative nausea and vomiting, and absence of a trigger for malignant hyperthermia. At present, TCI is not permitted in the United States, but a syringe pump delivering a specific rate of medication is commonly used instead.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Other medications are occasionally used to treat side effects or prevent complications. They include antihypertensives to treat high blood pressure; ephedrine or phenylephrine to treat low blood pressure; salbutamol to treat asthma, laryngospasm, or bronchospasm; and epinephrine or diphenhydramine to treat allergic reactions. Glucocorticoids or antibiotics are sometimes given to prevent inflammation and infection, respectively.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Emergence is the return to baseline physiologic function of all organ systems after the cessation of general anaesthetics. This stage may be accompanied by temporary neurologic phenomena, such as agitated emergence (acute mental confusion), aphasia (impaired production or comprehension of speech), or focal impairment in sensory or motor function. Shivering is also fairly common and can be clinically significant because it causes an increase in oxygen consumption, carbon dioxide production, cardiac output, heart rate, and systemic blood pressure. The proposed mechanism is based on the observation that the spinal cord recovers at a faster rate than the brain. This results in uninhibited spinal reflexes manifested as clonic activity (shivering). This theory is supported by the fact that doxapram, a CNS stimulant, is somewhat effective in abolishing postoperative shivering. Cardiovascular events such as increased or decreased blood pressure, rapid heart rate, or other cardiac dysrhythmias are also common during emergence from general anaesthesia, as are respiratory symptoms such as dyspnoea. Responding and following verbal command, is a criterion commonly utilized to assess the patient's readiness for tracheal extubation.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Postoperative pain is managed in the anaesthesia recovery unit (PACU) with regional analgesia or oral, transdermal, or parenteral medication. Patients may be given opioids, as well as other medications like non steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and acetaminophen. Sometimes, opioid medication is administered by the patient themselves using a system called a patient controlled analgesic. The patient presses a button to activate a syringe device and receive a preset dose or "bolus" of the drug, usually a strong opioid such as morphine, fentanyl, or oxycodone (e.g., one milligram of morphine). The PCA device then "locks out" for a preset period to allow the drug to take effect, and also prevent the patient from overdosing. If the patient becomes too sleepy or sedated, he or she makes no more requests. This confers a fail-safe aspect that is lacking in continuous-infusion techniques. If these medications cannot effectively manage the pain, local anesthetic may be directly injected to the nerve in a procedure called a nerve block.


title: General anaesthesia

text: In the recovery unit, many vital signs are monitored, including oxygen saturation, heart rhythm and respiration, blood pressure, and core body temperature.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Postanesthetic shivering is common. Apart from causing discomfort and exacerbating pain, shivering has been shown to increase oxygen consumption, catecholamine release, risk for hypothermia, and induce lactic acidosis. A number of techniques are used to reduce shivering, such as warm blankets, or wrapping the patient in a sheet that circulates warmed air, called a bair hugger. If the shivering cannot be managed with external warming devices, drugs such as dexmedetomidine, or other α2-agonists, anticholinergics, central nervous system stimulants, or corticosteroids may be used.


title: General anaesthesia

text: In many cases, opioids used in general anaesthesia can cause postoperative ileus, even after non-abdominal surgery. Administration of a μ-opioid antagonist such as alvimopan immediately after surgery can help accelerate the timing of hospital discharge, but does not reduce the development of paralytic ileus.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Enhanced Recover After Surgery (ERAS) is a society that provides up-to-date guidelines and consensus to ensure continuity of care and improve recovery and peri-operative care. Adherence to the pathway and guidelines has been shown to associate with improved post-operative outcomes and lower costs to the health care system.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Most perioperative mortality is attributable to complications from the operation, such as haemorrhage, sepsis, and failure of vital organs. Over the last several decades, the overall anesthesia related mortality rate improved significantly for anesthetics administered. Advancements in monitoring equipment, anesthetic agents, and increased focus on perioperative safety are some reasons for the decrease in perioperative mortality. In the United States, the current estimated anesthesia-related mortality is about 1.1 per million population per year. The highest death rates were found in the geriatric population, especially those 85 and older. A review from 2018 examined perioperative anesthesia interventions and their impact on anesthesia-related mortality. Interventions found to reduce mortality include pharmacotherapy, ventilation, transfusion, nutrition, glucose control, dialysis and medical device. Interestingly, a randomized controlled trial from 2022 demonstrated that there is no significant difference in mortality between patient receiving handover from one clinician to another compared to the control group.


title: General anaesthesia

text: Mortality directly related to anaesthetic management is very uncommon but may be caused by pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents, asphyxiation, or anaphylaxis. These in turn may result from malfunction of anaesthesia-related equipment or, more commonly, human error. In 1984, after a television programme highlighting anaesthesia mishaps aired in the United States, American anaesthesiologist Ellison C. Pierce appointed the Anesthesia Patient Safety and Risk Management Committee within the American Society of Anesthesiologists. This committee was tasked with determining and reducing the causes of anaesthesia-related morbidity and mortality. An outgrowth of this committee, the Anesthesia Patient Safety Foundation, was created in 1985 as an independent, nonprofit corporation with the goal "that no patient shall be harmed by anesthesia".


title: General anaesthesia

text: The rare but major complication of general anaesthesia is malignant hyperthermia. All major hospital should have protocol in place with emergence drug cart near the OR for this potential complication.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin Roosevelt I (November 19, 1897 – July 14, 1918) was the youngest son of President Theodore Roosevelt and First Lady Edith Roosevelt. Inspired by his father and siblings, he joined the United States Army Air Service where he became a pursuit pilot during World War I. He was killed in aerial combat over France on Bastille Day (July 14), 1918. He is the only child of a U.S. president to have died in combat.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin was born in Washington, D.C., the youngest child of Theodore Roosevelt's household, which included half-sister Alice, sister Ethel, and brothers Ted (Theodore III), Kermit, and Archie.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin was three years old when his father became president, and he grew up in the White House. By far the favorite of all of President Roosevelt's children, Quentin was also the most rambunctious.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin's behavior prompted his mother, Edith, to label him a "fine bad little boy". Amongst Quentin's many adventures with the "White House Gang" (a name assigned by T.R. to Quentin and his friends), Quentin carved a baseball diamond on the White House lawn without permission, defaced official presidential portraits in the White House with spitballs, threw snowballs from the White House's roof at unsuspecting Secret Service guards, and occasionally rode on top of the family elevator with his friend, Charlie Taft, the son of Secretary of War and future President William Howard Taft.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: He quickly became known for his humorous and sometimes philosophical remarks. To a reporter trying to trap the boy into giving information about his father, Quentin admitted, "I see him occasionally, but I know nothing of his family life." The family soon learned to keep him quiet during dinner when important guests were present.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Once, when his brother Archie was terribly ill, it was Quentin (with the help of Charles Lee, a White House coachman) who brought the pony Algonquin to his room by elevator, sure that this would make his brother smile.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin started his education at Force Elementary School and then attended the Episcopal High School in Alexandria, Virginia. Later he was a student at the Evans School for Boys and Groton School.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin consistently scored high marks and displayed the intellectual prowess of his father. He was admitted to Harvard University in 1915. By the time Quentin was a sophomore at Harvard, also like his father, he was showing promise as a writer. Quentin was posthumously awarded an A.B. (War Degree) by Harvard, Class of 1919.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin was engaged to Flora Payne Whitney, the elder daughter of Harry Payne Whitney and Gertrude Vanderbilt. Gertrude was a great-granddaughter of the shipping and railroad millionaire, "Commodore" Cornelius Vanderbilt. Harry objected to Flora's relationship with Quentin because Harry disapproved of the Roosevelt family in general and the liberal Republican Theodore Roosevelt in particular.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin's letters to Flora and his father charted the course of America's entry into the war. While Theodore and Quentin were initially neutral, Theodore was incensed over the sinking of the British passenger ship RMS "Lusitania" in May 1915, in which 128 Americans drowned. Theodore campaigned vigorously on behalf of the 1916 Republican Presidential nominee, Charles Evans Hughes, during which he severely criticized Woodrow Wilson. Wilson was subsequently reelected on a neutrality platform, but took the country to war during his second term.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin came to agree with his father, writing to Flora in early 1917 from Harvard University, where he was studying: "We are a pretty sordid lot, aren't we, to want to sit looking on while England and France fight our battles and pan gold into our pockets."


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: All the Roosevelt sons had military training prior to World War I. With the outbreak of war in Europe in August 1914, there was a heightened concern about the nation's readiness for military engagement. Only the month before, Congress had belatedly recognized the significance of military aviation by authorizing the creation of an Aviation Section in the Signal Corps. In 1915, Major General Leonard Wood, a friend of Theodore Roosevelt since the Rough Rider days, organized a summer camp at Plattsburgh, New York, to provide military training for business and professional men at their own expense. It would be this summer training program that would provide the basis of a greatly expanded junior officers corps when the country entered World War I. During August 1915, many well-heeled young men from some of the finest East Coast schools, including Quentin Roosevelt and two of his brothers, attended the camp. When the United States entered the war, commissions were offered to the graduates of these schools based on their performance. The National Defense Act of 1916 continued the student military training and the businessmen's summer camps and placed them on a firmer legal basis by authorizing an Officers' Reserve Corps and a Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC). Quentin, just out of the rigors of Groton and Harvard, did not really enjoy the training, but stuck it out anyway.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: After the declaration of war, when the American Expeditionary Force was organizing, Theodore wired Major General John J. Pershing and volunteered to form a division and have his sons accompany him to Europe as privates. Pershing, who was a friend of Roosevelt dating back to the Cuban campaign, and had served under him when T.R. was president, accepted the proposal, but the War Department and President Woodrow Wilson overrode the decision. Roosevelt took the issue to Congress, but Wilson prevailed. In the end, all four of Theodore's sons served in World War I as officers, but Theodore spent the war making speeches for the Red Cross.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: With American entry into World War I, Quentin thought his mechanical skills would be useful to the Army. Just engaged to Flora, he dropped out of college in May 1917 to join the newly formed 1st Reserve Aero Squadron, the first air reserve unit in the nation. He trained on Long Island at an airfield later renamed Roosevelt Field in his honor. Today, a shopping mall sits on the site that is also named Roosevelt Field.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Finally sent to France, Lieutenant Roosevelt first helped in setting up the large Air Service training base at Issoudun. He was a supply officer and then, in time, ran one of the training airfields. Eventually, he became a pilot in the 95th Aero Squadron, part of the 1st Pursuit Group. The unit was posted to Touquin, France and, on July 9, 1918, Saints, France. During the time that he was flying from Saints, he was billeted just half a mile away at Melina Thibault's home in Mauperthuis, France where he roomed with supply officer Ed Thomas. Roosevelt had one confirmed kill of a German aircraft, which he shot down on July 10, 1918. Four days later, in a massive aerial engagement at the commencement of the Second Battle of the Marne, he was himself shot down behind German lines.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, commander of the 94th Aero Squadron (also known as the "Hat-in-the-Ring" Squadron), in his memoirs described Roosevelt's character as a soldier and pilot in the following words:


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin's plane (a Nieuport 28) was shot down in aerial combat over Chamery, a hamlet of Coulonges-en-Tardenois (now Coulonges-Cohan). He was felled by two machine gun bullets which struck him in the head. The German military buried him with full battlefield honors. Since the plane had crashed so near the front lines, they used two pieces of basswood saplings, bound together with wire from his Nieuport, to fashion a cross for his grave. For propaganda purposes, they made a postcard of the dead pilot and his plane. However, this was met with shock in Germany, which still held Theodore Roosevelt in high respect and was impressed that a former president's son died on active duty. According to his service record, the site was at Marne Grave #1 Isolated Commune #102, Coulongue Aisne. The French government posthumously awarded him the Croix de Guerre with Palm.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Three German pilots have been credited with Quentin's shootdown and death at various times, and all three of them may have been his killer. Leutnant Karl Thom of Jasta 21, one of the greatest German flying aces of the war, was in the vicinity and had confirmed kills nearby; he was often credited with Quentin's downing, but never claimed the kill. Lt


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Leutnant Christian Donhauser of Jasta 17 claimed credit and publicized himself as Quentin's killer after the war. Sergeant Carl Graeper of Jasta 50 also claimed credit, but if he did fire the fatal shots, it was his only kill during the war. All three of them may have been in the dogfight which claimed Quentin's life.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: In 1921, Quentin's brother Kermit edited and published "Quentin Roosevelt: A Sketch with Letters", consisting of Quentin's letters from France as well as tributes to Quentin written after his death. Pages 169–171 describe the circumstances of Quentin's last flight and death. On that page is a letter home from another American pilot, Lieutenant Edward Buford, detailing Quentin's final mission. Buford, like Quentin, was also reported as missing in action, but he managed to land safely at a French aerodrome. He had witnessed Quentin's last fight from the air, and described it to his family several months later:


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: At the time of a struggle between a German Pursuit squadron of seven aircraft and twelve American pursuit aviators above the Marne, a fight took place between the German pursuit pilot, a non-commissioned officer Greper, and an American pilot. After a long fight, the German flyer succeeded in bringing down his gallant antagonist.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: The hostile airman had been killed by two bullets in the head. He was identified by his papers as Lieutenant Roosevelt, of the U.S.A. Flying Corps.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: A clipping from the Kölnische Zeitung obtained through the Spanish Embassy gave this account of the fight:


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: The aviator of the American Squadron, Quentin Roosevelt, in trying to break through the airzone over the Marne, met the death of a hero. A formation of seven German airplanes, while crossing the Marne, saw in the neighborhood of Dormans a group of twelve American fighting airplanes and attacked them. A lively air battle began, in which one American (Quentin) in particular persisted in attacking. The principal feature of the battle consisted in an air duel between the American and a German fighting pilot named Sergeant Greper. After a short struggle, Greper succeeded in bringing the brave American just before his gun-sights. After a few shots the plane apparently got out of his control; the American began to fall and struck the ground near the village of Chamery, about ten kilometers north of the Marne. The American flier was killed by two shots through the head. Papers in his pocket showed him to be Quentin Roosevelt, of the United States army. His effects are being taken care of in order to be sent to his relatives. He was buried by German aviators with military honors. The German pilot who shot down Quentin Roosevelt told me of counting twenty bullet holes in his machine when he landed after the fight. He survived the war but was killed in an accident while engaged in delivering German airplanes to the American Forces under the terms of the Armistice.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Funeral services held by the Germans were witnessed on July fifteenth by Captain James E. Gee of the 110th Infantry, who had been captured and was being evacuated to the rear. Captain Gee passed through Chamery, the little village near which the plane crashed to earth. He thus describes the scene:


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: In a hollow square about the open grave were assembled approximately one thousand German soldiers, standing stiffly in regular lines. They were dressed in field gray uniforms, wore steel helmets, and carried rifles. Near the grave was a smashed plane, and beside it was a small group of officers, one of whom was speaking to the men. "I did not pass close enough to hear what he was saying; we were prisoners and did have the privilege of lingering, even for such an occasion as this. At the time I did not know who was being buried, but the guards informed me later. The funeral certainly was elaborate. I was told afterward by Germans that they paid Lieut. Roosevelt such honor not only because he was a gallant aviator, who died fighting bravely against odds, but because he was the son of Colonel Roosevelt whom they esteemed as one of the greatest Americans.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: On July 18, in a great allied counter-attack, the village where Quentin fell was retaken from the Germans, and his grave was found by some American soldiers. At its head was a wooden cross, on which was printed:


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Following the custom that sprang up in the heroic soil of the air-service, the broken propeller-blades and bent and scarred wheels of the plane were marking his resting-place.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Near by lay the shattered remains of the airplane, with the seventy-six "wound stripes" which Quentin had painted on it, still to be seen.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: The engineer regiment of the division that had retaken Chamery marked the spot where the airplane fell, and raised a cross at the grave with the inscription


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: After his grave came under Allied control, thousands of American soldiers visited it to pay their respects. Quentin's resting place became a shrine and an inspiration to his comrades in arms. Quentin's death was a great personal loss to his father, who understood quite well that he had encouraged his son's entry into the War. It is said that he never fully recovered from Quentin's death. Within six months, Theodore himself would be dead.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Eleven years after the World War II American Cemetery was established in France at Colleville-sur-Mer, Quentin's body was exhumed and moved there in 1955. Quentin's remains were moved in order to be buried next to his eldest brother Ted, who had died of a heart attack in France in 1944, shortly after leading his troops in landings on Utah Beach on D-Day as Assistant 4th Infantry Division Commander (an act which would earn him the Medal of Honor). Quentin's original gravestone was moved to Sagamore Hill to serve as a cenotaph for the President's son. The German-made basswood cross that marked Quentin's original gravesite is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, in Dayton Ohio.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: A young Quentin Roosevelt and his father president Theodore Roosevelt are mentioned in the 1953 children's story book "Brighty of the Grand Canyon" on the occasion of Quentin's first mountain lion hunt.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: In June 2007, several Roosevelt family members as well as members of the Theodore Roosevelt Association (TRA) visited the small monument in France at the French village over which Quentin was shot down in 1918. Their purpose was to restore the monument and prepare a report to the TRA on the work accomplished by this trip.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin Roosevelt II (1919–1948), the third and youngest son of Ted, was named after Quentin, and also died in a plane crash.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: On July 14, 2008, on the 90th anniversary of Quentin's death, the villages of Saints, Mauperthuis and Touquin held a commemoration of Quentin Roosevelt. Roosevelt was billeted in the village of Mauperthuis and based in Saints at the time of his death.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: On Sainte-Marie-à-Py the Aux Morts des Armées de Champagne monument was made in 1923 by sculptor Maxime Real del Sarte.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: On June 28, 2009, on the 90th anniversary of the departure of the USAS from Issoudun, Issoudun held a ceremony in honor of the American aviators and also included Quentin Roosevelt's name on the new plaque.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: There is a street in Château-Thierry, France named rue Quentin Roosevelt in his honor. Château-Thierry held a series of events and exhibitions in honor of the memory of Quentin Roosevelt in 2010.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin Road in Brooklyn, New York, originally called Avenue Q, was renamed in 1922, possibly in honor of Quentin Roosevelt.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Garden City, New York has a Quentin Roosevelt Boulevard. Its Roosevelt Field – formerly an airfield and now site of Roosevelt Field Mall – was named for Quentin Roosevelt.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: The French village Sancy-les-Cheminots in Aisne remembers Quentin Roosevelt in its "Jardin de souvenir" ("Garden of remembrance"). Formerly Sancy, this village was completely destroyed and has been rebuilt by donations of the railway workers (fr:"cheminots") and of American donors, among them Mme Theodore Roosevelt and Mme Emily Carow, godmother of Quentin Roosevelt.


title: Quentin Roosevelt

text: Quentin Roosevelt Blvd. on Naval Air Station (NAS) North Island, San Diego, CA is named in his honor.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: The Chandrasekhar limit () is the maximum mass of a stable white dwarf star. The currently accepted value of the Chandrasekhar limit is about ().


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: White dwarfs resist gravitational collapse primarily through electron degeneracy pressure, compared to main sequence stars, which resist collapse through thermal pressure. The Chandrasekhar limit is the mass above which electron degeneracy pressure in the star's core is insufficient to balance the star's own gravitational self-attraction. Consequently, a white dwarf with a mass greater than the limit is subject to further gravitational collapse, evolving into a different type of stellar remnant, such as a neutron star or black hole. Those with masses up to the limit remain stable as white dwarfs. Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit is theoretically a next level to reach in order for a neutron star to collapse into a denser form such as a black hole.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: The limit was named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. Chandrasekhar improved upon the accuracy of the calculation in 1930 by calculating the limit for a polytrope model of a star in hydrostatic equilibrium, and comparing his limit to the earlier limit found by E. C. Stoner for a uniform density star. Importantly, the existence of a limit, based on the conceptual breakthrough of combining relativity with Fermi degeneracy, was indeed first established in separate papers published by Wilhelm Anderson and E. C. Stoner in 1929. The limit was initially ignored by the community of scientists because such a limit would logically require the existence of black holes, which were considered a scientific impossibility at the time. The fact that the roles of Stoner and Anderson are often overlooked in the astronomy community has been noted.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: Electron degeneracy pressure is a quantum-mechanical effect arising from the Pauli exclusion principle. Since electrons are fermions, no two electrons can be in the same state, so not all electrons can be in the minimum-energy level. Rather, electrons must occupy a band of energy levels. Compression of the electron gas increases the number of electrons in a given volume and raises the maximum energy level in the occupied band. Therefore, the energy of the electrons increases on compression, so pressure must be exerted on the electron gas to compress it, producing electron degeneracy pressure. With sufficient compression, electrons are forced into nuclei in the process of electron capture, relieving the pressure.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: In the nonrelativistic case, electron degeneracy pressure gives rise to an equation of state of the form , where is the pressure, is the mass density, and is a constant. Solving the hydrostatic equation leads to a model white dwarf that is a polytrope of index – and therefore has radius inversely proportional to the cube root of its mass, and volume inversely proportional to its mass.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: As the mass of a model white dwarf increases, the typical energies to which degeneracy pressure forces the electrons are no longer negligible relative to their rest masses. The velocities of the electrons approach the speed of light, and special relativity must be taken into account. In the strongly relativistic limit, the equation of state takes the form . This yields a polytrope of index 3, which has a total mass, , depending only on .


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: For a fully relativistic treatment, the equation of state used interpolates between the equations for small and for large . When this is done, the model radius still decreases with mass, but becomes zero at . This is the Chandrasekhar limit. The curves of radius against mass for the non-relativistic and relativistic models are shown in the graph. They are colored blue and green, respectively. has been set equal to 2. Radius is measured in standard solar radii or kilometers, and mass in standard solar masses.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: Calculated values for the limit vary depending on the nuclear composition of the mass. Chandrasekhar gives the following expression, based on the equation of state for an ideal Fermi gas:


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: The limiting mass can be obtained formally from the Chandrasekhar's white dwarf equation by taking the limit of large central density.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: A more accurate value of the limit than that given by this simple model requires adjusting for various factors, including electrostatic interactions between the electrons and nuclei and effects caused by nonzero temperature. Lieb and Yau have given a rigorous derivation of the limit from a relativistic many-particle Schrödinger equation.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: In 1926, the British physicist Ralph H. Fowler observed that the relationship between the density, energy, and temperature of white dwarfs could be explained by viewing them as a gas of nonrelativistic, non-interacting electrons and nuclei that obey Fermi–Dirac statistics. This Fermi gas model was then used by the British physicist Edmund Clifton Stoner in 1929 to calculate the relationship among the mass, radius, and density of white dwarfs, assuming they were homogeneous spheres. Wilhelm Anderson applied a relativistic correction to this model, giving rise to a maximum possible mass of approximately . In 1930, Stoner derived the internal energy–density equation of state for a Fermi gas, and was then able to treat the mass–radius relationship in a fully relativistic manner, giving a limiting mass of approximately (for ). Stoner went on to derive the pressure–density equation of state, which he published in 1932. These equations of state were also previously published by the Soviet physicist Yakov Frenkel in 1928, together with some other remarks on the physics of degenerate matter. Frenkel's work, however, was ignored by the astronomical and astrophysical community.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: A series of papers published between 1931 and 1935 had its beginning on a trip from India to England in 1930, where the Indian physicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar worked on the calculation of the statistics of a degenerate Fermi gas. In these papers, Chandrasekhar solved the hydrostatic equation together with the nonrelativistic Fermi gas equation of state, and also treated the case of a relativistic Fermi gas, giving rise to the value of the limit shown above. Chandrasekhar reviews this work in his Nobel Prize lecture. This value was also computed in 1932 by the Soviet physicist Lev Landau, who, however, did not apply it to white dwarfs and concluded that quantum laws might be invalid for stars heavier than 1.5 solar mass.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: Chandrasekhar's work on the limit aroused controversy, owing to the opposition of the British astrophysicist Arthur Eddington. Eddington was aware that the existence of black holes was theoretically possible, and also realized that the existence of the limit made their formation possible. However, he was unwilling to accept that this could happen. After a talk by Chandrasekhar on the limit in 1935, he replied:


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: Eddington's proposed solution to the perceived problem was to modify relativistic mechanics so as to make the law universally applicable, even for large . Although Niels Bohr, Fowler, Wolfgang Pauli, and other physicists agreed with Chandrasekhar's analysis, at the time, owing to Eddington's status, they were unwilling to publicly support Chandrasekhar. Through the rest of his life, Eddington held to his position in his writings, including his work on his fundamental theory. The drama associated with this disagreement is one of the main themes of "Empire of the Stars", Arthur I. Miller's biography of Chandrasekhar. In Miller's view:


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: The core of a star is kept from collapsing by the heat generated by the fusion of nuclei of lighter elements into heavier ones. At various stages of stellar evolution, the nuclei required for this process are exhausted, and the core collapses, causing it to become denser and hotter. A critical situation arises when iron accumulates in the core, since iron nuclei are incapable of generating further energy through fusion. If the core becomes sufficiently dense, electron degeneracy pressure will play a significant part in stabilizing it against gravitational collapse.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: If a main-sequence star is not too massive (less than approximately 8 solar masses), it eventually sheds enough mass to form a white dwarf having mass below the Chandrasekhar limit, which consists of the former core of the star. For more-massive stars, electron degeneracy pressure does not keep the iron core from collapsing to very great density, leading to formation of a neutron star, black hole, or, speculatively, a quark star. (For very massive, low-metallicity stars, it is also possible that instabilities destroy the star completely.) During the collapse, neutrons are formed by the capture of electrons by protons in the process of electron capture, leading to the emission of neutrinos. The decrease in gravitational potential energy of the collapsing core releases a large amount of energy on the order of 10 joules (100 foes). Most of this energy is carried away by the emitted neutrinos and the kinetic energy of the expanding shell of gas; only about 1% is emitted as optical light. This process is believed responsible for supernovae of types Ib, Ic, and II.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: Type Ia supernovae derive their energy from runaway fusion of the nuclei in the interior of a white dwarf. This fate may befall carbon–oxygen white dwarfs that accrete matter from a companion giant star, leading to a steadily increasing mass. As the white dwarf's mass approaches the Chandrasekhar limit, its central density increases, and, as a result of compressional heating, its temperature also increases. This eventually ignites nuclear fusion reactions, leading to an immediate carbon detonation, which disrupts the star and causes the supernova.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: A strong indication of the reliability of Chandrasekhar's formula is that the absolute magnitudes of supernovae of Type Ia are all approximately the same; at maximum luminosity, is approximately −19.3, with a standard deviation of no more than 0.3. A 1-sigma interval therefore represents a factor of less than 2 in luminosity. This seems to indicate that all type Ia supernovae convert approximately the same amount of mass to energy.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: In April 2003, the Supernova Legacy Survey observed a type Ia supernova, designated SNLS-03D3bb, in a galaxy approximately 4 billion light years away. According to a group of astronomers at the University of Toronto and elsewhere, the observations of this supernova are best explained by assuming that it arose from a white dwarf that had grown to twice the mass of the Sun before exploding. They believe that the star, dubbed the "Champagne Supernova" may have been spinning so fast that a centrifugal tendency allowed it to exceed the limit. Alternatively, the supernova may have resulted from the merger of two white dwarfs, so that the limit was only violated momentarily. Nevertheless, they point out that this observation poses a challenge to the use of type Ia supernovae as standard candles.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: Since the observation of the Champagne Supernova in 2003, several more type Ia supernovae have been observed that are very bright, and thought to have originated from white dwarfs whose masses exceeded the Chandrasekhar limit. These include SN 2006gz, SN 2007if, and SN 2009dc. The super-Chandrasekhar mass white dwarfs that gave rise to these supernovae are believed to have had masses up to 2.4–2.8 solar masses. One way to potentially explain the problem of the Champagne Supernova was considering it the result of an aspherical explosion of a white dwarf. However, spectropolarimetric observations of SN 2009dc showed it had a polarization smaller than 0.3, making the large asphericity theory unlikely.


title: Chandrasekhar limit

text: After a supernova explosion, a neutron star may be left behind (except Ia type supernova explosion, which never leaves any remnants behind). These objects are even more compact than white dwarfs and are also supported, in part, by degeneracy pressure. A neutron star, however, is so massive and compressed that electrons and protons have combined to form neutrons, and the star is thus supported by neutron degeneracy pressure (as well as short-range repulsive neutron-neutron interactions mediated by the strong force) instead of electron degeneracy pressure. The limiting value for neutron star mass, analogous to the Chandrasekhar limit, is known as the Tolman–Oppenheimer–Volkoff limit.


title: Edie Adams

text: Edie Adams (born Edith Elizabeth Enke; April 16, 1927 – October 15, 2008) was an American comedian, actress, singer and businesswoman. She earned the Tony Award and was nominated for an Emmy Award.


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams was well known for her impersonations of sexy stars on stage and television, especially Marilyn Monroe. She was the frequent television partner of Ernie Kovacs, her husband. Adams founded two beauty businesses: Edie Adams Cosmetics and Edie Adams Cut 'n' Curl.


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams was born in Kingston, Pennsylvania, the only daughter of Sheldon Alonzo Enke and his wife, Ada Dorothy (née Adams). She had an elder brother, Sheldon Adams Enke. The family moved to nearby areas such as Shavertown and Trucksville and spent a year in New York City before settling in Tenafly, New Jersey, where she attended Tenafly High School. Ada Enke taught her daughter singing and piano; mother and daughter were members of the Grove City Presbyterian church choir. Adams's grandmother, a seamstress, taught her how to sew. She made her own clothing beginning in the sixth grade and Adams would later have her own designer line of clothing, called Bonham, Inc.


title: Edie Adams

text: She earned a vocal degree from Juilliard and then graduated from Columbia School of Drama. She studied at the Actors Studio in New York and at the Traphagen School of Fashion. Initially, Adams could not decide whether to pursue a career in fashion design or music, so she tossed a coin, and music won.


title: Edie Adams

text: In 1949–50, she appeared in the early live television show "Bonnie Maid's Versatile Varieties" as one of the original "Bonnie Maids" doing live commercials for the sponsor.


title: Edie Adams

text: In 1950, she won the "Miss U.S. Television" beauty contest, which led to an appearance with Milton Berle on his television show. Her earliest television work billed her as Edith Adams. One of her early appearances was on Arthur Godfrey's "Talent Scouts". She was seen by the producer of the Ernie Kovacs show "Three to Get Ready" (in Philadelphia), who invited her to audition. Adams had very little experience with popular music and could perform only three songs. She later stated: "I sang them all during the audition, and if they had asked to hear another, I never would have made it." She became part of the show in July 1951. Adams had never seen the program she was hired for. When he saw his daughter on the show, Adams's father was upset to find her role involved trying to avoid pies in the face. In one of his last interviews, Kovacs looked back on the early days, saying, "I wish I could say I was the big shot that hired her, but it was my show in name only—the producer had all the say. Later on I did have something to say and I said it, 'Let's get married.'"


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams began working regularly on television with Kovacs and talk show pioneer Jack Paar. After a courtship that included mariachi bands and an unexpected diamond engagement ring, Adams and Kovacs eloped; they were married on September 12, 1954, in Mexico City. Adams was initially uncertain about marrying Kovacs. She went on a six-week European cruise, hoping to come to a decision. After three days away and many long-distance phone calls, Adams returned home with an answer: yes. It was Kovacs's second marriage and lasted until his death in a car accident on January 13, 1962.


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams and Kovacs received Emmy nominations for best performances in a comedy series in 1957. In 1960, she and Kovacs played themselves in "The Lucy–Desi Comedy Hour" final television special on CBS, during which she performed the send-off song "That's All". Adams made four appearances on "What's My Line?" (once as "Edith Adams (Mrs. Ernie Kovacs)" while her husband was on the panel; once together with Kovacs; twice alone as Edie Adams).


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams starred on Broadway in "Wonderful Town" (1953) opposite Rosalind Russell (winning the Theatre World Award), and as Daisy Mae in "Li'l Abner" (1956), winning the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Musical. She played the Fairy Godmother in Rodgers and Hammerstein's original "Cinderella" broadcast in 1957. Adams was to play Daisy Mae in the film version of "Li'l Abner" but was unable to due to the late arrival of her daughter, Mia Susan Kovacs.


title: Edie Adams

text: After Kovacs's death, his network, ABC, gave Adams a chance with her own show, "Here's Edie", which received five Emmy nominations but lasted one season, in 1963. Kovacs was a noted cigar smoker, and Adams did a long-running series of TV commercials for Muriel Cigars. She remained the pitch-lady for Muriel well after Kovacs's death, intoning in a Mae West style and sexy outfit, "Why don't you pick one up and smoke it sometime?" Another commercial for Muriel Cigars, which cost 10 cents, showed Adams singing, "Hey, big spender, spend a little dime with me" (based on the song "Big Spender" from the musical "Sweet Charity"). Adams's cigar commercials made her one of the top three most-recognizable television celebrities. In subsequent years, Adams made sporadic television appearances, including on "Fantasy Island", "The Love Boat", "McMillan & Wife", "Murder, She Wrote" and "Designing Women".


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams played supporting roles in several films in the 1960s, including the embittered secretary of two-timing Fred MacMurray in the Oscar-winning film "The Apartment" (1960). She was the wife of a presidential candidate (played by Cliff Robertson) in "The Best Man" (1964) and was reunited with Robertson for the comedy "The Honey Pot" (1967). In 2003, as one of the surviving headliners from the all-star comedy "It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World" (1963), she joined actors Marvin Kaplan and Sid Caesar at a 40th anniversary celebration of the film. She was also a successful nightclub headliner.


title: Edie Adams

text: Shortly after her husband's death, Adams won a "nasty custody battle" with Kovacs's ex-wife over Edie's stepdaughters. His ex-wife had previously kidnapped the girls during a visit years before; because Kovacs was their legal guardian, he and Edie had worked tirelessly to locate his daughters and bring them home.


title: Edie Adams

text: Another court battle began for Adams in the same year, this time with her mother-in-law, who refused to believe there were more debts than assets in her son's estate. Mary Kovacs accused her daughter-in-law of mismanaging the estate and petitioned for custody of her granddaughters. The dispute lasted for years, with Adams remaining the administrator of her husband's estate and guardian of the three girls. She worked for years to pay her late husband's tax debt to the IRS. The couple's celebrity friends planned a TV special benefit for Edie and her family, but she declined, saying, "I can take care of my own children." She spent the next year working practically non-stop.


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams started her own businesses, Edie Adams Cosmetics, which sold door-to-door, and Edie Adams Cut 'n' Curl beauty salons, which she began in 1967. She once owned a 160-acre (65 ha) California almond farm and was the spokeswoman for Sun Giant nuts. Because of her 20 years of commercials for Muriel Cigars (retiring in 1976) and her successful business ventures, Adams went from being mired in debt after Kovacs's fatal accident in 1962 to being a millionaire in 1989.


title: Edie Adams

text: After Kovacs's death, Adams was married two more times. In 1964, she married photographer Martin Mills. In 1972, she married trumpeter Pete Candoli, with whom she appeared in a touring production of the Cole Porter musical "Anything Goes". In addition to raising stepdaughters Bette and Kippie from her marriage to Kovacs, Adams gave birth to daughter Mia Susan Kovacs (killed in an automobile accident in 1982) and son Joshua Mills.


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams was a Republican and campaigned for Dwight Eisenhower's re-election during the 1956 presidential election.


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams was an early advocate of civil rights, frequently lending her support to the movement at celebrity events and on her own television show during the early sixties. She insisted that her duet with Sammy Davis Jr. on her variety show "Here's Edie" be staged so that they were seated next to each other – as equals. Prior to that, entertainers of different races and sexes were unable to perform next to one another, so that one had to be in front of or behind the other.


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams died in Los Angeles, California, on October 15, 2008, at age 81, from cancer and pneumonia. She was interred in Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Hollywood Hills, alongside her first husband Ernie and between her daughter, Mia, and her stepdaughter, Kippie. After her death an article in "The New York Times" said that her work "both embodied and winked at the stereotypes of fetching chanteuse and sexpot blonde".


title: Edie Adams

text: Adams archived her husband's television work, which she described during a 1999 videotaped interview with the Archive of American Television. She later testified on the status of the archive of the short-lived DuMont Television Network, where both she and husband Kovacs worked during the early 1950s. Adams said that so little value was given to the film archive that the entire collection was loaded into three trucks and dumped into Upper New York Bay.


title: Edie Adams

text: Upon discovering that her husband's work was disappearing through being discarded and re-use of the tapes, Adams initially used the proceeds of his insurance policy and her own earnings to purchase the rights to as much footage as possible.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Krysta Anne Rodriguez (born July 23, 1984) is an American actress and singer. She is best known for her roles as Ana Vargas in the NBC series "Smash", Summer Henderson in the NBC series "Trial & Error", Maxine Griffin in the ABC series "Quantico" and Ms. Crumble in the Netflix comedy series "Daybreak".


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez grew up in Orange County, California. She began taking dance lessons at the age of 13, after being involved with cheerleading in middle school. After traveling to New York and seeing eight Broadway shows, she realized performers had to sing and act as well as dance, so once she returned home Rodriguez began taking singing and acting lessons. She was a cast member of the Christian television show "Colby's Clubhouse" from 1995 to 2000. She attended Orange County High School of the Arts where she played many lead roles including Marian in "The Music Man", as well as the lead role in "Gidget: The Musical", a musical co-written and directed by Francis Ford Coppola, that starred Orange County High School of the Arts students during its (ultimately unsuccessful) tryouts in 2000. She attended New York University for a few years, but began working soon after enrolling. Rodriguez said of her education, "[A]lthough I would have loved to finish I did not get that opportunity because I started working. So…no degree in musical theater, but so far an okay career."


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez made her Broadway debut in the short-lived 2005 jukebox musical "Good Vibrations". She later became a replacement for the role of Bebe in the Broadway revival of "A Chorus Line" in 2007. She has played numerous ensemble and understudy parts in the Broadway productions of "Spring Awakening" and "In the Heights", as well as a regional production of "The Boy Friend" directed by Julie Andrews. She made her feature film debut in the role of Krysta in the 2010 film "The Virginity Hit".


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Beginning performances in fall 2009, Rodriguez originated the role of Wednesday Addams in the world premiere Chicago try-out run of the new Broadway-bound musical "The Addams Family", based on the cartoons of Charles Addams. From March 2010, the show received its planned debut at New York's Lunt-Fontanne Theatre. After playing the role for over a year and lending her voice to the show's original cast recording, Rodriguez left the musical on March 8, 2011, and was replaced by Rachel Potter.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Other credits include an "Encores!" production of "Bye Bye Birdie". Her first television role was a guest appearance as the character Jordan Steele in "Gossip Girl". In 2011, Rodriguez starred in the television movie "Iceland" as Rose, one of a group of friends who reunite to heal and nurture each other after the death of one of their own.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: In 2012, Rodriguez starred in another television movie "Shadow of Fear" as Lauren. The movie is about the push and pull between a schizophrenic new waiter and a popular young waitress. In 2013, she guest starred in the web series created by Mitchell Jarvis and Wesley Taylor, "It Could Be Worse". She played an assistant to a Broadway Star named Bridgett/Bridget in two episodes, titled "Payment Plan" and "Let Your Hair Down".


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez joined the cast of the NBC series "Smash" for its second, and final, season in 2013, playing the role of Ana Vargas, an aspiring Broadway performer and the new roommate of Katharine McPhee's character Karen.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: In July 2013, Rodriguez returned to Broadway playing Casey in "First Date", co-starring with Zachary Levi.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: In December 2013, Rodriguez appeared in "Hit List", a concert presentation of the fictional musical created for the second season of "Smash", as The Diva/Sarah Smith. Rodriguez was scheduled to have a major role in the planned CBS sitcom "How I Met Your Dad"; a spinoff and successor to the long-running sitcom "How I Met Your Mother", but on March 25, 2014, it was announced that Rodriguez had exited the pilot. (The proposed spin-off would ultimately not be picked up.)


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez guest starred on "Married" in 2014, as Kim, a friend of a couple desperately trying to save their marriage. On "Ian", Rodriguez guest starred as Fly Girl. Additionally, Rodriguez starred in the Lifetime holiday movie entitled "Wishin' and Hopin'" in the role of Annette Funicello, a teen idol, movie actress and Mickey Mouse Club Mousekteer.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Also, in the fall of 2014 Rodriguez was diagnosed with breast cancer. In 2015, Rodriguez started the website ChemoCouture.com to create a blog detailing her journey during chemotherapy as well as providing various fashion, beauty, and wellness tips that she employs during her battle with cancer. After going public with her diagnosis, Rodriguez was contacted by "Cosmopolitan" to blog for their Cosmo Online Health and Fitness readers about her experiences.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: In 2015, Rodriguez was cast as Vanessa, a straight talking, no-nonsense cancer patient ready to share her truth, in a multi-episode arc in the second season of the ABC Family television show "Chasing Life". The season aired in the summer of 2015.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Also in 2015, she played Madison in an episode of "Inside Amy Schumer". Krysta also guest starred in an episode of "The Mysteries of Laura" as April Watkins.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Through June 14, 2015, she returned to star as Ilse in the Deaf West Theatre production of "Spring Awakening", held at the Wallis Annenberg Center for the Performing Arts in Beverly Hills, California. The "Los Angeles Times" featured her in an article about her return to the production that she helped to create on Broadway. In July 2015, it was announced that the production would be transferring to Broadway with its current cast for a limited engagement at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre. Rodriguez performed in the Broadway revival from September 8, 2015, through its closing on January 24, 2016. The show ran two weeks past its intended run due to its rave reviews, and garnered three Tony Award nominations including Best Revival of a Musical.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez performed in the Off-Broadway production of "What We're Up Against", a play about how women are treated in the workplace. It shows the inequality of women and how nothing has changed in the past twenty-five years. She played "Eliza, a sharp young architect who [was] new to the firm". The show ran from October 28 through December 3, 2017. This was the first time Rodriguez and Skylar Astin worked together since "Spring Awakening" in 2006.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: In 2017, Rodriguez starred as Summer Henderson in the NBC comedy series "Trial & Error". In the same year, it was announced that Rodriguez was cast in the recurring role of Maxine Griffin in the second season of ABC's thriller series "Quantico".


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: In 2018, it was announced that Rodriguez was cast in the main role of Ms. Crumble in the Netflix comedy-drama series "Daybreak".


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: Rodriguez made her solo debut at Feinstein's/54 Below from September 10–14, 2019, directed by Ben Rauhala. Special guests included Kathryn Gallagher, Andy Mientus, Joe Iconis, Megan McGinnis, Jelani Alladin, and Adam Josef Levy.


title: Krysta Rodriguez

text: In 2021, Rodriguez appeared in the role of Liza Minnelli in the Netflix miniseries "Halston". In 2022, she co-starred with Santino Fontana in the Hallmark Channel film "Just One Kiss".


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: The "Jagdpanzer" IV, Sd.Kfz. 162, was a German tank destroyer based on the Panzer IV chassis and built in three main variants. As one of the casemate-style turretless Jagdpanzer (tank destroyer, literally "hunting tank") designs, it was developed against the wishes of Heinz Guderian, the inspector general of the "Panzertruppen", as a replacement for the "Sturmgeschütz III" ("StuG" III). Guderian objected against the needless, in his eyes, diversion of resources from Panzer IV tank production, as the StuG III was still more than adequate for its role.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Officially, only the L/48-armed vehicle was named Jagdpanzer IV. The L/70-armed vehicle was named Panzer IV/70. In this article, both versions are referred to in general as Jagdpanzer IV, except in the variants and surviving vehicles section.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: With experience gained during the initial phases of the Battle of Stalingrad, in September 1942 the Wehrmacht's arms bureau, the "Waffenamt", called for a new standard for heavy assault guns: 100 mm of armor to the front, 40–50 mm on the sides, wider tracks, ground clearance of , top speed of and the lowest possible firing positions. The new "Panzerjäger" ("tank hunter") design would be armed with the same 7.5 cm gun as fitted to the Panther tank: the Pak 42 L/70. Initially a new chassis was planned, but that of the Panzer IV had to be used.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Previous efforts to mount bigger guns on smaller chassis resulted in the Marder I, II and III series and the "Sturmgeschütz" III. The Marder series were tall and had open crew compartments. The new design had a low silhouette and completely enclosed, casemate-style fighting compartment.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: The "Jagdpanzer" IV used a modified Panzer IV "Ausf." H chassis, but the almost-vertical front hull plate was replaced by sloped armor plates. Internally, the layout was changed to accommodate the new superstructure, moving the fuel tanks and ammunition racks. Since the "Jagdpanzer" lacked a turret, the auxiliary engine which powered the Panzer IV's turret traverse mechanism could be eliminated.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: The new superstructure had 80 mm thick sloped armour, giving much greater protection than vertical armour of 100 mm. To make the manufacturing process as simple as possible, the superstructure was made from large, interlocking plates that were welded together.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Armament consisted of a 7.5 cm main gun firing Fixed QF 75 × 640mm R ammunition, originally intended to be the Pak 42 L/70. Due to shortages, older guns were initially used, the 7.5 cm Pak 39 L/43 for pre-production, and the 7.5 cm Pak 39 L/48 for the initial production variant. These were shorter and less powerful than the Pak 42, and also carried a muzzle brake.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Installing the much heavier Pak 42 meant that the "Jagdpanzer" IV was nose heavy, especially with the heavy frontal armour. This made them less mobile and more difficult to operate in rough terrain, leading their crews to nickname them "Guderian-Ente" ("Guderian's duck"). To prevent the rubber rims of the roadwheels being dislocated by the weight of the vehicle, some later versions had steel roadwheels installed on the front.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: The final prototype of the "Jagdpanzer" IV was presented in December 1943 and production started in January 1944, with the Pak 39 L/48 armed variant staying in production until November. Production of the Pak 42 L/70 armed variants started in August and continued until March/April 1945.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Early versions of the Jagdpanzer IV carried two standard (no modification made) MG 42 machine guns on both sides of the main gun mantlet/glacis, firing 7.92×57mm Mauser rifle ammunition through a firing port which was protected by an armored cover plate (with the MG 42 retracted) when not in use. As the main gun was located between these machine guns one machine gun could be operated from the left side only, which is impractical for non-left-handed operators, and the other one from the right side only. Later version Jagdpanzer IVs carried only one MG 42 as internal secondary armament with about 1,200 rounds of ammunition. The Jagdpanzer IV secondary armament was exceptional, as other World War II era German tanks or other armored vehicles used the MG 34 for internal secondary or co-axial armament.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: On 19–22 August 1943, after the Battle of Kursk, Hitler received reports that StuG IIIs performed better than the Panzer IV within the constraints of how they were deployed. It was thus intended to stop production of the Panzer IV itself at the end of 1944 to concentrate solely on production of the "Jagdpanzer" IV, but the Panzer IV continued to be produced until the end of the conflict along with "Jagdpanzer" IV. VoMAG in Plauen switched completely from Panzer IV production to Jagdpanzer IV in Spring 1944, Krupp-Grusonwerk in Magdeburg switched to StuG IV in early 1944, and only the Nibelungenwerk in St. Valentin continued with Panzer IV production.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Minor modifications and improvements were made throughout the production runs of all variants, as well as several field improvements, the most common being the addition of armour sideskirts (or in German, Schürzen).


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Originally the "Jagdpanzer" IV's gun had a muzzle brake installed, but because the gun was so close to the ground, each time it was fired, huge dust clouds would betray the vehicle's position, leading many crews to remove the muzzle brake in the field. Later variants dispensed with the muzzle brake.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Early vehicles had "zimmerit" applied to the hull to protect against magnetic mines, but this was discontinued after about September 1944. Later vehicles had three return rollers rather than the original four, and adopted the twin vertical exhausts typical of the late Panzer IV series.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: The "Jagdpanzer" IV served in the anti-tank sections of Panzer and SS Panzer divisions. The vehicle fought against Western Allied forces in Normandy and the Battle of the Bulge, and Soviet tanks and troops on the Eastern Front. It was very successful as a tank destroyer due to its low profile, accurate gun and good armour protection, but performed poorly when used out of role as a substitute for tanks or assault guns to support infantry. This was increasingly necessary in the later stages of the war from late 1944 to 1945, because there was often nothing else available to the badly depleted German armoured units.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Romania received several "Jagdpanzer" IV/70 from the Red Army after the war ended. They were officially known as TAs T4 in their army's inventory and were used until 1950 when they were phased out. German armour in Romanian service, including the Jagdpanzer IV, was replaced entirely with Soviet vehicles in 1954. Bulgaria also received Jagdpanzer IVs from both Germany and the Soviet Union (most coming from the latter post-WWII), and they saw limited service in the postwar Bulgarian military before being stripped of all engine components, dug in and turned into fixed gun emplacements on its border with neighbouring Turkey, as part of the Krali Marko Line (now fallen into disrepair). Most of these ex-German vehicles have been dug up recently, with some scrapped while others await restoration locally or abroad.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: "Jagdpanzer" IV aces include "SS-Oberscharführer" (2nd Lieutenant) Rudolf Roy from the 12th SS "Panzerjäger" Battalion of 12th SS Panzer Division. He was killed by an American sniper while looking out of the hatch of his "Jagdpanzer" IV on December 17 in 1944 during the Ardennes Offensive in Belgium, the last major German offensive on the Western Front.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: After the war, West Germany continued the "Jagdpanzer" concept with the "Kanonenjagdpanzer", but few other fixed-casemate self-propelled guns were built in the postwar era. An innovative exception was the Swedish Stridsvagn 103, more widely known as the "S-Tank".


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: Along with Panzer IVs and Sturmgeschütz IIIs, Syria acquired in the 1950s six Jagdpanzer IV L/48s. These were used in the conflicts with Israel up until 1967 when most were either destroyed, abandoned on the Golan Heights overlooking Israel, or scrapped.


title: Jagdpanzer IV

text: The Kanonenjagdpanzer (also known as "Jagdpanzer Kanone 90mm", or "tank destroyer, gun") was a German Cold War tank destroyer equipped with a 90mm anti-tank gun from obsolete M47 Patton tanks. Its design was very similar to that of World War II Jagdpanzer IV.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Mahabaleshwar () is a small town and a municipal council in Satara district, Maharashtra, India. It is a place of pilgrimage for Hindus because Krishna river has its origin here. The British colonial rulers developed the town as a hill station, and served as the summer capital of Bombay Presidency during the British Raj.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Mahabaleshwar is located on the mountainous Sahyadri range of the Western ghats that run North to south along western coast of India.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: The coordinates of the town are . Mahabaleshwar is a vast plateau measuring , bound by valleys on all sides. It reaches a height of at its highest peak above sea level, known as Wilson/Sunrise Point


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Mahabaleshwar comprises three villages: Malcolm Peth, Old "Kshetra" Mahabaleshwar and part of the Shindola village.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Mahabaleshwar region is the source of the Krishna River that flows across Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and Andhra Pradesh. The legendary source of the river is a spout from the mouth of a statue of a cow in the ancient temple of Mahadev in Old Mahabaleshwar. Legend has it that Krishna is Lord Vishnu himself as a result of a curse on the trimurti by Savitri. Also, its tributaries Venna and Koyna are said to be Lord Shiva and Lord Brahma themselves. 3 other rivers come out from the cow's mouth apart from Krishna and they all travel some distance before merging into Krishna which flows East towards the Bay of Bengal. These rivers are the Koyna, Venna (Veni) and Gayatri. The Savitri river flows Westward via Mahad to the Arabian Sea.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Climate of the area is suitable for cultivation of strawberries, Mahabaleshwar strawberry contributes to about 85 percent of the total strawberry production in the country. It also received the geographical indication (GI) tag in 2010.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Mahabaleshwar has a borderline tropical monsoon/humid subtropical climate (Köppen "Am"/"Cwa"). Very heavy rainfall is a normal occurrence during monsoons. During July, 10–12 days of continuous rains with each day occur each year. There were reports of ice and ground frost formation around Venna Lake in 2018 On August 7, 2019, Mahabaleshwar recorded of rain in 24 hours causing landslides. Mahabaleshwar has been described as the "New Candidate for the wettest place in the world", the title currently held by Cherrapunji.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Legend says that a Yadava ruler from 13th century built a small temple and water tank at the source of the river Krishna. The area around Mahabaleshwar called the Vale of Jawali was ruled by the More (clan) who were vassals of the Adilshahi sultanate of Bijapur.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: In 1656, the founder of Maratha empire, Chatrapati Shri Shivaji Maharaj on account of political circumstances, killed the then ruler of vale of Javali, Chandrarao More, and seized that area. Around that time Shivaji also built a hill fort near Mahabaleshwar called Pratapgad fort.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: In 1819, after the demise of the Maratha empire, the British ceded the hills around Mahabaleshwar to the vassal state of Satara. Colonel Lodwick (Later General Sir Lodwick) after climbing the mountains near Mahabaleshwar, recommended the place as a sanatorium for the British forces to governor Sir John Malcolm of Bombay presidency. The Raja of Satara was granted other villages in exchange for the British getting Mahabaleshwar in 1828. In old records Mahabaleshwar was even called as Malcolm Peth after the governor. Mahabaleshwar started gaining prominence when British officials of Bombay presidency such as in 1828, and later Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone, Arthur Malet (for whom the seat at "Point Arthur" is named), Carnac, and many others became regular visitors.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: A lake called Venna lake was constructed in 1842 to collect water from perennial springs. The Venna river flows from this lake. Bartley Frere, the commissioner of Satara in 1850s built the road from Satara to Mahabaleshwar. In mid 1800s, Mahabaleshwar was made into summer capital of Bombay presidency. Government spending led to rapid development of the area. Colonial officials spent part of their year in the area. Their wives spent longer period to be with their children in local boarding schools in Mahabaleshwar and nearby Panchgani. The British rulers wanted to recreate the English landscape in the hill stations and to that end, European flora such as strawberries were introduced in Mahabaleshwar, and amenities such as libraries, theatres, boating lakes, and sports grounds constructed.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Added to the scores of magnificent scenic "points", the perennial springs, streams, and waterfalls of Mahabaleshwar plateau, with its year round superb climate, drew the English and others to Mahabaleshwar. By the end of the 19th century it had become an attractive popular hill station of world renown. Raj Bhavan, the Summer residence of the Governor of Maharashtra, is also located here. An older building named "The Terraces" was purchased in 1884 and rechristened as "Giri Darshan" in 1886.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: "Babington House", is a colonial-style bungalow built in the shape of a cross with a deep veranda, elaborate metal work railing and extensive outhouses. It was formerly one of the country seats of the Dubash family, a Parsi ship chandler dynasty from Bombay who sold it to the Rahejas in the early 1970s. It contains a central dining room with a 24-seater table and a library pavilion with 1st edition books collected by the Dubash family, notably Jamsetjee "Jimmy" Kavasjee Dubash, a bibliophile and art collector.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: India census, Mahabaleshwar had a population of 12,737. Males constituted 55% of the population and females 45%. Mahabaleshwar had an average literacy rate of 78%, higher than the national average of 74.04%: male literacy was 84%, and female literacy was 71%. In Mahabaleshwar, 11% of the population was at that time under 6 years of age.90% of population speaks Marathi language.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Mahabaleshwar is 32 km from Wai. It is 260 km from Mumbai, the state capital. The nearest major city is Satara, 45 km and it is 120 km from Pune and 263 km from Mumbai thane Mahabaleshwar is connected by the National Highway 4. Bus services by state-run MSRTC and private organizations connect it to Pune, Mumbai, Sangli and Satara.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Nearest railroad is Satara, 60 km. Nearby major railway junctions include Pune (120 km), and Miraj (170 km) . State-run bus services are available in these locations to Mahabaleshwar. Rail station Diwan Khavati on Kokan Railway near Khed gives a route of 60 km via Poladpur to Mahabaleshwar.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: The nearest airport is Pune International Airport, serving the city of Pune, 120 km from Mahabaleshwar. Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport of Mumbai is 270 km.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: Mahabaleshwar is a major place of tourism in Maharashtra. Attractions include many hill side look out points with views of surrounding hills, valleys and forests such as Bombay Point, Arthur Seat, Kates Point, Lodwick-Wilson Point, and Elphinston Point. Wilson point is the only location in Mahabaleshwar where both sunrise and sunset can be seen. The town also has a man made lake dating back to British era called Venna Lake. The lake is a popular for boating.It is surrounded by a market and food stalls that are popular with the tourists. Other attractions includee the Lingmala waterfall. Old Mahabaleshwar is a place of pilgrimage with its Mahadeo temple.The temple is the source of the five rivers Krishna, Koyna, Venna, Savitri and Gayatri. Being a relatively cool place, many temperate region cropssuch as strawberries, raspberries, and mulberries have been grown in Mahabaleshwar and surrounding hills. Principal amongst these crops is Starwaberries.Strawberry plantations, and the produce they offer are also a popular tourist activity.Mahabaleshwar strawberry was granted the geographical indication (GI) tag in 2010. As a popular tourist destination, Mahabaleshwar has hotels to and accommodation to suit different budgets.


title: Mahabaleshwar

text: A popular place to visit is the historic fort of Pratapgad built by Chatrapati Shivaji. It is the site of the encounter between Shivaji Maharaj and Bijapur general, Afzal Khan, where the latter was defeated and killed by Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. There are small shops, restaurants and a handicrafts store. Many schools also arrange educational trips to the fort. The fort is also on many trekking routes of the area.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: Operation Plumbbob was a series of nuclear tests that were conducted between May 28 and October 7, 1957, at the Nevada Test Site, following "Project 57", and preceding "Project 58/58A".


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: The operation consisted of 29 explosions, of which only two did not produce any nuclear yield. Twenty-one laboratories and government agencies were involved. While most "Operation Plumbbob" tests contributed to the development of warheads for intercontinental and intermediate range missiles, they also tested air defense and anti-submarine warheads with smaller yields. They included forty-three military effects tests on civil and military structures, radiation and bio-medical studies, and aircraft structural tests. "Operation Plumbbob" had the tallest tower tests to date in the U.S. nuclear testing program as well as high-altitude balloon tests. One nuclear test involved the largest troop maneuver ever associated with U.S. nuclear testing.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: Approximately 18,000 members of the U.S. Air Force, Army, Navy and Marines participated in exercises Desert Rock VII and VIII during "Operation Plumbbob". The military was interested in knowing how the average foot-soldier would stand up, physically and psychologically, to the rigors of the tactical nuclear battlefield.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: Almost 1,200 pigs were subjected to bio-medical experiments and blast-effects studies during "Operation Plumbbob". On shot "Priscilla" (37 kt), 719 pigs were used in various experiments on Frenchman Flat. Some pigs were placed in elevated cages and provided with suits made of different materials, to test which materials provided best protection from the thermal radiation. As shown and reported in the PBS documentary "Dark Circle", the pigs survived, but with third-degree burns to 80% of their bodies. Other pigs were placed in pens behind large sheets of glass at measured distances from the hypocenter to test the effects of flying debris on living targets.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: Studies were conducted of radioactive contamination and fallout from a simulated accidental detonation of a weapon; and projects concerning earth motion, blast loading and neutron output were carried out.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: Nuclear weapons safety experiments were conducted to study the possibility of a nuclear weapon detonation during an accident. On July 26, 1957, a safety experiment, "Pascal-A", was detonated in an unstemmed hole at the Nevada Test Site, becoming the first underground shaft nuclear test. The knowledge gained here would provide data to prevent nuclear yields in case of accidental detonations—for example, in a plane crash.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: The "John" shot on July 19, 1957, was the only test of the Air Force's AIR-2 Genie missile with a nuclear warhead. It was fired from an F-89J Scorpion fighter over Yucca Flats at the Nevada National Security Site. On the ground, the Air Force carried out a public relations event by having five Air Force officers and a videographer stand under ground zero of the blast, which took place at between altitude, with the idea of demonstrating the possibility of the use of the weapon over civilian populations without ill effects. The five officers were: Colonel Sidney C. Bruce, later professor of Electrical Engineering at Colorado University, died in 2005; Lieutenant Colonel Frank P. Ball, died in 2003; Major John w. Hughes II, died in 1990; Major Norman B. Bodinger, died February 2, 1997; Major Donald A. Luttrell, died December 20, 2014. The videographer, Akira "George" Yoshitake, died in October 2013.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: The "Rainier" shot, conducted September 19, 1957, was the first fully contained underground nuclear test, meaning that no fission products were vented into the atmosphere. This test of 1.7 kt could be detected around the world by seismologists using ordinary seismic instruments. The "Rainier" test became the prototype for larger and more powerful underground tests.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: Images from "Upshot-Knothole Grable" were accidentally relabeled as belonging to the "Priscilla" shot from "Operation Plumbbob" in 1957. As a consequence publications including official government documents have the photo mislabeled. The shots can be told apart by the trails of test rockets, which are prominently featured in images and footage of "Grable", but appear almost completely absent at the actual "Priscilla" shot.


title: Operation Plumbbob

text: In 1956, Dr Robert Brownlee, from Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico, was asked to examine whether nuclear detonations could be conducted underground. The first subterranean test was the nuclear device known as Pascal A, which was lowered down a borehole. However, the detonated yield turned out to be 50,000 times greater than anticipated, creating a jet of fire that shot hundreds of feet into the sky. During the Pascal-B nuclear test, of August 1957, a steel plate cap (a piece of armor plate) was welded over the borehole to contain the nuclear blast even though Brownlee predicted it would not work. When Pascal-B was detonated, the blast went straight up the test shaft, launching the cap into the atmosphere at a speed of more than . The plate was never found. Scientists believe compression heating caused the cap to vaporize as it sped through the atmosphere. A high-speed camera, which took one frame per millisecond, was focused on the borehole because studying the velocity of the plate was deemed scientifically interesting. After the detonation, the plate appeared in only one frame, but this was enough to make an estimation of its speed. Dr. Brownlee joked the best estimate of the cover's speed from the photographic evidence was it was "going like a bat!". Brownlee estimated that the explosion, combined with the specific design of the shaft, could accelerate the plate to approximately six times Earth's escape velocity. In 2015 Dr. Brownlee said, "I have no idea what happened to the cap, but I always assumed that it was probably vaporized before it went into space." Later calculations made during 2019 (although the result cannot be confirmed) are strongly in favor of vaporization.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Goh Chok Tong (; born 20 May 1941) is a Singaporean former politician who served as Prime Minister of Singapore between 1990 and 2004, and Secretary-General of the People's Action Party between 1992 and 2004. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Marine Parade SMC between 1976 and 1988, and Marine Parade GRC between 1988 and 2020.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Prior to his appointment as prime minister, he was the country's deputy prime minister, where he advocated for the Medisave, a scheme that allows Singaporeans to set aside part of their income into a Medisave account to meet future medical expenses. Goh also advocated for the Edusave Awards, a monetary reward for students who did well in school based on either their academic or character, to enshrine meritocracy.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: During his tenure as prime minister, political reforms like the introduction of Non-Constituency Members of Parliament (NCMP), to allow more oppositions into Parliament, Group Representation Constituency (GRC), to make sure that the minorities are represented in Parliament and Nominated Member of Parliament (NMP), to have independent opinions in Parliament since all NMPs are non-partisan, were also proposed by Goh when he was serving as Deputy Prime Minister after assuming the responsibility of the government in a carefully managed leadership transition.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Goh's tenure as prime minister was also marked by the 1991 aircraft hijack of SQ117, 1997 Asian financial crisis, 2001 embassies attack plot and the 2003 SARS outbreak. His government enacted the Elected President scheme in 1991 as presidents before were appointed by Parliament. His government also introduced the Vehicle Quota Scheme to limit the number of vehicles in the city-state.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: He was succeeded by Lee Hsien Loong, the eldest son of Singapore's first prime minister, Lee Kuan Yew, on 12 August 2004 and was subsequently appointed as a senior minister in the Cabinet and chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore (MAS) between 2004 and 2011.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: He resigned from the Cabinet in 2011 before stepping down as a Member of Parliament (MP) and retire from politics in 2020. He was given the honorary title Emeritus Senior Minister in 2011 by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong. He is also the only living former prime minister.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Goh was born in Singapore on 20 May 1941 to Goh Kah Choon and Quah Kwee Hwa, who hailed from the Minnan region of Fujian province in China. He has Chinese Hokkien ancestry. Goh studied at Raffles Institution from 1955 to 1960. He was a very competitive swimmer in his younger days and was given the nickname "Bold".


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Goh earned a Bachelor of Arts with first class honours in economics from the University of Singapore and a Master of Arts in development economics from Williams College in 1967.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Upon his graduation, Goh returned to Singapore to work in the government. Goh's dream of getting a PhD was disrupted as the government would not transfer his bursary bond to the university, where he had signed on as a research fellow after graduation.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: In 2015, Goh was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by his alma mater, the National University of Singapore, for his contributions to the country.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: In 1969, Goh was seconded to the national shipping company Neptune Orient Lines (NOL) as the company's Planning and Projects Manager. His career advanced quickly and by 1973 he was the Managing Director. At NOL, Goh worked under the company's founder, Muhammad Jalaluddin Sayeed, with whom he maintained close ties.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: In the 1976 general election, Goh, then 35, was elected as Member of Parliament for Marine Parade SMC as a People's Action Party (PAP) candidate. He was appointed as a Senior Minister of State. In 1981, he was promoted to Minister for Trade and Industry and later served in other appointments including Minister for Health and Minister for Defence.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Goh was tasked to organise the 1981 Anson SMC by-election which was a pivotal event in shaping his political sensibilities. Despite having been passed as first assistant secretary-general by Tony Tan, Goh was surprisedly asked by Lee Kuan Yew to lead and organise the by-election, which was ostensibly because of Goh previous successful campaigns in organising the 1979 by-election at Anson SMC and the 1980 General Elections. Early on in the campaigning for the 1981 Anson SMC by-election, a chasm of leadership emerged as volunteers and older activists for the previous MP Devan Nair departed along with the MP. The new PAP candidate was Pang Kim Hin, who has difficulties connecting to the ground as he had a reputation of being a "rich man's son", being the nephew of Old Guard minister Lim Kan San. Despite being a three-cornered fight, it was apparent that the main opposition candidate was J. B. Jeyaretnam, who was a veteran opposition at the time, having previously came close in winning the seat at Telok Blangah, which is of close proximity to Anson. The rising costs of housing and upcoming public bus fares was a source of unhappiness among voters. PAP lost the Anson seat with a 37-point swing in just 10 months since the last General Election, marking the first time since Independence that PAP has lost a seat. This watershed event prompted gossip with the PAP that this could signal the end of Goh's political career. While Lee Kuan Yew was worried that Goh may lack the political sensitivity of the ground, as he failed to detect the possible loss of the seat and remained overconfident until very close to Polling day, he did not blame Goh for the loss, as he reflects this incident in his memoir: "From Third World to First".


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: In 1985, Goh became Deputy Prime Minister and began to assume the responsibility of the government in a carefully managed leadership transition. According to Lee Kuan Yew, his preferred successor was Tony Tan. However, Goh was selected by the second generation of PAP leaders that included Tony Tan and Ong Teng Cheong; Lee accepted their decision. However, during the 1988 National Day Rally, Lee Kuan Yew publicly discussed his preferred choice of successor to the nation - ranking Goh as number 2 below Tony Tan, and while praising his 'faster mind', criticized his indecisiveness and softer and consultative approach to leadership. This led to Goh feeling humiliated and flabbergasted, as he reflects on this incident in his memoirs, Tall Order: The Goh Chok Tong Story.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: On 28 November 1990, Goh succeeded Lee Kuan Yew and became the second Prime Minister of Singapore. During the first year of Goh's premiership, Lee remained as secretary-general of the PAP. Lee also remained an influential member of Goh's Cabinet, holding the post of Senior Minister. The 1991 general elections, the first electoral test for Goh, led to the party winning 61% of the popular vote which is the all-time low for PAP since independence. Because of the drop in share of the popular vote, and losing an unprecedented four seats in Parliament to the opposition, Goh has to quell rumours about his potential resignation to the international news media. In 1992, Lee handed over the post of Secretary-General of the People's Action Party (PAP) to Goh, successfully completing the leadership transition.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Goh's Deputy Prime Ministers: Lee Hsien Loong and Ong Teng Cheong was both diagnosed with cancer in 1992, which prompted the prime minister to call an by-election in his own constituency of Marine Parade in 1992, just over 1 year after the 1991 General Elections, citing the need for 'political self-renewal' and to get 'ministerial calibre' people to join the government. Teo Chee Hean, who is currently one of the core leaders of the 3G members of PAP and Senior Minister, was one of the new politicians brought in to contest in the by-election.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: As Prime Minister, Goh promised a more open-minded and consultative style of leadership than that of his predecessor. This greater openness extended also to the socio-economic spheres of life, for instance, in his support for the rise of "little bohemias" in Singapore, enclaves where more creativity and entrepreneurship could thrive.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: During the period under Goh's administration, Singapore experienced several crises, such as the 1997 Asian financial crisis, threats of terrorism including the 2001 Singapore embassies attack plot by Jemaah Islamiyah, the 2001–2003 economic recession, and the 2003 SARS outbreak.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Goh's administration whose access to Bill Clinton's White House was blocked because of the Michael Fay incident did not deter Goh from reaching out to the US President to pitch his idea for a free trade agreement (FTA) between Singapore and the US, as he did not believe Clinton to be aware of the diplomatic freeze. With the help of American businessman Joe Ford, Goh managed to reached out to President Clinton during the 1997 APEC summit, where he played Golf with the President, ending the diplomatic freeze. On September 1998, Goh had a meeting with President Clinton in the White House and agreed to contribute to the Korean Peninsula Energy Development Organization (KEDO) which helped build strong ties between the two countries. The considerable improvement in this bilateral relationship had great impact on Singapore's economic recovery from the Asian Financial Crisis as several trade negotiations, part of "The Millennium Round" have failed (1999 Seattle WTO protests and Doha Round) have broken down. As international trade was three times Singapore's GDP at that time, securing trade treaties was paramount to Singapore's economic survival, with the US as its most desired trading partner. By riding on the improved relationship with the Clinton's administration, Goh personally reached out to President Clinton during the annual summit at Brunei in November 2000, near the end of Clinton's second term of his presidency. After a midnight golf session with Clinton after the banquet, Goh successfully convinced Clinton on a Singapore-USA FTA, with Clinton suggesting a FTA similar to the US-Jordan FTA. The FTA with USA was eventually signed in 2003 and this was USA first FTA with an Asian country, with Goh exalting this FTA as the "crown jewel" of Singapore's international trade.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Under Goh's leadership, Singapore also signed an FTA with Japan in 2002, with Japan deepening her trade ties with ASEAN with a FTA with ASEAN in 2008.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: As Secretary-General, Goh led the PAP to three general election victories in 1991, 1997, and 2001, in which the party won 61%, 65% and 75% of the votes respectively. After the 2001 general election, Goh indicated that he would step down as Prime Minister after leading the country out of the recession.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: During an interview with "Time" magazine in July 2003, Goh surprised Singaporeans by announcing that his government was openly employing homosexuals, even in sensitive jobs, despite homosexual acts remaining illegal under Section 377A of the Penal Code. Although his announcement drew a strong backlash from conservatives, it nevertheless reinforced his image as an open-minded leader.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: On 12 August 2004, Goh stepped down as Prime Minister and held a new position as Senior Minister in the Cabinet of his successor, Lee Hsien Loong. On 20 August 2004, Goh assumed the position of Chairman of the Monetary Authority of Singapore. After a number of threats of terrorism in Singapore, Goh met local Islamic religious leaders in 2004 and made a visit to Iran, where he met Iranian president Mohammad Khatami and visited local mosques.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: Goh subsequently visited other Middle Eastern countries as Senior Minister, with a view to improving diplomatic relationships and thus gaining wider opportunities for Singaporean businesses, especially in the United Arab Emirates, Qatar and Kuwait.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: On 1 February 2005, Goh was appointed an honorary Companion of the Order of Australia, Australia's highest civilian honour, "for eminent service to Australia-Singapore relations".


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: On 19 May 2005, Goh signed a Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement with Israel's Finance Minister Benjamin Netanyahu on a visit to Israel, superseding the agreement signed in 1971. Improvements in the agreement include enhancements to the withholding tax rate on interest income, which was reduced from 15% to 7%. This would benefit Singaporean businessmen with investments in Israel and vice versa, by ensuring they are not taxed twice.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: In the 2006 general election, Goh was tasked to help the PAP win back the two opposition wards of Hougang and Potong Pasir. However, he was unsuccessful in this task, as Low Thia Khiang and Chiam See Tong retained their respective wards.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: In 2006, Goh was briefly considered for the job of United Nations Secretary-General but he lost out and the job eventually went to Ban Ki-moon.


title: Goh Chok Tong

text: In 2008, Goh was invited to join the InterAction Council of Former Heads of State and Government, an independent international organisation of former world leaders.