title: History of communism

text: According to Gorlizki and Khlevniuk (2004), Stalin's consistent and overriding goal after 1945 was to consolidate the nation's superpower status and in the face of his growing physical decrepitude to maintain his own hold on total power. Stalin created a leadership system that reflected historic czarist styles of paternalism and repression, yet was also quite modern. At the top, personal loyalty to Stalin counted for everything. However, Stalin also created powerful committees, elevated younger specialists and began major institutional innovations. In the teeth of persecution, Stalin's deputies cultivated informal norms and mutual understandings which provided the foundations for collective rule after his death.


title: History of communism

text: The military success of the Red Army in Central and Eastern Europe led to a consolidation of power in communist hands. In some cases, such as Czechoslovakia, this led to enthusiastic support for socialism inspired by the Communist Party and a Social Democratic Party willing to fuse. In other cases, such as Poland or Hungary, the fusion of the Communist Party with the Social Democratic Party was forcible and accomplished through undemocratic means. In many cases, the communist parties of Central Europe were faced with a population initially quite willing to reign in market forces, institute limited nationalisation of industry and supporting the development of intensive social welfare states, whereas broadly the population largely supported socialism. However, the purges of non-communist parties that supported socialism, combined with forced collectivisation of agriculture and a Soviet-bloc wide recession in 1953 led to deep unrest. This unrest first surfaced in Berlin in 1953, where Brecht ironically suggested that "the Party ought to elect a new People". However, Nikita Khrushchev's "Secret Speech" of 1956 opened up internal debate, even if members were unaware, in both the Polish and Hungarian communist parties. This led to the Polish crisis of 1956 which was resolved through change in Polish leadership and a negotiation between the Soviet and Polish parties over the direction of the Polish economy.


title: History of communism

text: The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 was a major challenge to Moscow's control of Eastern Europe. This revolution saw general strikes, the formation of independent workers councils, the restoration of the Social Democratic Party as a party for revolutionary communism of a non-Soviet variety and the formation of two underground independent communist parties. The mainstream Communist Party was controlled for a period of about a week by non-Soviet aligned leaders. Two non-communist parties that supported the maintenance of socialism also regained their independence. This flowering of dissenting communism was crushed by a combination of a military invasion supported by heavy artillery and airstrikes; mass arrests, at least a thousand juridical executions and an uncounted number of summary executions; the crushing of the Central Workers Council of Greater Budapest; mass refugee flight; and a worldwide propaganda campaign. The effect of the Hungarian Revolution on other communist parties varied significantly, resulting in large membership losses in Anglophone communist parties.


title: History of communism

text: The Czechoslovak Communist Party began an ambitious reform agenda under Alexander Dubček. The plan to limit central control and make the economy more independent of the party threatened bedrock beliefs. On 20 August 1968, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev ordered a massive military invasion by Warsaw Pact forces that destroyed the threat of internal liberalization. At the same time, the Soviets threatened retaliation against the British-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt. The upshot was a collapse of any tendency toward détente and the resignations of more intellectuals from communist parties in the West.


title: History of communism

text: West Germany and West Berlin were centers of East–West conflict during the Cold War and numerous communist fronts were established. For example, the East Germany organization Society for German–Soviet Friendship (GfDSF) had 13,000 members in West Germany, but it was banned in 1953 by some Länder as a communist front. The Democratic Cultural League of Germany started off as a series of genuinely pluralistic bodies, but in 1950–1951 came under the control of the communists. By 1952, the United States Embassy counted 54 "infiltrated organizations" which started independently as well as 155 "front organizations" which had been communist inspired from their start.


title: History of communism

text: The Association of the Victims of the Nazi Regime was set up to rally West Germans under the anti-fascist banner, but it had to be dissolved when Moscow discovered it had been infiltrated by "Zionist agents".


title: History of communism

text: Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party came to power in China in 1949 as the Nationalists headed by the Kuomintang fled to the island of Taiwan. In 1950–1953, China engaged in a large-scale, undeclared war with the United States, South Korea and United Nations forces in the Korean War. While ended in a military stalemate, it gave Mao the opportunity to identify and purge elements in China that seemed supportive of capitalism. At first, there was close cooperation with Stalin, who sent in technical experts to aid the industrialization process along the line of the Soviet model of the 1930s. After Stalin's death in 1953, relations with Moscow soured—Mao thought Stalin's successors had betrayed the Communist ideal. Mao charged that Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev was the leader of a "revisionist clique" which had turned against Marxism and Leninism was now setting the stage for the restoration of capitalism. The two nations were at sword's point by 1960. Both began forging alliances with communist supporters around the globe, thereby splitting the worldwide movement into two hostile camps.


title: History of communism

text: Rejecting the Soviet model of rapid urbanization, Mao Zedong and his top aide Deng Xiaoping launched the Great Leap Forward in 1957–1961 with the goal of industrializing China overnight, using the peasant villages as the base rather than large cities. Private ownership of land ended and the peasants worked in large collective farms that were now ordered to start up heavy industry operations, such as steel mills. Plants were built in remote locations, despite the lack of technical experts, managers, transportation or needed facilities. Industrialization failed, but the main result was a sharp unexpected decline in agricultural output, which led to mass famine and millions of deaths. The years of the Great Leap Forward in fact saw economic regression, with 1958 through 1961 being the only years between 1953 and 1983 in which China's economy saw negative growth. Political economist Dwight Perkins argues, "Enormous amounts of investment produced only modest increases in production or none at all. [...] In short, the Great Leap was a very expensive disaster". Put in charge of rescuing the economy, Deng adopted pragmatic policies that the idealistic Mao disliked. For a while, Mao was in the shadows, but he returned to center stage and purged Deng and his allies in the Cultural Revolution (1966–1969).


title: History of communism

text: Following the Second World War, Trotskyism was wracked by increasing internal divisions over analysis and strategy. This was combined with an industrial impotence that was widely recognised. Additionally, the success of Soviet-aligned parties in Europe and Asia led to the persecution of Trotskyite intellectuals such as the infamous purge of Vietnamese Trotskyists. The war had also strained social democratic parties in the West. In some cases, such as Italy, significant bodies of membership of the Social Democratic Party were inspired by the possibility of achieving advanced socialism. In Italy, this group, combined with dissenting communists, began to discuss theory centred on the experience of work in modern factories, leading to autonomist Marxist. In the United States, this theoretical development was paralleled by the Johnson–Forest Tendency whereas in France a similar impulse occurred.


title: History of communism

text: The Cultural Revolution was an upheaval that targeted intellectuals and party leaders from 1966 through 1976. Mao's goal was to purify communism by removing pro-capitalists and traditionalists by imposing Maoist orthodoxy within the Chinese Communist Party. The movement paralyzed China politically and weakened the country economically, culturally and intellectually for years. Millions of people were accused, humiliated, stripped of power and either imprisoned, killed or most often sent to work as farm laborers. Mao insisted that these he labelled revisionists be removed through violent class struggle. The two most prominent militants were Marshall Lin Biao of the army and Mao's wife Jiang Qing. China's youth responded to Mao's appeal by forming Red Guard groups around the country. The movement spread into the military, urban workers and the Communist Party leadership itself. It resulted in widespread factional struggles in all walks of life. In the top leadership, it led to a mass purge of senior officials who were accused of taking a "capitalist road", most notably Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping. During the same period, Mao's personality cult grew to immense proportions. After Mao's death in 1976, the survivors were rehabilitated and many returned to power.


title: History of communism

text: The Cuban Revolution was a successful armed revolt led by Fidel Castro's 26th of July Movement against the regime of Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. It ousted Batista on 1 January 1959, replacing his regime with Castro's revolutionary government. Castro's government later reformed along communist lines, becoming the present Communist Party of Cuba in October 1965. The United States response was highly negative, leading to a failed invasion attempt in 1961. The Soviets decided to protect its ally by stationing nuclear weapons in Cuba in 1962. In the Cuban Missile Crisis, the United States vehemently opposed the Soviet Union move. There was serious fear of nuclear war for a few days, but a compromise was reached by which Moscow publicly removed its weapons and the United States secretly removed its from bases in Turkey and promised never to invade.


title: History of communism

text: During the decolonization of Africa, the Soviet Union took a keen interest in that continent's independence movements and initially hoped that the cultivation of communist client states there would deny their economic and strategic resources to the West. Soviet foreign policy with regards to Africa assumed that newly independent African governments would be receptive to communist ideology and that the Soviets would have the resources to make them attractive as development partners. During the 1970s, the ruling parties of several sub-Saharan African states formally embraced communism, including the People's Republic of Benin, the People's Republic of Mozambique, the People's Republic of the Congo, the People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, and the People's Republic of Angola. Most of these regimes ensured the selective adoption and flexible application of communist theory set against a broad ideological commitment to Marxism or Leninism. The adoption of communism was often seen as a means to an end and used to justify the extreme centralization of power.


title: History of communism

text: Angola was perhaps the only African state which made a longstanding commitment to communism, but this was severely hampered by its own war-burdened economy, rampant corruption and practical realities which allowed a few foreign companies to wield considerable influence despite the elimination of the domestic Angolan private sector and a substantial degree of central economic planning. Both Angola and Ethiopia built new social and political communist institutions modeled closely after those in the Soviet Union and Cuba. However, their regimes either dissolved after the collapse of the Soviet Union due to civil conflict or voluntarily repudiated communism in favour of social democracy.


title: History of communism

text: An important trend in several countries in Western Europe from the late 1960s into the 1980s was Eurocommunism. It was strongest in Spain's PCE, Finland's party and especially in Italy's PCI, where it drew on the ideas of Antonio Gramsci. It was developed by communist party members who were disillusioned with both the Soviet Union and China and sought an independent program. They accepted liberal parliamentary democracy and free speech as well as accepting with some conditions a capitalist market economy. They did not speak of the destruction of capitalism, but sought to win the support of the masses and by a gradual transformation of the bureaucracies. In 1978, the Communist Party of Spain replaced the historic "Marxist–Leninist" catchphrase with the new slogan of "Marxist, democratic and revolutionary". The movement faded in the 1980s and collapsed with the fall of communism in Eastern Europe in 1989.


title: History of communism

text: Anarcho-communism is a political philosophy and anarchist school of thought which advocates the abolition of the state, capitalism, wage labour, social hierarchies and private property (while retaining respect for personal property, along with collectively-owned items, goods and services) in favor of common ownership of the means of production and direct democracy as well as a horizontal network of workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs."


title: History of communism

text: Left communism is a position held by the left wing of communism, which criticises the political ideas and practices espoused by Marxist–Leninists and social democrats. Left communists assert positions which they regard as more authentically Marxist than the views of Marxism–Leninism espoused by the Communist International after its Bolshevization by Joseph Stalin and during its second congress.


title: History of communism

text: Libertarian Marxism is a broad scope of economic and political philosophies that emphasize the anti-authoritarian and libertarian aspects of Marxism.


title: History of communism

text: Social resistance to the policies of communist regimes in Eastern Europe accelerated in strength with the rise of the Solidarity, the first non-communist controlled trade union in the Warsaw Pact that was formed in the People's Republic of Poland in 1980.


title: History of communism

text: In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev rose to power in the Soviet Union and began policies of radical political reform involving political liberalisation called perestroika and glasnost. Gorbachev's policies were designed at dismantling authoritarian elements of the state that were developed by Stalin, aiming for a return to a supposed ideal Leninist state that retained a one-party structure while allowing the democratic election of competing candidates within the party for political office. Gorbachev also aimed to seek détente with the West and end the Cold War that was no longer economically sustainable to be pursued by the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union and the United States under President George H. W. Bush joined in pushing for the dismantlement of apartheid and oversaw the dismantlement of South African colonial rule over Namibia.


title: History of communism

text: Meanwhile, the Eastern European communist states politically deteriorated in response to the success of the Polish Solidarity movement and the possibility of Gorbachev-style political liberalisation. In 1989, revolts began across Eastern Europe and China against communist regimes. In China, the government refused to negotiate with student protestors, resulting in the Tiananmen Square attacks that stopped the revolts by force.


title: History of communism

text: The opening of a border gate between Austria and Hungary at the Pan-European Picnic on August 19, 1989, then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which there was no longer a GDR and the Eastern Bloc had disintegrated. It was the largest escape movement from East Germany since the Berlin Wall was built in 1961. But with the mass exodus at the Pan-European Picnic, the subsequent hesitant behavior of the Socialist Unity Party of East Germany and the non-intervention of the Soviet Union broke the dams. The revolts culminated with the revolt in East Germany against the communist regime of Erich Honecker. The event in East Germany developed into a popular mass revolt with sections of the Berlin Wall being torn down and East and West Berliners uniting. Gorbachev's refusal to use Soviet forces based in East Germany to suppress the revolt was seen as a sign that the Cold War had ended. Honecker was pressured to resign from office and the new government committed itself to reunification with West Germany. The Communist Party regime of Nicolae Ceaușescu in Romania was forcefully overthrown in the Romanian Revolution of 1989 and Ceaușescu was executed. The other Warsaw Pact regimes also fell during the Revolutions of 1989, with the exception of the Socialist People's Republic of Albania that continued until 1992.


title: History of communism

text: Unrest and eventual collapse of communism also occurred in Yugoslavia, although for different reasons than those of the Warsaw Pact. The death of Josip Broz Tito in 1980 and the subsequent vacuum of strong leadership allowed the rise of rival ethnic nationalism in the multinational country. The first leader to exploit such nationalism for political purposes was Slobodan Milošević, who used Serbian nationalism to seize power as president of Serbia and demanded concessions to the Socialist Republic of Serbia and Serbs by the other republics in the Yugoslav federation. This resulted in a surge of Slovene and Croat nationalism in response and the collapse of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1990, the victory of nationalists in multi-party elections in most of Yugoslavia's constituent republics and eventually civil war between the various nationalities beginning in 1991. Yugoslavia was dissolved in 1992.


title: History of communism

text: The Soviet Union itself collapsed between 1990 and 1991, with a rise of secessionist nationalism and a political power dispute between Gorbachev and Boris Yeltsin, the new leader of the Russian Federation. With the Soviet Union collapsing, Gorbachev prepared the country to become a loose federation of independent states called the Commonwealth of Independent States. Hardline communist leaders in the military reacted to Gorbachev's policies with the August Coup of 1991 in which hardline communist military leaders overthrew Gorbachev and seized control of the government. This regime only lasted briefly as widespread popular opposition erupted in street protests and refused to submit. Gorbachev was restored to power, but the various Soviet republics were now set for independence. On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev officially announced the dissolution of the Soviet Union, ending the existence of the world's first communist state.


title: History of communism

text: With the fall of the communist governments in the Soviet Union and the Eastern Bloc, the influence of state-based Marxist–Leninist ideologies in the world was weakened, but there are still many communist movements of various types and sizes around the world. Three other communist nations, particularly those in East Asia such as the People's Republic of China, Vietnam and Laos, all moved toward market economies, but without major privatization of the state sector during the 1980s and 1990s (see socialism with Chinese characteristics and doi moi for more details). Spain, France, Portugal and Greece have very publicly strong communist movements that play an open and active leading role in the vast majority of their labor marches and strikes as well as also anti-austerity protests, all of which are large, pronounced events with much visibility. Worldwide marches on International Workers Day sometimes give a clearer picture of the size and influence of current communist movements, particularly within Europe.


title: History of communism

text: Cuba has recently emerged from the crisis sparked by the fall of the Soviet Union given the growth in its volume of trade with its new allies Venezuela and China (the former of whom has recently adopted a socialism of the 21st century according to Hugo Chávez). Various other countries throughout Latin America and the Caribbean have also taken similar shifts to more clearly socialistic policies and rhetoric in a phenomenon academics are calling the pink tide.


title: History of communism

text: North Korea claims that its success in avoiding the downfall of socialism is a result of its homegrown ideology of "Juche" which it adopted in the 1970s, replacing Marxism–Leninism. Cuba has an ambassador to North Korea and China still protects North Korean territorial integrity even as it simultaneously refuses to supply the state with material goods or other significant assistance.


title: History of communism

text: In Nepal, the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) leader Man Mohan Adhikari briefly became Prime Minister of Nepal and national leader from 1994 to 1995 and the Maoist guerrilla leader Prachanda was elected Prime Minister by the Constituent Assembly of Nepal in 2008. Prachanda has since been deposed as Prime Minister, leading the Maoists to abandon their legalistic approach and return to their typical street actions and militancy and to lead sporadic general strikes using their quite substantial influence on the Nepalese labor movement. These actions have oscillated between mild and intense, only the latter of which tends to make world news. They consider Prachanda's removal to be unjust. Since the 2008 Nepal has been ruled by a coalition of communist parties: Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist–Leninist) and Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist Centre) which they merged in 2018 in the Nepal Communist Party


title: History of communism

text: The previous national government of India depended on the parliamentary support of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and Communist Party of India. Presently CPI(M) along with CPI leads the state government in Kerala. The armed wing of the Communist Party of India (Maoist), the People's Liberation Guerrilla Army, is fighting the Naxalite–Maoist insurgency against the Government of India and is active in some parts of the country. Indian government forces have been successful in eliminating insurgency to quite an extent.


title: History of communism

text: In Ukraine and Russia, the communists came second in the 2002 Ukrainian parliamentary election and the 2003 Russian legislative election, respectively. The Communist Party of the Russian Federation remains strong in Russia, but the 2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election following the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the annexation of Crimea resulted in the loss of its 32 members and no Verkhovna Rada representation by the Communist Party of Ukraine. The party has been banned since 2015.


title: History of communism

text: In the Czech Republic, the Communist Party of Bohemia and Moravia came third in the 2002 elections as did the Portuguese Communist Party in 2005.


title: History of communism

text: In South Africa, the South African Communist Party (SACP) is a member of the Tripartite alliance alongside the African National Congress and the Congress of South African Trade Unions. Sri Lanka has communist ministers in their national governments.


title: History of communism

text: In Zimbabwe, former President Robert Mugabe of the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front, the country's longstanding leader, was a professed communist.


title: History of communism

text: Colombia has been in the midst of a civil war which has been waged since 1966 between the Colombian government and aligned right-wing paramilitaries against two communist guerrilla groups, namely the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia–People's Army (FARC–EP) and the National Liberation Army (ELN).


title: History of communism

text: The Revolutionary Communist Party, USA led by its chairman Bob Avakian currently organizes for a revolution in the United States to overthrow the capitalist system and replace it with a socialist state.


title: History of communism

text: As of the early 2020s, the Philippines is still experiencing a low-scale guerrilla insurgency by the New People's Army, the armed wing of the outlawed Communist Party of the Philippines. Actions of an armed group likely affiliated with NPA resulted in eight casualties after a gunfight with the Philippine Armed Forces in late March 2021.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: Woodman began working at 16, taking such jobs as bartender, salesman and store clerk. He joined the army at age 17, and later became a policeman. In 1986, he started a career as a fashion and TV photographer. In 1989, he took part in launching the magazine "Hot Video", as a reporter. Beginning in 1992, he worked for Private Media Group, Inc., for which he made several movies, such as "The Pyramid", "Tatiana", and "Riviera".


title: Pierre Woodman

text: In 1997, he launched his series "Casting X" (see below), which is now the longest-running and subsequently as well biggest-selling series in the X-rated category in the world.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: In 1999, Woodman began to produce and release his "Superfuckers" series for Private, which ran to 12 chapters. At the end of the year, he received an invitation from Larry Flynt, owner of LFP, Inc. and a publisher of the magazine "Hustler". Woodman began Chapter 13 of Superfuckers for LFP. Flynt spent little on advertising, relying instead solely on the Hustler name and word of mouth to sell products. This bothered Woodman, who made a few big-budget movies, such as "Brazilian Snake" (2001), "Brazilian Snake 2" (2002) and "Manipulation" (2004), but refused to sign a new contract for LFP in 2005.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: In 2004, after playing himself in the Spanish film "Yo Puta", alongside Denise Richards and Daryl Hannah, he did several photo-shoots for fashion magazines, such as "Vogue" and "Blast".


title: Pierre Woodman

text: Woodman then launched a program affiliation on the Internet called "Spider-Cash", to distribute its films in the form of video sequences, after Berth Milton, head of Private, asked Woodman to return to work for him in 2005.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: Woodman made "Sex City", a "porn-remake" that "borrows" much of the storyline of Frank Miller's "Sin City", including the use of black-and-white photography with splashes of color inserted throughout the film. Woodman's "Sex City" was filmed entirely in high definition. The first part was released in May 2006. After five weeks, the film became the best selling in the history of Private, even taking the lead in sales in the U.S. on June 5, 2006.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: Nevertheless, in June 2006 Woodman announced that he was leaving Private Media Group for the second time and undertaking his own production and distribution company, Woodman Entertainment, based in Barcelona, where Private Media is also based. From there, he directed a high budget remake of the film "Excalibur". This film, titled "", was released in May 2007 and draws on a cast of 75 actors and 250 extras, a first in the world of porn.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: Woodman continues to work in the fashion world, doing photo-sessions for magazines ("Blast" magazine cover and layout Sept. 2006) and discovering fashion models from his castings.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: Woodman started with his supposed "casting" film series for Private in 1992. According to Woodman's marketing, he claims there was no explicit commercial motivation behind them, but eventually this is how the "Castings X" and "Behind the Scenes" series began. Woodman's marketing claims he recorded video only as a protection against any allegations that might be made of sexual assault, a precaution he thought especially appropriate after boxer Mike Tyson was convicted of rape in an Indianapolis hotel room in 1992.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: With the breakup of the former Soviet Union in the early 1990s, Central and Eastern Europe became a new center of pornographic production. Actresses were available for a fraction of the cost of American performers. Since 1992, Woodman has spent considerable time in Eastern Europe. This is how he introduced some stars in the porn world to Western audiences. Woodman's "Castings X" DVDs, which began to be released in October 1997. They were released by Private between 1997 and 2003, when they began to be issued by Hustler under the label of "Hustler Casting Couch". In April 2008, Woodman announced that Woodman Entertainment would begin new issues of the Casting X series in June 2008.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: The scenes are typically filmed in hotel rooms, usually in Central Europe. The actresses do not really know what the fake porn director does. Woodman shows the girls a Private magazine or some pornographic images and then inviting them to do something similar to what's displayed in the images.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: Woodman has already released 225 DVDs from his "Casting X" series, featuring mostly European actresses. In an interview, he claimed to have more than 7,000 scenes in stock. In 2009, the Netherlands branch of HBO TV made a 52-minute report about his life called "Pierre Woodman Story".


title: Pierre Woodman

text: In 2013, following the airing of a documentary on Woodman, the French online magazine "Le Tag Parfait" published an article that accused the director of pushing unsuspecting performers into engaging in unplanned sexual acts with him. In 2017, Lana Rhoades accused Woodman of coercing her into performing acts she did not want to during a shoot and that he allegedly admitted to her to violating another woman's rights.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: Woodman has been married 3 times and is the father of 4 children. He was divorced from the Russian porn star Tania Russof in 2000 and since 2002, has lived with the photo model Sophie Paris. He is the father of French writer Alexandra Geyser.


title: Pierre Woodman

text: "Woodman" is a pseudonym, which comes from his childhood when he lived in the country and was very good at climbing up trees, so his classmates called him "the man of the woods", which later became shortened to "Woodman". When he started in the entertainment world, he started signing as Pierre "Woodman." In the United States, his name has a double meaning with strong sexual overtones: "wood" is understood as "erection" in expressions such as "morning wood".


title: Big Four (Indian snakes)

text: The four venomous snake species responsible for causing the greatest number of medically significant human snake bite cases on the Indian subcontinent (majorly in India) are sometimes collectively referred to as the Big Four. They are as follows:


title: Big Four (Indian snakes)

text: According to a 2020 study that did a comprehensive analysis of snake bites in India, Russell’s viper accounted for 43% of the snakebites in India, followed by kraits (18%), cobras (12%), hump nose viper (4%), saw-scaled viper (1.7%), and water snake (0.3%). The rest (21%) were of unidentified species.


title: Big Four (Indian snakes)

text: A polyvalent serum that effectively neutralizes the venom of all of the Big Four anti-venoms are widely available in India, and is frequently administered to save lives.


title: Podiatry

text: Podiatry () or podiatric medicine () is a branch of medicine devoted to the study, diagnosis, medical and surgical treatment of disorders of the foot, ankle, and leg.


title: Podiatry

text: A Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM), or a podiatrist, is a healthcare professional who diagnoses and treats conditions affecting the structures of the foot, ankle, and leg. The US podiatric medical school curriculum includes lower extremity anatomy, general human anatomy, physiology, general medicine, physical assessment, biochemistry, neurobiology, pathophysiology, genetics and embryology, microbiology, histology, pharmacology, women's health, physical rehabilitation, sports medicine, research, ethics and jurisprudence, biomechanics, general principles of orthopedic surgery, and foot and ankle surgery.


title: Podiatry

text: Podiatry is a high-paying specialization and was listed by "Forbes" in 2007 as the 15th-best-paid profession in the United States. The median annual salary of a podiatrist in the US was $124,830 in 2016 according to the US Bureau of Labor and Statistics.


title: Podiatry

text: Podiatry is practiced as a specialty in many countries, while in many English-speaking countries, the older title of chiropodist may be used by some clinicians. In Australia, graduates of recognised academic programs can register through the Podiatry Board of Australia as a "podiatrist", and those with additional recognised training may also receive endorsement to prescribe or administer restricted medications and/or seek specialist registration as a "podiatric surgeon".


title: Podiatry

text: The professional care of feet existed in ancient Egypt, as shown by bas-relief carvings at the entrance to Ankmahor's tomb dating from about 2400 BC, where work on hands and feet is depicted.


title: Podiatry

text: Corns and calluses were described by Hippocrates, who recognized the need to physically reduce hard skin, followed by removal of the cause. He invented skin scrapers for this purpose, and these were the original scalpels.


title: Podiatry

text: Until the turn of the 20th century, chiropodists—now sometimes known as podiatrists—were separate from organized medicine. They were independently licensed physicians. Lewis Durlacher, who was appointed as surgeon-chiropodist to the British royal household in 1823, was one of the first people to call for a protected profession.


title: Podiatry

text: There are records of the King of France employing a personal podiatrist, as did Napoleon. In the United States, President Abraham Lincoln suffered greatly with his feet and chose a chiropodist named Isachar Zacharie who not only cared for the president's feet but was also sent by President Lincoln on confidential missions to confer with leaders of the Confederacy during the U.S. Civil War.


title: Podiatry

text: The first society of chiropodists was established in New York in 1895—and still operates there today as NYSPMA. The first chiropodist school opened in 1911. One year later, the British established a society at the London Foot Hospital and a school was added in 1919. In Australia, professional associations appeared from 1924 onwards. The first American journal appeared in 1907, followed in 1912 by a UK journal. In 1939, the Australians introduced a training center as well as a professional journal.


title: Podiatry

text: Sports podiatry covers the following two areas: foot and lower limb chronic overuse injuries and mechanical performance enhancement to minimise injury and maximise efficiency.


title: Podiatry

text: Podopaediatrics is a specialty of podiatric medicine that focuses on the treatment of medical lower limb issues in children.


title: Podiatry

text: In Australia, podiatry is considered an allied health profession, and is practised by individuals licensed by the Podiatry Board of Australia.


title: Podiatry

text: There are eight teaching centres, as well as Auckland University of Technology in New Zealand, with two levels of awards— bachelor's degree (pass and/or honours) such as the Bachelor of Podiatric Medicine offered by Charles Sturt University and University of Western Sydney, and the master-level postgraduate Doctor of Podiatric Medicine offered by the University of Western Australia and the Master of Podiatric Practice by La Trobe University.


title: Podiatry

text: In Australia there currently exist two levels of professional accreditation and professional privilege: General Podiatrist and Podiatric Surgeon. There is current lobbying for other specialties to be recognised in Australia, such as podopediatrics, diabetes, high risk, musculoskeletal and sports podiatry. Australian podiatrists are able to practise abroad, with their qualifications recognised in some Commonwealth countries.


title: Podiatry

text: Australian podiatrists must register with the Podiatry Board of Australia. The Podiatry Board of Australia is responsible for regulation and recognition of podiatrists and podiatric surgeons, and assessing foreign trained registrants in conjunction with the Australian & New Zealand Podiatry Accreditation Council (ANZPAC).


title: Podiatry

text: The Podiatry Board of Australia recognizes 3 pathways to attain specialist registration as a podiatric surgeon:


title: Podiatry

text: Until 21 November 2019, ANZPAC approved the Doctor of Podiatric Surgery program of study offered by the University of Western Australia as providing a qualification for the purpose of specialist registration as a podiatric surgeon.


title: Podiatry

text: Entry into undergraduate Podiatric Medicine degrees can be done after the completion of a Year 12 Certificate with an Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR). The cut-off scores from the Universities Admissions Centre (UAC) generally range from 70.00 to 95.00, dependent on the popularity and intake of each podiatric medical school. Prospective students can also be of mature age (21 and over) and they apply directly to the university instead of going through UAC. The UWA DPM program has admission requirements of: completion of a UWA bachelor's degree or equivalent, a minimum GPA of 5.0 from the most recent three years (FTE) of valid study, suitable GAMSAT score, and English language competency. There is no interview requirement for the DPM at UWA (applications are handled via the university).


title: Podiatry

text: Australian podiatrists complete an undergraduate degree ranging from 3 to 4 years of education. The first 2 years of this program are generally focused on various biomedical science subjects, including functional anatomy, microbiology, biochemistry, physiology, pathophysiology, pharmacology, evidence-based medicine, sociology, and patient psychology, similar to the medical curriculum. The following one year will then be spent focusing on podiatry specific areas such as podiatric anatomy & biomechanics, human gait, podiatric orthopaedics or the non-surgical management of foot abnormalities, podopaediatrics, sports medicine, rheumatology, diabetes, vascular medicine, mental health, wound care, neuroscience & neurology, pharmacology, general medicine, general pathology, local and general anaesthesia, minor and major podiatric surgical procedural techniques such as partial and total nail avulsions, matricectomy, cryotherapy, wound debridement, enucleation, suturing, other cutaneous and electro-surgical procedures and theoretical understanding of procedures performed by orthopaedic and podiatric surgeons.


title: Podiatry

text: Australian podiatric surgeons are specialist podiatrists with further training in advanced medicine, advanced pharmacology, and training in foot surgery. Podiatrists wishing to pursue specialisation in podiatric surgery must meet the requirements for Fellowship with the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons. They first complete a 4-year degree, which includes 2 years of didactic study and 2 years of clinical experience. Following this, a master's degree must be completed with a focus on biomechanics, medicine, surgery, general surgery, advanced pharmacology, advanced medical imaging, and clinical pathology. They then qualify for the status of Registrar with the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons. Following surgical training with a podiatric surgeon (3–5 years), rotations within other medical and surgeons' disciplines, overseas clinical rotations, and passing oral and written exams, Registrars may qualify for Fellowship status. Fellows are then given Commonwealth accreditation under the Health Insurance Act to be recognised as providers of professional attention for the purposes of health insurance rebates.


title: Podiatry

text: There are currently nine universities in Australia (plus one in New Zealand) offering varying degrees of podiatric medicine, from a Bachelor of Podiatry/Podiatric Medicine (BPod), a Masters of Podiatric Medicine (MPod), and a Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) (DPM is a master-level degree). All podiatry schools are accredited by the Australian and New Zealand Podiatry Accreditation Council (ANZPAC). ANZPAC is an independent body comprising members consisting of the Podiatry Registration Boards in Australia and New Zealand. The Board of Management comprises registered podiatrists (nominated by the Registration Boards), nominees from the professional associations (Australasian Podiatry Council and Podiatry New Zealand), nominees from the educational institutions offering podiatry programs and community representation. ANZPAC has been assigned the accreditation functions for the Podiatry Board of Australia under the National Registration and Accreditation Scheme for Health Professions. There are also two more podiatry schools currently being developed at the Australian Catholic University and the University of Ballarat. The following universities offering podiatry are University of Western Australia, Charles Sturt University, La Trobe University, University of Western Sydney, University of South Australia, University of Newcastle (Australia), Queensland University of Technology, Central Queensland University, Southern Cross University, and Auckland University of Technology (New Zealand).


title: Podiatry

text: There is considerable variation between state laws regarding the prescribing rights of Australian podiatrists. While all registered podiatrists in each state or territory are able to use local anaesthesia for minor surgical techniques, some states allow suitably qualified podiatrists further privileges.


title: Podiatry

text: Recent legislative changes allow registered podiatrists and podiatric surgeons with an endorsement of scheduled medicines in Victoria, Western Australia, Queensland, South Australia, and New South Wales to prescribe relevant schedule 4 poisons. In states such as Western Australia and South Australia, podiatrists with Master's degrees in Podiatry, and extensive training in pharmacology are authorised to prescribe Schedule 2, 3, 4, or 8 medicines (Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency). In Queensland, Fellows of the Australasian College of Podiatric Surgeons are authorised to prescribe a range of Schedule 4 and one Schedule 8 drug for the treatment of podiatric conditions. Currently endorsed podiatrists who have the ability to write prescriptions do not have those prescriptions qualify for the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme. There is also political lobbying for more Chronic Disease Management places from 5 to 12 visits a year to a podiatrist for chronic diseases such as diabetes and for PBS rights.


title: Podiatry

text: All podiatrists may refer patients for Medicare rebatable plain x-rays of the foot, leg, knee, and femur, as well as ultrasound examination of soft tissue conditions of the foot. Podiatrists may refer patients for other radiologic investigations such as CT, MRI, or bone scans, however Medicare rebates do not currently exist for these examinations. Similarly, podiatrists may refer patients when needed to specialist medical practitioners, or for pathology testing, however similar exclusions in the Medicare Benefits Schedule prevent rebates being available to patients for these referrals.


title: Podiatry

text: In Canada, the definition and scope of the practice of podiatry varies by province. For instance, in some provinces like British Columbia and Alberta, the standards are the same as in the United States, where the Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) is the accepted qualification.


title: Podiatry

text: Quebec has also adopted the DPM level of training, although other academic designations may register. Also, in 2004, Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières started the first and only program of Podiatric Medicine in Canada based on the American definition of podiatry. This program enlists 25 students yearly across Canada and leads to a DPM upon obtaining 195 credits. In the prairie and Atlantic provinces, the standard was originally based on the British model, now called podiatry (chiropody).


title: Podiatry

text: The province of Ontario has been registering chiropodists since 1944, then introduced new legislation in 1991 (when the Ontario government imposed a cap on Ontario-trained chiropodists becoming podiatrists). If a registered podiatrist from outside of Ontario relocates to Ontario, they are required to register with the province and practise as a chiropodist. Podiatrists who were practising in Ontario prior to the imposed provincial cap were 'grandfathered' and allowed to keep the title of podiatrist as a subclass of chiropody. The scope of these 'grandfathered' (mostly American-trained) podiatrists includes boney procedures of the forefoot and the ordering of x-rays in addition to the scope of the chiropodist.


title: Podiatry

text: In Ontario, podiatrists are required to have a "Doctor of Podiatric Medicine/DPM" degree (a post-baccalaureate, four-year degree), where the majority of chiropodists currently practicing hold a post-secondary advanced diploma in chiropody, requiring a baccalaureate degree in the sciences or in another field as a prerequisite before entering chiropody. Podiatrists may bill OHIP for their services; chiropodists were restricted in 1991 from billing OHIP. Podiatrists may "communicate a diagnosis" to their patients (or to their patients' representatives) and perform surgical procedures on the bones of the forefoot; chiropodists may do neither.


title: Podiatry

text: Chiropodists and podiatrists are regulated by the College of Chiropodists of Ontario, which had 701 chiropodists and 54 podiatrists registered as of December 31, 2019.


title: Podiatry

text: The only English-speaking chiropody program in Canada, in which also has a working chiropody clinic on campus for students to treat patients under the supervision of licensed chiropodists is The Michener Institute – affiliated with University Health Network, Toronto. According to The Michener Institute website, chiropody is a branch of medical science that involves the assessment and management of foot and lower limb disorders. This includes the management of a wide variety of disorders, injuries, foot deformities, infections, and local manifestations of systemic conditions. A chiropodist is a primary care professional practising in podiatric medicine in Ontario that specializes in assessment, management and prevention of diseases and disorders of the foot. An essential member of the inter professional healthcare team, the chiropodist is skilled in assessing the needs of their patients and in managing both chronic and acute conditions affecting foot and lower limb function. As a primary care provider capable of independent clinical practice, these skills are often practised independent of medical referral and medical supervision.


title: Podiatry

text: There are no podiatric medical schools in Iran. The Ministry of Health and Medical Education (MoHME) reviews the dossier of podiatric applicants for medical registration according to the "Regulations on the Evaluation of the Educational Credentials of Foreign Graduates", updated on 12 Mordad 1388 AHS (3 August 2009 CE). Section 12-5: "The specific requirements for evaluation of education degrees in podiatry" stipulates that the podiatric degree from the United States will be registered as a professional doctorate in podiatric medicine, provided that the following are met: possession of a bachelor's degree, Successfully passing the MCAT, completion of the podiatric curriculum and obtaining the Doctor of Podiatric Medicine (DPM) from an accredited school, if required by the home jurisdiction, completion of a one-year postgraduate training, successfully passing of the relevant board examinations, an exception is made for those holding the (3-year undergraduate) Bachelor of Science (Podiatry) degree from accredited schools in the United Kingdom. After successful evaluation by the relevant commission, these degrees will be accepted at the bachelor's level.


title: Podiatry

text: Chiropody became a registered profession in New Zealand in 1969, with the requirement that all applicants take a recognized three-year course of training. Soon after the professional title was changed from Chiropody to Podiatry and The New Zealand School of Podiatry was established in 1970 at Petone under the direction of John Gallocher. Later, the school moved to the Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, Wellington. In 1976, the profession gained the legal right to use a local anaesthetic and began to introduce minor surgical ingrown toenail procedures as part of the scope of practice.


title: Podiatry

text: New Zealand podiatrists were granted the right of direct referral to radiologists for X-rays in 1984. Acknowledgement of podiatric expertise marked improved services to patients, and eventually in 1989, suitably trained podiatrists were able to become licensed to take X-rays within their own practice. Diagnostic radiographic training is incorporated into the degree syllabus and on successful completion of the course, graduates register with the New Zealand National Radiation Laboratory.


title: Podiatry

text: In 1986, the profession undertook a needs analysis in conjunction with the Central Institute of Technology to identify competencies for podiatry in 2000. A Bachelor of Health Science was introduced in 1993. Auckland University of Technology is now the only provider of podiatry training in New Zealand.


title: Podiatry

text: The scope of practice of UK podiatrists includes the use of some prescription-only medicines, injection therapy and non-invasive surgery e.g. performing partial or total nail resection and removal, with chemical destruction of the tissues. Podiatrists complete about 1,000 supervised clinical hours in the course of training which enables them to recognise systemic disease as it manifests in the foot and will refer on to the appropriate health care professional. Those in the NHS interface between the patients and multidisciplinary teams. The scope of practice of a podiatrist is varied ranging from simple skin care to invasive bone and joint surgery depending on education and training. In order to perform invasive foot surgery a UK podiatrist must undertake extensive postgraduate education and training, usually taking a minimum of 10 years to complete.


title: Podiatry

text: In a similar way to podiatrists in Australasia, UK podiatrists may continue their studies and qualify as podiatric surgeons. Due to recent changes in legislation, the professional titles 'chiropodist' and 'podiatrist' are now protected by law. In the UK there is no difference between the terms chiropodist and podiatrist. Those using protected titles must be registered with the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC). Registration is normally only granted to those holding a bachelor's degree from one of 13 recognized schools of podiatry in the UK. Professional bodies recognised by the Health Professions Council are: The Society of Chiropodists and Podiatrists, The Alliance of Private Sector Practitioners, The Institute of Chiropodists and Podiatrists and The British Chiropody and Podiatry Association.


title: Podiatry

text: The Royal Commission on the National Health Service in 1979 reported that about six and a half million NHS chiropody treatments were provided to just over one and a half million people in Great Britain in 1977, 19% more than three years earlier. Over 90% of patients receiving these treatments were aged 65 or over. At that time there were about 5,000 state registered chiropodists but only about two-thirds worked for the NHS. The Commission agreed with the suggestion of the Association of Chief Chiropody Officers for the introduction of more foot hygienists to undertake, under the direction of a registered chiropodist, "nail cutting and such simple foot-care and hygiene as a fit person should normally carry out for himself."


title: Podiatry

text: In the United States, medical and surgical care of the foot and ankle is mainly provided by two groups: "podiatrists" (who hold the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine or DPM) and "orthopedic surgeons" (MD or DO).


title: Podiatry

text: The first two years of podiatric medical school are similar to training that M.D. and D.O. students receive, but with an emphasized scope on the foot, ankle, and lower extremity. Being classified as a second entry degree, in order to be considered for admission, an applicant must first complete a minimum of 90 semester hours at the university level or more commonly, complete a bachelor's degree with emphasis on general/organic chemistry, biochemistry, biology, etc. In addition, potential students are required to take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). In 2019, the average MCAT for matriculants was 494.6 and 3.3 average undergraduate cGPA. The DPM degree itself takes a minimum of four years to complete.


title: Podiatry

text: The four-year podiatric medical school is followed by a surgical-based residency, which is hands-on post-doctoral training. As of July 2013, all residency programs in podiatry were required to transition to a minimum of three years of post-doctoral training. This upgrading of training was spearheaded in California by the state Board of Podiatric Medicine (BPM) and its California Liaison Committee (CLC). BPM’s Executive Officer James H. Rathlesberger included it in the Federation of Podiatric Medical Boards’ Model Law, which he wrote before becoming FPMB president in 2000.


title: Podiatry

text: Podiatric residents rotate through core areas of medicine and surgery. They work in such rotations as emergency medicine, internal medicine, infectious disease, behavioral medicine, physical medicine & rehabilitation, vascular surgery, general surgery, orthopedic surgery, plastic surgery, dermatology, and podiatric surgery and medicine. Fellowship training is available after residency in such fields such as geriatrics, foot and ankle traumatology, infectious disease, etc. In reality, the residency training of most podiatry residencies today are already highly inclusive of these medical areas. In most states, their scope is limited to areas at the ankle joint, however, some states (16 as of 2021) include the leg, and some, the hand as within the scope of podiatry.


title: Podiatry

text: Upon completion of their residency, they are eligible to sit for examinations for board certification, in a similar process as their MD/DO colleagues, by one of two specialty boards: American Board of Podiatric Medicine (ABPM) and/or the American Board of Foot and Ankle Surgery (ABFAS). ABPM certification leads to fellowship in either the American Society of Podiatric Surgeons (ASPS) or the American College of Podiatric Medicine (ACPM). ABFAS certification leads to fellowship in the ASPS or the American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons (ACFAS). ABPM is recognized by CPME as certification in primary podiatric medicine and orthopaedics and the ABFAS as recognized in podiatric surgery, hospital credentialing committees oftentimes do not distinguish between the two due to professional guidance, opinion, or possibly due to local or federal restraint of trade laws. There are several other boards that have arisen over the past several decades issuing certifications to podiatrists, however, no other board is certified and legally recognized by the podiatric accrediting agency: the Council on Podiatric Medical Education (CPME), which is overseen and approved by the Department of Education.


title: Podiatry

text: There are two surgical certifications under ABFAS. They are foot surgery and reconstructive rearfoot/ankle (RRA) surgery. In order to be board certified in RRA, the sitting candidate has to have already achieved board certification in foot surgery. Certification by ABFAS requires initial successful passing of the written examination. Then the candidate is required to submit surgical logs indicating experience and variety. Once accepted, the candidate has to successfully pass an oral examination and computer questions of clinical simulation.


title: Podiatry

text: While the majority of podiatric physicians are in solo practice, there has been a movement toward larger group practices as well as the use of podiatrists in multi-specialty groups, including orthopedic groups, treating diabetes, or in multi-specialty orthopedic surgical groups. Some podiatrists work within clinic practices such as the Indian Health Service (IHS), the Rural Health Centers (RHC) and Community Health Center (FQHC) systems established by the US government to provide services to under-insured and non-insured patients as well as within the United States Department of Veterans Affairs to provide care to veterans of military service.


title: Podiatry

text: Some podiatrists have primarily surgical practices. Some specialists complete additional fellowship training in reconstruction of the foot and ankle from the effects of diabetes or physical trauma. Other surgeons practice minimally invasive percutaneous surgery for cosmetic correction of hammer toes and bunions. Podiatrists use medical, orthopedic, biomechanical, and surgical principles to stabilize and correct foot deformities.


title: Podiatry

text: There are 11 colleges/schools of podiatric medicine in the United States. These are governed by the American Association of Colleges of Podiatric Medicine (AACPM). The AACPM describes its mission as to enhance academic podiatric medicine. All podiatric medical schools in the United States are accredited by the Council on Podiatric Medical Education.


title: Podiatry

text: Podiatrists treat a wide variety of foot and lower extremity conditions through both non-surgical and surgical approaches. While the terminology of subspecialties differ around the world, they generally fall into these categories:


title: Podiatry

text: In Australia there is now an option to be a podiatric assistant. The qualification is a Certificate IV in Allied Health Assistance specialising in podiatry. They work as a part of a podiatric medical team in a variety of clinical and non clinical settings. There are currently developing strategies to further use these skilled workers. Worldwide, there are common professional accreditation pathways to be a podiatric assistant. There are many fields such as:


title: Herding dog

text: A herding dog, also known as a stock dog, shepherd dog, sheep dog or working dog, is a type of dog that either has been trained in herding or belongs to breeds that are developed for herding.


title: Herding dog

text: All herding behavior is modified predatory behavior. Through selective breeding, humans have been able to minimize the dog's natural inclination to treat cattle and sheep as prey while simultaneously maintaining the dog's hunting skills, thereby creating an effective herding dog.


title: Herding dog

text: Dogs can work other animals in a variety of ways. Some breeds, such as the Australian Cattle Dog, typically nip at the heels of animals (for this reason they are called "heelers") and the Cardigan and Pembroke Welsh Corgis were historically used in a similar fashion in the cattle droves that moved cattle from Wales to the Smithfield Meat Market in London but are rarely used for herding today.


title: Herding dog

text: Other breeds, notably the Border Collie, get in front of the animals and use what is called "strong eye" to stare down the animals; they are known as "headers". The "headers" or fetching dogs keep livestock in a group. They consistently go to the front or head of the animals to turn or stop the animal's movement. The "heelers" or driving dogs keep pushing the animals forward. Typically, they stay behind the herd. The Australian Kelpie and Australian Koolie use both these methods and also run along the backs of sheep so are said to head, heel, and back. Other types such as the Australian Shepherd, English Shepherd and Welsh Sheepdog are "moderate" to "loose eyed", working more independently. The New Zealand Huntaway uses its loud, deep bark to muster mobs of sheep. Belgian Shepherds, German Shepherd Dogs and Briards are historically "tending" dogs, who act as a "living fence", guiding large flocks of sheep to graze, while preventing them from eating valuable crops and wandering onto roads.


title: Herding dog

text: Herding instincts and trainability can be measured when introducing a dog to livestock or at noncompetitive herding tests. Individuals exhibiting basic herding instincts can be trained to compete in herding trials.


title: Herding dog

text: In Australia, New Zealand and the United States herding dogs are known as "working dogs" irrespective of their breeding. Some herding breeds work well with any kind of animals; others have been bred for generations to work with specific kinds of animals and have developed physical characteristics or styles of working that enhance their ability to handle these animals. Commonly mustered animals include cattle, sheep, goats and reindeer, although it is not unusual for poultry to be handled by dogs.


title: Herding dog

text: The term "herding dog" is sometimes erroneously used to describe livestock guardian dogs, whose primary function is to guard flocks and herds from predation and theft, and they lack the herding instinct. Although herding dogs may guard flocks their primary purpose is to move them; both herding dogs and livestock guardian dogs may be called "sheep dogs".


title: Herding dog

text: In general terms when categorizing dog breeds, herding dogs are considered a subcategory of working dogs, but for conformation shows they usually form a separate group.


title: Herding dog

text: Australia has the world's largest cattle stations and sheep stations and some of the best-known herding dogs, such as the Koolie, Kelpie, Red and Blue Heelers are bred and found there.


title: Herding dog

text: Creating herding dog breeds is associated with the development of cattle breeding. Domestication of sheep and goats began in the 8-7th millennium BC. Originally this process began in Western Asia, on the territory of modern Iran and Iraq. Shepherding was a difficult task: primitive herders did not have horses and moved their cattle for grazing on foot as horses and donkeys were not yet fully domesticated and obedient enough. Dogs that were previously helping humans in hunting, became assistants in livestock maintenance. The main task for dogs in the early stages of cattle breeding was protecting herds from a variety of wild predators, that were very numerous.


title: Herding dog

text: This function predetermined herding dogs characteristics: they had to be strong, vicious, courageous, decisive, able to stand alone against a large predator and, most importantly, ready to defend their herd. The history of the ancestors of herding dogs can be traced back to six thousand years ago, archaeological findings of the joint remains of sheep and dogs date back to 3685 BC. The place of their origin is considered to be the territories of modern Turkey, Iraq and Syria. Shepherd dogs are mentioned in the Old Testament, the writings of Cato the Elder and Varro, their images are found in works of art created more than two thousand years ago. These dogs were used not only to guard herds, but also for military purposes.


title: Herding dog

text: From the regions of Western Asia, herding spread to west and north, followed by an increase in the number of domestic animals. On the territory of Europe, the progenitors of herding dogs appeared in the VII-VI centuries BC. According to archaeological research, cattle breeding and agriculture spread across Europe in different ways: along the Danube and Rhine rivers to the territory of modern Germany, northern France and the Netherlands, through the Mediterranean Sea to the Alps, up the Rhone to central and southwestern France.


title: Herding dog

text: The development of agriculture, increasing number of settlements and foundation of cities have led to a decrease in the number of predators. After the extinction of large predators in most of Europe and Great Britain, with the massive spread of sheep breeding and with an increase in the share of cultivated and populated land, the main task of herding dogs was to protect crops, private and protected areas from harm during grazing and moving herds. Shepherd dogs were more suitable for this work than larger and stronger breeds, being medium-sized and mobile. Such dogs managed small and large livestock, as well as domestic birds. In addition to the Central European type of shepherd, another type of dog has emerged, often with thick hair, more suitable for colder areas. These dogs have shown not only the ability to manage the herd, but also to protect it. With the spread of reindeer breeding among the northern peoples, hunting spitz-like dogs were "retrained" into shepherds.


title: Herding dog

text: Most breeds of Central European shepherd dogs – with erect ears and short hair on the head, similar to wolves, were mainly formed in the XVI-XVII centuries, the breeds of curly-haired dogs of the Northern European type were formed later.


title: Herding dog

text: During the selection process, the physical characteristics of the dogs were formed, allowing them to do their job in the best possible way. Regardless of the conditions in which herding dogs work and what function they perform, they all have a number of common characteristics. Herding dogs are strong and have a lot of stamina. Their paws are well protected from thorns and sharp stones: toes are compressed into a tight lump, paw pads are thick, claws are strong. The coat has structure and density to protect from getting wet and temperature extremes common in the region of the breed origin. All herding dogs have excellent eyesight and hearing. Cattle dog colors are varied and depend on local breeders' preferences, but all herding dogs should have well-pigmented eyelids, lips, nose and paw pads, because pink skin is too delicate and prone to wounds and sunburn.


title: Herding dog

text: The competitive dog sport in which herding dogs move animals around a field, fences, gates, or enclosures as directed by their handlers is called a "sheepdog trial", "herding test" or "stockdog trial" depending on the area. Such events are particularly associated with hill farming areas, where sheep range widely on largely unfenced land. These trials are popular in the United Kingdom, Ireland, South Africa, Chile, Canada, the USA, Australia, New Zealand and other farming nations, and have occasionally even become primetime television fare.


title: Herding dog

text: In the US, regular events are run by the United States Border Collie Handler's Association, Australian Shepherd Club of America, American Kennel Club and many others.


title: Herding dog

text: The world record price for a working sheep dog was broken February 2011 at the auction at Skipton Market, England, with £6,300 ($10,270) for Dewi Fan. The previous record was £5,145 ($8,390)


title: Herding dog

text: These commands may be indicated by a hand movement, whistle or voice. There are many other commands that are also used when working stock and in general use away from stock. Herding dog commands are generally taught using livestock as the modus operandi. Urban owners without access to livestock are able to teach basic commands through herding games.


title: Herding dog

text: These are not the only commands used: there are many variations. When whistles are used, each individual dog usually has a different set of commands to avoid confusion when several dogs are being worked at one time.


title: Herding dog

text: In countries where herding is preserved, herding dogs continue to work for their main purpose and are appreciated as effective and even irreplaceable helpers that can save labor costs and avoid investments in expensive equipment. Economic studies in Australia have shown that herding dogs are worth more than five times their cost, including training and maintenance. Meanwhile, the popularity and the number of herding dogs are growing, and the scope of work for them is narrowing.


title: Herding dog

text: In the 21st century herding dogs are often chosen as family pets. The collie breeds including the Bearded Collie and Border Collie are well known, as are the Australian kelpie and Australian Working kelpie, Welsh Corgis. They make good family dogs and are at their best when they have a job to do. These dogs have been bred as working dogs and need to be physically and mentally active. They retain their herding instincts and may sometimes nip at people's heels or bump them in an effort to 'herd' their family, and may need to be trained not to do so. Their activity level and intelligence makes them excellent canine athletes. The Australian Shepherd, Shetland Sheepdog, Rough Collie, Smooth Collie and Old English Sheepdog are more popular as family companion dogs.


title: Herding dog

text: Dogs of herding breeds now often live in urban or suburban neighbourhoods. Their owners need to maintain their physical and mental health, taking into consideration their herding instinct and qualities. The services of dog-trainers are in demand, along with the training centres for working and sporting herding dogs, offering sheep rental and walks in the pasture. Dogs living in the suburbs and villages can work with small groups of animals or poultry. Sometimes owners even buy a few sheep so that their dogs can enjoy what they were originally bred for.


title: Herding dog

text: The combination of quick learning ability, physical strength, endurance, predatory behavior with dedication to the owner and a desire to work has led to the widespread use of large European Shepherds for a number of other civil and military jobs. These are the most common police and military dogs employed in the guard, search, rescue and other types of services. The modern world presents people with new tasks, which are successfully solved with the help of dogs. For example, in the United States, legally protected geese often pose serious problems for life and work. Here, border collies and other strong-eyed herding dogs are used to patrol crops, residential and recreational areas, parks, beaches, golf courses and, above all, airports. Protection from birds with the help of herding dogs turned out to be the most effective and only easily implemented way: walking through the patrolled area several times a day, the dogs force the geese to settle in places where they cause less trouble, while the nature is not being harmed.


title: Herding dog

text: All shepherd dogs are born athletes. Their high need for physical and intellectual activity can be replenished not only by sports grazing, but also by other types of cynological sports. Border Collies as owners of outstanding sports qualities, Belgian Shepherds, Australian Shepherds invariably occupy leading positions in agility, flyball, frisbee, dog dancing, obedience. At the same time, in service, sport and show dogs of herding breeds that do not interact with livestock, the herding instinct is gradually weakened.


title: John Alderton

text: John Alderton (born 27 November 1940) is an English retired actor. He is best known for his roles in "Upstairs, Downstairs", "Thomas & Sarah", "Wodehouse Playhouse", "Little Miss" (original television series), "Please Sir!", "No, Honestly" and "Fireman Sam" (the original series). Alderton has often starred alongside his wife, Pauline Collins.


title: John Alderton

text: Alderton was born on 27 November 1940 in Gainsborough, Lincolnshire, the son of Ivy (née Handley) and Gordon John Alderton. He grew up in Hull where he attended Kingston High School.


title: John Alderton

text: Alderton first became familiar to television viewers in 1962, when he played Dr Moone in the ITV soap opera, "Emergency – Ward 10". After an uncredited role in "Cleopatra" (1963), and appearing in British films such as "The System" (1964), "Assignment K" (1968), "Duffy" (1968) and "Hannibal Brooks" (1969), he played the lead in the comedy series "Please Sir!", as hapless teacher Mr Hedges, which later resulted in him also playing the character in the 1971 feature film of the same name. He was cast by Richard Lester in the title role of a film version of "Flashman" but the project was abandoned.


title: John Alderton

text: In 1972, he appeared with Hannah Gordon in the BBC comedy series "My Wife Next Door" which ran for 13 episodes, and for which he won a Jacob's Award in 1975. He then transferred to another top-rated ITV series when he played Thomas Watkins, the chauffeur, in "Upstairs, Downstairs", opposite his wife, Pauline Collins. They had a daughter (the actress Kate Alderton) and two sons and also acted together in spin-off series, "Thomas & Sarah", and another sitcom, "No, Honestly", as well as in "Wodehouse Playhouse" (1975–78), a series that featured adaptations of short stories by P. G. Wodehouse (primarily the "Mr. Mulliner" stories.) In the meantime, he appeared on the big screen against-type as 'Friend' in John Boorman's cult sci-fi film "Zardoz" (1974), before returning to more familiar territory, as 1930s Yorkshire vet James Herriot in the 1976 film, "It Shouldn't Happen to a Vet". He was a subject of the television programme "This Is Your Life" in 1974 when he was surprised by Eamonn Andrews.


title: John Alderton

text: He graduated from the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in 1961 and appeared in their production of The Doctor and The Devils by Dylan Thomas.


title: John Alderton

text: He made his first stage appearance with the repertory company of the Theatre Royal, York in August 1961, in "Badger's Green" by R.C. Sherriff. After a period in repertory, he made his first London appearance at the Mermaid, November 1965, as Harold Crompton in "Spring and Port Wine", later transferring with the production to the Apollo. At the Aldwych. In March 1969, he played Eric Hoyden in the RSC's production of "Dutch Uncle". At the Comedy Theatre, July 1969, he played Jimmy Cooper in "The Night I Chased the Women with an Eel". At the Howff, October 1973, he played Stanley in "Punch and Judy Stories", and played the same part in "Judies" at the Comedy, January 1974. At the Shaw, January 1975, he played Stanley in Pinter's "The Birthday Party". At the Apollo, May 1976, he played four parts in Ayckbourn's "Confusions".


title: John Alderton

text: During the 1980s and 1990s, Alderton had few roles. He narrated BBC1's children's original animated series "Little Miss" in 1983 (with his wife Pauline Collins) and, from 1987 to 1994, narrated and voiced all the characters in the original series of "Fireman Sam". In 1988, he starred as Surgeon Robert Sandy in "Tales of the Unexpected", in the episode The Surgeon, and from 1989 to 1992 he starred in the series "Forever Green" as the character Jack Boult. he also appeared in the film "Clockwork Mice" in 1995.


title: John Alderton

text: Alderton played opposite his wife Pauline in "Mrs Caldicot's Cabbage War" in 2002 and made something of a comeback in the 2003 film, "Calendar Girls". Then, in 2004 he played a role in the BBC series of Anthony Trollope's "He Knew He Was Right". Also in 2004, Alderton starred in the first series of ITV 1's "Doc Martin" in an episode entitled "Of All The Harbours in All The Towns" as sailor John Slater, a friend and former lover of Aunt Joan. He played Christopher Casby in the 2008 BBC adaptation of Charles Dickens' "Little Dorrit".


title: John Alderton

text: Alderton married actress Jill Browne in 1964, but they later divorced. In 1969, he married actress Pauline Collins and they have three children, a daughter (Kate, who is also an actress.) and two sons.


title: A-list

text: The A-list is part of a larger guide called "The Hot List", which ranks the bankability of 1,400 movie actors worldwide, and has become an industry-standard guide in Hollywood. American entertainment journalist James Ulmer, the guide's creator, has also developed a version including directors, the "Hot List of Directors". The Ulmer scale categorizes the lists into A+, A, B+, B, C, and D listings.


title: A-list

text: In popular usage outside the film industry, an A-list celebrity is any person with an admired or desirable social status. Even socialites with popular press coverage and elite associations have been termed as A-list celebrities. Similarly, less popular persons and current teen idols are referred to as B-list celebrities – and the ones with lesser fame as C-list ones. In the year 2000, "Entertainment Weekly" interpreted a C-list celebrity as "that guy (or sometimes that girl), the easy-to-remember but hard-to-name character actor".


title: A-list

text: The D-list is for a person whose celebrity is so obscure that they are generally only known for appearances as celebrities on panel game shows and reality television. In the late 20th century, D-listers were largely ignored by the entertainment news industry; for example, Paul Lynde, by this point in his career best known for being on the daytime game show "Hollywood Squares", went largely unnoticed by the supermarket tabloids, and his homosexuality (which would have drawn attention for bigger celebrities) went largely unreported. Kathy Griffin, an American comedian who became widely known for her frequent appearances on such programs, used the term in a tongue-in-cheek manner for her 2005 TV special "The D-List" and her 2005 TV series "". The term "D-list" is derived from the lowest rating used for the Ulmer scale. Other successive letters of the alphabet beyond D, as in the terms "E-list" and "Z-list", are sometimes used for exaggeration or comic effect but effectively have the same meaning as "D-list".


title: Middle ear

text: The middle ear is the portion of the ear medial to the eardrum, and distal to the oval window of the cochlea (of the inner ear).


title: Middle ear

text: The mammalian middle ear contains three ossicles, which transfer the vibrations of the eardrum into waves in the fluid and membranes of the inner ear. The hollow space of the middle ear is also known as the tympanic cavity and is surrounded by the tympanic part of the temporal bone. The auditory tube (also known as the Eustachian tube or the pharyngotympanic tube) joins the tympanic cavity with the nasal cavity (nasopharynx), allowing pressure to equalize between the middle ear and throat.


title: Middle ear

text: The primary function of the middle ear is to efficiently transfer acoustic energy from compression waves in air to fluid–membrane waves within the cochlea.


title: Middle ear

text: The middle ear contains three tiny bones known as the ossicles: "malleus", "incus", and "stapes". The ossicles were given their Latin names for their distinctive shapes; they are also referred to as the "hammer", "anvil", and "stirrup", respectively. The ossicles directly couple sound energy from the eardrum to the oval window of the cochlea. While the stapes is present in all tetrapods, the malleus and incus evolved from lower and upper jaw bones present in reptiles.


title: Middle ear

text: The ossicles are classically supposed to mechanically convert the vibrations of the eardrum into amplified pressure waves in the fluid of the cochlea (or inner ear), with a lever arm factor of 1.3. Since the effective vibratory area of the eardrum is about 14 fold larger than that of the oval window, the sound pressure is concentrated, leading to a pressure gain of at least 18.1. The eardrum is merged to the malleus, which connects to the incus, which in turn connects to the stapes. Vibrations of the stapes footplate introduce pressure waves in the inner ear. There is a steadily increasing body of evidence that shows that the lever arm ratio is actually variable, depending on frequency. Between 0.1 and 1 kHz it is approximately 2, it then rises to around 5 at 2 kHz and then falls off steadily above this frequency. The measurement of this lever arm ratio is also somewhat complicated by the fact that the ratio is generally given in relation to the tip of the malleus (also known as the umbo) and the level of the middle of the stapes. The eardrum is actually attached to the malleus handle over about a 0.5 cm distance. In addition, the eardrum itself moves in a very chaotic fashion at frequencies >3 kHz. The linear attachment of the eardrum to the malleus actually smooths out this chaotic motion and allows the ear to respond linearly over a wider frequency range than a point attachment. The auditory ossicles can also reduce sound pressure (the inner ear is very sensitive to overstimulation), by uncoupling each other through particular muscles.


title: Middle ear

text: The middle ear efficiency peaks at a frequency of around 1 kHz. The combined transfer function of the outer ear and middle ear gives humans a peak sensitivity to frequencies between 1 kHz and 3 kHz.


title: Middle ear

text: The movement of the ossicles may be stiffened by two muscles. The stapedius muscle, the smallest skeletal muscle in the body, connects to the stapes and is controlled by the facial nerve; the tensor tympani muscle is attached to the upper end of the medial surface of the handle of malleus and is under the control of the medial pterygoid nerve which is a branch of the mandibular nerve of the trigeminal nerve. These muscles contract in response to loud sounds, thereby reducing the transmission of sound to the inner ear. This is called the acoustic reflex.


title: Middle ear

text: Of surgical importance are two branches of the facial nerve that also pass through the middle ear space. These are the horizontal portion of the facial nerve and the chorda tympani. Damage to the horizontal branch during ear surgery can lead to paralysis of the face (same side of the face as the ear). The chorda tympani is the branch of the facial nerve that carries taste from the ipsilateral half (same side) of the tongue.


title: Middle ear

text: Ordinarily, when sound waves in air strike liquid, most of the energy is reflected off the surface of the liquid. The middle ear allows the impedance matching of sound traveling in air to acoustic waves traveling in a system of fluids and membranes in the inner ear. This system should not be confused, however, with the propagation of sound as compression waves in liquid.


title: Middle ear

text: The middle ear couples sound from air to the fluid via the oval window, using the principle of "mechanical advantage" in the form of the "hydraulic principle" and the "lever principle". The vibratory portion of the tympanic membrane (eardrum) is many times the surface area of the footplate of the stapes (the third ossicular bone which attaches to the oval window); furthermore, the shape of the articulated ossicular chain is a complex lever, the long arm being the long process of the malleus, the fulcrum being the body of the incus, and the short arm being the lenticular process of the incus. The collected pressure of sound vibration that strikes the tympanic membrane is therefore concentrated down to this much smaller area of the footplate, increasing the force but reducing the velocity and displacement, and thereby coupling the acoustic energy.


title: Middle ear

text: The middle ear is able to dampen sound conduction substantially when faced with very loud sound, by noise-induced reflex contraction of the middle-ear muscles.


title: Middle ear

text: The middle ear is hollow. In a high-altitude environment or on diving into water, there will be a pressure difference between the middle ear and the outside environment. This pressure will pose a risk of bursting or otherwise damaging the tympanum if it is not relieved. If middle ear pressure remains low, the eardrum may become retracted into the middle ear. One of the functions of the Eustachian tubes that connect the middle ear to the nasopharynx is to help keep middle ear pressure the same as air pressure. The Eustachian tubes are normally pinched off at the nose end, to prevent being clogged with mucus, but they may be opened by lowering and protruding the jaw; this is why yawning or chewing helps relieve the pressure felt in the ears when on board an aircraft. Otitis media is an inflammation of the middle ear.


title: Middle ear

text: The middle ear is well protected from most minor external injuries by its internal location, but is vulnerable to pressure injury (barotrauma).


title: Middle ear

text: Recent findings indicate that the middle ear mucosa could be subjected to human papillomavirus infection. Indeed, DNAs belonging to oncogenic HPVs, i.e., HPV16 and HPV18, have been detected in normal middle ear specimens, thereby indicating that the normal middle ear mucosa could potentially be a target tissue for HPV infection.


title: Middle ear

text: The middle ear of tetrapods is analogous with the spiracle of fishes, an opening from the pharynx to the side of the head in front of the main gill slits. In fish embryos, the spiracle forms as a pouch in the pharynx, which grows outward and breaches the skin to form an opening; in most tetrapods, this breach is never quite completed, and the final vestige of tissue separating it from the outside world becomes the eardrum. The inner part of the spiracle, still connected to the pharynx, forms the eustachian tube.


title: Middle ear

text: In reptiles, birds, and early fossil tetrapods, there is a single auditory ossicle, the columella which is homologous with the stapes, or "stirrup" of mammals. This is connected indirectly with the eardrum via a mostly cartilaginous extracolumella and medially to the inner-ear spaces via a widened footplate in the fenestra ovalis. The columella is an evolutionary derivative of the bone known as the hyomandibula in fish ancestors, a bone that supported the skull and braincase.


title: Middle ear

text: The structure of the middle ear in living amphibians varies considerably and is often degenerate. In most frogs and toads, it is similar to that of reptiles, but in other amphibians, the middle ear cavity is often absent. In these cases, the stapes either is also missing or, in the absence of an eardrum, connects to the quadrate bone in the skull, although, it is presumed, it still has some ability to transmit vibrations to the inner ear. In many amphibians, there is also a second auditory ossicle, the "operculum" (not to be confused with the structure of the same name in fishes). This is a flat, plate-like bone, overlying the fenestra ovalis, and connecting it either to the stapes or, via a special muscle, to the scapula. It is not found in any other vertebrates.


title: Middle ear

text: Mammals are unique in having evolved a three-ossicle middle-ear independently of the various single-ossicle middle ears of other land vertebrates, all during the Triassic period of geological history. Functionally, the mammalian middle ear is very similar to the single-ossicle ear of non-mammals, except that it responds to sounds of higher frequency, because these are better taken up by the inner ear (which also responds to higher frequencies than those of non-mammals). The malleus, or "hammer", evolved from the articular bone of the lower jaw, and the incus, or "anvil", from the quadrate. In other vertebrates, these bones form the primary jaw joint, but the expansion of the dentary bone in mammals led to the evolution of an entirely new jaw joint, freeing up the old joint to become part of the ear. For a period of time, both jaw joints existed together, one medially and one laterally. The evolutionary process leading to a three-ossicle middle ear was thus an "accidental" byproduct of the simultaneous evolution of the new, secondary jaw joint. In many mammals, the middle ear also becomes protected within a cavity, the auditory bulla, not found in other vertebrates. A bulla evolved late in time and independently numerous times in different mammalian clades, and it can be surrounded by membranes, cartilage or bone. The bulla in humans is part of the temporal bone.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: The Wizard of Lies is a 2017 American television biopic film directed by Barry Levinson and written by Sam Levinson, Sam Baum, and John Burnham Schwartz, based on the 2011 non-fiction book of the same name by Diana B. Henriques. The film stars Robert De Niro as businessman and fraudster Bernie Madoff, Michelle Pfeiffer as his wife Ruth Madoff, and Alessandro Nivola as their older son Mark Madoff. It aired on HBO on May 20, 2017.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: Bernard Madoff founded his company on Wall Street in the early 1960s, which, over time, turned into one of the largest investment funds. Madoff had enjoyed a reputation as a successful and influential financier, broker, financial consultant, and generous philanthropist until 2008, when it became known that, over the past 16 years, his firm had run the largest Ponzi scheme in history. The resulting scandal lead to multibillion-dollar losses and the arrest of Madoff, who was later sentenced to 150 years in prison.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: Lawyer Martin London, Mark Madoff's father-in-law, advises Bernie Madoff's sons to turn their father to the authorities.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: Bernie Madoff admits to FBI agents that he'd been operating a Ponzi scheme since the 1970s. In 2000, Harry Markopolos testified before the US House that he believed the Madoff's company was a fraudulent Ponzi scheme because the company's gains never fluctuated up and down.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: In 2005, Madoff doesn't want to give investigators his Depository Trust Company (DTC) account number. By the start of the 2008 Great Recession in the United States, numerous clients start pouring into Madoff's firm to withdraw the money.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: On August 27, 2015 Michelle Pfeiffer and Alessandro Nivola joined the film to play wife Ruth Madoff and older son Mark Madoff, respectively. On September 9, 2015 Hank Azaria joined the film as Frank DiPascali. On September 10, 2015 Nathan Darrow, Kristen Connolly, Kathrine Narducci, and Steve Coulter were cast as Andrew Madoff, Stephanie Madoff, Eleanor Squillari, and Martin London, respectively. Diana B. Henriques was also cast as herself. On 11 September 2015, Lily Rabe was cast as Catherine Hooper.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: John Burnham Schwartz, Sam Baum and Sam Levinson were credited as the film's writers. Diana Henriques’s "The Wizard of Lies: Bernie Madoff and The Death of Trust", and Laurie Sandell’s "Truth and Consequences: Life Inside the Madoff Family" were credited as additional source material.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a rating of 73%, based on 52 reviews, with a weighted average rating of 6.5/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""The Wizard of Lies" doesn't really shed much new light on its fact-based story, but thanks to solid direction and a talented cast, it still proves consistently watchable." On Metacritic, the film has a score of 67 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "favorable reviews". The film has a three-star rating on the Roger Ebert website, with the reviewer praising De Niro's performance.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: The film's premiere drew 1.5 million viewers, making it HBO's largest premiere viewership for an HBO film in four years; additional replays and viewings through the network's streaming service brought the film's total viewers to 2.4 million for its premiere weekend.


title: The Wizard of Lies

text: "The Wizard of Lies (Music from the HBO Film)" was released digitally May 19, 2017, the day before the film's premiere.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: Sokratis Papastathopoulos (; born 7 June 1988), commonly known mononymously as Sokratis, is a Greek professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Super League club Olympiacos.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: Papastathopoulos joined AEK Athens from Apollon Petalidiou after being scouted by Toni Savevski. On 26 October 2005, he made his debut for AEK in a Greek Cup match against PAS Giannina, scoring in the seventh minute of the game to help lead AEK to a 3–0 win.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: In January 2006, he was loaned to Beta Ethniki club Niki Volou for six months to gain first-team football experience. He made 15 appearances for Niki Volou.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: During the 2006–07 Super League Greece, Papastathopoulos managed to make 14 appearances whilst competing against the likes of Bruno Cirillo, Traianos Dellas and Vangelis Moras. In AEK Athens' 2006–07 UEFA Champions League campaign, Papastathopoulos managed to play in three out of six group games. In these three games, AEK managed one win (the famous 1–0 victory over A.C. Milan, where he man-marked Filippo Inzaghi), one draw (the 2–2 away draw with Anderlecht) and one loss (the 3–1 away defeat to Lille). During the 2007–08 Super League Greece, he was a mainstay in AEK's defence, keeping out competition from Geraldo Alves. He also played in the 2007–08 Champions League campaign, and in a Super League match, he became AEK's youngest-ever captain (age 19) in a game against Athens' local rival Panathinaikos in 2008.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: On 1 August 2008, Papastathopoulos agreed to transfer to Genoa of the Italian Serie A for an undisclosed fee. He also played a club friendly against Genoa on the same day.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: He made his debut for Genoa on 27 September 2008 against Fiorentina, followed by a start against Ravenna in the Coppa Italia a few days later. His first goal for Genoa came on 5 October 2008 at home against Napoli. Genoa won the game 3–2, but Papastathopoulos was sent off in the 89th minute During the 2009–10 season, he managed to play in most games and gained a following.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: On 20 July 2010, the A.C. Milan website confirmed that Papastathopoulos had joined the team, after Genoa and Milan reached an agreement to transfer Papastathopoulos to the club for €14 million, with the following payment schedule: Gianmarco Zigoni (half of his registration rights, valued at €3.75 million), Nnamdi Oduamadi (half of his rights, valued at €3.5 million) and Rodney Strasser (half of his rights, valued at €2.25 million) in a co-ownership deal, plus €4.5 million. Papastathopoulos was the club's first arrival under new manager Massimiliano Allegri.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: On 24 May 2011, Milan and Genoa executives Adriano Galliani and Enrico Preziosi, respectively, verbally agreed to settle the player ownerships (subject to player agreements) of Kevin-Prince Boateng, Alberto Paloschi, Marco Amelia and Giacomo Beretta. The deal entailed that Milan buy back Gianmarco Zigoni, Rodney Strasser and Nnamdi Oduamadi (all under original price), while Genoa buy back Papastathopoulos for €13 million, which effectively made the "de facto" loan cost for Milan €1 million.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: On 21 July 2011, Papastathopoulos moved to the Germany club Werder Bremen on a loan deal until the end of the 2011–12 season, with the option to purchase outright. Following impressive performances on loan, on 16 April 2012, it was announced that Papastathopoulos would join Bremen on a permanent basis for a €5 million transfer fee. The 2012–13 season, however, was not a good one for the club. In March 2013, in the midst of a relegation battle and with tensions high, Papastathopoulos engaged in a training ground brawl with teammate Marko Arnautović. Bremen would ultimately finish the year in 14th, staving-off relegation.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: On 24 May 2013, the eve of the 2013 Champions League Final between Bayern Munich and Borussia Dortmund, Papastathopoulos completed a €9.5 million transfer to Dortmund, agreeing to a five-year contract through to 2018. Upon signing, he spoke about the deal, saying, "Money did not play a role in my decision to join Dortmund. My own future was all that mattered and I am convinced that I made the right decision." With centre-back Felipe Santana departing Dortmund for Schalke 04, Papastathopoulos began as the effective third-choice behind tandem Neven Subotić and Mats Hummels. Borussia Dortmund Sporting Director Michael Zorc expressed his satisfaction with the deal: "We are delighted that Sokratis has decided to join Borussia Dortmund. He is a flexible player capable to play in a variety of positions in defence who we believe has tremendous potential."


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: On 10 July 2013, Papastathopoulos made his debut for Dortmund in a pre-season friendly away to Swiss club Basel at St. Jakob-Park, along with fellow BVB debutants (and future Arsenal teammates) Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang and Henrikh Mkhitaryan. On 27 July, he won his first title with the club after entering the match as a substitute in a 4–2 win over Bayern Munich for the 2013 DFL-Supercup. On 1 November 2013, he scored his debut goal for Dortmund in a win over VfB Stuttgart in the Bundesliga, 6-1.


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: Papastathopoulos' strong first year with Dortmund was rewarded with his selection to the best XI of the 2013–14 Bundesliga campaign. The selection was organized in a worldwide fan vote by the governing body of the Bundesliga through its official website. The description of his play following his nomination was, "The definition of defense falls on him. The Greek stopper took advantage of the opportunities given to him by the absence of Neven Subotić and Mats Hummels. Stable, with leadership characteristics and tendency to win the ball without making easily a mistake."


title: Sokratis Papastathopoulos

text: In November 2014, Papastathopoulos was out of action for two weeks diagnosed with a broken fibula. He suffered the injury to his right leg in Dortmund's 1–0 win over Borussia Mönchengladbach, a result that ended a five-match Bundesliga losing streak for the club. After an early recovery, he was deemed fit for BVB's Champions League match against Arsenal on 26 November. On 3 January 2015, football news website Goal.com assessed statistics to determine which players maintained the highest tackle success rate in the first half of the 2014–15 season across Europe's top five leagues; Papastathopoulos finished joint-third, alongside Hamburger SV's Matthias Ostrzolek, having won 92.59 per cent of all tackles.