title: 2020–21 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Three days later, Arsenal returned to Premier League action, hoping to do one better against West Bromwich Albion at home. However, the Baggies were the more threatening team early on: Matheus Pereira's hit from outside of the box curled just wide of the far post and Bernd Leno, and while Callum Robinson's chip over Leno hit the crossbar, he was found to be offside regardless. Twenty-nine minutes in, Willian played the ball down the line for Bukayo Saka, whose low cross found Emile Smith Rowe amongst the West Brom defense to be volleyed in from close range for the latter's first Premier League goal in 19 appearances. To compound West Brom's troubles, Arsenal added a second goal five minutes later. On the right flank, Nicolas Pépé cut inside on Conor Townsend before rifling a left-footed shot from the edge of the box to the near top corner just past Sam Johnstone. A third goal nearly came just before the hour mark, as another low cross from Saka was unable to be converted by both Gabriel Martinelli and Smoth Rowe. In the sixty-seventh minute, a cross from Kieran Tierney managed to only find Townsend, who immediately rushed forward out of defense and passed to Pereira near the center circle. Pereira continued to run downfield, holding off Dani Ceballos and Mohamed Elneny, and just as Gabriel was about to put in a tackle just outside the box, he hit a low shot to the far post just past Leno. The Gunners' third goal would finally come in the ninetieth minute from a 25-yard Willian free kick; this was Willian's first goal for Arsenal in 25 league games and in 37 games overall. While the 3–1 result saw Arsenal hang on to the slim chance of European football next season, it was more impactful for West Brom, as the loss saw the team officially relegated and manager Sam Allardyce's record of never being relegated broken.


title: 2020–21 Arsenal F.C. season

text: Arsenal faced London rivals Chelsea at the Stamford Bridge on 12 May. From a statistics perspective, Chelsea dominated the game. The Blues had more than double the percentage of possession, and outshot the Gunners 19 to 5, with five and two shots on target, respectively. In the first half alone, Chelsea had eight shots, compared to Arsenal's two. However, of those two shots, one was on target, and this would be the difference maker in the game. In the eleventh minute, Kai Havertz intercepted a backpass from Gabriel to Pablo Marí to set up a one-on-one with Bernd Leno, but the ensuing shot was skied over the bar. Four minutes later, however, Arsenal were able to capitalize on a similar mistake from Chelsea. As Chelsea tried to play out from the back, Jorginho, under pressure from Emile Smith Rowe, attempted to pass back to goalkeeper Kepa. However, because Kepa was out to the left of his goal, he had to scramble back to prevent the pass from rolling into the open net, barely managing to bat the ball off the line at full stretch. The rebound fell to Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang, who centered it for Smith Rowe to score his second Premier League goal in as many games. Chelsea continued their offensive barrage well into the second half, when they looked to have grabbed an equalizer. Mason Mount's corner in the sixty-first minute was headed onwards by Havertz to the back post for Christian Pulisic, who made a darting run behind the Arsenal defense, to redirect into the net with his chest from close range. However, VAR review found Pulisic to be clearly offside on Havertz's header, and the goal was disallowed. Just before stoppage time, Chelsea again came close to scoring, but the equalizer was not there: Kurt Zouma's header from Hakim Ziyech's looping cross was tipped onto the crossbar by Leno, and former Arsenal striker Olivier Giroud followed up by also smashing the crossbar with the rebound. The 1–0 win saw Arsenal move up to eighth and within a point of North London rivals Tottenham Hotspur, though the latter still had a game in hand. Notably, this was the first time Arsenal completed the double over Chelsea since the 2003–04 "Invincibles" season.


title: 2020–21 Arsenal F.C. season

text: In Arsenal's final away game of the 2020–21 Premier League season, they headed across town to Selhurst Park in south London to take on Crystal Palace. This match saw the return of fans, though not at full capacity, and Eagles manager Roy Hodgson's last home game before retirement. The first half hour saw barely any threatening shots from either side until the thirty-second minute, when Christian Benteke headed the ball down for Jeffrey Schlupp to try a volley from just outside the box, which forced Bernd Leno to make a diving fingertip save to his left. A few minutes later, after several passes down the left flank between Bukayo Saka and Kieran Tierney, the latter sent in a cross that found Nicolas Pépé, who made a late run into the box to volley the ball in and give Arsenal the lead. A brief physical incident between Benteke and Saka later in the first half saw the former and Mohamed Elneny, who had come to Saka's defense, each get a yellow card from referee Anthony Taylor. Just after the hour mark, Andros Townsend whipped a free kick into the box, where it was headed in by Benteke to draw Crystal Palace even. However, the Gunners would spoil the occasion with a pair of stoppage time goals to take the win. Just as the game entered stoppage time, Martin Ødegaard's lofted cross floated over a leaping Gary Cahill to find fellow Gunners substitute Gabriel Martinelli, who ran around the back of the Eagles defence, got to the ball ahead of Joel Ward, lifted the ball over the reach of goalkeeper Vicente Guaita with his first touch, and tapped the ball in with his second. In the final seconds of the game, Calum Chambers sent a long throw-in towards Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang, who headed the ball down into the path of Nicolas Pépé. Pépé surged forward into the box and held off Cahill and James Tomkins before firing a low shot that went in at the far post before Guaita could get down to make a save. The match ended 3–1 to Arsenal, keeping their slim chances of European football alive ahead of the final matchday.


title: 2020–21 Arsenal F.C. season

text: For the season ending match, Arsenal hosted Brighton and Hove Albion at the Emirates Stadium on 23 May, with a limited number of fans being allowed in the Emirates for the first time in 2021 and the first time all season since 13 December. The first half was goalless, though the Gunners had several close chances. The first shot from Thomas Partey went just wide of the post, while his second shot later on was tipped over by Robert Sánchez. Thirty minutes in, a Martin Ødegaard corner was flicked on by Partey to Rob Holding, who poked the ball just over the line before a clearance from Ben White, but Holding was found to be offside on Partey's header. Near halftime, Granit Xhaka's lofted pass found Gabriel at the far post, but the ensuing header hit off the top of the crossbar. In the second half, the deadlock was finally broken in the forty-ninth minute. Arsenal moved the ball from the left flank to the right flank with a series of passes that ended with Calum Chambers fizzing a low cross into the box for Nicolas Pépé. Pépé controlled the ball before firing in a half-volley with his second touch, and eleven minutes later, he would double his tally and increase Arsenal's lead. Ødegaard played the ball forward for Pépé down the right flank, who drove into the box and hit a low shot through Lewis Dunk's legs that went in at the near post. In the seventy-second minute, Partey would have another chance to bag his first Arsenal goal but to no avail: after receiving a pass from Xhaka, he quickly turned and rocketed a volley that came off the crossbar. Brighton, with only one shot on target from Jakub Moder all game, failed to seriously threaten the Gunners, enabling Bernd Leno to keep a clean sheet in a 2–0 win.


title: 2020–21 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The final round of matches of the league season kicked-off at the same time, and ninth-placed Arsenal needed several results to go their way in order to secure European football for the 25th consecutive season. Heading into the match, Arsenal needed to win against Brighton and have seventh-placed Tottenham Hotspur and eighth placed Everton, who were both a point ahead, draw or lose in order to leapfrog them into seventh and qualify the newly formed UEFA Europa Conference League. Despite the 2–0 win and Everton's 5–0 smashing at the hands of the champions Manchester City, which saw Arsenal overtake Everton into eighth, a late brace from Gareth Bale saw Tottenham beat Leicester City 4–2 and retain their seventh-place position. As a result, Arsenal missed out on qualifying for any sort of European football for the 2021–22 season, the first time they had done so since 1995. At the end of the season, Alexandre Lacazette finished as Arsenal's top goalscorer with 17 goals (13 in the Premier League), just ahead of Nicolas Pépé on 16 goals and Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang on 15 goals (each with 10 in the Premier League); this was the first time Arsenal had three players with more than 10 Premier League goals in the season since the 2016–17 season. Three players tied for the most assists: Bukayo Saka, Emile Smith Rowe, and Willian each had seven assists across all competitions, though Willian led the way with five assists in the Premier League. Goalkeeper Bernd Leno made the most appearances with 49, of which 35 came in the Premier League.


title: 2020–21 Arsenal F.C. season

text: The draw for the semi-finals was held on 19 March 2021, after the quarter-final draw. The Gunners' win meant Villarreal's manager Unai Emery would face his former side in the semifinals. Emery had guided Arsenal to the final in 2019, possibly his most notable moment during an 18-month stint at Arsenal between May 2018 and November 2019.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: The economy of Hong Kong is a highly developed free-market economy. It is characterised by low taxation, almost free port trade and a well-established international financial market. Its currency, called the Hong Kong dollar, is legally issued by three major international commercial banks, and is pegged to the US dollar. Interest rates are determined by the individual banks in Hong Kong to ensure that they are market driven. There is no officially recognised central banking system, although the Hong Kong Monetary Authority functions as a financial regulatory authority.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Its economy is governed under positive non-interventionism, and is highly dependent on international trade and finance. For this reason it is regarded as among the most favorable places to start a company. In fact, a recent study shows that Hong Kong has come from 998 registered start-ups in 2014 to over 2800 in 2018, with eCommerce (22%), Fintech (12%), Software (12%) and Advertising (11%) companies comprising the majority. The Economic Freedom of the World Index listed Hong Kong as the number one territory, with a score of 8.91, in 2019.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Hong Kong's economic strengths include a sound banking system, virtually no public debt, a strong legal system, ample foreign exchange reserves with assets of US$481.6 billion represent over six times the currency in circulation or about 46 per cent of Hong Kong dollar M3 as at the end of March 2022, rigorous anti-corruption measures and close ties with mainland China. The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is a favourable destination for international firms and firms from mainland China to be listed, due to Hong Kong's highly internationalised and modernised financial industry. Additional advantages include the city's capital market in Asia, its size, regulations and available financial tools, which are comparable to London and New York City.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Hong Kong's gross domestic product had grown 180 times between 1961 and 1997. Also, the GDP per capita rose by 87 times within the same time frame. Its economy is slightly larger than Chile's or Romania's and its GDP per capita at purchasing power parity was the eleventh highest globally in 2022. By the latter measure, its GDP per capita was higher than those of the United States and the Netherlands, and slightly lower than Brunei. In 2009, Hong Kong's real economic growth fell by 2.8% as a result of the Great Recession.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: By the late 20th century, Hong Kong was the seventh largest port in the world and second only to New York City and Rotterdam in terms of container throughput. Hong Kong is a full Member of the World Trade Organization. The Kwai Chung container complex was the largest in Asia, while Hong Kong shipping owners were second only to those of Greece in terms of total tonnage holdings in the world. The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the sixth largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of about US$3.732 trillion.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Hong Kong has also had an abundant supply of labour from the regions nearby. A skilled labour force coupled with the adoption of modern British/Western business methods and technology ensured that opportunities for external trade, investment, and recruitment were maximised. Prices and wages in Hong Kong are relatively flexible, depending on the performance and stability of the economy of Hong Kong.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Hong Kong raises revenues from the sale and taxation of land and through attracting international businesses to provide capital for its public finance, due to its low tax policy. According to Healy Consultants, Hong Kong has the most attractive business environment within East Asia, in terms of attracting foreign direct investment (FDI). In 2013, Hong Kong was the third largest recipient of FDI in the world.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Hong Kong ranked fourth on the Tax Justice Network's 2011 Financial Secrecy Index. The Hong Kong Government was the fourth highest ranked Asian government in the World Economic Forum's Network Readiness Index (NRI), a measure of a government's information and communication technologies in 2016, and ranked 13th globally.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Since the 1997 handover, Hong Kong's economic future became far more exposed to the challenges of economic globalisation and the direct competition from cities in mainland China. In particular, Shanghai claimed to have a geographical advantage. The Shanghai municipal government dreamt of turning the city into China's main economic centre by as early as 2010.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Hong Kong's economic policy has often been cited by economists such as Milton Friedman and the Cato Institute as an example of laissez-faire capitalism, attributing the city's success to the government having a relatively low level of involvement in the economy. However, others have argued that the economic strategy is not at all adequately characterised by the term "laissez-faire". They point out that there are still many ways in which the government is involved in the economy, some of which exceed the degree of involvement in other capitalist countries. For example, the government is involved in public works projects, healthcare, education, and social welfare spending. Further, although rates of taxation on personal and corporate income are low by international standards, unlike most other countries Hong Kong's government raises a significant portion of its revenues from land leases and land taxation. All land in Hong Kong is owned by the government and is leased to private developers and users on fixed terms, for fees which are paid to the state treasury. By restricting the sale of land leases, the Hong Kong government keeps the price of land at what some consider as artificially high prices and this allows the government to support public spending with a low tax rate on income and profit.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Hong Kong was ranked as the world's 2nd freest economy in the Index of Economic Freedom of The Heritage Foundation in 2020 after Singapore. The index measures restrictions on business, trade, investment, finance, property rights and labour, and considers the impact of corruption, government size and monetary controls in 183 economies. Hong Kong is the only economy to have scored 90 points or above on the 100-point scale, achieved in 2014 and 2018.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: In 2021 the Heritage Foundation removed Hong Kong as a separate entity from China from its list of freest economics of the world citing increasing interference from the Chinese government in Hong Kong's governmental system and democratic process. With this Hong Kong, along with Macao, lost a position they had held in the index since the index's inception in 1995. At the time of the removal from the index, the founder of the Heritage Foundation indicated that while the SARs "offer their citizens more economic freedom than is available to the average citizen of China", these economic policies are still "ultimately controlled from Beijing".


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2021 (with IMF staff estimates in 2022–2027). Inflation below 5% is in green.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: As at 2015, Macau is Hong Kong's second largest export destination, occupying 6.1% of Hong Kong's total exports. The amount of export totaled US$8.4B, with broadcasting equipment, jewelry, and precious metal watches as the major products. On the other hand, Hong Kong is Macau's largest export destination. Totaled USD 774M, with precious metal watches, jewelry, trunks and cases as the major trading products, the exports to the Hong Kong forms 53% of Macau's total exports.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: The international poverty line is a monetary threshold under which an individual is considered to be living in poverty. This threshold is calculated using Purchasing Power Parity. According to the World Bank, the international poverty line was most recently updated in October 2015, in which it was increased from $1.25 per day to $1.90 per day using the value of 2011 dollars. Raising this threshold helps account for changes in costs of living, which directly effects individuals ability to obtain basic necessities across countries.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Recent figures show that 1.37 million people are living below the poverty line and struggling to survive on HK$4,000 (US$510) per month for a one-person household, HK$9,800 for a two-person household earning, and HK$15,000 or a three-person household. The poverty rate in Hong Kong hit a high of 20.1%, but recent efforts by government programs have lowered this number to 14.7%.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: In December 2012, the Commission on Poverty (CoP) was reinstated to prevent and alleviate poverty with three primary functions; analyze the poverty situation, assist policy formulation and to assess policy effectiveness. Cash handouts have been credited with alleviating much of the poverty, but the extent in which poverty has been alleviated is still questionable. Although cash handouts raise households above the poverty line, they are still struggling to meet certain standards as the cost of living in Hong Kong steadily increases.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Coupled with these cash payments, statutory minimum wage is set to increase for a second time in the past 10 years. Statutory Minimum Wage (SMW) came into existence on 1 May 2011 and the SMW rate has been HK$34.5 per hour since May 2017. The Legislative Council in Hong Kong most recently approved the revision on the SMW rate to increase to HK$37.5 per hour, effective 1 May 2019. Although the total statistics for Hong Kong show declining poverty, child poverty has recently increased .3 percentage points, up to a total of 23.1%, as a result of larger households due to children staying with their elderly parents. With economic growth projected to slow in the coming years, poverty becomes an increasingly pressing issue.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: Beyond benefiting the younger generation through cash handouts and minimum wage increases, expanded elderly allowances have been implemented to increase disposable incomes of the elderly population that can no longer work. As of 1 February 2019 the amount payable per month for eligible elderly population became HK$1,385 in an effort to raise households incomes living with elderly tenants. Although Hong Kong has become one of the largest growing cities in the world, much of the population is struggling to keep up with the rising costs of living.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: One of the largest issues affecting low income families is the availability of affordable housing. Over the past decade, residential Hong Kong property prices have increased close to 242%, with growth finally starting to decelerate in 2019. Considering housing is a basic necessity, prices have continuously increased while disposable incomes remain virtually unchanged. As the amount of affordable housing diminishes, it has become much harder for families to find homes in their home country. Public housing programs have been implemented by the government, but delayed construction and growing waitlists have not helped to the extent they planned for. Recent results from a Hong Kong think tank show that by 2022, the average citizen could wait up to 6 years for public housing. Evidence shows that the availability of affordable housing has declined, forcing households to spend more on shelter and less on other necessities. These issues can lead to worse living conditions and imbalanced diets, both of which pose problems beyond just financial well-being.


title: Economy of Hong Kong

text: The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the sixth largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of about US$3.732 trillion as of mid-2017. In 2006, the value of initial public offerings (IPO) conducted in Hong Kong was second highest in the world after London. In 2009, Hong Kong raised 22 percent of IPO capital, becoming the largest centre of IPOs in the world. The exchange is the world's 10th largest by turnover and third largest in China.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: The fictional animated singing group Alvin and the Chipmunks created by Ross Bagdasarian have appeared in eight feature-length films since their debut.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: When David Seville goes off to Europe on a business trip, the Chipmunks, Alvin, Simon and Theodore, are left at home with their babysitter, Miss Beatrice Miller. While the three are playing an arcade game of "Around the World in Thirty Days" with the Chipettes, Alvin and Brittany argue over which would win an actual race around the world, since Brittany beat Alvin in the video game. Diamond smugglers Claudia and Klaus Furschtein overhear the conversation and approach the children, telling them that they will provide them with the means for a real race around the world by hot air balloon, with the winner receiving $100,000.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: In a tree farm, three musically inclined chipmunks, Alvin (Justin Long), the mischievous troublemaker, Simon (Matthew Gray Gubler), the smart one in the trio, and Theodore (Jesse McCartney) the chubby sweethearted chipmunk, find their tree cut down and are transported to Los Angeles. Once there, they meet frustrated songwriter David Seville (Jason Lee), and despite a poor house-wrecking first impression, they impress him with their singing talent. Seeing the opportunity for success, both human and chipmunks make a pact for them to sing his songs. While that ambition proves a frustrating struggle with the difficult trio, the dream does come true after all. However, that success presents its own trials as their unscrupulous record executive, Ian Hawke (David Cross), plans to break up this family to exploit the boys. Can Dave and the Chipmunks discover what they really value amid the superficial glamour around them?


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: Pop sensations Alvin (Justin Long), Simon (Matthew Gray Gubler) and Theodore (Jesse McCartney) end up in the care of Dave Seville (Jason Lee)'s twenty-something cousin Toby (Zachary Levi). The boys must put aside music super stardom to return to school, and are tasked with saving the school's music program by winning the $25,000 prize in a battle of the bands. But the Chipmunks unexpectedly meet their match in three singing chipmunks known as The Chipettes—Brittany (Christina Applegate), Jeanette (Anna Faris) and Eleanor (Amy Poehler). Romantic and musical sparks are ignited when the Chipmunks and Chipettes square off.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: Dave (Jason Lee), the Chipmunks, and the Chipettes enjoy fun and mischief on a luxury cruise before their seafaring vacation takes an unexpected detour to an uncharted island. Now, the harder Alvin (Justin Long) and friends search for a way back to civilization, the more obvious it becomes that they aren't alone on this secluded island paradise.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: Through a series of misunderstandings, Alvin (Justin Long), Simon (Matthew Gray Gubler) and Theodore (Jesse McCartney) come to believe that Dave (Jason Lee) is going to propose to his new girlfriend in Miami...and dump them. They have three days to get to him and stop the proposal, saving themselves not only from losing Dave but possibly from gaining a terrible stepbrother.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: When the Chipmunks take a break from their concert, they get lost, and eventually get locked inside the park. They find their way to the "Frankenstein's Castle" attraction, where a real Dr. Victor Frankenstein is working on his monster. The monster is brought to life, and the doctor sends it in pursuit of the Chipmunks. In their escape, the monster retrieves Theodore's dropped teddy bear. Now it's up to the Chipmunks to get back his teddy bear and do something to the monster.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: When Alvin has nightmares of meeting the Wolfman, which led him waking up screaming in horror, Simon and Dave conclude that Alvin's been watching too many horror films at night. Alvin says that it is because their new neighbor, Lawrence Talbot, creeps him out and speculates that he is hiding something. Theodore is having trouble with Nathan, a bully, and will not go to the principal, who plans to retire due to Alvin's daily mishaps, for help; Alvin sticks up for him, however.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: La-Lu, a friend of David Seville, has put up a banner saying "Welcome Chipmunks" on the porch of her magic cottage. One of her friends, Gilda (a talking pessimistic cockatoo) believes that having children around is a bad idea. PC (a talking laid back frog with a surfer dude accent who believes he is one kiss away from being Prince Charming) says that his mom used to say "nothing warms up a home like children's laughter". Dave arrives with Alvin, Brittany, Simon, Jeanette, Theodore, and Eleanor. Dave needs the weekend to himself to write a new song, and La-Lu is happy to have five pre-schoolers and a baby stay with her and her friends. Sam and Lou, two gophers, report to the viewers at home about the feelings the characters are experiencing via going into their heads and viewing an abstract inner visual manifestation of what the characters are thinking and or feeling. Alvin doesn't like that Dave is gone, and La-Lu explains that she felt the same way when she was little and reassures him that Dave will return for him and the others soon.


title: Alvin and the Chipmunks in film

text: The live action animated films are the highest-grossing live-action/animated film series and 6th highest-grossing musicals film series of all time. The first film ranks as the 7th highest grossing live-action/animated film of all time, with its sequels being ranked 4th, 11th, and 21st of all time.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: Dmitry Alekseyevich Glukhovsky (, born 12 June 1979) is a Russian author and journalist best known for the science fiction novel "Metro 2033" and its sequels. As a journalist, Dmitry Glukhovsky has worked for Euronews, RT in its early years, and others. Aside from his native Moscow, Glukhovsky has also lived in Israel, Germany, and France. In 2022, he was put on the Russian federal wanted list for his criticism of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: Dmitry Glukhovsky was born and raised in Moscow. His Jewish father Alexei worked as an editor for Gosteleradio, an agency that ran television and radio programming in the USSR, while his Russian mother Larisa worked as a photo editor for Tass agency. He graduated from a school in Arbat District and, having already decided to become a writer, conceived the idea for the post-apocalyptic novel "Metro 2033" at the age of 15. At the age of 17, he left Russia to study in Israel and lived there for four and a half years. While living in Israel he learned Hebrew, and earned a university degree in Journalism and International Relations at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. He completed this degree in Hebrew, no differently to native-language Israeli students most of whom were five years older than him. While talking about the experience, he said: "not that I started feeling myself a Jew, but I definitely started feeling an Israeli."


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: The writer was married to producer Elena Glukhovskaya, whom he met while working at Russia Today. The couple have two children. On VDud, Glukhovsky revealed he and Elena divorced earlier in 2020.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: In 2021, Glukhovsky publicly supported the arrested Russian opposition activist Alexei Navalny and demanded his release in an online video. In the wake of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Glukhovsky has shown support to Ukraine, including a public statement aired on Arte. On 7 June 2022, Glukhovsky revealed he was placed on the Russian federal wanted list; he wrote on his Telegram channel that he was accused of discrediting the Russian Armed Forces due to a post he made on Instagram. After a Moscow district court ordered Glukhovsky's arrest in absentia, he faces up to 10 or 15 years in prison. The arrest in absentia has been issued on May 13. In October, Glukhovsky was added to the list of "foreign agents" by the justice ministry.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: Glukhovsky began writing "Metro 2033" as his first novel at the age of 18, and then published it on his website in 2002, available for all to read for free as an interactive experiment. First published in print form in 2005, the book and its sequels turned into a multimedia franchise including a video game series.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: From 2002 to 2007, he worked at the global European media platform Euronews in Lyon, France, after which he returned to Russia and continued his career at the newly-created Russia Today (RT). Over the course of three years he traveled halfway around the world, was a Kremlin pool journalist, visited the Baikonur Cosmodrome and the exclusion zone of the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, as well as the North Pole, from which he made the world's first direct telecast in July 2007. He has also worked with the German radio station Deutsche Welle and the British television channel Sky News. From 2007 to 2009, he worked at Radio Mayak. He covered the 2006 Lebanon War as a war correspondent, writing reports under mortar shelling.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: The novel "Dusk" was published in 2007. It is a dark tale of the translator Dmitry who receives an order for translations of a dozen pages cut out of what seems to be a several centuries-old Spanish book. He discovers that the book is a journal of an expedition of the Conquistadors dating back to the 16th century. Dmitry is reading this story chapter by chapter, collecting the full translation at home. Finally, the story starts penetrating his reality and threatening his life. "Dusk" was also an online experiment as Glukhovsky was publishing it chapter by chapter in his blog.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: "Metro 2033" was followed by "Metro 2034" in 2009, which was also available for free online, both as text and as a collaborative art-project with Russian electronic performer Dolphin and visual artist Anton Gretchko.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: In 2010, the AST publishing house released a new book by Glukhovsky, "Tales about the Motherland", a compilation of satirical stories about Russian realities.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: Glukhovsky collaborated with Ukrainian company 4A Games in the development of the game. While he did not write the game's story, it is based on his novel.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: "Futu.re" is a dystopian novel published in September 2013 in Russia. The story is set in Europe in the 25th century when humanity has invented a way to stop aging. In order to keep Europe from overflowing, the government was forced to introduce a policy whereby if a couple decide to have a child either the mother or the father would have to give up their immortality. The story is built around a young man who is part of a squad in charge of stopping the overpopulation of Europe by punishing those who do not register their child.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: The game is not based on the novel "Metro 2034", because the developers felt it was less fit for a game than the original book. Glukhovsky helped to write the story and dialogue for the game. He realized that the story he wrote for the game was too big, so instead he published the whole story in "Metro 2035".


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: In 2013, the publisher Dark Horse Comics announced a short tie-in comic set in between the games "Metro 2033" and "Metro: Last Light". It was exclusively available for customers who pre-ordered "Metro: Last Light" on Steam. However, despite the initial announcement and the involvement of the game's developer 4A Games on the comic, the comic itself cited the story as being set in between the novels "Metro 2033" and "Metro 2035". Glukhovsky is credited for the story, while Landry Walker is cited as being responsible for the script, with Paul Azaceta handling the art.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: "Text" is Glukhovsky's first realistic (not the typical sci-fi) novel, published in 2017. It won the 2020 film award Nika in the category Best Screenplay.


title: Dmitry Glukhovsky

text: After a lot of time from the last game of Metro, Metro Exodus based on the book Metro 2035 was launched.


title: Toxicity

text: Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell (cytotoxicity) or an organ such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). By extension, the word may be metaphorically used to describe toxic effects on larger and more complex groups, such as the family unit or society at large. Sometimes the word is more or less synonymous with poisoning in everyday usage.


title: Toxicity

text: A central concept of toxicology is that the effects of a toxicant are dose-dependent; even water can lead to water intoxication when taken in too high a dose, whereas for even a very toxic substance such as snake venom there is a dose below which there is no detectable toxic effect. Toxicity is species-specific, making cross-species analysis problematic. Newer paradigms and metrics are evolving to bypass animal testing, while maintaining the concept of toxicity endpoints.


title: Toxicity

text: "Toxic" and similar words derive from Greek τόξον ' ("bow"), a reference to the use of poisoned arrows as weapons. This root was chosen because the transliteration of ἰός ', the usual Classical Greek word for "poison", was not distinctive enough from the English word "ion," itself derived from a similar but unrelated Greek root. The literal meaning of the root "toxo-" is reflected in such biological names as "Toxodon" ("bow-toothed").


title: Toxicity

text: There are generally five types of toxic entities; chemical, biological, physical, radiation and behavioural toxicity:


title: Toxicity

text: Toxicity can be measured by its effects on the target (organism, organ, tissue or cell). Because individuals typically have different levels of response to the same dose of a toxic substance, a population-level measure of toxicity is often used which relates the probabilities of an outcome for a given individual in a population. One such measure is the . When such data does not exist, estimates are made by comparison to known similar toxic things, or to similar exposures in similar organisms. Then, "safety factors" are added to account for uncertainties in data and evaluation processes. For example, if a dose of a toxic substance is safe for a laboratory rat, one might assume that one-tenth that dose would be safe for a human, allowing a safety factor of 10 to allow for interspecies differences between two mammals; if the data are from fish, one might use a factor of 100 to account for the greater difference between two chordate classes (fish and mammals). Similarly, an extra protection factor may be used for individuals believed to be more susceptible to toxic effects such as in pregnancy or with certain diseases. Or, a newly synthesized and previously unstudied chemical that is believed to be very similar in effect to another compound could be assigned an additional protection factor of 10 to account for possible differences in effects that are probably much smaller. This approach is very approximate, but such protection factors are deliberately very conservative, and the method has been found to be useful in a deep variety of applications.


title: Toxicity

text: Assessing all aspects of the toxicity of cancer-causing agents involves additional issues, since it is not certain if there is a minimal effective dose for carcinogens, or whether the risk is just too small to see. In addition, it is possible that a single cell transformed into a cancer cell is all it takes to develop the full effect (the "one hit" theory).


title: Toxicity

text: It is more difficult to determine the toxicity of chemical mixtures than a pure chemical because each component displays its own toxicity, and components may interact to produce enhanced or diminished effects. Common mixtures include gasoline, cigarette smoke, and industrial waste. Even more complex are situations with more than one type of toxic entity, such as the discharge from a malfunctioning sewage treatment plant, with both chemical and biological agents.


title: Toxicity

text: The preclinical toxicity testing on various biological systems reveals the species-, organ- and dose-specific toxic effects of an investigational product. The toxicity of substances can be observed by (a) studying the accidental exposures to a substance (b) in vitro studies using cells/ cell lines (c) in vivo exposure on experimental animals. Toxicity tests are mostly used to examine specific adverse events or specific endpoints such as cancer, cardiotoxicity, and skin/eye irritation. Toxicity testing also helps calculate the No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) dose and is helpful for clinical studies.


title: Toxicity

text: For substances to be regulated and handled appropriately they must be properly classified and labelled. Classification is determined by approved testing measures or calculations and has determined cut-off levels set by governments and scientists (for example, no-observed-adverse-effect levels, threshold limit values, and tolerable daily intake levels). Pesticides provide the example of well-established toxicity class systems and toxicity labels. While currently many countries have different regulations regarding the types of tests, numbers of tests and cut-off levels, the implementation of the Globally Harmonized System has begun unifying these countries.


title: Toxicity

text: Global classification looks at three areas: Physical Hazards (explosions and pyrotechnics), Health Hazards and environmental hazards.


title: Toxicity

text: The types of toxicities where substances may cause lethality to the entire body, lethality to specific organs, major/minor damage, or cause cancer. These are globally accepted definitions of what toxicity is. Anything falling outside of the definition cannot be classified as that type of toxicant.


title: Toxicity

text: Acute toxicity looks at lethal effects following oral, dermal or inhalation exposure. It is split into five categories of severity where Category 1 requires the least amount of exposure to be lethal and Category 5 requires the most exposure to be lethal. The table below shows the upper limits for each category.


title: Toxicity

text: Note: The undefined values are expected to be roughly equivalent to the category 5 values for oral and dermal administration.


title: Toxicity

text: Skin corrosion and irritation are determined through a skin patch test analysis, similar to an allergic inflammation patch test. This examines the severity of the damage done; when it is incurred and how long it remains; whether it is reversible and how many test subjects were affected.


title: Toxicity

text: Skin corrosion from a substance must penetrate through the epidermis into the dermis within four hours of application and must not reverse the damage within 14 days. Skin irritation shows damage less severe than corrosion if: the damage occurs within 72 hours of application; or for three consecutive days after application within a 14-day period; or causes inflammation which lasts for 14 days in two test subjects. Mild skin irritation is minor damage (less severe than irritation) within 72 hours of application or for three consecutive days after application.


title: Toxicity

text: Serious eye damage involves tissue damage or degradation of vision which does not fully reverse in 21 days. Eye irritation involves changes to the eye which do fully reverse within 21 days.


title: Toxicity

text: An Environmental hazard can be defined as any condition, process, or state adversely affecting the environment. These hazards can be physical or chemical, and present in air, water, and/or soil. These conditions can cause extensive harm to humans and other organisms within an ecosystem.


title: Toxicity

text: Workers in various occupations may be at a greater level of risk for several types of toxicity, including neurotoxicity. The expression "Mad as a hatter" and the "Mad Hatter" of the book Alice in Wonderland derive from the known occupational toxicity of hatters who used a toxic chemical for controlling the shape of hats. Exposure to chemicals in the workplace environment may be required for evaluation by industrial hygiene professionals.


title: Toxicity

text: Hazards in the arts have been an issue for artists for centuries, even though the toxicity of their tools, methods, and materials was not always adequately realized. Lead and cadmium, among other toxic elements, were often incorporated into the names of artist's oil paints and pigments, for example, "lead white" and "cadmium red".


title: Toxicity

text: 20th-century printmakers and other artists began to be aware of the toxic substances, toxic techniques, and toxic fumes in glues, painting mediums, pigments, and solvents, many of which in their labelling gave no indication of their toxicity. An example was the use of xylol for cleaning silk screens. Painters began to notice the dangers of breathing painting mediums and thinners such as turpentine. Aware of toxicants in studios and workshops, in 1998 printmaker Keith Howard published "Non-Toxic Intaglio Printmaking" which detailed twelve innovative Intaglio-type printmaking techniques including photo etching, digital imaging, acrylic-resist hand-etching methods, and introducing a new method of non-toxic lithography.


title: Toxicity

text: There are many environmental health mapping tools. TOXMAP is a Geographic Information System (GIS) from the Division of Specialized Information Services of the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM) that uses maps of the United States to help users visually explore data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) Toxics Release Inventory and Superfund programs. TOXMAP is a resource funded by the US Federal Government. TOXMAP's chemical and environmental health information is taken from NLM's Toxicology Data Network


title: Toxicity

text: Aquatic toxicity testing subjects key indicator species of fish or crustacea to certain concentrations of a substance in their environment to determine the lethality level. Fish are exposed for 96 hours while crustacea are exposed for 48 hours. While GHS does not define toxicity past 100 mg/L, the EPA currently lists aquatic toxicity as "practically non-toxic" in concentrations greater than 100 ppm.


title: Toxicity

text: Note: A category 4 is established for chronic exposure, but simply contains any toxic substance which is mostly insoluble, or has no data for acute toxicity.


title: Toxicity

text: Toxicity of a substance can be affected by many different factors, such as the pathway of administration (whether the toxicant is applied to the skin, ingested, inhaled, injected), the time of exposure (a brief encounter or long term), the number of exposures (a single dose or multiple doses over time), the physical form of the toxicant (solid, liquid, gas), the genetic makeup of an individual, an individual's overall health, and many others. Several of the terms used to describe these factors have been included here.


title: Toxicity

text: Considering the limitations of the dose-response concept, a novel Abstract Drug Toxicity Index (DTI) has been proposed recently. DTI redefines drug toxicity, identifies hepatotoxic drugs, gives mechanistic insights, predicts clinical outcomes and has potential as a screening tool.


title: Suppository

text: A suppository is a dosage form used to deliver medications by insertion into a body orifice where it dissolves or melts to exert local or systemic effects. There are three types of suppositories, each to insert into a different sections: rectal suppositories into the rectum, vaginal suppositories into the vagina, and urethral suppositories into the urethra of a male.


title: Suppository

text: Suppositories are ideal for infants, elderly individuals and post-operative patients, who are unable to swallow oral medications, and for individuals experiencing severe nausea and/or vomiting.


title: Suppository

text: Several different ingredients can be used to form the base of a suppository: cocoa butter or a similar substitute, polyethylene glycol, hydrogels, and glycerinated gelatin. The type of material used depends on the type of suppository, the type of drug, and the conditions in which the suppository will be stored.


title: Suppository

text: In 1991, a study on suppository insertion in "The Lancet" found that the "torpedo" shape helps the device to travel internally, increasing its efficacy. The findings of this single study have been challenged as there is insufficient evidence on which to base clinical practice. Rectal suppositories are intended for localized or systemic action to relieve pain, constipation, irritation, inflammation, nausea and vomiting, fever, migraines, allergies, and sedation.


title: Suppository

text: Alprostadil pellets are urethral suppositories used for the treatment of severe erectile dysfunction (impotence). They are marketed under the name "Muse" in the United States. Its use has diminished since the development of oral impotence medications.


title: Stronger (film)

text: Stronger is a 2017 American biographical drama film directed by David Gordon Green and written by John Pollono, based on the memoir of the same name by Jeff Bauman and Bret Witter. It follows Bauman, who loses his legs in the Boston Marathon bombings and must adjust to his new life. It stars Jake Gyllenhaal as Bauman, with Tatiana Maslany, Miranda Richardson, Carlos Sanz and Clancy Brown in supporting roles.


title: Stronger (film)

text: "Stronger" had its world premiere at the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2017, and was theatrically released in the United States on September 22, 2017. It received positive reviews from critics, who praised the mature take on the story and Gyllenhaal's performance, but was a box-office flop, grossing just $8 million against its $30 million budget.


title: Stronger (film)

text: Jeff Bauman is a well-intentioned but underachieving Boston native who works at the deli counter of a Costco and lives in a small two-bedroom apartment with his alcoholic mother Patty. One day at the local bar, Jeff runs into his ex-girlfriend Erin, who is attracted to his kindness and charm, but finds herself constantly frustrated by his lack of commitment. After learning that Erin is running in the 2013 Boston Marathon to raise money for the hospital she works at, Jeff asks every patron in the bar to donate and then promises Erin he'll wait at the finish line for her with a big sign.


title: Stronger (film)

text: The day of the Marathon, Jeff scrambles to make it to the finish line on time, but reaches it before Erin does. As she approaches the finish line, a bomb goes off right where Jeff is standing. After being rushed to a hospital, both of Jeff's legs are amputated above the knee. When he regains consciousness, Jeff tells his brother that he saw the bomber before the explosion. Patty calls the FBI, where Jeff is able to give them a description of Tamerlan Tsarnaev. Local authorities capture Dzhokhar Tsarnaev days later, and Jeff is hailed as a hero.


title: Stronger (film)

text: Jeff struggles to adjust to his condition, as well as his newfound fame. Patty books several interviews and constantly surrounds Jeff with news reporters during his rehab sessions, to which Erin, who has since rekindled her relationship with Jeff, objects. Jeff and his family are invited by the Boston Bruins to Game 2 of the first round of the Stanley Cup Playoffs against the Chicago Blackhawks. The Bruins organization asks Jeff to wave the flag during the game's opening ceremony. The crowd at TD Garden triggers traumatic flashbacks for Jeff, and he breaks down in the elevator. Erin comforts him and insists he talk to his family about the fragility of his mental state and the impact his newfound exposure is having on it. Later that night, they make love for the first time since his injury.


title: Stronger (film)

text: Patty books Jeff an interview with Oprah Winfrey without telling him, causing Erin to speak up and tell Patty that the constant media attention is intensifying Jeff's PTSD. After an argument between Patty and Erin, Jeff finally admits that he doesn't want to do any more interviews. A disheartened Patty tells him that she only wishes for the world to see how amazing her son is. She soon begins enabling Jeff's worst tendencies, including his laziness and affinity for drinking. He begins missing physical therapy appointments, due to long nights of drinking usually with Patty. Erin, who has since moved in, finds Patty blacked out on the couch and an unconscious Jeff in a bathtub, covered in feces. The next day, she snaps at Patty for her selfishness and negligence before calling Jeff out for his self-pity and refusal to stand up to his mother. Erin storms off, leaving Jeff and Patty to drive home alone.


title: Stronger (film)

text: That night, Jeff blows off Erin to drink with his brothers at a bar. Two patrons at the bar begin asking Jeff questions about the bombing, insinuating that the event was a government conspiracy to start a war in Iran and Jeff was paid to look like a victim. Insulted, Jeff and his brothers initiate a bar fight with the patrons. Erin picks him up later that night and tells him that she's pregnant. Jeff begins to panic, gets extremely angry and rants at her that he isn't ready to be a father, causing Erin to scold him for constantly running away from his problems. She leaves him in the car without removing his wheelchair from the trunk, enters their apartment, and packs her things. Jeff crawls to the apartment door and has a PTSD flashback of the bombing in its entirety.


title: Stronger (film)

text: Jeff meets with Carlos, a man who cared for him in the immediate aftermath of the bombing saving his life. Carlos tells him about his son, a Marine who died in the Iraq War. After attempting suicide, Carlos was forced to attend his son's funeral on a stretcher. His younger son, unable to cope with the death of his older brother and the constant state of pain his father was in, killed himself. Carlos confides that saving Jeff helped him make peace with the death of his sons and the blame he placed upon himself because of them. Jeff begins to understand that his will to live in the face of adversity is what both comforts and inspires people. He stops drinking and begins to take his rehab more seriously. He leaves Erin a voicemail apologizing for his behavior, finally taking full responsibility for his immaturity and fear of commitment. A few days later, he and Carlos throw out the first pitch for a Boston Red Sox game at Fenway Park, where he meets Pedro Martinez. Erin watches at home and smiles. After the game, dozens of people come up to Jeff and tell him how and why he has so heavily impacted their lives.


title: Stronger (film)

text: Patty drops off Jeff for an eating date with Erin at a diner where he walks with his prosthetics for the first time without assistance. He tells Erin he loves her, to which she replies, "Good." He grabs her hand and smiles.


title: Stronger (film)

text: On July 14, 2014, it was reported that Lionsgate was developing a film based on Jeff Bauman's memoir "Stronger", with playwright John Pollono writing the script. On July 17, 2015, David Gordon Green signed on to direct the film. On July 29, 2015, it was reported that Jake Gyllenhaal was in talks to play Bauman, and on October 7, 2015, it was reported that Tatiana Maslany was in talks to play Bauman's girlfriend Erin Hurley. On February 2, 2016, Bold Films signed on to produce and finance the film. On April 5, 2016, Miranda Richardson and Clancy Brown joined the film, as Bauman's mother and father, respectively. The same month, Frankie Shaw joined the cast. Filming began in Greater Boston (including the city of Boston) and New York City on April 4, 2016.


title: Stronger (film)

text: "Stronger" grossed $4.2 million in the United States and Canada, and $3.5 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $7.7 million.


title: Stronger (film)

text: "Stronger" was released on September 22, 2017, by Lionsgate and Roadside Attractions. The film debuted in 574 theaters and grossed $1.6 million in its opening weekend, finishing 8th at the box office. In its second weekend, despite being added to 72 theaters, the film dropped 38% to $986,560 and 13th place.


title: Stronger (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 90% based on 196 reviews, with an average rating of 7.3/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Stronger" rises on the power of its well-chosen ensemble to offer an emotionally resonant fact-based story that transcends inspirational drama clichés." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 76 out of 100, based on reviews from 41 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Profit maximization

text: In economics, profit maximization is the short run or long run process by which a firm may determine the price, input and output levels that will lead to the highest possible total profit (or just profit in short). In neoclassical economics, which is currently the mainstream approach to microeconomics, the firm is assumed to be a "rational agent" (whether operating in a perfectly competitive market or otherwise) which wants to maximize its total profit, which is the difference between its total revenue and its total cost.


title: Profit maximization

text: Measuring the total cost and total revenue is often impractical, as the firms do not have the necessary reliable information to determine costs at all levels of production. Instead, they take a more practical approach by examining how small changes in production influence revenues and costs. When a firm produces an extra unit of product, the additional revenue gained from selling it is called the marginal revenue (formula_1), and the additional cost to produce that unit is called the marginal cost (formula_2). When the level of output is such that the marginal revenue is equal to the marginal cost (formula_3), then the firm's total profit is said to be maximized. If the marginal revenue is greater than the marginal cost (formula_4), then its total profit is not maximized, because the firm can produce additional units to earn additional profit. In other words, in this case, it is in the "rational" interest of the firm to increase its output level until its total profit is maximized. On the other hand, if the marginal revenue is less than the marginal cost (formula_5), then too its total profit is not maximized, because producing one unit less will reduce total cost more than total revenue gained, thus giving the firm more total profit. In this case, a "rational" firm has an incentive to reduce its output level until its total profit is maximized.


title: Profit maximization

text: There are several perspectives one can take on profit maximization. First, since profit equals revenue minus cost, one can plot graphically each of the variables revenue and cost as functions of the level of output and find the output level that maximizes the difference (or this can be done with a table of values instead of a graph). Second, if specific functional forms are known for revenue and cost in terms of output, one can use calculus to maximize profit with respect to the output level. Third, since the first order condition for the optimization equates marginal revenue and marginal cost, if marginal revenue (formula_1) and marginal cost (formula_2) functions in terms of output are directly available one can equate these, using either equations or a graph. Fourth, rather than a function giving the cost of producing each potential output level, the firm may have input cost functions giving the cost of acquiring any amount of each input, along with a production function showing how much output results from using any combination of input quantities. In this case one can use calculus to maximize profit with respect to input usage levels, subject to the input cost functions and the production function. The first order condition for each input equates the marginal revenue product of the input (the increment to revenue from selling the product caused by an increment to the amount of the input used) to the marginal cost of the input.


title: Profit maximization

text: For a firm in a perfectly competitive market for its output, the revenue function will simply equal the market price times the quantity produced and sold, whereas for a monopolist, which chooses its level of output simultaneously with its selling price. In the case of monopoly, the company will produce more products because it can still make normal profits. To get the most profit, you need to set higher prices and lower quantities than the competitive market. However, the revenue function takes into account the fact that higher levels of output require a lower price in order to be sold. An analogous feature holds for the input markets: in a perfectly competitive input market the firm's cost of the input is simply the amount purchased for use in production times the market-determined unit input cost, whereas a monopsonist’s input price per unit is higher for higher amounts of the input purchased.


title: Profit maximization

text: The principal difference between short run and long run profit maximization is that in the long run the quantities of all inputs, including physical capital, are choice variables, while in the short run the amount of capital is predetermined by past investment decisions. In either case, there are inputs of labor and raw materials.


title: Profit maximization

text: Any costs incurred by a firm may be classified into two groups: fixed costs and variable costs. Fixed costs, which occur only in the short run, are incurred by the business at any level of output, including zero output. These may include equipment maintenance, rent, wages of employees whose numbers cannot be increased or decreased in the short run, and general upkeep. Variable costs change with the level of output, increasing as more product is generated. Materials consumed during production often have the largest impact on this category, which also includes the wages of employees who can be hired and laid off in the short run span of time under consideration. Fixed cost and variable cost, combined, equal total cost.


title: Profit maximization

text: Revenue is the amount of money that a company receives from its normal business activities, usually from the sale of goods and services (as opposed to monies from security sales such as equity shares or debt issuances).


title: Profit maximization

text: The five ways formula is to increase leads, conversation rates, average dollar sales, the average number of sales, and average product profit. Profits can be increased by up to 1,000 percent, this is important for sole traders and small businesses let alone big businesses but none the less all profit maximization is a matter of each business stage and greater returns for profit sharing thus higher wages and motivation.


title: Profit maximization

text: Marginal cost and marginal revenue, depending on whether the calculus approach is taken or not, are defined as either the change in cost or revenue as each additional unit is produced or the derivative of cost or revenue with respect to the quantity of output. For instance, taking the first definition, if it costs a firm $400 to produce 5 units and $480 to produce 6, the marginal cost of the sixth unit is 80 dollars. Conversely, the marginal income from the production of 6 units is the income from the production of 6 units minus the income from the production of 5 units (the latter item minus the preceding item).


title: Profit maximization

text: To obtain the profit maximizing output quantity, we start by recognizing that profit is equal to total revenue (formula_8) minus total cost (formula_9). Given a table of costs and revenues at each quantity, we can either compute equations or plot the data directly on a graph. The profit-maximizing output is the one at which this difference reaches its maximum.


title: Profit maximization

text: In the accompanying diagram, the linear total revenue curve represents the case in which the firm is a perfect competitor in the goods market, and thus cannot set its own selling price. The profit-maximizing output level is represented as the one at which total revenue is the height of formula_10 and total cost is the height of formula_11; the maximal profit is measured as the length of the segment formula_12. This output level is also the one at which the total profit curve is at its maximum.


title: Profit maximization

text: If, contrary to what is assumed in the graph, the firm is not a perfect competitor in the output market, the price to sell the product at can be read off the demand curve at the firm's optimal quantity of output. This optimal quantity of output is the quantity at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost.


title: Profit maximization

text: An equivalent perspective relies on the relationship that, for each unit sold, marginal profit (formula_13) equals marginal revenue (formula_1) minus marginal cost (formula_2). Then, if marginal revenue is greater than marginal cost at some level of output, marginal profit is positive and thus a greater quantity should be produced, and if marginal revenue is less than marginal cost, marginal profit is negative and a lesser quantity should be produced. At the output level at which marginal revenue equals marginal cost, marginal profit is zero and this quantity is the one that maximizes profit. Since total profit increases when marginal profit is positive and total profit decreases when marginal profit is negative, it must reach a maximum where marginal profit is zero—where marginal cost equals marginal revenue—and where lower or higher output levels give lower profit levels. In calculus terms, the requirement that the optimal output have higher profit than adjacent output levels is that:


title: Profit maximization

text: , where formula_17 and formula_18 refer to the midpoints between the old and new values of price and quantity respectively. The marginal revenue from an incremental unit of output has two parts: first, the revenue the firm gains from selling the additional units or, giving the term formula_19. The additional units are called the marginal units. Producing one extra unit and selling it at price formula_17 brings in revenue of formula_17. Moreover, one must consider "the revenue the firm loses on the units it could have sold at the higher price"—that is, if the price of all units had not been pulled down by the effort to sell more units. These units that have lost revenue are called the infra-marginal units. That is, selling the extra unit results in a small drop in price which reduces the revenue for all units sold by the amount formula_22. Thus, formula_23, where formula_24 is the price elasticity of demand characterizing the demand curve of the firms' customers, which is negative. Then setting formula_25 gives formula_26 so formula_27 and formula_28. Thus, the optimal markup rule is:


title: Profit maximization

text: In other words, the rule is that the size of the markup of price over the marginal cost is inversely related to the absolute value of the price elasticity of demand for the good.


title: Profit maximization

text: The optimal markup rule also implies that a non-competitive firm will produce on the elastic region of its market demand curve. Marginal cost is positive. The term formula_31 would be positive so formula_32 only if formula_24 is between formula_34 and formula_35 (that is, if demand is elastic at that level of output). The intuition behind this result is that, if demand is inelastic at some value formula_36 then a decrease in formula_18 would increase formula_17 more than proportionately, thereby increasing revenue formula_39; since lower formula_18 would also lead to lower total cost, profit would go up due to the combination of increased revenue and decreased cost. Thus, formula_36 does not give the highest possible profit.


title: Profit maximization

text: The general rule is that the firm maximizes profit by producing that quantity of output where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. The profit maximization issue can also be approached from the input side. That is, what is the profit maximizing usage of the variable input? To maximize profit the firm should increase usage of the input "up to the point where the input's marginal revenue product equals its marginal costs". Mathematically, the profit-maximizing rule is formula_42, where the subscript formula_43 refers to the commonly assumed variable input, labor.


title: Profit maximization

text: The marginal revenue product is the change in total revenue per unit change in the variable input, that is, formula_44.


title: Profit maximization

text: Oftentimes, businesses will attempt to maximize their profits even though their optimization strategy typically leads to a sub-optimal quantity of goods produced for the consumers. When deciding a given quantity to produce, a firm will often try to maximize its own producer surplus, at the expense of decreasing the overall social surplus. As a result of this decrease in social surplus, consumer surplus is also minimized, as compared to if the firm did not elect to maximize their own producer surplus.


title: Profit maximization

text: Market quotas reflect the power of a firm in the market, a firm dominating a market is very common, and too much power often becomes the motive for non-Hong behavior. predatory pricing, tying, price gouging and other behaviors are reflecting the crisis of excessive power of monopolists in the market. In an attempt to prevent businesses from abusing their power to maximize their own profits, governments often intervene to stop them in their tracks. A major example of this is through anti-trust regulation which effectively outlaws most industry monopolies. Through this regulation, consumers enjoy a better relationship with the companies that serve them, even though the company itself may suffer, financially speaking.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting involves the development of an action plan designed in order to motivate and guide a person or group toward a goal. Goals are more deliberate than desires and momentary intentions. Therefore, setting goals means that a person has committed thought, emotion, and behavior towards attaining the goal. In doing so, the goal setter has established a desired future state which differs from their current state thus creating a mismatch which in turn spurs future actions. Goal setting can be guided by goal-setting criteria (or rules) such as SMART criteria. Goal setting is a major component of personal-development and management literature. Studies by Edwin A. Locke and his colleagues, most notably, have shown that more specific and ambitious goals lead to more performance improvement than easy or general goals. The goals should be specific, time constrained and difficult. Vague goals reduce limited attention resources. Unrealistically short time limits intensify the difficulty of the goal outside the intentional level and disproportionate time limits are not encouraging. Difficult goals should be set ideally at the 90th percentile of performance assuming that motivation and not ability is limiting attainment of that level of performance. As long as the person accepts the goal, has the ability to attain it, and does not have conflicting goals, there is a positive linear relationship between goal difficulty and task performance.


title: Goal setting

text: The theory of Locke and colleagues states that the simplest, most direct motivational explanation of why some people perform better than others is because they have different performance goals. The essence of the theory is:


title: Goal setting

text: Edwin A. Locke began to examine goal setting in the mid-1960s and continued researching goal setting for more than 30 years. He found that individuals who set specific, difficult goals performed better than those who set general, easy goals. Locke derived the idea for goal-setting from Aristotle's form of final causality. Aristotle speculated that purpose can cause action; thus, Locke began researching the impact goals have on human activity. Locke developed and refined his goal-setting theory in the 1960s, publishing his first article on the subject, "Toward a Theory of Task Motivation and Incentives", in 1968. This article established the positive relationship between clearly identified goals and performance.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting theory was developed over 25 years based on accumulated evidence from approximately 400 studies encompassing field and laboratory settings. This inductive approach to theory building avoids over-formalizing ideas at the early stage of theory development. In this sense, inductive theory building should be seen as going from the particular to the general in contrast with deductive theory building which goes from the general to the particular. With specific regards to goal setting theory, this also has the further advantage of allowing negative results to be framed as an opportunity for further exploration around the theory and the development of goal setting has many examples of this process being used to develop the theory further. Recent work on benefits from domain general goals suggest both that the theory should be modified further to include this beneficial domain general effect of superordinate goals and that this inductive process of further adjustments and improvements to goal setting theory itself is ongoing. This specific example is discussed in more detail in the in academia section below.


title: Goal setting

text: After controlling for ability, goals that are difficult to achieve and specific tend to increase performance far more than easy goals, no goals or telling people to do their best. It therefore follows that the simplest motivational explanation of why some individuals outperform others is that they have different goals. A goal can be made more specific by:


title: Goal setting

text: People perform better when they are committed to achieving certain goals. Through an understanding of the effect of goal setting on individual performance, organizations are able to use goal setting to benefit organizational performance. In addition, another aspect that goes with goal commitment is also goal acceptance. This is an individual's willingness to pursue their specific goal. Locke and Latham (2002) have indicated three moderators that indicate goal setting success:


title: Goal setting

text: Expanding the three from above, the level of commitment is influenced by external factors. Such as the person assigning the goal, setting the standard for the person to achieve/perform. This influences the level of commitment by how compliant the individual is with the one assigning the goal. An external factor can also be the role models of the individual. For example, say an individual looks up to their manager and cares about his or her opinion, the individual is more likely to listen to goal-setting strategies from that individual, and ultimately become more committed to their desired goal.


title: Goal setting

text: Internal factors can derive from their participation level in the work to achieve the goal. What they expect from themselves can either flourish their success, or destroy it. Also, the individual may want to appear superior to their peers or competitors. They want to achieve the goal the best and be known for it. The self-reward of accomplishing a goal is usually one of the main keys that keeps individuals committed. For example, if an individual was working toward becoming the president of their company, if they achieve their goal, they could reward themselves with something of importance to them.


title: Goal setting

text: Another route individuals can take to set their goals is to follow (STD) that is, setting their goals to be Specific, Time-bound, and difficult. Specifically, an individual's goal should be set at the 90th percentile of difficulty.


title: Goal setting

text: Locke and colleagues (1981) examined the behavioral effects of goal-setting, concluding that 90% of laboratory and field studies involving specific and challenging goals led to higher performance than did easy or no goals. This is because if an individual is intrinsically motivated by a goal, he or she will want to conquer the goal to receive internal rewards, and will be satisfied because of it.


title: Goal setting

text: Locke and Latham (2006) argue that it is not sufficient to urge employees to "do their best." "Doing one's best" has no external reference, which makes it useless in eliciting specific behavior. To elicit some specific form of behavior from another person, it is important that this person has a clear view of what is expected from him/her. A goal is thereby of vital importance because it helps an individual to focus his or her efforts in a specified direction. In other words, goals canalize behavior. However, when faced with complex tasks and directions that are difficult to specify, telling someone to "do their best", with a focus on learning, can sometimes lead to the discovery of better strategies whereby specific goals can then be set. A solution to this apparent contradiction where the "do your best" condition can lead to greater task performance than a high specific performance goal under certain conditions is resolved when task complexity is taken into account. Specifically, in a complex task where the prerequisite skills and knowledge to perform the task are not yet in place, the "do your best" condition can outperform the performance goal condition. If a high, specific learning goal is set instead then the goal-performance relationship is maintained and the (learning) goal setting condition outperforms the "do your best" condition.


title: Goal setting

text: Feedback and goal setting are highly interrelated and more effective when used in conjunction with each other. Feedback cannot be given without goals in the same way that goals can not be established without providing feedback.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting can lead to the creation of feedback loops, either negative or positive comparison of the output to the goal. Negative feedback loops lead to increasing the input associated with goal attainment to improve output in the next loop cycle. Positive feedback loops, if not sufficiently reinforced, can lead to subsequent setting of goals at a less difficult level.


title: Goal setting

text: Negative feedback can be reframed and errors seen as beneficial to the learning and goal achievement process and in turn increase participant resilience. This reframing process can be taught through error management training and with clear instructions about how to engage with errors. Error management training involves participants practicing metacognitive activities of planning, monitoring, and evaluation.


title: Goal setting

text: Negative feedback also interacts with goal type, perceived tension and conscientiousness. People with high conscientiousness and performance goals experience high tension following negative feedback which leads to lower performance. This is not the case with learning goals where the effect of negative feedback is less detrimental.


title: Goal setting

text: Without proper feedback channels it is impossible for employees to adapt or adjust to the required behavior. Managers should keep track of performance to allow employees to see how effective they have been in attaining their goals. Providing feedback on short-term objectives helps to sustain motivation and commitment to the goal. There are two forms of feedback in which the employee can receive (Outcome and Process feedback). Outcome feedback is after the goal or activity is finished, and process feedback is during the completion of a goal. Feedback should be provided on the strategies followed to achieve the goals and on the final outcomes achieved.


title: Goal setting

text: Locke and Latham (2004) note that goal-setting theory lacks "the issue of time perspective." Taking this into consideration, Steel and Konig (2006) utilize their temporal motivation theory (TMT) to account for goal setting's effects, and suggest new hypotheses regarding a pair of its moderators: goal difficulty and proximity. The effectiveness of goal setting can be explained by two aspects of TMT: the principle of diminishing returns and temporal discounting. Similar to the expression "the sum of the parts can be greater than the whole", a division of a project into several, immediate, subgoals appears to take advantage of these two elements.


title: Goal setting

text: The more employees are motivated, the more they are stimulated and interested in accepting goals. These success factors are interdependent. For example, the expected outcomes of goals are positively influenced when employees are involved in the goal setting process. Not only does participation increase commitment in attaining the goals that are set, participation influences self-efficacy as well. Additionally, feedback is necessary to monitor one's progress. When feedback is not presented, an employee might think they are not making enough progress. This can reduce self-efficacy and thereby harm the performance outcomes in the long run.


title: Goal setting

text: In business, goal setting remains a popular evidence based approach to align efforts across organizations, communicate objectives, and improve motivation as well as task performance for individuals and groups. Goal setting encourages participants to put in substantial effort over and above a "do your best condition". Also, because every member has defined expectations for their role, little room is left for inadequate, marginal effort to go unnoticed.


title: Goal setting

text: Managers cannot constantly drive motivation, or keep track of an employee's work on a continuous basis. Goals are therefore an important tool for managers, since goals have the ability to function as a self-regulatory mechanism that helps employees prioritize tasks.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting is also used by some companies with a stated aim of ensuring that employee work life balance is maintained. The idea behind this is that employees set a non-work related goal to improve their well-being, and managers help team members stick to those goals. An example of this in practice is "One Simple Thing", a goal-setting well-being practice employed by Google.


title: Goal setting

text: Based initially on Drucker's management by objectives (MBO) model, a popular applied version of goal setting theory for business is the objectives and key results model (OKR). Originally developed at Intel by Andy Grove, the tool was designed to set individual and collaborative goal team goals that are specific, concrete, challenging, ambitious and have measurable and time bound key results. OKRs were later introduced to many other companies and foundations such as Google and the Gates Foundation by Grove disciple John Doerr whose book "Measure what Matters" outlines the use of OKRs across a wide range of organizational settings.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting is used to improve training outcomes. For example, Tomokazu Kishiki and colleagues performed a randomized controlled trial on surgical trainees to determine whether or not their participation in a goal-setting program would improve performance and testing scores; the addition of achievable goals appeared to be beneficial to the trainees. When goal setting is applied optimally during training processes, both employee motivation and organizational commitment can increase.


title: Goal setting

text: Furthermore, training in goal setting has been linked to higher levels of performance among adults and children with mild to severe intellectual disability.


title: Goal setting

text: The tenets of Goal setting theory generally hold true in physical domains. In a study of high school students using sit up tests all students set a specific and challenging goal out performed students with a non-specific goal supporting the principles of goal specificity and goal difficulty from general goal setting theory. Goal setting appears to be especially beneficial to athletes with self-inflated narcissism by protecting athletes with that personality trait from their tendency to underperform in tedious but necessary training with no audience present.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting research has shown positive results as an effective, and inexpensive to implement intervention for a broad range of academic purposes across a range of age groups. Beginning with struggling undergraduate students, there is some evidence that when compared to a control group, students who had set general rather than domain specific academic goals experienced the following benefits in the semester after the intervention namely, i) increased GPA, ii) a higher probability of maintaining a full course load, iii) a reduction in self reported negative affect. While goal setting research tends to be domain specific, these results among others, does suggest that benefits from goal setting may have broader benefits for goal setters even beyond the domain of the goal itself.


title: Goal setting

text: Further work with undergraduates has suggested that these broader benefits apply even if non-academic goals are set. This could imply that the original goal setting theory can be modified to include a more domain general "spread" effect from superordinate life goals and that writing about general life goals regardless of domain can improve academic performance. Developing these life goals can include linked procedures such as i) reflecting on/envisaging one's best possible life, ii) listing good quality goals relevant to achieving this best possible life, iii) strategizing on how to achieve their attainment, iv) reflect in writing about anticipated obstacles, v) developing specific plans for overcoming these anticipated obstacles.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting interventions have shown promising and scalable results in terms of closing persistent gender (ongoing male underperformance) and ethnicity achievement gaps in the areas of academic achievement and increased retention rates. In one study persistent male underperformance in tertiary education was almost entirely closed to achieve parity with females after one year of the intervention. Similar albeit slower positive impacts in closing the ethnicity achievement gap by the second year of the same goal setting intervention were reported. These findings suggest that a goal setting intervention early in students' academic careers can significantly and substantially reduce gender and ethnic minority inequalities in academic achievement at least at the tertiary level. More work remains to be done to see if similar conclusions can be drawn at the level of secondary education.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal-setting activities with final-year university students focused around self-reflective and personal growth through setting three growth goals and recording progress in reflective diaries shows that goal setting and making progress towards the goals can have many positive impacts. These include increased self-esteem, time and improved stress management and self-monitoring skills as well as motivating, and energizing effects. These suggest that, at least with undergraduates, the setting of growth goals with a reflective diary element can be a useful addition to academic programs.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal-setting activities including the setting of both performance and learning goals have been associated with both increased performance and completion rates for MOOC participants. Students who completed a goal setting writing activity at the start of a course achieved more over a longer period of time than those who did not set goals. For online learning more generally, students who have a better understanding of the tasks set better more detailed goals and in turn achieve higher performance suggesting that instructional time spent explaining learning tasks can be beneficial.


title: Goal setting

text: Properly implemented taught goal-setting programs are effective in K-12 schools for behavior and emotional management interventions. In particular, programs that included student input on the goal setting process as well as the collection of targeting data to monitor progress and ensure the delivery of high quality feedback to students on progress towards goals were more effective behavior management interventions. In order to ensure a properly designed goal setting intervention for behavior management some variation of a checklist can be an effective addition to behavioral management programs. A typical such checklist could include the following factors:


title: Goal setting

text: Goal-setting also works effectively either or its own or as part of a package of other behavior management interventions.


title: Goal setting

text: While the literature on self-regulated learning covers a broad variety of theoretical perspectives and concepts such as control theory, self-efficacy, action regulation, and resource allocation, goal-setting is a crucial component of virtually all of these approaches as the initiator of self-regulation mechanisms such as planning, monitoring, metacognition, attention, learning strategies, persistence, time management, environmental structuring, help seeking, emotion control, motivation, effort, and self-efficacy.


title: Goal setting

text: Common personal goals include losing weight, achieving good grades, and saving money. The strategy for goal setting begins with the big picture; taking a look at the big picture before breaking it into smaller components allows one to focus on the primary goal. Once the main goal is set, breaking it up into smaller, more achievable components helps in the planning portion of setting the goal. These smaller, more obtainable objectives promote self-esteem and provide instant feedback to keep the individual on task.


title: Goal setting

text: Time management is the practice of systematically finishing tasks assigned by superiors or one's self in an efficient and timely manner. Time management steps require identifying the objective and laying out a plan that maximizes efficiency and execution of the objective. There are many useful mobile apps that help with personal goal setting; some of the categories include budgeting, wellness, calendar and productivity apps.


title: Goal setting

text: The book "What They Don't Teach You in the Harvard Business School" is known for citing a study which found that written goals have a significant effect on financial success, but in 1996 "Fast Company" determined that this study did not occur. In 2015, a research study on goals found those who wrote them down accomplished them at a significantly higher rate than those who did not.


title: Goal setting

text: There is evidence that setting and reflecting on progress life goals are an effective intervention to provide both a sense of purpose and increase happiness. In particular, setting life goals based on others leads to more positive emotions and therefore has a more positive impact on happiness than goals focused on oneself. Further evidence for this effect is provided by the more broader personal benefits of prosocial behavior and acts of kindness towards others rather than self care/focusing on oneself.


title: Goal setting

text: There is evidence from randomised control trials that goal setting treatments improved executive function, attention/working memory, and learning in stroke patients. As well as suggesting that there is a motivational element to vascular cognitive impairment caused by strokes, or at least in terms of recovering from them, goal setting does appear to be a useful, easy to implement and cost effective solution to improve cognitive outcomes in stroke patients.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal-setting has limitations and there is some evidence of potentially harmful side effects to both individuals and organizations from misuse of goals and in particular the use of performance/outcome goals.


title: Goal setting

text: In an organization, a goal of a manager may not align with the goals of the organization as a whole. In such cases, the goals of an individual may come into direct conflict with the employing organization. Without clearly aligning goals between the organization and the individual, overall performance may suffer.


title: Goal setting

text: Additionally, there is evidence that suggests that goal-setting can foster unethical behavior when people do not achieve their desired goals. Schweitzer et al. found empirical support for their hypotheses that specific goals, rather than "do your best" goals, would lead participants to overstate performance if their true performance fell short of the goal, with the overstatement frequency increasing as the performance-goal gap narrowed. Niven and Healy found that a subset of the population having a relatively high tendency to morally justify behavior was more likely to engage in the kind of cheating identified by Schweitzer et al. Particular side effects associated with goal setting include a narrow focus that neglects non-goal areas, more unethical behavior, distorted risk preferences, damage to organizational culture, and reduced intrinsic motivation. High performance goal seem particularly likely to induce unethical behaviour under certain circumstances by creating the desire to achieve the goal but also altering moral reasoning processes and in particular, moral disengagement and encourage moral motivated reasoning due to the focus on attaining the goal.


title: Goal setting

text: Goals may also result in overly singleminded competition within organizations if two or more people have goals that encourage competition rather than cooperation. This can include withholding information or ideas, obstructing the goal progress of others or becoming indifferent to their progress and so withdrawing completely from interaction with other organization members. A solution to some of these potential issues is to set a unifying organizational vision or superordinate goal.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting may have the drawback of inhibiting implicit learning if the required knowledge and strategic awareness are not in place: goal setting may encourage simple focus on an outcome without openness to exploration, understanding, or growth and result in lower performance than simply encouraging people to "do their best". A solution to this limitation is to set "learning" goals as well as "performance" goals, so that learning is expected as part of the process of reaching goals. The section on learning goals has more information on this effect and how to counter it. Goal setting also may impair performance in certain situations. Such situations include when an individual becomes overly focused on accomplishing a previously-set goal that they end up underperforming on current tasks.


title: Goal setting

text: Goal setting theory has been criticized for being too narrow in focus to be a complete theory of work motivation as goals alone are not sufficient to address all aspects of workplace motivation. In particular, it does not address why some people choose goals they dislike or how to increase intrinsic rather than extrinsic motivation. This raises the possibility that goal setting may in turn be subsumed within a more comprehensive theory of work motivation in time.


title: Goal setting

text: An important addition to goal setting theory was the incorporation of self-efficacy from Bandura's social cognitive theory. Broadly defined as task specific self-confidence, goal setting theory incorporates self-efficacy in the following ways:


title: Goal setting

text: Self-efficacy levels can also influence how people react to not meeting specific challenging goals. People with high self-efficacy redouble their efforts whereas people with low self-efficacy expend less effort and coast along. Goal achievement also interacts with self-efficacy and goal achievement does not necessarily lead to increased efforts as after meeting challenging goals some can be reluctant to expend a similar level of effort again and will settle for the goal they have.


title: Goal setting

text: Self-efficacy, past performance, and various other social factors influence goal setting. Failure to meet previous goals often leads to setting lower (and more likely achievable) goals.


title: Goal setting

text: There are times when having specific performance goals is not a best option; this is the case when the goal requires skills or knowledge that have not yet been acquired. Tunnel vision can be a consequence of specific performance goals; if a person is too focused on attaining a specific goal, he or she may ignore the need to learn new skills or acquire new information. This concept is illustrated well by the "basketball game task" study in which observers watched a video of a group of people wearing white shirts and black shirts who are passing a basketball back and forth, and the observers were instructed to count the number of times a basketball is passed between only the players wearing white shirts. During the video, a woman carrying an open umbrella walks across the screen. Of 28 observers who were focused on counting the number of passes between only the players wearing white shirts, only 6 reported noticing the woman carrying the umbrella. When observers watched the video without focusing on a specific task, all of the observers noticed the umbrella woman. In situations where the risk of tunnel vision is high, the best option is to set a "learning goal". A learning goal is a generalized goal to achieve knowledge in a certain topic or field, but it can ultimately lead to better performance in more complex tasks related to the learning goals.


title: Goal setting

text: Further to the above, learning goals can be more specifically operationalized as ""a desired number of strategies, processes, or procedures to be developed in order to master a task’"""." Some specific examples of learning goals from the literature are below:


title: Goal setting

text: Locke and Latham (2006) attribute this response to metacognition. They believe that "a learning goal facilitates or enhances metacognition—namely, planning, monitoring, and evaluating progress toward goal attainment". This is necessary in environments with little or no guidance and structure. Although jobs typically have set goals, individual goals and achievement can benefit from metacognition. Some possible uses of learning goals follow:


title: Goal setting

text: Framing, or how goals are viewed, influences performance. When one feels threatened and or intimidated by a high goal they perform poorer than those who view the goal as a challenge. Individuals who identify situations as challenge perform better under difficult performance goal conditions. Individuals who view situations as threats get better results using learning goals focused on developing strategy to achieve the task. These results connect goal setting theory to Folkman and Lazurus' Transactional Model of Stress and Coping which focused on the subjective appraisal of stress as being crucial to performance under challenging conditions.