title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: A despairing woman named Ochou, wishing for freedom but unable to escape her oppression, confesses to killing her husband's entire family. The Medicine Seller doubts this story and visits Ochou in her prison cell to ask her for the truth, but encounters a mononoke in a Noh mask who fights the Medicine Seller and allows Ochou to escape. The man in the mask convinces Ochou that he has given her freedom by helping her kill her family, but the Medicine Seller pursues the two and reveals to Ochou that she had killed not her husband's family, but herself. Ochou married into a good family as her mother wished, but in her desire to please her mother, withstood abuse from her new family to the point of forsaking any happiness she could have gained from her life. When Ochou realizes this, the man in the Noh mask vanishes, and Ochou finds herself in her kitchen. It is implied that the man in the mask was an illusion conjured by the Medicine Seller to help Ochou escape—at the end of the episode, Ochou ignores her husband's orders and leaves her family, gaining the freedom she had long desired.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: Three men seeking to marry Lady Ruri, the sole heir to the Fuenokouji school of incense (kōdō), arrive at her mansion to participate in a competition of incense only to find that the fourth suitor is missing and that the Medicine Seller has taken his place. During the competition, Lady Ruri is murdered. When the Medicine Seller inquires as to why the three suitors are so desperate to inherit the school even after Lady Ruri's death, the suitors reveal that the competition is not actually over the school of incense, but the Toudaiji, a piece of wood rumored to grant its owner great power.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: Although Medicine Seller presides over a second incense contest, none of the three suitors win the Toudaiji, as all are killed. It is revealed that the suitors had already been killed by the Toudaiji, and that the Medicine Seller put on this act to make them realize their deaths. The Medicine Seller then asks the Toudaiji, the true mononoke, to reveal itself. The Toudaiji draws its sense of self-esteem from the fact that people value it so highly, yet in truth, it is nothing but a rotting piece of wood. The Toudaiji kills those who seek it, including Lady Ruri's suitors, perpetuating the bloodshed for its sake. The Medicine Seller destroys the Toudaiji, appeasing the souls of its victims, including Lady Ruri's suitors.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: This chapter makes a reference to the Rannatai (the type of wood described above) that once existed in the Shōsōin (Great Treasure Room) of the Tōdai-ji temple in Nara, Japan.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: Set in a time decidedly later than the previous arcs — implied to be in the 1920s — the Medicine Seller boards a train with several other passengers. Unfortunately, the train hits a ghostly girl on the tracks, and six passengers and the Medicine Seller are locked in the first car. The Medicine Seller questions the passengers to reveal a dark connection between them, shedding light on the murder of a young newspaper reporter. At the end of the episode the woman's spirit has its revenge, the passengers are saved, and the Medicine Seller challenges the audience to reveal to him their Truth and Reason, vowing to continue hunting mononoke as long as they roam the world.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: Many voice actors from the original Bakeneko arc reprise their roles in this Bakeneko arc, which shares a similar plot to the original Bakeneko arc, possibly implying that the characters from the original have reincarnated into this arc.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: Produced by Toei Animation, the anime series was directed by Kenji Nakamura, written by Chiaki J. Konaka, Ikuko Takahashi, Michiko Yokote and Manabu Ishikawa. Takashi Hashimoto directed the animation and was the character designer, Takashi Kurahashi was the art director, its music was composed by Yasuharu Takanashi, and it was broadcast in Fuji Television's block Noitamina between July 2007 and September 2007, lasting 12 episodes. Siren Visual licensed it for Australasian region.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: At a 15th anniversary event held on June 18, 2022, an anime film by Twin Engine was announced. Kenji Nakamura will return to direct the film and cast from the series returned to reprise their roles, it is scheduled to premiere in 2023.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: A manga adaptation of the original Bakeneko arc was published in "Young Gangan" between August 17, 2007 and August 1, 2008. The individual chapters were collected and released in two "tankōbon" (collected volumes) by Square Enix on January 25, 2008, and September 25, 2008. A second manga series started to be published on September 25, 2013 by Tokuma Shoten on its magazine "Monthly Comic Zenon". The last chapter of it was serialized in "Monthly Comic Zenon" on November 25, 2014. The series was released into two volumes on July 19, 2014, and December 20, 2014 respectively.


title: Mononoke (TV series)

text: The directing and art have been called "boldly confrontational." It blends a murder mystery structure with "twist of supernatural and a shake of historical, peppered with plenty of stylistic experimentation." It frequently achieves "the ideal - great directing combined with great animation." The Mainichi newspaper said it could not be dismissed as a mere experiment, and that the story's themes were every bit as advanced as the digital animation techniques employed.


title: Bun B

text: Bernard James Freeman (born March 19, 1973), known professionally as Bun B, is an American rapper. He is best known as one half of the southern rap duo UGK (UnderGround Kingz), a group he formed in 1987 alongside Pimp C. Aside from his work with UGK, Bun B has released five solo albums, including 2010's "Trill OG", which received the rare 5-mic rating from "The Source".


title: Bun B

text: Freeman was born in Port Arthur, Texas where he met Pimp C, and was raised in the city of Houston, Texas, where he met Slim Thug.


title: Bun B

text: In the late 1980s, Pimp C started the rap duo UGK. He first released a demo tape titled "Underground King" which didn't feature Bun B on the track. Instead, it featured Pimp C's friend Mitchell Queen. Bun B and friend Jalon Jackson had their own group called P.A. Militia. Both groups joined forces and formed the group 4 Black Ministers. Queen and Jackson later left the group leaving Pimp C and Bun B so they decided to revert to UGK. The demo Pimp C recorded with Mitchell Queen, "Underground King", caught the attention of an independent label in Houston called Bigtyme Records. They then released an extended play titled "The Southern Way". The release of this record caught the attention of Jive Records. While recording their debut album, "Too Hard to Swallow", many of the songs had content too explicit for the album, so Bigtyme Records released an extended play titled "Banned" before the album was released, including all the songs that were too explicit for "Too Hard to Swallow". The song "Pocket Full of Stones" became the first UGK song to get major airplay throughout the United States. Their second album, "Super Tight...", followed in 1994. Their third album, "Ridin' Dirty", peaked at number 2 on the R&B Charts in 1996, and at number 15 on the "Billboard" 200. After releasing their fourth studio album, "Dirty Money", Pimp C got sentenced to jail.


title: Bun B

text: When Bun B's UGK partner, the late Chad "Pimp C" Butler, entered a jail sentence on an aggravated gun assault charge in 2002, Bun B made guest appearances on numerous albums by other rappers and released a 2005 mixtape titled "Legends". Singles featuring a Bun B guest appearance included "They Don't Know" by Paul Wall, "Gimme That" by Webbie and "I'm A G" by Yung Joc. Bun B also appeared in a documentary titled "Screwed In Houston" produced by VBS/"Vice" that details the history of the Houston rap scene.


title: Bun B

text: In October 2005, Bun B's debut solo album "Trill" was released. Singles included "Draped Up", "Git It", and "Get Throwed". The album peaked at the number 6 spot on the American "Billboard" 200 chart and number 1 on the Top R&B/Hip Hop Albums chart.


title: Bun B

text: After Pimp C died in 2007, Bun B returned to a solo career. In 2008, he released his second album, "II Trill". The first single was "That's Gangsta" featuring Jamaican American artist Sean Kingston. It debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200, selling 98,000 copies. Other singles were "Damn I'm Cold" featuring Lil Wayne and "You're Everything" featuring Rick Ross, David Banner, DJ Corbett and 8Ball & MJG, the latter of which was dedicated to the late Pimp C.


title: Bun B

text: Bun B's third album is "Trill OG". In an interview with MTV Live, Bun B stated that 2Pac was set to feature on the album, claiming "It's a brand new verse." The album was released under Universal Music Group on August 3, 2010.


title: Bun B

text: On October 28, 2011, a song titled "The Life" and produced by 14KT was leaked. On March 3, 2012, Bun B leaked a song featuring Royce da 5'9" and Redman titled "Stop Playin'" after he reached 400,000 followers on Twitter. He has not announced the song's appearance on his upcoming album


title: Bun B

text: His fourth studio album was rumored to be titled, "Trill 4 Life" and scheduled for a 2013 release. On August 22, 2013, Rap-A-Lot Records revealed that his Sony distributed fourth studio album will be released in October 2013. The album is to feature guest appearances from Rick Ross and 2 Chainz. On October 4, 2013, the album was then officially announced to be titled "" and be released on November 12, 2013. The album was revealed to contain primarily leftover tracks from the "Trill O.G." recording sessions. It was also confirmed to feature Pimp C, 2 Chainz, Rick Ross, Lil Boosie, Kirko Bangz, Big K.R.I.T., Raekwon, Z-Ro and Devin The Dude.


title: Bun B

text: Bun B announced "The Trillest Tour" in January 2014. On January 30, the Houston native revealed the tour dates, where he was accompanied by fellow Houston native Kirko Bangz. The tour ran from March 6 until April 17, 2014.


title: Bun B

text: On June 24, 2014, Bun B made a guest appearance to the Htown Beatdown concert hosted by local radio station Hot 95.7. He was awarded the 360 Legend Award for his successful music career and his impact on the local community.


title: Bun B

text: At the start of the Spring 2011 semester, Bun B joined the faculty of Rice University as a Distinguished Lecturer. He taught a course in the School of the Humanities on Hip hop and Religion. Into 2013 Bun B continues to teach the course twice a week.


title: Bun B

text: On September 17, 2013, Freeman released a coloring book titled ""Bun B's Rap Coloring Book"" along with author Shea Serrano. Freeman and Serrano had previously talked about working together to make a book. At first they agreed on a "hip hop survival guide", but both agreed against the project. Later on, Serrano drew coloring pages of rappers that he posted on Tumblr. The pages quickly went viral. Freeman and Serrano then decided to make a whole coloring book.


title: Bun B

text: Bun B has been married to Queenie since 2003 and has 2 stepchildren and 7 step-grandchildren. His stepson is American rapper Young-B, who is a member of the rap group Youngest N Charge, which is Bun B's opening act.


title: Bun B

text: On April 24, 2019, Bun B shot an armed intruder who was attempting to rob his Houston home. The intruder fled on foot. The suspect, identified as DeMonte Jackson, was taken into custody by Houston police after arriving at the hospital.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: Belshazzar's feast, or the story of the writing on the wall (chapter 5 in the Book of Daniel), tells how Belshazzar holds a great feast and drinks from the vessels that had been looted in the destruction of the First Temple. A hand appears and writes on the wall. The terrified Belshazzar calls for his wise men, but they are unable to read the writing. The queen advises him to send for Daniel, renowned for his wisdom. Daniel reminds Belshazzar that his father Nebuchadnezzar, when he became arrogant, was thrown down until he learned that God has sovereignty over the kingdom of men (see Daniel 4). Belshazzar had likewise blasphemed God, and so God sent this hand. Daniel then reads the message and interprets it: God has numbered Belshazzar's days, he has been weighed and found wanting, and his kingdom will be given to the Medes and the Persians.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: According to John J. Collins, Belshazzar's feast is a legend conforming to the subgenre of the "tale of court contest", complicated by the inclusion of Daniel's indictment of Belshazzar's pride and his failure to honour the God of Israel; as a result the tale has a double ending, in which Daniel is first showered with rewards and honours for interpreting the omen, and the king is then punished to fulfill the sentence pronounced by Daniel.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: From the story the idiom "to be able to read the writing on the wall" came to mean being able to see from available evidence that doom or failure is inevitable, and "the writing on the wall" itself can mean anything portending such doom or failure.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: "This section summarizes the narrative, as found in C. L. Seow's translation of the text in his commentary on Daniel."


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: King Belshazzar holds a great feast for a thousand of his lords, and commands that the Temple vessels from Jerusalem be brought in so that they can drink from them, but as the Babylonians drink, a hand appears and writes on the wall. Belshazzar calls for his magicians and diviners to interpret the writing, but they are unable even to read it. The queen advises Belshazzar to send for Daniel, renowned for his wisdom. Daniel is brought in, and the king offers to make him third in rank in the kingdom if he can interpret the writing. Daniel declines the honour, but agrees to the request. He reminds Belshazzar that his father Nebuchadnezzar's greatness was the gift of God, and that when he became arrogant God threw him down until he learned humility: "the Most High God has sovereignty over the kingdom of mortals, and sets over it whomever He will." Belshazzar has drunk from the vessels of God's Temple and praised his idols, but he has not given honour to God, and so God sent this hand and wrote these words:


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: Daniel reads the words "MENE, MENE, TEKEL, UPHARSIN" and interprets them for the king: "MENE, God has numbered the days of your kingdom and brought it to an end; TEKEL, you have been weighed ... and found wanting;" and "UPHARSIN", your kingdom is divided and given to the Medes and Persians. Then Belshazzar gave the command, and Daniel was clothed in purple, a chain of gold was put around his neck, and a proclamation was made… that he should rank third in the kingdom; [and] that very night Belshazzar the Chaldean (Babylonian) king was killed, and Darius the Mede received the kingdom."


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: None of the Chaldean wise men are able to even read, let alone interpret, the writing on the wall, but Daniel does so by supplying vowels in two different ways, first so the words are read as nouns, then as verbs. The nouns are monetary weights: a "mənê", equivalent to a Jewish mina or sixty shekels (several ancient versions have only one "mənê" instead of two); a "təqêl", equivalent to a shekel; and "p̄arsîn", meaning "half-pieces". The last involves a word-play on the name of the Persians ("pārās" in Hebrew), suggesting not only that they are to inherit Belshazzar's kingdom, but that they are two peoples, Medes and Persians. Daniel then interprets the words as verbs, based on their roots: "mənê" is interpreted as meaning "numbered"; "təqêl", from a root meaning to weigh, as meaning "weighed" (and found wanting); and "pərês" (), the singular form of "p̄arsîn", from a root meaning "to divide", denoting that the kingdom is to be "divided" and given to the Medes and Persians. If the "half-pieces" means two half-shekels, then the various weights—a "mənê" or sixty shekels, another shekel, and two half-shekels—add up to 62, which the tale gives as the age of Darius the Mede, indicating that God's will is being worked out.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: The phrase "the writing on the wall" has grown to be a popular idiomatic expression referring to the foreshadowing of any impending doom, misfortune, or end. A person who does not or refuses to "see the writing on the wall" is being described as ignorant to the signs of a cataclysmic event that will likely occur in the near future.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: One of the earliest known uses of the phrase in English was by a Captain L. Brinckmair in 1638, whose report "The Warnings of Germany" during the Thirty Years' War cautioned that the violence there could soon spill over to England. "The writing on the wall" is also sometimes referred to by the use of some combination of the words "Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin", as they were written on the wall in the tale of Belshazzar's feast. The metaphor has consistently made appearances in various works of literature and media as a foreshadowing device ever since Brinckmair's report.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: Reference to this event also led to the use of "Belshazzar" as a brand name for an overhead projector during that device's heyday in the second half of the twentieth century.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: It is generally accepted that the Book of Daniel originated as a collection of folktales among the Jewish community in Babylon in the Persian and early Hellenistic periods (5th to 3rd centuries BC), and was later expanded in the Maccabean era (mid-2nd century) with the visions of chapters 7–12. Modern scholarship agrees that Daniel is a legendary figure, and it is possible that his name was chosen for the hero of the book because of his reputation as a wise seer in Hebrew tradition.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: Chapters 2–7 of the book form a chiasm (a poetic structure in which the main point or message of a passage is placed in the centre and framed by further repetitions on either side):


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: Daniel 5 is thus composed as a companion-piece to Daniel 4, the tale of the madness of Nebuchadnezzar, the two giving variations on a single theme. This is spelled out in chapter 5 when Daniel draws a direct parallel between the two kings: the fate of Belshazzar illustrates what happens when a king does not repent.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: Daniel 5 does not divide neatly into scenes and scholars do not agree on its structure. The following is one possible outline:


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: The story is set around the fall of Babylon, when on 12 October 539 BCE the Persian conqueror Cyrus the Great entered the city. Its last king, Nabonidus, was captured; his fate is unknown, although he may have been exiled. Several details in the text do not match the known historical facts. Belshazzar is portrayed as king of Babylon and son of Nebuchadnezzar, but was actually the son of King Nabonidus, one of Nebuchadnezzar's successors, who deputised for Nabonidus when the latter was away in Teima, but never became king. The conqueror is named as Darius the Mede, but no such individual is known to history; and the invaders were not Medes, but Persians. John J. Collins suggests this is typical of the story's genre, in which historical accuracy is not an essential element.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: The constituent elements of the Book of Daniel were assembled shortly after the end of the Maccabean crisis, which is to say shortly after 164 BCE. The tales making up chapters 2 to 6 are the earliest part, dating from the late 4th or early 3rd centuries. Their setting is Babylon, and there is no reason to doubt that they were composed in the Babylonian diaspora (i.e., among the Jewish community living in Babylon and Mesopotamia under Persian and then Greek rule). They reflect a society in which foreign rulers were not necessarily malevolent (Belshazzar rewards Daniel and raises him to high office); this is a marked contrast with the visions of chapters 7–12, where the sufferings of the Jews are the result of actions by the evil 2nd century BCE king Antiochus IV Epiphanes.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: Chapters 2 and 7 tell how all worldly kingdoms will come to an end and be replaced by the kingdom of God, and chapters 3 and 6 tell how pious Jews withstand the arrogance of earthly kings and are rescued by the God of Israel. Chapters 4 and 5 form the center and carry the most important message in their parallel but contrasting tales of Nebuchadnezzar and Belshazzar (verses ). The first is humbled by God, learns his lesson (he acknowledges the ultimate kingship of the Jewish God), and is restored to his throne; Belshazzar, in contrast, learns nothing from Nebuchadnezzar's example, blasphemes against God, and has his kingdom given to others.


title: Belshazzar's feast

text: In Iron Maiden's title track called "The Writing on The Wall" that was released in 2021, the feast is referenced in the music video where you can see a piece of paper stating Belshazzar's feast which everyone seem to be heading to. Inside is a musical feast, and a being that is draining life force out of others. Eddie ends this feast and leaves the feast together with the four horsemen and the remaining two persons that was previously drained by the being.


title: Talk box

text: A talk box (also spelled talkbox and talk-box) is an effects unit that allows musicians to modify the sound of a musical instrument by shaping the frequency content of the sound and to apply speech sounds (in the same way as singing) onto the sounds of the instrument. Typically, a talk box directs sound from the instrument into the musician's mouth by means of a plastic tube adjacent to a vocal microphone. The musician controls the modification of the instrument's sound by changing the shape of the mouth, "vocalizing" the instrument's output into a microphone.


title: Talk box

text: A talk box is usually an effects pedal that sits on the floor and contains a speaker attached with an airtight connection to a plastic tube; however, it can come in other forms, including homemade, usually crude, versions, and higher quality custom-made versions. The speaker is generally in the form of a compression driver, the sound-generating part of a horn loudspeaker with the horn replaced by the tube connection.


title: Talk box

text: The box has connectors for the connection to the speaker output of an instrument amplifier and a connection to a normal instrument speaker. A foot-operated switch on the box directs the sound either to the talk box speaker or to the normal speaker. The switch is usually a push-on/push-off type. The other end of the tube is taped to the side of a microphone, extending enough to direct the reproduced sound in or near the performer's mouth.


title: Talk box

text: When activated, the sound from the amplifier is reproduced by the speaker in the talk box and directed through the tube into the performer's mouth. The shape of the mouth filters the sound, with the modified sound being picked up by the microphone. The shape of the mouth changes the harmonic content of the sound in the same way it affects the harmonic content generated by the vocal folds when speaking.


title: Talk box

text: The performer can vary the shape of the mouth and position of the tongue, changing the sound of the instrument being reproduced by the talk box speaker. The performer can mouth words, with the resulting effect sounding as though the instrument is speaking. This "shaped" sound exits the performer's mouth, and when it enters a microphone, an instrument/voice hybrid is heard.


title: Talk box

text: The sound can be that of any musical instrument, but the effect is most commonly associated with the guitar. The rich harmonics of an electric guitar are shaped by the mouth, producing a sound very similar to voice, effectively allowing the guitar to appear to "speak".


title: Talk box

text: The effect produced by talk boxes and vocoders are often conflated by listeners. However, they have radically different mechanisms for achieving the effect. Talk boxes send the carrier signal into the singer's mouth, where it is then modulated by the singer themselves. On the other hand, vocoders process both the carrier and the modulator signal integrally, producing the output as a separate electric signal. In addition, they are also more common in different genres: a talk box is often found in rock music due to its typical pairing with a guitar, whereas vocoders are almost always paired with synthesizers, and as such, are ubiquitous in electronic music.


title: Talk box

text: In 1939, Alvino Rey, amateur radio operator W6UK, used a carbon throat microphone wired in such a way as to modulate his electric steel guitar sound. The mic, originally developed for military pilot communications, was placed on the throat of Rey's wife Luise King (one of The King Sisters), who stood behind a curtain and mouthed the words, along with the guitar lines. The novel-sounding combination was called "Singing Guitar", and employed on stage and in the movie "Jam Session", as a "novelty" attraction, but was not developed further.


title: Talk box

text: Rey also created a somewhat similar "talking" effect by manipulating the tone controls of his Fender electric guitar, but the vocal effect was less pronounced.


title: Talk box

text: Another early voice effect using the same principle of the throat as a filter was the Sonovox, invented by Gilbert Wright in 1939. Instead of a throat microphone modulating a guitar signal, it used small transducers attached to the performer's throat to produce sounds the mouth shapes. The Sonovox was marketed and promoted by the Wright-Sonovox company, an affiliate of the Free & Peters advertising agency.


title: Talk box

text: The Sonovox was used in many radio station IDs and jingles produced by JAM Creative Productions and the PAMS advertising agency of Dallas, Texas. Lucille Ball made one of her earliest film appearances during the 1930s in a Pathé Newsreel demonstrating the Sonovox.


title: Talk box

text: The first use in music was a score by Ernst Toch in the Paramount Picture "The Ghost Breakers", in June 1940. The Sonovox was used to produce the "voice" of the anthropomorphic train Casey Jr. in the 1941 animated film "Dumbo", and was also used for the "talking piano" in a children's record issued on Capitol Records entitled "Sparky's Magic Piano".


title: Talk box

text: Pete Drake, a Nashville-based player of the pedal steel guitar, used a talk box on his 1964 album "Forever", in what came to be called his "talking steel guitar". The following year Gallant released three albums with the box, "Pete Drake & His Talking Guitar", "Talking Steel and Singing Strings", and "Talking Steel Guitar". Drake's device consisted of an 8-inch paper cone speaker driver attached to a funnel from which a clear tube brought the sound to the performer's mouth. It was only loud enough to be useful in the recording studio.


title: Talk box

text: Another prominent use of the talking steel guitar appears in The Ventures' "Christmas Album", released in 1965. In the song "Silver Bells", Red Rhodes spoke through a talk box, distorting the phrase "silver bells".


title: Talk box

text: The Kustom Electronics device "The Bag" was the first mass market talk box and was housed in a decorative bag slung over the shoulder like a wine bottle. It used a 30-watt driver and was released to the mass music market in early 1969, two years before Bob Heil's talk box became widely available. The Bag is claimed to have been designed by Doug Forbes, who states that exactly the same concept (speaker attached to a plastic tube and inserted into the mouth) had previously been patented as an artificial larynx.


title: Talk box

text: Stevie Wonder gave the talk box its first national television prominence, performing a medley of The Carpenters and Jackson 5 songs all via a Kustom Bag live on the David Frost show in 1972. The performance was later sampled by Frank Ocean.


title: Talk box

text: David Gilmour of Pink Floyd, who automatically doubles his guitar leads by singing them as he plays (whether on mic or not), was an obvious candidate for both the talk box and the vocoder, experimenting with merging voice and instrument into a single unified sound. The effect was employed during the lengthy guitar solo sections of "Raving and Drooling" and "You've Got to Be Crazy" on the 1974 tour, which would eventually become "Sheep" and "Dogs" on the "Animals" album.


title: Talk box

text: Jeff Beck was seen using the Kustom Bag talk box in May 1973 on Superstition at a Santa Monica concert. He also used it on "She's a Woman" from his 1975 release "Blow by Blow", and was seen using it for the song on BBC television program "Five Faces of the Guitar" in 1974 in which he also explains its use to the host of the show.


title: Talk box

text: The first high-powered talk box was developed by Bob Heil. Heil came up with the first "high-powered talk box" that could be reliable when used on high-level rock stages. His first Heil talk box was built for Joe Walsh's Barnstorm tour. Heil and Walsh, both avid ham radio operators (K9EID and WB6ACU, respectively), along with Walsh's guitar tech "Krinkle", combined a 250-watt JBL driver and suitable hi-pass filter which was used for Walsh's single "Rocky Mountain Way". Walsh gives credit to Bill West, an electrical engineer, Nashville steel guitarist and first husband of country-music legend Dottie West, for inventing the talk box for him in a 2006 interview with Howard Stern.


title: Talk box

text: Pete Townshend, in his 2012 autobiography "Who I Am", claimed to have invented a version of the talk box during a Who tour of the US in 1976. "I built a speaker in a small box, attached a tube and put the tube in my mouth, allowing me to speak music."


title: Talk box

text: In 1988, Heil sold the manufacturing rights to Dunlop Manufacturing, Inc., which currently builds the Heil talk box to the exact standards that Heil designed in 1973.


title: Talk box

text: The classic rock artist Peter Frampton made extensive use of the talk box in his music. In an interview for the 1999 DVD "Live in Detroit", Frampton says he first heard the talk box in 1970 while sitting in on sessions for George Harrison's "All Things Must Pass". While he sat next to Pete Drake in the album sessions at Abbey Road Studios, he heard Pete using it with a pedal steel guitar. Frampton said in the same interview that the sound it produced reminded him of an audio effect he loved listening to on Radio Luxembourg in the later 1960s. Frampton acquired one as a Christmas present from Bob Heil in 1974. It was a hand-built talk box in a fiberglass box using a 100-watt high-powered driver. This was the Heil talk box used for the "Frampton Comes Alive" tour and album. He then promptly locked himself away in a practice space for two weeks, and came out with some mastery of it. Due to the success of the albums "Frampton" and "Frampton Comes Alive!", and particularly the hit singles "Do You Feel Like We Do" and "Show Me the Way", Frampton has become somewhat synonymous with the talk box.


title: Talk box

text: Peter Frampton also now sells his own line of custom-designed "Framptone" products, including a talk box.


title: Talk box

text: In 1976, Steely Dan guitarist Walter Becker recorded the talk box effect atop an already-recorded Dean Parks solo in "Haitian Divorce", on the album "The Royal Scam". Also from 1977, Johnnie "Guitar" Watson used a talk box. The 1974 album "461 Ocean Boulevard" features Eric Clapton using a talk box during his outgoing solo on the song "Mainline Florida".


title: Talk box

text: Producer Bosko, who played talk box on Big Boi's 2010 album "", conceived an alternative to the cumbersome and unsanitary talk box in mid-2014, imagining a neck-worn electronic system that would be easier to use. Bosko showed the ElectroSpit prototype in 2016, and launched a Kickstarter campaign in June 2018. The device sends sound into the mouth by way of electromagnetic transducers placed against the throat, allowing the user to shape the sounds of a synthesizer, guitar or any other electronic source. Bosko released the ElectroSpit product in 2019, showing it at the NAMM Show. Early users of the ElectroSpit include P-Thugg of Chromeo, Terrace Martin who works with Kendrick Lamar, and Teddy Riley.


title: Talk box

text: A talk box connected to an iPad running an effects program was used to create the voice of the character BB-8 in "".


title: Spaniel

text: A spaniel is a type of gun dog. Spaniels were especially bred to flush game out of denser brush. By the late 17th century, spaniels had been specialized into water and land breeds. The extinct English Water Spaniel was used to retrieve water fowl shot down with arrows. Land spaniels were setting spaniels—those that crept forward and pointed their game, allowing hunters to ensnare them with nets, and springing spaniels—those that sprang pheasants and partridges for hunting with falcons, rabbits and smaller mammals such as rats and mice for hunting with greyhounds. During the 17th century, the role of the spaniel dramatically changed as Englishmen began hunting with flintlocks for wing shooting. Charles Goodall and Julia Gasow (1984) write that spaniels were "transformed from untrained, wild beaters, to smooth, polished gun dogs."


title: Spaniel

text: The word "spaniel" would seem to be derived from the medieval French "espaigneul""Spanish"to modern French, "espagnol".


title: Spaniel

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" defines Spaniel as "a breed of dog with a long silky coat and drooping ears".


title: Spaniel

text: Not much has changed about spaniels in general over the years, as can be seen in this 1921 entry in "Collier's New Encyclopedia":


title: Spaniel

text: Their distinguishing characteristics are a rather broad muzzle, remarkably long and full ears, hair plentiful and beautifully waved, particularly that of the ears, tail, and hinder parts of the thighs and legs. The prevailing color is liver and white, sometimes red and white or black and white, and sometimes deep brown, or black on the face and breast, with a tan spot over each eye. The English spaniel is a superior and very pure breed. The King Charles is a small variety of the spaniel used as a lapdog. The water spaniels, large and small, differ from the common spaniel only in the roughness of their coats, and in uniting the aquatic propensities of the Newfoundland dog with the fine hunting qualities of their own race. Spaniels possess a great share of intelligence, affection, and obedience, which qualities, combined with much beauty, make them highly prized as companions.


title: Spaniel

text: The origin of the word "spaniel" is described by the "Oxford English Dictionary" as coming from the Old French word "espaigneul" which meant "Spanish (dog)"; this in turn originated from the Latin "Hispaniolus" which simply means "Spanish".


title: Spaniel

text: In Edward, 2nd Duke of York's work "The Master of Game", which was mostly a 15th-century translation of an earlier work by Gaston III of Foix-Béarn entitled "Livre de chasse", spaniels are described as being from Spain as much as all Greyhounds are from England or Scotland. Sixteenth-century English physician John Caius wrote that the spaniels of the time were mostly white, marked with spots that are commonly red. He described a new variety to have come out of France, which were speckled all over with white and black, "which mingled colours incline to a marble blewe".


title: Spaniel

text: In the appendices added to the 1909 re-print of Caius' work, the editors suggested that the type of dogs may have been brought into the British Isles as early as 900 BC by a branch of the Celts moving from Spain into Cornwall and on into Wales, England and Ireland. Theories on the origin of the Welsh Springer Spaniel support this theory, as it is believed that the breed specifically is a direct descendant of the "Agassian hunting dog" described in the hunting poem "Cynegetica" attributed to Oppian of Apamea, which belonged to the Celtic tribes of Roman Britain:


title: Spaniel

text: There is a strong breed of hunting dog, small in size but no less worthy of great praise. These the wild tribes of Britons with their tattooed backs rear and call by the name of Agassian. Their size is like that of worthless and greedy domestic table dogs; squat, emaciated, shaggy, dull of eye, but endowed with feet armed with powerful claws and a mouth sharp with close-set venomous tearing teeth. It is by virtue of its nose, however, that the Agassian is most exalted, and for tracking it is the best there is; for it is very adept at discovering the tracks of things that walk upon the ground, and skilled too at marking the airborne scent.


title: Spaniel

text: Another theory of the origin of the spaniel is that the ancient Romans imported spaniels into Britannia by way of the trade routes to the Far East. Colonel David Hancock adds a belief that the sporting type of spaniel originated in China from the short-faced ancestors of dogs such as the Pekingese, Pug and Shih Tzu. The theory goes that these ancestors were introduced into Southern Europe and evolved into the small sporting spaniels of the period around AD 1300–1600. The issue of how a short-muzzled dog could evolve into a longer-muzzled dog is addressed by pointing to the evolution of the King Charles Spaniel into the Cavalier King Charles Spaniel in less than a century.


title: Spaniel

text: In assisting hunters, it is desirable that spaniels work within gun range, are steady to shot, and are able to mark the fall and retrieve shot game to hand with a soft mouth. A good nose is highly valued, as it is in most gun dog breeds. They are versatile hunters traditionally being used for upland game birds, but are equally adept at hunting rabbits, waterfowl, rats, and mice. Whether hunting in open fields, woodlands, farm lands—in briars, along fencerows or marshlands, a spaniel can get the job done.


title: Spaniel

text: On the basis of function and hunting style, the Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) draws a distinction between Continental and Anglo-American spaniels. The FCI places Continental dogs of the spaniel type in the pointing group (Group 7, sect. 1.2) because they function more like setters which "freeze" and point to game. Breeds in this group include the Blue Picardy Spaniel, the French Spaniel, the Brittany, the Pont-Audemer Spaniel, and the Small Münsterländer. The FCI classifies most other dogs of the spaniel type as flushing or water dogs (Group 8, sections 2 and 3).


title: Spaniel

text: The following breeds are not true spaniels, but are named as such due to their resemblance to the spaniels.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Born in Ehime, Japan, Kamada began playing football at "Kids FC" (now FC Zebra Kids) and helped the side win TV Ehime Cup Ehime Prefectural Youth Soccer Championship U-12 when he was in 6th grade of elementary school. When Kamada was in junior high school, he then joined Gamba Osaka and was selected for the U-13 J League. However due to injuries, Kamada was let go from the club and he returned to school, joining Higashiyama High School in 2012. Kamada quickly made an impact at the school, playing in the midfield position, as well as, scoring goals. He went on to make eighteen appearances and scored twenty–times at the end of the 2013 season.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: In his third year at Higashiyama High School, Kamada was appointed captain for the school, but they finished at the bottom of the table with 2 wins and 13 losses. Despite this, he continued to impress, having scored ten goals, making him the fourth top scorer in the 2014 season. At the end of the 2014 season, Kamada's performance at from Higashiyama High School attracted interests from at "least" five J. League clubs following his graduation. It was announced on 17 November 2014 that Kamada would be joining Sagan Tosu at the start of the 2015 season. Ahead of the 2015 season, he was given a number twenty–four shirt.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: At the start of the 2015 season, Kamada was loaned out to J.League U-22, where he made two appearances for the side. He made his Sagan Tosu debut, coming on as a 75th-minute substitute, in a 1–0 loss against Albirex Niigata in the J.League Cup on 8 April. A month later on 10 May, Kamada scored his first goal on his J.League debut, having come on as a 72nd-minute substitute, in a 1–1 draw against Matsumoto Yamaga. This was followed up by setting up the winning goal for Yohei Toyoda to help Sagan Tosu win 1–0. His first five appearances of the season earned him awarded New Hero Awards of the Yamazaki Nabisco Cup. He then set up two goals, in a 3–2 win against Kashiwa Reysol on 11 July. Eleven days later on 22 July 2015, Kamada scored his second goal of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Gamba Osaka. Having started out on the substitute bench, Kamada became a first team regular for the side, playing in the midfield position. Despite suffering an injury later in the 2015 season, he went on make twenty–eight appearances and score three times in all competitions.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Ahead of the 2016 season, Kamada signed a contract with the club. At the start of the season, Kamada played in midfield for the first seven matches. He also contributed two assists in two matches between 2 and 6 April against Kashiwa Reysol and Vegalta Sendai. Kamada, once again, awarded New Hero Awards of the Yamazaki Nabisco Cup. However during a match against Yokohama F. Marinos on 20 April, he suffered an elbow injury and was substituted as a result. Following this, it was announced on 22 April that Kamada was out for two weeks. It wasn't until 13 May when he returned to the starting line–up against FC Tokyo and played 55 minutes before being substituted, in a 0–0 draw. On 18 June, Kamada scored his first goals of the season, in a 2–1 win against Gamba Osaka. Since returning to the first team from injury, he regained his first team place for the rest of the season. Kamada scored twice in a 3–2 win against Kashiwa Reysol on 22 October. His goal against the club earned him J League Goal of the Month. By the end of the season, he made thirty–four appearances and scoring eight times in all competitions.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Ahead of the 2017 season, Kamada switched number shirt from twenty–four to seven. Kamada also signed a contract extension with the club. At the start of the season, Kamada continued to regain his first team place, playing in the midfield position. On 26 April, Kamada scored twice in a 4–4 draw against Cerezo Osaka in the J.League Cup. He made his last appearance of the season against Urawa Red Diamonds on 25 June, setting up the club's first goal of the game in a 2–1 win. In his final season, Kamada made 16 appearances, scoring three goals.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: In June 2017, Kamada joined Bundesliga club Eintracht Frankfurt, signing a four-year contract running until 2021. The transfer fee was reported as €2.5 million.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Kamada made his Eintracht Frankfurt debut in the first round of the DFB–Pokal, starting a match and played 73 minutes before being substituted, in a 3–0 win against TuS Erndtebrück. In a follow–up match against SC Freiburg, he made his league debut for the club, starting a match and played 67 minutes before being substituted, in a 0–0 draw. However, Kamada found his first team opportunities at Eintracht Frankfurt, due to competitions and his own injury concern. Manager Niko Kovač said about his progress, saying: "Another reason for Daichi was that he is extraordinarily good in terms of ball technique and that he is very good in the gaps, which the opponent cannot really control moves. Unfortunately he got off a little bit badly because he was pushed away from time to time. You have to give him the time, he'll get that too." At the end of the 2017–18 season, he made four appearances in all competitions.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: In order to receive first team football, Kamada was loaned out to Belgian side Sint-Truiden for the rest of the 2018–19 season on 1 September 2018.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Kamada quickly made an impact for the club when he scored on his debut, in a 2–1 win against Gent on 16 September 2018. This was followed up by scoring in a 2–0 win against Royal Antwerp. Since making his debut for Sint-Truiden, Kamada quickly established himself in the first team, playing in either midfielder and striker positions. He then scored three consecutive goals in three matches between 6 October 2018 and 27 October 2018 against Royal Excel Mouscron, K.V. Kortrijk and Club Brugge. Kamada then scored four goals in three matches between 4 November 2018 and 25 November 2018, including a brace against Eupen on 10 November 2018. In the Group A league play-offs, Kamada later scored three goals, including a brace, in a 2–2 draw against Westerlo on 6 April 2019. At the end of the 2018–19 season, he went on to make 36 appearances and score sixteen times in all competitions.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Since the start of the 2019–20 season, Kamada returned from a loan spell at Sint-Truiden and quickly became a first team regular for Eintracht Frankfurt, playing as a second striker. He then scored his first goal of the season, in a 5–3 win against Waldhof Mannheim in the first round of the DFB–Pokal. Manager Adi Hütter praised his performances, stating that Kamada has matured and presented himself differently. Kamada scored a brace in a 2–1 win against Arsenal in the UEFA Europa League match on 28 November. At the beginning of 2020, Kamada suffered a torn ligament that kept him out throughout January. Against Red Bull Salzburg in the second leg of UEFA Europa League's Round of 32 match, Kamada scored a hat–trick, in a 4–1 win. The club went on to progress to the next round of the UEFA Europa League following a 2–2 draw in the second leg. However, the season was suspended because of the COVID-19 pandemic and was pushed back to two months. Once the season resumed behind closed doors, Kamada then scored his ninth goal of the season, as well as, setting up the club's first goal of the game, in a 3–3 draw against SC Freiburg on 26 May. This was followed up by scoring in a 2–1 win against VfL Wolfsburg. By the end of the season, Kamada had made 48 appearances and scoring sixteen times in all competitions, making him the club's third top scorer of the season. Following this, Frankfurt began talks with the player over a new contract. During the negotiation, manager Hütter wanted Kamada to stay, describing him as "a great, interesting player".


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Three days before the start of the 2020–21 season, Kamada signed a contract extension with Frankfurt, keeping him until 2023, with manager Hütter played a factor to his decision. A week later against Hertha BSC on 25 September 2020, he played a key role to match by setting up two goals in a 3–1 win. In a follow–up match against Hoffenheim, Kamada scored his first goal of the season, in a 2–1 win. Since the start of the 2020–21 season, Kamada started in every match until he was dropped to the substitute bench for the last two matches of the year, with manager Hütter said the player needs to improve on his performance. In the second half of the season, Kamada continued alternating between a starting and a substitute role despite competing with Amin Younes. In a match against Bayern Munich on 20 February 2021, he played a key role to the match by scoring a goal and setting up a goal for Younes, in a 2–1 win. After missing one match due to lumbago, Kamada scored on his return from injury, in a 1–1 draw against RB Leipzig on 14 March. Despite scoring on his return, he played in the right–midfield position, which Manager Hütter acknowledged the negativity criticism from Frankfurter Rundschau, describing it as "a failed experiment". On 10 April, Kamada scored his fifth goal of the season and set up one of the goals, in a 4–3 win against VfL Wolfsburg. Despite failing to qualify for the UEFA Champions League next season, his contributions saw Eintracht Frankfurt qualify for the UEFA Europa League instead. At the end of the 2020–21 season, he had made 34 appearances and scored five times in all competitions.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: At the start of the 2021–22 season, Kamada found himself alternating between a starting and a substitute role under the new management of Oliver Glasner. On 28 April 2022, he scored the winning goal in a 2–1 win over West Ham United in the first leg of the semi-finals of the Europa League. Eventually, Eintracht Frankfurt won the tournament after beating Rangers 5–4 on penalty shootouts in the final, in which he scored one of them.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: In the 2022–23 UEFA Champions League group stage, he scored in the last three consecutive matches against Tottenham Hotspur, Marseille and Sporting CP, which helped his club to reach the knockout phase.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Having previously called up to the Japan's youth team for the rest of 2015, Kamada was called up to the U21 squad the following year. He went on to make two appearances for the U21 side.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: In March 2016, Kamada was called up to the Japan U23 squad for the first time. He made his Japan U23 debut, coming on as a 65th-minute substitute, in a 2–1 win against Mexico U23 on 25 March 2016. Kamada made his first starts for the Japan U23 side, and played 64 minutes before being substituted, in a 2–1 win against Guinea U23 on 25 May 2016. Kamada went on to make four appearances for Japan U23, with two other matches he featured were substitute.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Having previously failed to make a cut to the Samurai Blue squad for the 2019 AFC Asian Cup, it was announced on 15 March 2019 that Kamada was called up to the Japan squad for the first time. He made his debut for the Samurai Blue on 22 March 2019 in a friendly against Colombia, as a 79th-minute substitute for Takumi Minamino. Kamada then scored his first Japan goal, in a 6–0 win against Mongolia on 10 October 2019. Almost a year later, in October 2020, he was called up to the Samurai Blue squad. Kamada then scored three goals in three matches for Japan between 25 March 2021 and 28 May 2021 against South Korea, Mongolia and Myanmar.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: Kamada's father, Fukushige, was once a footballer and worked for the seniors and juniors at Osaka University of Physical Education. Because of his father's guidance, Kamada worked hard and learned how to use his body, enabling him to go back and forth between the attacking third and middle thirds, and his number of pass variations increased. He has a younger brother, Hiromu Kamada, who is also a footballer. In his free time, Kamada has said he is learning German and reads manga. Kamada credited teammate Makoto Hasebe for helping settle down in Germany.


title: Daichi Kamada

text: At one point, Kamada considered going to university, saying: "Going to college may be a necessary path for me, but I still have a feeling that I can't give up. If I become a professional after graduating from college, I'm already 22 years old. However, I thought it would be very late to become a professional at the age of 22. For me, it is ideal that I go to the J League from high school and start from the first year, and I think I should do that. And I'm thinking about the future of the J League. I've always had a dream to go out into the world and play. I don't appreciate it, but I have enough confidence to do it." Growing up, Kamada said he wanted to be a footballer. On 25 May 2017, Kamada announced his marriage, to a woman he had been dating for a long time. A year later in October 2018, he became a first time father when his wife gave birth to a baby boy. Since moving to Eintracht Frankfurt, Kamada resides in the city with his family.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: The Rape of Belgium was a series of systematic war crimes, especially mass murder and deportation and enslavement, by German troops against Belgian civilians during the invasion and occupation of Belgium in World War I.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: The neutrality of Belgium had been guaranteed by the Treaty of London (1839), which had been signed by Prussia. However, the German Schlieffen Plan required that German armed forces pass through Belgium (thus violating Belgium's neutrality) in order to outflank the French Army, concentrated in eastern France. The German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg dismissed the treaty of 1839 as a "scrap of paper". Throughout the war, the German army systematically engaged in numerous atrocities against the civilian population of Belgium, including the intentional destruction of civilian property; German soldiers murdered over 6,000 Belgian civilians, and 17,700 died during expulsion, deportation, imprisonment, or death sentence by court. The Wire of Death, maintained by the German Army to kill civilians trying to flee the occupation, was used to murder over 3,000 Belgian civilians, and 120,000 were enslaved and deported to Germany. German forces destroyed 25,000 homes and other buildings in 837 communities in 1914 alone, and 1.5 million Belgians (20% of the entire population) fled from the invading German army.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: In some places, particularly Liège, Andenne and Leuven, but firstly Dinant, atrocities were premeditated. In Dinant, the German army believed the inhabitants were as dangerous as the French soldiers themselves.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: German troops, afraid of Belgian guerrilla fighters, or ("free shooters"), burned homes and murdered civilians throughout eastern and central Belgium, including Aarschot (156 murdered), Andenne (211 murdered), Seilles, Tamines (383 murdered), and Dinant (674 murdered). German soldiers murdered Belgian civilians indiscriminately and with impunity, with victims including men, women, and children. In the Province of Brabant, nuns were forcibly stripped naked under the pretext that they were spies or men in disguise. In and around Aarschot, between August 19 and the recapture of the town by September 9, German soldiers repeatedly raped Belgian women. Rape was nearly as ubiquitous as murder, arson and looting, if never as visible.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: On 25 August 1914, the German army ravaged the city of Leuven, deliberately burning the university library, destroying approximately 230,000 books, 950 manuscripts, and 800 incunabula. German soldiers burned down civilian homes and shot citizens where they stood, with over 2,000 buildings destroyed and 10,000 inhabitants displaced. The Germans looted and transferred large quantities of strategic materials, foodstuffs and modern industrial equipment to Germany during 1914. These actions brought worldwide condemnation. (There were also several friendly fire incidents between groups of German soldiers during the confusion.)


title: Rape of Belgium

text: The Germans were responsible for the deaths of 23,700 Belgian civilians, (6,000 Belgians murdered, 17,700 died during expulsion, deportation, in prison or sentenced to death by court) and caused further non-fatalities of 10,400 permanent and 22,700 temporary victims, with 18,296 children becoming war orphans. Military losses were 26,338 killed, died from injuries or accidents, 14,029 died from disease, or went missing.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: As raw material usually imported from abroad dried up, more firms laid off workers. Unemployment became a major problem and increased reliance on charity distributed by civil institutions and organizations. As many as 650,000 people were unemployed between 1915 and 1918.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: The German authorities used the unemployment crisis to loot industrial machinery from Belgian factories, which was either sent to Germany intact or melted down. The German policies enacted by the Imperial German General Government of Belgium would later create major problems for Belgian economic recovery after the end of the war.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Agreeing with the analysis of historian Susan Kingsley Kent, historian Nicoletta Gullace writes that "the invasion of Belgium, with its very real suffering, was nevertheless represented in a highly stylized way that dwelt on perverse sexual acts, lurid mutilations, and graphic accounts of child abuse of often dubious veracity." In Britain, many patriotic publicists propagated these stories on their own. For example, popular writer William Le Queux described the German army as "one vast gang of Jack-the-Rippers", and described in graphic detail events such as a governess hanged naked and mutilated, the bayoneting of a small baby, or the "screams of dying women", raped and "horribly mutilated" by German soldiers, accusing them of mutilating the hands, feet, or breasts of their victims.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Gullace argues that "British propagandists were eager to move as quickly as possible from an explanation of the war that focused on the murder of an Austrian archduke and his wife by Serbian nationalists to the morally unambiguous question of the invasion of neutral Belgium". In support of her thesis, she quotes from two letters of Lord Bryce. In the first letter Bryce writes "There must be something fatally wrong with our so-called civilization for this Ser[b]ian cause so frightful a calamity has descended on all Europe". In a subsequent letter Bryce writes "The one thing we have to comfort us in this war is that we are all absolutely convinced of the justice of the cause, and of our duty, once Belgium had been invaded, to take up the sword".


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Although the infamous German phrase "scrap of paper" (referring to the 1839 Treaty of London) galvanized a large segment of British intellectuals in support of the war, in more proletarian circles this imagery had less impact. For example, Labour politician Ramsay MacDonald upon hearing about it, declared that "Never did we arm our people and ask them to give up their lives for a less good cause than this". British army recruiters reported problems in explaining the origins of the war in legalistic terms.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: As the German advance in Belgium progressed, British newspapers started to publish stories on German atrocities. The British press, "quality" and tabloid alike, showed less interest in the "endless inventory of stolen property and requisitioned goods" that constituted the bulk of the official Belgian Reports. Instead, accounts of rape and bizarre mutilations flooded the British press. The intellectual discourse on the "scrap of paper" was then mixed with the more graphic imagery depicting Belgium as a brutalized woman, exemplified by the cartoons of Louis Raemaekers, whose works were widely syndicated in the US.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Part of the press, such as the editor of "The Times" and Edward Tyas Cook, expressed concerns that haphazard stories, a few of which were proven as outright fabrications, would weaken the powerful imagery, and asked for a more structured approach. The German and American press questioned the veracity of many stories, and the fact that the British Press Bureau did not censor the stories put the British government in a delicate position. The Bryce Committee was eventually appointed in December 1914 to investigate. Bryce was considered highly suitable to lead the effort because of his prewar pro-German attitudes and his good reputation in the United States, where he had served as Britain's ambassador, as well as his legal expertise.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: The commission's investigative efforts were, however, limited to previously recorded testimonies. Gullace argues that "the commission was in essence called upon to conduct a mock inquiry that would substitute the good name of Lord Bryce for the thousands of missing names of the anonymous victims whose stories appeared in the pages of the report". The commission published its report in May 1915. Charles Masterman, the director of the British War Propaganda Bureau, wrote to Bryce: "Your report has "swept" America. As you probably know even the most skeptical declare themselves converted, just because it is signed by you!" Translated in ten languages by June, the report was the basis for much subsequent wartime propaganda and was used as a sourcebook for many other publications, ensuring that the atrocities became a leitmotif of the war's propaganda up to the final "Hang the Kaiser" campaign.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: For example, in 1917 Arnold J. Toynbee published "The German Terror in Belgium", which emphasized the most graphic accounts of "authentic" German sexual depravity, such as: "In the market-place of Gembloux a Belgian despatch-rider saw the body of a woman pinned to the door of a house by a sword driven through her chest. The body was naked and the breasts had been cut off."


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Much of the wartime publishing in Britain was in fact aimed at attracting American support. A 1929 article in "The Nation" asserted: "In 1916 the Allies were putting forth every possible atrocity story to win neutral sympathy and American support. We were fed every day [...] stories of Belgian children whose hands were cut off, the Canadian soldier who was crucified to a barn door, the nurses whose breasts were cut off, the German habit of distilling glycerine and fat from their dead in order to obtain lubricants; and all the rest."


title: Rape of Belgium

text: The fourth Liberty bond drive of 1918 employed a "Remember Belgium" poster depicting the silhouette of a young Belgian girl being dragged by a German soldier on the background of a burning village; historian Kimberly Jensen interprets this imagery as "They are alone in the night, and rape seems imminent. The poster demonstrates that leaders drew on the American public's knowledge of and assumptions about the use of rape in the German invasion of Belgium."


title: Rape of Belgium

text: In his book "Roosevelt and Hitler", Robert E. Herzstein stated that "The Germans could not seem to find a way to counteract powerful British propaganda about the 'Rape of Belgium' and other alleged atrocities". About the legacy of the propaganda, Gullace commented that "one of the tragedies of the British effort to manufacture truth is the way authentic suffering was rendered suspect by fabricated tales".


title: Rape of Belgium

text: In the 1920s, the war crimes of August 1914 were often dismissed as British propaganda. Later, numerous scholars have examined the original documents and concluded that large-scale atrocities did occur, while acknowledging that other stories were fabrications. There is a debate between those who believe the German army acted primarily out of paranoia, in retaliation for real or believed incidents involving resistance actions by Belgian civilians, and those (including Lipkes) who emphasize additional causes, suggesting an association with German actions in the Nazi era.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: According to Larry Zuckerman, the German occupation far exceeded the constraints international law imposed on an occupying power. A heavy-handed German military administration sought to regulate every detail of daily life, both on a personal level with travel restraints and collective punishment, and on the economic level by harnessing the Belgian industry to German advantage and by levying repeated massive indemnities on the Belgian provinces. Before the war Belgium produced 4.4 percent of world commerce. More than 100,000 Belgian workers were forcibly deported to Germany to work in the war economy, and to Northern France to build roads and other military infrastructure for the German army.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Horne and Kramer describe some of the motivations for German tactics, chiefly (but not only), the collective fear of a "People's War":


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Recent studies conducted by Ulrich Keller have put the reasoning of Horne and Kramer into question. Keller claims that the reason for the brutal German behavior in the first few months of the invasion was due to the existence of a substantial Belgian partisan movement. He claims the organized resistance was led by the Garde Civique. As evidence he provides German medical records which show a substantial number of German soldiers wounded by shotguns which were neither in use by the Germans nor by French nor Belgian rearguard units as well as records by the Belgian government.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Keller's claims have led to an argument among historians which led to a conference being held in 2017. The conference was jointly organized by Sönke Neitzel, Oliver Janz, and Peter Hoeres and focused on the German behaviour in Belgium during the opening stages of the First World War. During the conference the following historians were able to present their arguments:


title: Rape of Belgium

text: In sum, the conference demonstrated the need for additional research, particularly on the Belgian role in 1914 and the key question how widespread the irregular resistance had been. The evidence provided by Keller hints at a more than merely sporadic resistance by irregular Belgian fighters.


title: Rape of Belgium

text: At a commemoration ceremony on May 6, 2001, in the Belgian town of Dinant, attended by Belgium's defense minister Andre Flahaut, World War II veterans, and the ambassadors of Germany, France and Britain, state secretary of the German Ministry of Defence, Walter Kolbow, officially apologized for a massacre of 674 civilians that took place on August 23, 1914, in the aftermath of the Battle of Dinant:


title: Rape of Belgium

text: Mr Kolbow placed a wreath and bowed before a monument to the victims bearing the inscription: "To the 674 Dinantais martyrs, innocent victims of German barbarism".


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Wolfgang Ernst Pauli (; ; 25 April 1900 – 15 December 1958) was an Austrian theoretical physicist and one of the pioneers of quantum physics. In 1945, after having been nominated by Albert Einstein, Pauli received the Nobel Prize in Physics for his "decisive contribution through his discovery of a new law of Nature, the exclusion principle or Pauli principle". The discovery involved spin theory, which is the basis of a theory of the structure of matter.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli was born in Vienna to a chemist, Wolfgang Joseph Pauli ("né" Wolf Pascheles, 1869–1955), and his wife, Bertha Camilla Schütz; his sister was Hertha Pauli, a writer and actress. Pauli's middle name was given in honor of his godfather, physicist Ernst Mach. Pauli's paternal grandparents were from prominent Jewish families of Prague; his great-grandfather was the Jewish publisher Wolf Pascheles. Pauli's mother, Bertha Schütz, was raised in her mother's Roman Catholic religion; her father was Jewish writer Friedrich Schütz. Pauli was raised as a Roman Catholic, although eventually he and his parents left the Church.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli attended the Döblinger-Gymnasium in Vienna, graduating with distinction in 1918. Two months later, he published his first paper, on Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. He attended the Ludwig-Maximilians University in Munich, working under Arnold Sommerfeld, where he received his PhD in July 1921 for his thesis on the quantum theory of ionized diatomic hydrogen ().


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Sommerfeld asked Pauli to review the theory of relativity for the "Encyklopädie der mathematischen Wissenschaften" ("Encyclopedia of Mathematical Sciences"). Two months after receiving his doctorate, Pauli completed the article, which came to 237 pages. Einstein praised it; published as a monograph, it remains a standard reference on the subject.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli spent a year at the University of Göttingen as the assistant to Max Born, and the next year at the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen (later the Niels Bohr Institute). From 1923 to 1928, he was a professor at the University of Hamburg. During this period, Pauli was instrumental in the development of the modern theory of quantum mechanics. In particular, he formulated the exclusion principle and the theory of nonrelativistic spin. He also wrote a paper on colloid chemistry and medicine in 1924.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In 1928, Pauli was appointed Professor of Theoretical Physics at ETH Zurich in Switzerland. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1930. He held visiting professorships at the University of Michigan in 1931 and the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton in 1935.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: At the end of 1930, shortly after his postulation of the neutrino and immediately after his divorce and his mother's suicide, Pauli experienced a personal crisis. In January 1932 he consulted psychiatrist and psychotherapist Carl Jung, who also lived near Zurich. Jung immediately began interpreting Pauli's deeply archetypal dreams based on the I Ching, and Pauli became a collaborator of Jung's. He soon began to critique the epistemology of Jung's theory scientifically, and this contributed to a certain clarification of Jung's ideas, especially about synchronicity. A great many of these discussions are documented in the Pauli/Jung letters, today published as "Atom and Archetype". Jung's elaborate analysis of more than 400 of Pauli's dreams is documented in "Psychology and Alchemy". In 1933 Pauli published the second part of his book on Physics, "Handbuch der Physik", which was considered the definitive book on the new field of quantum physics. Robert Oppenheimer called it "the only adult introduction to quantum mechanics."


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: The German annexation of Austria in 1938 made Pauli a German citizen, which became a problem for him in 1939 after World War II broke out. In 1940, he tried in vain to obtain Swiss citizenship, which would have allowed him to remain at the ETH.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In 1940, Pauli moved to the United States, where he was employed as a professor of theoretical physics at the Institute for Advanced Study. In 1946, after the war, he became a naturalized U.S. citizen and returned to Zurich, where he mostly remained for the rest of his life. In 1949, he was granted Swiss citizenship.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In 1958, Pauli was awarded the Max Planck medal. The same year, he fell ill with pancreatic cancer. When his last assistant, Charles Enz, visited him at the Rotkreuz hospital in Zurich, Pauli asked him, "Did you see the room number?" It was 137. Throughout his life, Pauli had been preoccupied with the question of why the fine-structure constant, a dimensionless fundamental constant, has a value nearly equal to 1/137. Pauli died in that room on 15 December 1958.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli made many important contributions as a physicist, primarily in the field of quantum mechanics. He seldom published papers, preferring lengthy correspondences with colleagues such as Niels Bohr from the University of Copenhagen in Denmark and Werner Heisenberg, with whom he had close friendships. Many of his ideas and results were never published and appeared only in his letters, which were often copied and circulated by their recipients. In 1921 Pauli worked with Bohr to create the Aufbau Principle, which described building up electrons in shells based on the German word for building up, as Bohr was also fluent in German.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli proposed in 1924 a new quantum degree of freedom (or quantum number) with two possible values, to resolve inconsistencies between observed molecular spectra and the developing theory of quantum mechanics. He formulated the Pauli exclusion principle, perhaps his most important work, which stated that no two electrons could exist in the same quantum state, identified by four quantum numbers including his new two-valued degree of freedom. The idea of spin originated with Ralph Kronig. A year later, George Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit identified Pauli's new degree of freedom as electron spin, in which Pauli for a very long time wrongly refused to believe.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In 1926, shortly after Heisenberg published the matrix theory of modern quantum mechanics, Pauli used it to derive the observed spectrum of the hydrogen atom. This result was important in securing credibility for Heisenberg's theory.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli introduced the 2×2 Pauli matrices as a basis of spin operators, thus solving the nonrelativistic theory of spin. This work, including the Pauli equation, is sometimes said to have influenced Paul Dirac in his creation of the Dirac equation for the relativistic electron, though Dirac said that he invented these same matrices himself independently at the time. Dirac invented similar but larger (4x4) spin matrices for use in his relativistic treatment of fermionic spin.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In 1930, Pauli considered the problem of beta decay. In a letter of 4 December to Lise Meitner "et al.", beginning, "Dear radioactive ladies and gentlemen", he proposed the existence of a hitherto unobserved neutral particle with a small mass, no greater than 1% the mass of a proton, to explain the continuous spectrum of beta decay. In 1934, Enrico Fermi incorporated the particle, which he called a neutrino, "little neutral one" in Fermi's native Italian, into his theory of beta decay. The neutrino was first confirmed experimentally in 1956 by Frederick Reines and Clyde Cowan, two and a half years before Pauli's death. On receiving the news, he replied by telegram: "Thanks for message. Everything comes to him who knows how to wait. Pauli."


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In 1940, Pauli re-derived the spin-statistics theorem, a critical result of quantum field theory that states that particles with half-integer spin are fermions, while particles with integer spin are bosons.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In 1949, he published a paper on Pauli–Villars regularization: regularization is the term for techniques that modify infinite mathematical integrals to make them finite during calculations, so that one can identify whether the intrinsically infinite quantities in the theory (mass, charge, wavefunction) form a finite and hence calculable set that can be redefined in terms of their experimental values, which criterion is termed renormalization, and which removes infinities from quantum field theories, but also importantly allows the calculation of higher-order corrections in perturbation theory.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli made repeated criticisms of the modern synthesis of evolutionary biology, and his contemporary admirers point to modes of epigenetic inheritance as supporting his arguments.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1953 and president of the Swiss Physical Society in 1955 for two years. In 1958 he became a foreign member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: The Pauli effect was named after his anecdotal bizarre ability to break experimental equipment simply by being in its vicinity. Pauli was aware of his reputation and was delighted whenever the Pauli effect manifested. These strange occurrences were in line with his controversial investigations into the legitimacy of parapsychology, particularly his collaboration with C. G. Jung on synchronicity. Max Born considered Pauli "only comparable to Einstein himself... perhaps even greater". Einstein declared Pauli his "spiritual heir".


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli was famously a perfectionist. This extended not just to his own work, but also to that of his colleagues. As a result, he became known in the physics community as the "conscience of physics", the critic to whom his colleagues were accountable. He could be scathing in his dismissal of any theory he found lacking, often labelling it "ganz falsch", "utterly wrong".


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: But this was not his most severe criticism, which he reserved for theories or theses so unclearly presented as to be untestable or unevaluatable and thus not properly belonging within the realm of science, even though posing as such. They were worse than wrong because they could not be proved wrong. Famously, he once said of such an unclear paper: "It is not even wrong!"


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: His supposed remark when meeting another leading physicist, Paul Ehrenfest, illustrates this notion of an arrogant Pauli. The two met at a conference for the first time. Ehrenfest was familiar with Pauli's papers and quite impressed with them. After a few minutes of conversation, Ehrenfest remarked, "I think I like your Encyclopedia article [on relativity theory] better than I like you," to which Pauli retorted, "That's strange. With me, regarding you, it is just the opposite." The two became very good friends from then on.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Werner Heisenberg [in "Physics and Beyond", 1971] recollects a friendly conversation among young participants at the 1927 Solvay Conference, about Einstein and Planck's views on religion. Wolfgang Pauli, Heisenberg, and Dirac took part in it. Dirac's contribution was a poignant and clear criticism of the political manipulation of religion, that was much appreciated for its lucidity by Bohr, when Heisenberg reported it to him later. Among other things, Dirac said: "I cannot understand why we idle discussing religion. If we are honest – and as scientists honesty is our precise duty – we cannot help but admit that any religion is a pack of false statements, deprived of any real foundation. The very idea of God is a product of human imagination. [ ... ] I do not recognize any religious myth, at least because they contradict one another. [ ... ]" Heisenberg's view was tolerant. Pauli had kept silent, after some initial remarks. But when finally he was asked for his opinion, jokingly he said: "Well, I'd say that also our friend Dirac has got a religion and the first commandment of this religion is 'God does not exist and Paul Dirac is his prophet'". Everybody burst into laughter, including Dirac.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Many of Pauli's ideas and results were never published and appeared only in his letters, which were often copied and circulated by their recipients. Pauli may have been unconcerned that much of his work thus went uncredited, but when it came to Heisenberg's world-renowned 1958 lecture at Göttingen on their joint work on a unified field theory, and the press release calling Pauli a mere "assistant to Professor Heisenberg", Pauli became offended, denouncing Heisenberg's physics prowess. The deterioration of their relationship resulted in Heisenberg ignoring Pauli's funeral, and writing in his autobiography that Pauli's criticisms were overwrought, though ultimately the field theory was proved untenable, validating Pauli's criticisms.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In his discussions with Carl Jung, Pauli developed an ontological theory that has been dubbed the "Pauli–Jung Conjecture" and has been seen a kind of dual-aspect theory. The theory holds that there is "a psychophysically neutral reality" and that mental and physical aspects are derivative of this reality. Pauli thought that elements of quantum physics pointed to a deeper reality that might explain the mind/matter gap and wrote, "we must postulate a cosmic order of nature beyond our control to which "both" the outward material objects "and" the inward images are subject."


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: Pauli and Jung held that this reality was governed by common principles ("archetypes") that appear as psychological phenomena or as physical events. They also held that synchronicities might reveal some of this underlying reality's workings.


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: He is considered to have been a deist and a mystic. In "No Time to Be Brief: A Scientific Biography of Wolfgang Pauli" he is quoted as writing to science historian Shmuel Sambursky, "In opposition to the monotheist religions – but in unison with the mysticism of all peoples, including the Jewish mysticism – I believe that the ultimate reality is not personal."


title: Wolfgang Pauli

text: In 1929, Pauli married Käthe Margarethe Deppner, a cabaret dancer. The marriage was unhappy, ending in divorce after less than a year. He married again in 1934 to Franziska Bertram (1901–1987). They had no children.


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: Jin Se-yeon (born Kim Yoon-jung on February 15, 1994) is a South Korean actress. Some of her notable television dramas are "Bridal Mask" (2012), "Doctor Stranger" (2014), "Flowers of the Prison" (2016), "Grand Prince" (2018) among others.


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: Jin Se-yeon began her career as an idol trainee for girl group Jewelry under Star Empire Entertainment. Before long, she started to appear in various TV commercials, which then steered her direction into acting. Even though her debut role was in the 2010 SBS drama "It's Okay, Daddy's Girl", but her first casting was actually for the 2011 film "". She then acted in the highly-controversial lesbian-themed Drama Special titled "Daughters of Bilitis Club" and portrayed the teenage version of Han Ji-hye's female lead character in "The Duo".


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: Her first chance at starring role came when she won the audition for the titular protagonist in the daily drama "My Daughter the Flower". She cemented her leading actress status with the acclaimed 1930s-setting period drama, "Bridal Mask". Since then, Jin has been starred in various genres, among them a musical melodrama "Five Fingers", medical-espionage drama "Doctor Stranger", and romantic-comedy film "Enemies In-Law".


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: In 2016, Jin played the heroine for the summer blockbuster war film, "Operation Chromite", alongside Liam Neeson and Lee Jung-jae. She was then chosen as the protagonist for MBC's 55th-founding anniversary historical drama directed by a famed director Lee Byung-hoon, "Flowers of the Prison".


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: In 2018, Jin's popularity started to rise due to her performance in the historical drama "Grand Prince". The series was a ratings success, becoming the highest rated TV Chosun drama since the network's establishment in 2011.


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: In 2019, Jin starred in the fantasy-mystery drama "Item" as a criminal profiler. The same year she was cast in the historical fantasy drama "".


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: In 2020, Jin was cast in the mystery romance drama "Born Again" alongside Jang Ki-yong and Lee Soo-hyuk.


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: Jin revealed in late 2012 that she had added a year to her real age in her résumé, actually being born in 1994, and not in 1993. Her agency explained, "Jin Se-yeon was only 17 years old when she debuted. She was so young that it was hard for her to land any roles. That's why we added a year to her age."


title: Jin Se-yeon

text: Jin also denied a rumor that she comes from a wealthy or influential family, due to her being one of the fastest-rising young actresses despite it not being long since her debut. She answered, "I was very surprised by the rumor myself. Though it was for a short period of time, I had also done secondary roles and acted out the younger versions. Maybe that's because I got to play a main role earlier than others. My father is running an IT company that is not listed. I actually don't know very well."


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The sodium–potassium pump (sodium–potassium adenosine triphosphatase, also known as Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase, Na⁺/K⁺ pump, or sodium–potassium ATPase) is an enzyme (an electrogenic transmembrane ATPase) found in the membrane of all animal cells. It performs several functions in cell physiology.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase enzyme is active (i.e. it uses energy from ATP). For every ATP molecule that the pump uses, three sodium ions are exported and two potassium ions are imported. Thus, there is a net export of a single positive charge per pump cycle.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The sodium–potassium pump was discovered in 1957 by the Danish scientist Jens Christian Skou, who was awarded a Nobel Prize for his work in 1997. Its discovery marked an important step forward in the understanding of how ions get into and out of cells, and it has particular significance for excitable cells such as nerve cells, which depend on this pump to respond to stimuli and transmit impulses.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: All mammals have four different sodium pump sub-types, or isoforms. Each has unique properties and tissue expression patterns. This enzyme belongs to the family of P-type ATPases.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase helps maintain resting potential, affects transport, and regulates cellular volume. It also functions as a signal transducer/integrator to regulate the MAPK pathway, reactive oxygen species (ROS), as well as intracellular calcium. In fact, all cells expend a large fraction of the ATP they produce (typically 30% and up to 70% in


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: For neurons, the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase can be responsible for up to 3/4 of the cell's energy expenditure. In many types of tissue, ATP consumption by the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPases have been related to glycolysis. This was first discovered in red blood cells (Schrier, 1966), but has later been evidenced in renal cells, smooth muscles surrounding the blood vessels, and cardiac purkinje cells. Recently, glycolysis has also been shown to be of particular importance for Na⁺/K⁺-ATPases in skeletal muscles, where inhibition of glycogen breakdown (a substrate for glycolysis) leads to reduced Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity and lower force production.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: In order to maintain the cell membrane potential, cells keep a low concentration of sodium ions and high levels of potassium ions within the cell (intracellular). The sodium–potassium pump mechanism moves 3 sodium ions out and moves 2 potassium ions in, thus, in total, removing one positive charge carrier from the intracellular space (see Mechanism for details). In addition, there is a short-circuit channel (i.e. a highly K-permeable ion channel) for potassium in the membrane, thus the voltage across the plasma membrane is close to the Nernst potential of potassium.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Even if both K⁺ and Na⁺ ions have the same charge, they can still have very different equilibrium potentials for both outside and/or inside concentrations. The sodium-potassium pump moves toward a nonequilibrium state with the relative concentrations of Na⁺ and K⁺ for both inside and outside of cell. For instance, the concentration of K⁺ in cytosol is 100mM, whereas the concentration of Na⁺ is 10mM. On the other hand, in extracellular space, the concentration of K⁺ is 5mM, whereas the concentration of Na⁺ is 150mM.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Export of sodium ions from the cell provides the driving force for several secondary active transporters such as membrane transport proteins, which import glucose, amino acids and other nutrients into the cell by use of the sodium ion gradient.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Another important task of the Na⁺-K⁺ pump is to provide a Na⁺ gradient that is used by certain carrier processes. In the gut, for example, sodium is transported out of the reabsorbing cell on the blood (interstitial fluid) side via the Na⁺-K⁺ pump, whereas, on the reabsorbing (lumenal) side, the Na⁺-glucose symporter uses the created Na⁺ gradient as a source of energy to import both Na⁺ and glucose, which is far more efficient than simple diffusion. Similar processes are located in the renal tubular system.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Failure of the Na⁺-K⁺ pumps can result in swelling of the cell. A cell's osmolarity is the sum of the concentrations of the various ion species and many proteins and other organic compounds inside the cell. When this is higher than the osmolarity outside of the cell, water flows into the cell through osmosis. This can cause the cell to swell up and lyse. The Na⁺-K⁺ pump helps to maintain the right concentrations of ions.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Furthermore, when the cell begins to swell, this automatically activates the Na⁺-K⁺ pump because it changes the internal concentrations of Na⁺-K⁺ to which the pump is sensitive.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Within the last decade, many independent labs have demonstrated that, in addition to the classical ion transporting, this membrane protein can also relay extracellular ouabain-binding signalling into the cell through regulation of protein tyrosine phosphorylation. For instance, a study investigated the function of Na/K ATPase in foot muscle and hepatopancreas in land snail "O.Lactea" by comparing the active and estivating states. They concluded that reversible phosphorylation can control the same means of coordinating ATP use by this ion pump with the rates of the ATP generation by catabolic pathways in estivating "O. Lactea". The downstream signals through ouabain-triggered protein phosphorylation events include activation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signal cascades, mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, as well as activation of phospholipase C (PLC) and inositol triphosphate (IP3) receptor (IP3R) in different intracellular compartments.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Protein-protein interactions play a very important role in Na⁺-K⁺ pump-mediated signal transduction. For example, the Na⁺-K⁺ pump interacts directly with Src, a non-receptor tyrosine kinase, to form a signaling receptor complex. Src is initially inhibited by the Na⁺-K⁺ pump. However, upon subsequent ouabain binding, the Src kinase domain is released and then activated. Based on this scenario, NaKtide, a peptide Src inhibitor derived from the Na⁺-K⁺ pump, was developed as a functional ouabain–Na⁺-K⁺ pump-mediated signal transduction. Na⁺-K⁺ pump also interacts with ankyrin, IP3R, PI3K, PLC-gamma and cofilin.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The Na⁺-K⁺ pump has been shown to control and set the intrinsic activity mode of cerebellar Purkinje neurons, accessory olfactory bulb mitral cells and probably other neuron types. This suggests that the pump might not simply be a homeostatic, "housekeeping" molecule for ionic gradients, but could be a computation element in the cerebellum and the brain. Indeed, a mutation in the Na⁺-K⁺ pump causes rapid onset dystonia-parkinsonism, which has symptoms to indicate that it is a pathology of cerebellar computation. Furthermore, an ouabain block of Na⁺-K⁺ pumps in the cerebellum of a live mouse results in it displaying ataxia and dystonia. Alcohol inhibits sodium–potassium pumps in the cerebellum and this is likely how it corrupts cerebellar computation and body coordination. The distribution of the Na⁺-K⁺ pump on myelinated axons in the human brain has been demonstrated to be along the internodal axolemma, and not within the nodal axolemma as previously thought. The Na⁺-K⁺ pump disfunction has been tied to various diseases, including epilepsy and brain malformations.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is upregulated by cAMP. Thus, substances causing an increase in cAMP upregulate the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. These include the ligands of the G-coupled GPCRs. In contrast, substances causing a decrease in cAMP downregulate the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase. These include the ligands of the G-coupled GPCRs. Note: Early studies indicated the "opposite" effect, but these were later found to be inaccurate due to additional complicating factors.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is endogenously negatively regulated by the inositol pyrophosphate 5-InsP7, an intracellular signaling molecule generated by IP6K1, which relieves an autoinhibitory domain of PI3K p85α to drive endocytosis and degradation.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is also regulated by reversible phosphorylation. Research has shown that in estivating animals, the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase is in the phosphorylated and low activity form. Dephosphorylation of Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase can recover it to the high activity form.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: The Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase can be pharmacologically modified by administrating drugs exogenously. Its expression can also be modified through hormones such as triiodothyronine, a thyroid hormone.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: For instance, Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase found in the membrane of heart cells is an important target of cardiac glycosides (for example digoxin and ouabain), inotropic drugs used to improve heart performance by increasing its force of contraction.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Muscle contraction is dependent on a 100- to 10,000-times-higher-than-resting intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration, which is caused by Ca²⁺ release from the muscle cells' sarcoplasmic reticulum. Immediately after muscle contraction, intracellular Ca²⁺ is quickly returned to its normal concentration by a carrier enzyme in the plasma membrane, and a calcium pump in sarcoplasmic reticulum, causing the muscle to relax.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: According to the Blaustein-hypothesis, this carrier enzyme (Na⁺/Ca²⁺ exchanger, NCX) uses the Na gradient generated by the Na⁺-K⁺ pump to remove Ca²⁺ from the intracellular space, hence slowing down the Na⁺-K⁺ pump results in a permanently elevated Ca²⁺ level in the muscle, which may be the mechanism of the long-term inotropic effect of cardiac glycosides such as digoxin. The problem with this hypothesis is that at pharmacological concentrations of digitalis, less than 5% of Na/K-ATPase molecules—specifically the α2 isoform in heart and arterial smooth muscle ("K" = 32 nM) -- are inhibited, not enough to affect the intracellular concentration of Na⁺. However, apart from the population of Na/K-ATPase in the plasma membrane—responsible for ion transport --, there is another population in the caveolae which acts as digitalis receptor and stimulates the EGF receptor.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: In certain conditions such as in the case of cardiac disease, the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase may need to be inhibited via pharmacological means. A commonly used inhibitor used in the treatment of cardiac disease would be digoxin which essentially binds "to the extracellular part of enzyme i.e. that binds potassium, when it is in a phosphorylated state, to transfer potassium inside the cell" After this essential binding occurs, a dephosphorylation of the alpha subunit occurs which reduces the effect of cardiac disease. It is via the inhibiting of the Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase that sodium levels will begin to increase within the cell which ultimately increases the concentration of intracellular calcium via the sodium-calcium exchanger. This increased presence of calcium is what allows for the force of contraction to be increased. In the case of patients where the heart is not pumping hard enough to provide what is needed for the body this approach allows for the temporary overcoming of this.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase was discovered by Jens Christian Skou in 1957 while working as assistant professor at the Department of Physiology, University of Aarhus, Denmark. He published his work that year.


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: In 1997, he received one-half of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry "for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na⁺,K⁺-ATPase."


title: Sodium–potassium pump

text: Mutagenesis studies conducted by Susanne Dobler have identified the conserved M3-M4 hairpin and M5-M6 hairpins. At position 312, insects feeding on "Apocynum" species differed from mammalian Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase through the change of glutamic acid to aspartic acid. Thus, the insects were found to have a higher degree of conservation in the C-terminal of the ouabain binding pocket. Dobler et al. found 87% amino acid identity among insect sequences, which shows a high level of molecular convergence among four orders of insect herbivores. Thus, some substitutions provide resistance to cardenolides as an adaptation even across phylogenetic branches.


title: Estoppel

text: Estoppel is a judicial device in common law legal systems whereby a court may prevent or "estop" a person from making assertions or from going back on his or her word; the person being sanctioned is "estopped". Estoppel may prevent someone from bringing a particular claim. Legal doctrines of estoppel are based in both common law and equity.


title: Estoppel

text: There are many different types of estoppel which can arise, but the common thread between them is that a person is restrained from asserting a particular position in law where it would be inequitable to do so. By way of illustration:


title: Estoppel

text: Estoppel is an equitable doctrine. Accordingly, any person wishing to assert an estoppel must normally come to the court with "clean hands".


title: Estoppel

text: The doctrine of estoppel (which may prevent a party from asserting a right) is often confused with the doctrine of waiver (which relates to relinquishing a right once it has arisen). It also substantially overlaps with, but is distinct from, the equitable doctrine of laches.


title: Estoppel

text: The verb is "estop", which comes from Middle English "estoppen", itself borrowed from Old French "estop(p)er", "estouper", presumably from Vulgar Latin *"stuppāre." 'to stop up with tow, caulk', from Latin "stuppa", 'broken flax', from Ancient Greek "stuppe", 'broken flax'. The noun form "estoppel" is based on the Old French "estoupail," 'stopper, bung', a derivative of "estouper".


title: Estoppel

text: Where a court finds that a party has done something warranting a form of estoppel, that party is said to be estopped from making certain related arguments or claiming certain related rights. The defendant is estopped from presenting the related defense, or the plaintiff is estopped from making the related argument against the defendant. Lord Coke stated, "It is called an estoppel or conclusion, because a man's own act or acceptance stoppeth or closeth up his mouth to allege or plead the truth."