title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Congress' control of the military Reconstruction policy was mitigated by Johnson's command of the military as president. However, Johnson had inherited Lincoln's appointee Edwin M. Stanton as secretary of war. Stanton was a staunch Radical Republican who would comply with congressional Reconstruction policies as long as he remained in office. To ensure that Stanton would not be replaced, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act in 1867 over Johnson's veto. The act required the president to seek the Senate's advice and consent before relieving or dismissing any member of his cabinet (an indirect reference to Stanton) or, indeed, any federal official whose initial appointment had previously required its advice and consent.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The Tenure of Office Act was put in place to prevent the president from dismissing an officer that had been previously appointed with the advice and consent of the Senate without the Senate's approval to remove them. Per the law, if the president dismissed such an officer when the Senate was in recess, and the Senate voted upon reconvening against ratifying the removal, the president would be required to reinstate the individual. Because the Tenure of Office Act did permit the president to suspend such officials when Congress was out of session, after Johnson failed to obtain Stanton's resignation, he instead suspended Stanton on August 5, 1867, which gave him the opportunity to appoint General Ulysses S. Grant, then serving as commanding general of the Army, to serve as the interim secretary of war. When the Senate adopted a resolution of non-concurrence with Stanton's dismissal in December 1867, Grant told Johnson he was going to resign, fearing punitive legal action. Johnson assured Grant that he would assume all responsibility in the matter, and asked him to delay his resignation until a suitable replacement could be found. Contrary to Johnson's belief that Grant had agreed to remain in office, when the Senate voted and reinstated Stanton in January 1868, Grant immediately resigned, before the president had an opportunity to appoint a replacement. Johnson was furious at Grant, accusing him of lying during a stormy cabinet meeting. The March 1868 publication of several angry messages between Johnson and Grant led to a complete break between the two. As a result of these letters, Grant solidified his standing as the front-runner for the 1868 Republican presidential nomination.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Johnson complained about Stanton's restoration to office and searched desperately for someone to replace Stanton who would be acceptable to the Senate. He first proposed the position to General William Tecumseh Sherman, an enemy of Stanton, who turned down his offer. Sherman subsequently suggested to Johnson that Radical Republicans and moderate Republicans would be amenable to replacing Stanton with Jacob Dolson Cox, but he found the president to be no longer interested in appeasement. On February 21, 1868, the president appointed Lorenzo Thomas, a brevet major general in the Army, as secretary of war "ad interim". Johnson thereupon informed the Senate of his decision. Thomas personally delivered the president's dismissal notice to Stanton, who rejected the legitimacy of the decision. Rather than vacate his office, Stanton barricaded himself inside and ordered Thomas arrested for violating the Tenure of Office Act. He also informed Speaker of the House Schuyler Colfax and President Pro Tempore of the Senate Benjamin Wade of the situation. Thomas remained under arrest for several days before being released, and having the charge against him dropped after Stanton realized that the case against Thomas would provide the courts with an opportunity to review the constitutionality of the Tenure of Office Act.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Johnson's opponents in Congress were outraged by his actions; the president's challenge to congressional authority—with regard to both the Tenure of Office Act and post-war reconstruction—had, in their estimation, been tolerated for long enough. In swift response, an impeachment resolution was introduced in the House by Representatives Thaddeus Stevens and John Bingham. Expressing the widespread sentiment among House Republicans, Representative William D. Kelley (on February 22, 1868) declared:


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: On February 21, 1868, the day that Johnson attempted to replace Stanton with Lorenzo Thomas, the chair of the Select Committee on Reconstruction, Radical Republican Thaddeus Stevens, submitted a resolution to the House resolving that the evidence taken on impeachment by the previous (1867) impeachment inquiry run by the Committee on the Judiciary be referred to the Select Committee on Reconstruction, which was overseeing the ongoing second impeachment inquiry. Stevens' resolution also resolved that the Committee on Reconstruction "have leave to report at any time". The resolution was approved by the House. Soon after, a one sentence resolution to impeach Johnson, written by John Covode, was presented to the House. The resolution read, News reports stated that the introduction of this resolution was met with audible laughter by Democratic members of the House. George S. Boutwell made a successful motion to refer the resolution to the Select Committee on Reconstruction.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: In the morning of February 22, 1868, the Committee on Reconstruction approved an amended version of the impeachment resolution in a 7–2 party-line vote. The amended resolution read,


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: At 3pm on February 22, 1868, along with the slightly amended version of Covode's impeachment resolution, Stevens presented a majority report from the Select Committee on Reconstruction opining that Johnson should be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors. The impeachment resolution was debated at length on both February 22 and 24. During the debate on the resolution, Republican members of the House Select Committee on Reconstruction argued that Johnson's effort to dismiss Stanton and appoint Thomas ad interim was a specific violation of the Tenure of Office Act.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Republicans that had voted against the previous impeachment resolution on December 7, 1867, now voiced support for impeaching Johnson, seeing an impeachment of Johnson for violating the Tenure of Office Act as being grounded in an offense indictable under federal law. James F. Wilson expressed an opinion representative of those expressed during debate by many Republicans that had previously voted against the impeachment resolution brought by the Judiciary Committee at the close of the first impeachment inquiry against Johnson. Ahead of the vote on that previous resolution, Wilson had been tasked by the Judiciary Committee's dissenting members with presenting their argument against impeaching Johnson at that time. Now Wilson expressed support for impeaching Johnson, declaring that,


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Wilson opined that in the previous impeachment vote, Johnson had not committed any action that was a crime under either common law or statute. Wilson declared that Johnson had mistakenly been emboldened after he was not impeached in December 1867 and had proceeded to commit an act that constituted clear impeachable conduct, declaring,


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Thaddeus Stevens expressed his opinion that impeachment was a purely political process. In the closing remarks of formal debate, Stevens expressed his opinion that the case to be brought against Johnson should be broader than just his violation of the Tenure of Office Act. Before the resolution would be voted on by the House, Thaddeus Stevens, who is considered to have been the leader of the forces behind the push for impeachment, gave a final speech that is described as having brought those in the House chamber to "rapt attention". In the speech, Stevens remarked,


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The resolution was put to a vote on February 24, 1868, three days after Johnson moved to dismiss and replace Stanton. Per the record of the "Congressional Globe", the House of Representatives voted 126–47 (with 17 members not voting) in favor of a resolution to impeach the president for high crimes and misdemeanors, This marked the first time that a president of the United States had been impeached. There is a record keeping discrepancy, however. While the "Congressional Globe" recorded the vote as being 126–47 (with Republicans William Henry Koontz and Francis Thomas being absent), the "United States House Journal" had recorded the vote as being 128–47 (recording Koontz and Thomas as being present and voting in support of the resolution). The Office of the House Historian uses the "Congressional Globe" tally on its website, and, therefore, this article also uses that tally.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Almost all of the House Republican caucus that was present voted in support of the impeachment resolution. While every vote cast by those that were elected as a member of the Republican Party was in support of the impeachment resolution, Samuel Fenton Cary (an independent Republican from Ohio), and Thomas E. Stewart (a "Conservative Republican" from New York) voted against it. Both Cary and Stewart had caucused with the Republicans. Every Democrat present voted against impeachment. Fifteen Republicans and one Democrat were absent for the vote. Speaker Schuyler Colfax, a Republican, also did not vote, as House rules do not require the speaker to vote during ordinary legislative proceedings, unless their vote would be decisive or if the vote is being cast by ballot.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: All of the 126 votes in favor of impeachment came from members of the Republican caucus (125 from members of the Republican Party, and one from independent Republican Lewis Selye). Of the 47 votes against impeachment, 44 came from members of the Democratic Party, with the other three votes coming from Conservative Charles E. Phelps, Conservative Republican Thomas E. Stewart, and independent Republican Fenton Cary.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: After the House passed the impeachment resolution, its attention turned to the adoption of articles of impeachment which the Senate would try Johnson on. The approach of having the vote to impeach be an entirely separate vote from the adoption of article(s) of impeachment differs from the approach that has been practiced in more recent United States federal impeachments, in which impeachment has occurred directly through the adoption of article(s) of impeachment. However, the manner in which Johnson was impeached appears to have been the standard order of procedure for nineteenth century federal impeachments in the United States, as each of the five previous impeachments of federal officials that had led to a Senate trial had been conducted the same way, with votes to impeach occurring before votes on articles of impeachment.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: After the vote to impeach, Stevens submitted a pair of resolutions that both created a two-person committee tasked with presenting to the Senate bar the impeachment resolution that had been passed and informing the Senate that the House would "in due time" exhibit specific articles of impeachment, and which also created a seven-person committee to prepare and report articles of impeachment. The resolutions gave that seven-person committee the power to subpoena people, papers, and records, and to record sworn testimony. After procedural votes, the House approved both of Stevens' resolutions in a single 124–42 vote. No members of the Republican Party voted against it, while no members of the Democratic Party voted for it. Before the House adjourned for the evening, Speaker Schuyler Colfax appointed John Bingham and Thaddeus Stevens to the two-person committee tasked with informing the Senate of Johnson's impeachment, and also appointed John Bingham, George S. Boutwell, and Thaddeus Stevens (all of whom had been members of the Select Committee on Reconstruction) along with George Washington Julian, House Committee on the Judiciary Chairman James F. Wilson, John A. Logan, and Hamilton Ward to the seven-person committee tasked with writing the articles of impeachment.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: On the morning of February 25, 1868, the Senate was informed by the two-person committee of Bingham and Stevens that Johnson had been impeached and that articles of impeachment would be created. Later that day, Stevens reported to the House that the committee had gone before the bar of the Senate on behalf of the House. Later on February 25, Ellihu B. Washburne moved to suspend the rules and order that, once the special committee tasked with preparing the articles of impeachment reported those articles, the House would immediately hold a full-house vote on the articles, and set the rules for speeches and debate on the articles. The House voted 106–37 to approve Washburne's motion. Later that day, George S. Boutwell presented two resolutions to enable the committee of seven that had been appointed to prepare and report the articles of impeachment to sit during sessions of the House. These resolutions were passed 105-36.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Thaddeus Stevens felt that Radical Republicans on the committee were yielding too much to moderates to limit the scope of the violations of law that the articles of impeachment would charge Johnson with. He wrote Benjamin F. Butler, proposing that, while Stevens worked to add two more additional articles to the seven already written by the committee, Butler would write his own separate article of impeachment from outside of the committee. Butler accepted this proposal.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The committee of seven initially delivered ten proposed articles of impeachment to the House on February 29, 1868. These would be revised and reduced to nine articles before being voted on on March 2.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: One week after it voted to impeach Johnson, the House adopted eleven articles of impeachment against the president. The first nine articles were approved on March 2, while the last two were approved on March 3, 1868. The third and fourth articles each received a single Democratic vote in support of them (George W. Morgan for the third and Charles Haight for the fourth article). The tenth article was the only to have Republican opposition, with twelve Republicans casting votes against it. However, two other members of the Republican caucus that were not formally part of the Republican Party (Samuel Fenton Cary, an independent Republican from Ohio, and Thomas E. Stewart, a "Conservative Republican" from New York) voted against nearly every article of impeachment (with Stewart having been absent from the vote on the fourth article).


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The House debated the proposed articles on March 1 and 2, 1868. On March 2, the House voted to ratify the nine articles of impeachment referred to it by the committee of seven. These articles were "strictly legalistic" and molded on criminal indictment. Eight concerned the violation of the Tenure of Office Act, while the ninth accused him of violating the Command of Army Act by pressuring General William H. Emory to ignore Acting Secretary of War Grant and instead take orders directly from Johnson.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: After a series of speeches during debate, Thaddeus Stevens took the floor to criticize the committee of seven for going too easy on Johnson, declaring, Stevens argued that the articles put before the house had failed to address just how much Johnson had imperiled the governing structure of the United States.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: After Stevens delivered his remarks, which closed out debate, Boutwell brought forward revised articles, with the number of articles proposed by the committee being decreased from ten to nine. Benjamin Butler then submitted his own lengthy impeachment article, inspired by Stevens' request to him. Butlers' proposed article stated no clear violation of law, but instead charged Johnson with attempting, "to bring into disgrace, ridicule, hatred, contempt, and reproach the Congress of the United States." The article was written in response to speeches that Johnson had made during his "Swing Around the Circle". Butler's remarks on his impeachment resolution were very long, and this frustrated many, even including Stevens. The House quickly rejected Butler's article before approving all nine articles from the committee one by one.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: After the March 2 adoption of articles of impeachment, the House appointed the impeachment managers that would serve as prosecutors in the impeachment trial before the Senate. The following day, in hopes of strengthening the case that they would bring before the Senate, the impeachment managers requested that the House consider additional charges. First, the managers reported the article previously proposed by Butler, which they reintroduced as the tenth article. It was approved. After this, an eleventh article drafted by Thaddeus Stevens and James F. Wilson was approved. The eleventh article accused Johnson of violating his oath of office to "take care that the laws be faithfully executed" by declaring that the 39th United States Congress was unconstitutional because it only represented some of the United States (with unreconstructed states being excluded) and therefore lacked legislative powers or the power to propose amendments to the Constitution of the United States.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Both the first eight articles and the eleventh article adopted in the House related to Johnson violating the Tenure of Office Act by attempting to dismiss Secretary of War Stanton. In addition, several of these articles also accused Johnson of violating other acts, and the eleventh article also accused Johnson of violating his oath of office. The first article specifically alleged that Johnson's February 21, 1868, order to remove Stanton was made with intent to violate the Tenure of Office Act. The second and third articles argued that the appointment of Thomas as secretary of war "ad interim" was similarly done with intent to violate the Tenure of Office Act. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh articles alleged conspiring between Johnson, Thomas, and others to oust Stanton. The sixth article also alleged a conspiracy to forcefully seize the property of the United States Department of War. The eighth article specifically alleged that the appointment of Thomas "ad interim" was with the intent of unlawfully controlling the property of the Department of War. The eleventh article effectively provided a restatement of the first nine articles.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The ninth article focused on an accusation that Johnson had violated the Command of Army Act, a charge reiterated by the eleventh article. The tenth article charged Johnson with attempting, "to bring into disgrace, ridicule, hatred, contempt, and reproach the Congress of the United States", but did not cite a clear violation of the law.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The articles of impeachment were presented to the Senate by John Bingham on March 4, 1868. As prescribed by the U.S. Constitution, chief justice of the United States Salmon P. Chase presided over the trial. The extent of Chase's authority as presiding officer to render unilateral rulings was a frequent point of contention during the rules debate and trial. He initially maintained that deciding certain procedural questions on his own was his prerogative; but after the Senate challenged several of his rulings, he gave up making rulings.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The House appointed seven members to serve as House impeachment managers, equivalent to prosecutors: John Bingham, George S. Boutwell, Benjamin Butler, John A. Logan, Thaddeus Stevens, Thomas Williams, and James F. Wilson. The president's defense team was made up of Benjamin Robbins Curtis, William M. Evarts, William S. Groesbeck, Thomas Amos Rogers Nelson, and Henry Stanbery. On the advice of counsel, the president did not appear at the trial.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The Senate trial opened on March 4, 1868, and was conducted mostly in open session. The Senate chamber galleries were often filled to capacity. Public interest was so great that the Senate issued admission passes for the first time in its history. For each day of the trial, 1,000 color coded tickets were printed, granting admittance for a single day.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The impeachment managers argued that Johnson had explicitly violated the Tenure of Office Act by dismissing Stanton without the consent of the Senate. They contended that U.S. presidents were obligated to carry out and honor the laws passed by the United States Congress, regardless of whether they believed them to be constitutional, arguing that, otherwise, presidents would be allowed to regularly disobey the will of Congress (which they argued, as elected representatives, represented the will of the American people).


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The defense both questioned the criminality of the alleged offenses and raised doubts about Johnson's intent. One of the points made by the defense was that ambiguity existed in the Tenure of Office Act that left open a vagueness as to whether it was actually applicable to Johnson's firing of Stanton. They also argued that the Tenure of Office Act was unconstitutional, and that Jonhson's intent in firing Stanton had been to test the constitutionality of the law before the Supreme Court of the United States (and that Johnson was entitled to do so). They further argued that, even if the law were constitutional, that presidents should not be removed from office for misconstruing their constitutional rights. They further argued that Johnson was acting in interest of the necessity of keeping the Department of War functional by appointing Lorenzo Thomas as an interim officer, and that he had caused no public harm in doing so. They also argued that the Republican Party was using impeachment as a political tool. The defense asserted the view that presidents should not be removed from office by impeachment for political misdeeds, as this is what elections were meant for.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The Senate was composed of 54 members representing 27 states (10 former Confederate states had not yet been readmitted to representation in the Senate) at the time of the trial. At its conclusion, senators voted on three of the articles of impeachment. On each occasion the vote was 35–19, with 35 senators voting "guilty" and 19 "not guilty". As the constitutional threshold for a conviction in an impeachment trial is a two-thirds majority guilty vote, 36 votes in this instance, Johnson was not convicted. He remained in office through the end of his term on March 4, 1869, though without influence on public policy. All nine Senate Democrats voted against conviction. Ten Republicans defied their party and voted against conviction.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: The first vote was taken on May 16 for the eleventh article. Prior to the vote, Samuel Pomeroy told Senator Ross that if Ross voted for acquittal that Ross would become the subject of an investigation for bribery. Afterward, in hopes of persuading at least one senator who voted not guilty to change his vote, the Senate adjourned for 10 days before continuing voting on the other articles. During the hiatus, the House passed a resolution to launch an investigation by the impeachment managers of alleged "improper or corrupt means used to influence the determination of the Senate". Despite the Radical Republican leadership's heavy-handed efforts to change the outcome, when votes were cast on May 26 for the second and third articles, the results were the same as the first. After this, the Senate voted to adjourn the trial "sine die".


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: After the trial, Butler conducted hearings on the widespread reports that Republican senators had been bribed to vote for Johnson's acquittal. In Butler's hearings, and in subsequent inquiries, there was increasing evidence that some acquittal votes were acquired by promises of patronage jobs and cash bribes. Political deals were struck as well. Grimes received assurances that acquittal would not be followed by presidential reprisals; Johnson agreed to enforce the Reconstruction Acts, and to appoint General John Schofield to succeed Stanton. Nonetheless, the investigations never resulted in charges, much less convictions, against anyone.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Moreover, there is evidence that the prosecution attempted to bribe the senators voting for acquittal to switch their votes to conviction. Senator Fessenden was offered the ministership to Great Britain. Prosecutor Butler said, "Tell [Senator Ross] that if he wants money there is a bushel of it here to be had." Butler's investigation also boomeranged when it was discovered that Senator Pomeroy, who voted for conviction, had written a letter to Johnson's postmaster general seeking a $40,000 bribe for Pomeroy's acquittal vote along with three or four others in his caucus. Butler was himself told by Wade that Wade would appoint Butler as secretary of state when Wade assumed the presidency after a Johnson conviction. An opinion that Senator Ross was mercilessly persecuted for his courageous vote to sustain the independence of the presidency as a branch of the federal government is the subject of an entire chapter in President John F. Kennedy's book, "Profiles in Courage." That opinion has been rejected by some scholars, such as Ralph Roske, and endorsed by others, such as Avery Craven.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: None of the Republican senators who voted for acquittal ever again served in an elected office. Although they were under intense pressure to change their votes to conviction during the trial, afterward public opinion rapidly shifted around to their viewpoint. Some senators who voted for conviction, such as John Sherman and even Charles Sumner, later changed their minds.


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: In 1887, the Tenure of Office Act was repealed by Congress, and subsequent rulings by the United States Supreme Court seemed to support Johnson's position that he was entitled to fire Stanton without congressional approval. The Supreme Court's ruling on a similar piece of later legislation in "Myers v. United States" (1926) affirmed the ability of the president to remove a postmaster without congressional approval, and the dictum of the majority opinion stated, "that the Tenure of Office Act of 1867...was invalid".


title: Impeachment of Andrew Johnson

text: Lyman Trumbull of Illinois (one of the ten Republican senators whose refusal to vote for conviction prevented Johnson's removal from office) noted in his speech explaining his vote for acquittal, that, had Johnson been convicted, the main source of the American presidency’s political power (the freedom for a president to disagree with the Congress without consequences) would have been destroyed, as would Constitution's system of checks and balances. Indeed, the impeachment and trial of Andrew Johnson had long-lasting effects on the separation of powers. It established the rule that Congress should not remove the president due to a conflict over the structure of their administration. It also resulted in diminished presidential influence on public policy and overall governing power, fostering a system of governance which future-President Woodrow Wilson referred to in the 1880s as "Congressional Government".


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: In computer networking, the maximum transmission unit (MTU) is the size of the largest protocol data unit (PDU) that can be communicated in a single network layer transaction. The MTU relates to, but is not identical to the maximum frame size that can be transported on the data link layer, e.g. Ethernet frame.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: Larger MTU is associated with reduced overhead. Smaller MTU values can reduce network delay. In many cases, MTU is dependent on underlying network capabilities and must be adjusted manually or automatically so as to not exceed these capabilities. MTU parameters may appear in association with a communications interface or standard. Some systems may decide MTU at connect time, e.g. using Path MTU Discovery.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: MTUs apply to communications protocols and network layers. The MTU is specified in terms of bytes or octets of the largest PDU that the layer can pass onwards. MTU parameters usually appear in association with a communications interface (NIC, serial port, etc.). Standards (Ethernet, for example) can fix the size of an MTU; or systems (such as point-to-point serial links) may decide MTU at connect time.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: Underlying data link and physical layers usually add overhead to the network layer data to be transported, so for a given maximum frame size of a medium, one needs to subtract the amount of overhead to calculate that medium's MTU. For example, with Ethernet, the maximum frame size is 1518 bytes, 18 bytes of which are overhead (header and frame check sequence), resulting in an MTU of 1500 bytes.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: A larger MTU brings greater efficiency because each network packet carries more user data while protocol overheads, such as headers or underlying per-packet delays, remain fixed; the resulting higher efficiency means an improvement in bulk protocol throughput. A larger MTU also requires processing of fewer packets for the same amount of data. In some systems, per-packet-processing can be a critical performance limitation.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: However, this gain is not without a downside. Large packets occupy a slow link for more time than a smaller packet, causing greater delays to subsequent packets, and increasing network delay and delay variation. For example, a 1500-byte packet, the largest allowed by Ethernet at the network layer, ties up a 14.4k modem for about one second.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: Large packets are also problematic in the presence of communications errors. If no forward error correction is used, corruption of a single bit in a packet requires that the entire packet be retransmitted, which can be costly. At a given bit error rate, larger packets are more susceptible to corruption. Their greater payload makes retransmissions of larger packets take longer. Despite the negative effects on retransmission duration, large packets can still have a net positive effect on end-to-end TCP performance.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: The Internet protocol suite was designed to work over many different networking technologies, each of which may use packets of different sizes. While a host will know the MTU of its own interface and possibly that of its peers (from initial handshakes), it will not initially know the lowest MTU in a chain of links to other peers. Another potential problem is that higher-level protocols may create packets larger than even the local link supports.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: IPv4 allows fragmentation which divides the datagram into pieces, each small enough to accommodate a specified MTU limitation. This fragmentation process takes place at the internet layer. The fragmented packets are marked so that the IP layer of the destination host knows it should reassemble the packets into the original datagram.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: All fragments of a packet must arrive for the packet to be considered received. If the network drops any fragment, the entire packet is lost.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: When the number of packets that must be fragmented or the number of fragments is great, fragmentation can cause unreasonable or unnecessary overhead. For example, various tunneling situations may exceed the MTU by very little as they add just a header's worth of data. The addition is small, but each packet now has to be sent in two fragments, the second of which carries very little payload. The same amount of payload is being moved, but every intermediate router has to forward twice as many packets.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: The Internet Protocol requires that hosts must be able to process IP datagrams of at least 576 bytes (for IPv4) or 1280 bytes (for IPv6). However, this does not preclude link layers with an MTU smaller than this minimum MTU from conveying IP data. For example, according to IPv6's specification, if a particular link layer cannot deliver an IP datagram of 1280 bytes in a single frame, then the link layer must provide its own fragmentation and reassembly mechanism, separate from the IP fragmentation mechanism, to ensure that a 1280-byte IP datagram can be delivered, intact, to the IP layer.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: In the context of Internet Protocol, MTU refers to the maximum size of an IP packet that can be transmitted without fragmentation over a given medium. The size of an IP packet includes IP headers but excludes headers from the link layer. In the case of an Ethernet frame this adds an overhead of 18 bytes, or 22 bytes with an IEEE 802.1Q tag for VLAN tagging or class of service.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: The MTU should not be confused with the minimum datagram size that all hosts must be prepared to accept. This is 576 bytes for IPv4 and of 1280 bytes for IPv6.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: The IP MTU and Ethernet maximum frame size are configured separately. In Ethernet switch configuration, MTU may refer to Ethernet maximum frame size. In Ethernet-based routers, MTU normally refers to the IP MTU. If jumbo frames are allowed in a network, the IP MTU should also be adjusted upwards to take advantage of this.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: Since the IP packet is carried by an Ethernet frame, the Ethernet frame has to be larger than the IP packet. With the normal untagged Ethernet frame overhead of 18 bytes, the Ethernet maximum frame size is 1518 bytes. If a 1500 byte IP packet is to be carried over a tagged Ethernet connection, the Ethernet frame maximum size needs to be 1522 due to the larger size of an 802.1Q tagged frame. 802.3ac increases the standard Ethernet maximum frame size to accommodate this.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: The Internet Protocol defines the "path MTU" of an Internet transmission path as the smallest MTU supported by any of the hops on the path between a source and destination. Put another way, the path MTU is the largest packet size that can traverse this path without suffering fragmentation.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: "Path MTU Discovery" is a technique for determining the path MTU between two IP hosts, defined for both IPv4 and IPv6. It works by sending packets with the DF (don't fragment) option in the IP header set. Any device along the path whose MTU is smaller than the packet will drop such packets and send back an ICMP Destination Unreachable (Datagram Too Big) message which indicates its MTU. This information allows the source host to reduce its assumed path MTU appropriately. The process repeats until the MTU becomes small enough to traverse the entire path without fragmentation.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: Standard Ethernet supports an MTU of 1500 bytes and Ethernet implementation supporting jumbo frames, allow for an MTU up to 9000 bytes. However, border protocols like PPPoE will reduce this. Path MTU Discovery exposes the difference between the MTU seen by Ethernet end-nodes and the Path MTU.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: Unfortunately, increasing numbers of networks drop ICMP traffic (for example, to prevent denial-of-service attacks), which prevents path MTU discovery from working. "Packetization Layer Path MTU Discovery" is a Path MTU Discovery technique which responds more robustly to ICMP filtering. In an IP network, the path from the source address to the destination address may change in response to various events (load-balancing, congestion, outages, etc.) and this could result in the path MTU changing (sometimes repeatedly) during a transmission, which may introduce further packet drops before the host finds a new reliable MTU.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: A failure of Path MTU Discovery carries the possible result of making some sites behind badly configured firewalls unreachable. A connection with mismatched MTU may work for low-volume data but fail as soon as a host sends a large block of data. For example, with Internet Relay Chat a connecting client might see the initial messages up to and including the initial ping (sent by the server as an anti-spoofing measure), but get no response after that. This is because the large set of welcome messages sent at that point are packets that exceed the path MTU. One can possibly work around this, depending on which part of the network one controls; for example one can change the MSS (maximum segment size) in the initial packet that sets up the TCP connection at one's firewall.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: MTU is sometimes used to describe the maximum PDU sizes in communication layers other than the network layer.


title: Maximum transmission unit

text: The transmission of a packet on a physical network segment that is larger than the segment's MTU is known as jabber. This is almost always caused by faulty devices. Network switches and some repeater hubs have a built-in capability to detect when a device is jabbering.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: A feedforward neural network (FNN) is an artificial neural network wherein connections between the nodes do "not" form a cycle. As such, it is different from its descendant: recurrent neural networks.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: The feedforward neural network was the first and simplest type of artificial neural network devised. In this network, the information moves in only one direction—forward—from the input nodes, through the hidden nodes (if any) and to the output nodes. There are no cycles or loops in the network.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: The simplest kind of neural network is a "single-layer perceptron" network, which consists of a single layer of output nodes; the inputs are fed directly to the outputs via a series of weights. The sum of the products of the weights and the inputs is calculated in each node, and if the value is above some threshold (typically 0) the neuron fires and takes the activated value (typically 1); otherwise it takes the deactivated value (typically -1). Neurons with this kind of activation function are also called "artificial neurons" or "linear threshold units". In the literature the term "perceptron" often refers to networks consisting of just one of these units. A similar neuron was described by Warren McCulloch and Walter Pitts in the 1940s.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: A perceptron can be created using any values for the activated and deactivated states as long as the threshold value lies between the two.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: Perceptrons can be trained by a simple learning algorithm that is usually called the "delta rule". It calculates the errors between calculated output and sample output data, and uses this to create an adjustment to the weights, thus implementing a form of gradient descent.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: Single-layer perceptrons are only capable of learning linearly separable patterns; in 1969 in a famous monograph titled "Perceptrons", Marvin Minsky and Seymour Papert showed that it was impossible for a single-layer perceptron network to learn an XOR function (nonetheless, it was known that multi-layer perceptrons are capable of producing any possible boolean function).


title: Feedforward neural network

text: Although a single threshold unit is quite limited in its computational power, it has been shown that networks of parallel threshold units can approximate any continuous function from a compact interval of the real numbers into the interval [-1,1]. This result can be found in Peter Auer, Harald Burgsteiner and Wolfgang Maass "A learning rule for very simple universal approximators consisting of a single layer of perceptrons".


title: Feedforward neural network

text: A single-layer neural network can compute a continuous output instead of a step function. A common choice is the so-called logistic function:


title: Feedforward neural network

text: With this choice, the single-layer network is identical to the logistic regression model, widely used in statistical modeling. The logistic function is one of the family of functions called sigmoid functions because their S-shaped graphs resemble the final-letter lower case of the Greek letter Sigma. It has a continuous derivative, which allows it to be used in backpropagation. This function is also preferred because its derivative is easily calculated:


title: Feedforward neural network

text: If single-layer neural network activation function is modulo 1, then this network can solve XOR problem with a single neuron.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: This class of networks consists of multiple layers of computational units, usually interconnected in a feed-forward way. Each neuron in one layer has directed connections to the neurons of the subsequent layer. In many applications the units of these networks apply a "sigmoid function" as an activation function. However sigmoidal activation functions have very small derivative values outside a small range and do not work well in deep neural networks due to the vanishing gradient problem.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: The "universal approximation theorem" for neural networks states that every continuous function that maps intervals of real numbers to some output interval of real numbers can be approximated arbitrarily closely by a multi-layer perceptron with just one hidden layer. This result holds for a wide range of activation functions, e.g. for the sigmoidal functions.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: Multi-layer networks use a variety of learning techniques, the most popular being "back-propagation". Here, the output values are compared with the correct answer to compute the value of some predefined error-function. By various techniques, the error is then fed back through the network. Using this information, the algorithm adjusts the weights of each connection in order to reduce the value of the error function by some small amount. After repeating this process for a sufficiently large number of training cycles, the network will usually converge to some state where the error of the calculations is small. In this case, one would say that the network has "learned" a certain target function. To adjust weights properly, one applies a general method for non-linear optimization that is called gradient descent. For this, the network calculates the derivative of the error function with respect to the network weights, and changes the weights such that the error decreases (thus going downhill on the surface of the error function). For this reason, back-propagation can only be applied on networks with differentiable activation functions.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: In general, the problem of teaching a network to perform well, even on samples that were not used as training samples, is a quite subtle issue that requires additional techniques. This is especially important for cases where only very limited numbers of training samples are available. The danger is that the network overfits the training data and fails to capture the true statistical process generating the data. Computational learning theory is concerned with training classifiers on a limited amount of data. In the context of neural networks a simple heuristic, called early stopping, often ensures that the network will generalize well to examples not in the training set.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: Other typical problems of the back-propagation algorithm are the speed of convergence and the possibility of ending up in a local minimum of the error function. Today, there are practical methods that make back-propagation in multi-layer perceptrons the tool of choice for many machine learning tasks.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: One also can use a series of independent neural networks moderated by some intermediary, a similar behavior that happens in brain. These neurons can perform separably and handle a large task, and the results can be finally combined.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: More generally, any directed acyclic graph may be used for a feedforward network, with some nodes (with no parents) designated as inputs, and some nodes (with no children) designated as outputs. These can be viewed as multilayer networks where some edges skip layers, either counting layers backwards from the outputs or forwards from the inputs. Various activation functions can be used, and there can be relations between weights, as in convolutional neural networks.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: Examples of other feedforward networks include radial basis function networks, which use a different activation function.


title: Feedforward neural network

text: Sometimes "multi-layer perceptron" is used loosely to refer to any feedforward neural network, while in other cases it is restricted to specific ones (e.g., with specific activation functions, or with fully connected layers, or trained by the perceptron algorithm).


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Gilberto Aparecido da Silva (; born 7 October 1976) is a Brazilian former professional footballer who played as a defensive midfielder most notably for English Premier League club Arsenal, Super League club Panathinaikos F.C., Clube Atlético Mineiro and the Brazil national team.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Born and raised in poverty in the Brazilian municipality of Lagoa da Prata, Gilberto joined the youth academy at local club América Mineiro, where he made his senior debut as a centre-back in 1998. After starring the following season, where he helped gain the club promotion into the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, he joined city rivals Atlético Mineiro. During his time at Atlético, Gilberto transitioned into a defensive midfielder under head coach Carlos Alberto Parreira, and flourished in his new role, gaining a call-up to the Brazilian national team for the 2002 FIFA World Cup, where he featured prominently as his country won the tournament.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: As a result of his World Cup performances, Gilberto garnered a move to the Premier League to sign for Arsenal that summer for a fee of £4.5 million. During his six years at Arsenal, Gilberto gained a reputation as one of the best defensive midfielders in the world, and starred in a midfield duo alongside Patrick Vieira. He would feature as a member of the "Invincibles", where he captured his first top-flight league title as his team went undefeated the whole season, as well as winning two FA Cups. Gilberto also holds distinct records at Arsenal, recording their first goal at the Emirates Stadium, as well as their fastest ever goal, scoring in 21 seconds from kickoff against PSV Eindhoven in the 2002–03 UEFA Champions League. After departing Arsenal, Gilberto relocated to Greece, playing for Panathinaikos, where he won a domestic double. He then returned to Brazil in 2011, signing for Grêmio, where he remained for two years, before returning to Atlético to win the 2013 Copa Libertadores prior to retiring.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Gilberto featured at senior level for much of his international career, representing Brazil over a period of 9 years. He enjoyed a period of sustained success with his country, as he featured prominently in their victorious campaign at the 2002 FIFA World Cup, as well as being a core component as the team also won the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup, while also featuring as captain in their Copa América win in 2007. After retaining the Confederations Cup in 2009, Gilberto expressed his desire to prolong his club career, which coincided with limited playing time for Brazil. He retired from international football after the 2010 FIFA World Cup, having made 93 appearances for Brazil.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: As a child, Gilberto lived in the city of Lagoa da Prata with his father (a blacksmith), his mother (a housewife) and three sisters. His family lived in a small house which his father built, in the district of Usina Luciânia. Despite financial hardship, causing his sisters and him to share a single room, he had a relatively carefree childhood: he describes it as "[a time when] I had no responsibility in my life, I played football on the street with cousins and friends, and we never had any contact with drugs or violence". In 1988 (aged 12), he got the chance to break out of poverty by playing football, joining América Mineiro as a youth player. It was during these years at América Mineiro that Gilberto was taught defensive discipline by playing as a central defender. When not playing football, Gilberto was taught furniture-making skills by his father, which he would come to use in the following years. In 1991, Gilberto's father retired leaving the 16-year-old to provide financially for his whole family, a task made more difficult by his mother's ill-health.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Because of the low wage at América Mineiro, he was forced to quit football to take various jobs as a labourer, a carpenter, and a worker in a sweet factory. It looked as if this would be the end of his childhood dream. As a factory-worker Gilberto earned the equivalent of about £50 a month by 2002 rates.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: In 1997, Gilberto's friends convinced him to give football another try, which led to him re-signing for América Mineiro in 1997, this time as a full-time professional. Aged 22, Gilberto played as a central defender for the first team. During his first season for América Mineiro he was regarded as a key player by the club, despite being criticised by some fans for inconsistency. He helped them win the Série B division, and consequently gain promotion to Série A.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: During Gilberto's third season at América Mineiro, with the team back to Série B after relegation in Série A in 1999, he scored three goals, helping the club reach the second stage where they were eliminated by Vila Nova in the quarterfinals. In 2000, aged 24, he joined rival club Atlético Mineiro. In his first season for the club, he fractured his right tibia and, as a result, missed a number of games. In his second season, he was moved by the manager Carlos Alberto Parreira from central defence to a defensive midfield role where he flourished. He scored three goals in the 2001 season and became a revelation in Brazilian club football.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Gilberto's performance in the 2002 FIFA World Cup caught the attention of many coaches. Gilberto expressed a desire to move to England, saying, "It would be fantastic to play against the likes of David Beckham again." As a result, FA Premier League clubs Aston Villa and Arsenal led the chase to sign him. In August, while still under contract to Atlético Mineiro, Gilberto joined Arsenal on their pre-season tour of Austria; while he had not yet signed for Arsenal the deal looked set to go ahead. However, complications arose when a transfer embargo was placed on Atlético Mineiro due to unpaid wages to some players at the club, including Gilberto. There was also an issue of obtaining a UK work permit for Gilberto. Despite the complications, Gilberto ended a summer of speculation and joined Arsenal on 7 August 2002 for a fee of £4.5 million. Upon signing Gilberto, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger said, "What I like was the fact that he kept things simple. He can play all across the midfield but the holding role just in front of the defence is what he does best."


title: Gilberto Silva

text: When Gilberto moved to England and began training with Arsenal, he bought a house in St Albans, South Hertfordshire. Having been used to life in small Brazilian towns, he initially struggled to adapt to the new way of life in London. However, on the pitch, he settled in very quickly. On 11 August 2002 he made his Arsenal debut as a substitute against Liverpool in the second half of the FA Community Shield game in which he scored the winning goal. As the 2002–03 FA Premier League season began, Gilberto faced stiff competition for a place in midfield from compatriot Edu. After two substitute appearances, Gilberto finally broke into the starting eleven on 27 August, helping Arsenal to a 5–2 win against West Bromwich Albion. Gilberto's good form continued as he set a new record for the fastest goal scored in the UEFA Champions League, scoring after 20.07 seconds against PSV on 25 September 2002.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: 2003–04 was an even better season for Gilberto, as he was instrumental in helping Arsenal win the Premier League title whilst going the entire season unbeaten. He played in 32 of Arsenal's 38 unbeaten Premier League games during the season. His next season started equally impressively, as he scored the first goal in Arsenal's 3–1 Community Shield win over Manchester United at the Millennium Stadium. During the opening games of the season, he started to experience severe pain in his back, and after a match at Bolton Wanderers on 27 September 2004, a scan revealed he had fractured his back. At first it was reported that he would be out of action for a month. Later reports suggested the injury could be season-threatening.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Gilberto's doctor ordered him to wear a back brace for three months to aid the healing of the fractured bone. Gilberto returned to his native Brazil for the duration of his rehabilitation. During his time there, he doubted whether he would ever be able to play football again, due to speculation that his injury could threaten his career. Despite his concerns, his long rehabilitation time paid off as he made a full recovery. He made his footballing comeback in Arsenal's 4–1 victory over Norwich City on 22 April 2005. During the whole 2004–05 season, Gilberto was injured for 7 months and played only 17 games. His absence, combined with Arsenal's slump in form at the time, led to much discussion regarding the importance of Gilberto to the Arsenal team; some suggesting that Arsenal struggled without him.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: In June 2005, football agent Jacques Lichtenstein took Atlético Mineiro to court over Gilberto's transfer in 2002. Lichtenstein's lawyer argued that he and his informal partner, Ronny Rosenthal, never received an allegedly agreed 10% commission from Gilberto's £4.5 million transfer to Arsenal from Atlético Mineiro in July 2002. Arsène Wenger and Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein both gave evidence in court, saying that Arsenal dealt directly with Atlético Mineiro and that no agent was involved in the deal. The case was conducted before The Hon. Mr Justice Jack, who on 29 June ruled against Lichtenstein, and ordered the claimants pay Atletico Minéiro £94,000 in legal costs. A year later, the case could have caused problems for Arsenal, when former player Ashley Cole criticised the club for "hypocrisy and double standards" in the way they approached Gilberto.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: With legal matters subsided, the 2005–06 season began. Following midfielder and team captain Patrick Vieira's departure from Arsenal, Gilberto became a senior member of the Arsenal team. Shortly into the season, in September 2005, his desire to see his career out with the club led to Gilberto extending his Arsenal contract to June 2009. A month later this loyalty was repaid when, on 18 October 2005, Gilberto made his first appearance for Arsenal as captain, against Sparta Prague. Although Gilberto had a period of bad form during the winter months of the season, his good defensive performances during the latter stages of the UEFA Champions League (in particular, games against Real Madrid, Juventus and Villarreal) gained him praise. On 17 May 2006 Gilberto played for Arsenal in the UEFA Champions League Final against FC Barcelona, which Arsenal lost 2–1.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Following the departure of defender Sol Campbell and retirement of striker Dennis Bergkamp in the summer of 2006, Gilberto was announced as Arsenal's vice-captain for the 2006–07 season. He began the season well, as he scored the first ever goal at the Dutch DSB Stadion in a pre-season friendly match. He then scored Arsenal's first ever goal in a competitive match at the Emirates Stadium in a 1–1 draw with Aston Villa. His good form continued for Arsenal as he scored several league goals, garnering praise for his performances as stand-in captain while Thierry Henry was injured. Gilberto and his agent (Paulo Villana) also reiterated the player's desire to honour his contract with the Gunners. Meanwhile, Gilberto's good form carried through to the second half of the season. Even though Arsenal only managed to finish fourth in the league, he ended the season as Arsenal's second highest scorer with 10 Premier League goals. The explanation for his unusually high tally is the fact that Henry suffered two lengthy injury spells, in which Gilberto stepped up as captain to take penalties. Gilberto's goal scoring record combined with his own good form in midfield and his leadership of Wenger's youthful squad led some Arsenal fans and football pundits to label Gilberto as Arsenal's best player of the season, and one of the best in the Premier League.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: The buildup of the 2007–08 season saw Arsenal captain Thierry Henry leave the club to join Barcelona. This coupled with the fact that Gilberto was Arsenal's vice-captain during the 2006–07 season led many people to assume that Gilberto would take over Henry's role. However, to the surprise of Gilberto, William Gallas was given the captain's armband instead. In August, after returning to Arsenal's pre-season training late due to his involvement in the Copa América tournament (and thus missing the start of the season), Gilberto then lost his place in the first team to young midfielder Mathieu Flamini. This reignited speculation linking Gilberto to Italy due to rumours that he was unhappy being on the bench at Arsenal. However, reports that he was being snubbed at the club were dismissed by Wenger, who insisted that Gilberto would remain at Arsenal to fight for his place. Despite this, in October 2007, rumours in the press re-emerged that Gilberto was angry at Wenger for being asked to play in defence in a League Cup game against Sheffield United, and had resultantly refused to play. Gilberto ended up playing the game in midfield though, with he and Wenger both denying rumours of a rift with each other. Gilberto subsequently commented that while he was not happy being a substitute, he would remain professional and fight for his place at the club. Also in October, Gilberto ceded the Brazilian captaincy to Lúcio upon his compatriot's return from injury.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Through the winter months of the 2007–08 season, Gilberto started a limited number of games for the "Gunners", though he kept his place in the Brazil team, starting several games for "A Seleção". After becoming more and more frustrated with not playing regularly, Gilberto admitted in February 2008 that he had been made to feel "totally useless" by Wenger. Despite this, he declined to make a decision on his future; something which prompted Wenger to promise talks with Gilberto. Amidst Gilberto's frustration at Arsenal, he targeted playing in Brazil's Olympic team in Beijing during August 2008; a competition which he had never played in. Off the pitch, Gilberto was reported to have passed his UK Citizenship test, and that he would subsequently apply for a British passport. April saw Gilberto's season take a turn for the better; making 5 starts – a substantial portion of his seasonal total of 12 – even managing to score a goal. The goal came against Reading on 19 April, and despite its deflective nature leading to some classing it as a possible own goal, the Premier League's Dubious Goals Committee eventually credited the goal to Gilberto. However, Gilberto's return to favour did not stop Arsenal's 2007–08 season ending trophyless. The club subsequently faced the possibility of several players leaving; among those rumoured to leave was Flamini, the player who had kept Gilberto out of the first team. The Frenchman ended up moving to A.C. Milan on 6 May, and a subsequent gap was left in the Arsenal midfield. Gilberto became less likely to leave the club during Summer 2008 as a result, and Wenger remarked that he wanted to keep Gilberto; Gilberto saying he wanted to stay and possibly even renew his contract at Arsenal. Gilberto finished the 2007–08 season with 36 appearances for Arsenal, albeit only 12 of these being Premier League starts.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Following Brazil's summer international games, he was seriously linked with a move to Greek club Panathinaikos. The speculation concluded when Gilberto agreed terms with the Athenian side on 17 July 2008, for an undisclosed fee. During his first season at the club, Gilberto helped the side reach the UEFA Champions League Round of 16. He managed to win both the 2009–10 Greek Championship and Cup with Panathinaikos, being the starting holding midfielder and producing numerous solid displays. In Gilberto's final home game for Panathinaikos on 23 May 2011, he scored the winning goal in a 1–0 victory over PAOK, for the Greek UEFA Champions League playoffs. Two days later, he played his final game for the team, winning 2–0 against AEK Athens.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: On 23 May 2011, Gilberto ended his 9-year career in Europe by signing an 18-month deal with Grêmio, of Porto Alegre.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: In the past, Gilberto hinted that he may one day return to Brazil to play for Atlético Mineiro. After his football career finishes, he has said that he would like to, "Live in a small farm and ride a horse and have all of my family next to me." On 10 November 2012, it was confirmed that Gilberto's wish would be granted, as he signed a pre-contract with "Galo".


title: Gilberto Silva

text: On 9 December 2012, Gilberto was welcomed at Aeroporto dos Confins by fans of Atlético Mineiro, returning to the Belo Horizonte side after 11 years away. Gilberto spoke of winning the 2013 Copa Libertadores title upon his return. Gilberto achieved this wish on 24 July 2013, with a final victory over Club Olimpia of Paraguay.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: On 11 December 2015, after two years without a club, he officially announced his retirement as a footballer, intending to pursue a career as an international consultant for clubs and players.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: In October 2001, his good performances from that year earned Gilberto a call-up to the Brazilian national team (""A Seleção"") by Luiz Felipe Scolari for the 2002 World Cup qualification games. He made his international debut against Chile on 7 October, coming on as a substitute. On 7 November, he made his debut in the starting line-up of the national team against Bolivia. His international career continued to flourish in early 2002: he scored twice against Bolivia and once against Iceland. In 2002, he was a surprise inclusion in the Brazil squad for the 2002 FIFA World Cup in South Korea and Japan. He was expected to play a small part in the tournament. However, defensive midfielder and Brazilian team captain Emerson was injured in training just before the first World Cup game. In light of the setback, coach Scolari called upon Gilberto to fill the gap which Emerson left. Gilberto ended up playing in every minute of every match of the tournament, which Brazil went on to win. In the words of Veja magazine, Gilberto "carried the piano for Ronaldo and Rivaldo to play their tunes on". He was not without attacking use either, setting up Ronaldo's semi-final goal to put Brazil through to the final. It was Gilberto's performance in this tournament which led to him being classed as one of the top defensive midfielders in the world.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: On 22 June 2005, Gilberto played in Brazil's 2–2 draw against Japan, in his only game of the 2005 FIFA Confederations Cup. His absence as a first team regular could be explained by his lack of games, and thus match fitness, for Arsenal during the season leading up to the tournament. Gilberto's appearance in the tournament gained him a winners medal, as Brazil went on to win the competition. On the back of his good Champions League form, Gilberto was selected for the Brazil national football team for the 2006 FIFA World Cup. Gilberto was substituted on in two games, and started twice due to another injury to Emerson. Brazil were beaten 1–0 by France in the quarter final. Following Brazil's World Cup disappointment, midfielder Juninho called for the older members of the Brazil squad (including Gilberto) to retire from international football. On the back of Gilberto's childhood idol Dunga being appointed Brazil coach, Gilberto did not take Juninho's advice, and subsequently continued his international career.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: On 1 June 2007, Gilberto captained Brazil against England at the first senior international match at the new Wembley Stadium. Having had a seemingly good headed goal disallowed after 20 minutes, he set up Brazil's only goal as the game ended 1–1. During the summer of 2007 Gilberto played in the Copa América tournament, in which he was chosen to captain Brazil in the absence of Lúcio. They went on to beat Argentina 3–0 in the final, though he missed the final game through suspension. Following the end of the 2007–08 Premier League season, Gilberto was called up to the Brazil national team for 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers during the summer as well as a tour of the United States.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Gilberto is often called "the invisible wall" in Brazil. His play often goes unnoticed as he positions himself between the two centre backs and the rest of midfield, breaking up opposition attacks before they gather momentum. In this role, he is a part of the defensive unit for both club and country. When playing, he is more passive than most players in defence. Rather than tackle an opponent, he is more likely to shadow him, thus pushing him back. As a result, he has an unusually clean record for a defensive midfielder: he has twice gone 45 games or more without receiving a single booking during his Arsenal career.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Gilberto is good at helping to defend against opponents who play a long ball game because he often man marks the opposition's attacking target-man. This cuts off the opposition's supply to the strikers, and thus forces the long-ball team to play through the midfield, something to which long-ball teams are not particularly suited.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: According to ProZone (a data analysis system used by football managers) figures cited by "The Sunday Times" in January 2007, Gilberto was, together with Paul Scholes of Manchester United and Frank Lampard of Chelsea, one of the few midfielders in England to attain "the elite Champions League level" of performance.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Gilberto is a patron of The Street League, a UK based charity which organises football matches for homeless people, refugees and asylum seekers. In June 2003, he travelled to Brazil on tour with 17 Street League players. The tour included a visit to his home town Lagoa da Prata and games against local shanty town teams at the Maracanã stadium.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: In May 2016, Gilberto joined Panathinaikos as technical director. He left in December, after seven months in the role.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: Gilberto is a keen musician. In his spare time, he plays the mandolin and the guitar. When he first moved to England he took up mandolin lessons and played publicly at his local pub in St Albans. He later started learning the guitar instead.


title: Gilberto Silva

text: He has a giant anteater named after him at London Zoo. Gilberto is an adoptee of the animal, which he received from a London Zoo competition winner. The footballer described the South American animal as "my slightly more hairy brother!"


title: Corendon Airlines

text: Corendon Airlines (incorporated as "Turistik Hava Taşımacılık A.Ş.") is a Turkish leisure airline headquartered in Antalya and based at Antalya Airport.


title: Corendon Airlines

text: Corendon Airlines, founded in 2004 with flight operations starting in April 2005, is an international airline transporting approximately 6 million travelers each year. The Dutch sister company Corendon Dutch Airlines was founded in 2011 and the Maltese sister company Corendon Airlines Europe was founded in 2017.


title: Corendon Airlines

text: Corendon Airlines operates flights from 145 airports in more than 40 countries; majorly Germany, The Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria, Poland, Israel, Egypt, Spain, Italy, France, Iran, Portugal, the Czech Republic, North Macedonia, Romania, and Scandinavian countries with full charter, split charter, sub charter, and wet lease business models.


title: Corendon Airlines

text: Corendon Airlines uses many airports to base its aircraft in many countries. Besides Antalya, Izmir and Kayseri in Turkey, the airline bases aircraft in Hannover, Cologne, Munster and Nurnberg in Germany. In 2021, Corendon Airlines added three new European bases: Dusseldorf in Germany, London in the United Kingdom and Basel in Switzerland.


title: Corendon Airlines

text: On 2 October 2010 a Boeing 737-400 of Corendon Airlines overran runway 22 at Amsterdam Schiphol Airport and ended up with its nose gear in the mud after a flight from Dalaman.


title: Corendon Airlines

text: On 14 October 2012 Corendon Airlines Flight 733, a Boeing 737-800 operating between Antalya and Trondheim suffered a hull loss after the plane caught fire during pushback from the gate. 27 passengers were injured during the evacuation. The cause was determined to be a short circuit in the captain's cockpit panel near an oxygen tank.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The Scandinavian Peninsula (; (Bokmål) or ; ) is a peninsula located in Northern Europe, which roughly comprises the mainlands of Sweden, Norway and the northwestern area of Finland.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The name of the peninsula is derived from the term Scandinavia, the cultural region of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. That cultural name is in turn derived from the name of Scania, the region at the southern extremity of the peninsula which was for centuries a part of Denmark, which is the ancestral home of the Danes, and is now part of Sweden.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The Scandinavian Peninsula is the largest of the peninsulas of Europe, with a greater area than the Balkan, Iberian and Italian peninsulas. During the Ice Ages, the sea level of the Atlantic Ocean dropped so much that the Baltic Sea, the Gulf of Bothnia and the Gulf of Finland disappeared, and the countries now surrounding them, including Germany, Poland, the other Baltic countries and Scandinavia, were directly joined by land.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The largest peninsula in Europe, the Scandinavian Peninsula is approximately long with a width varying approximately from . The Scandinavian mountain range generally defines the border between Norway and Sweden. The peninsula's borders are:


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: Its highest elevation was Glittertinden in Norway at above sea level, but since the glacier at its summit partially melted, the highest elevation is at at Galdhøpiggen, also in Norway. These mountains also have the largest glacier on the mainland of Europe, Jostedalsbreen.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: About one quarter of the Scandinavian Peninsula lies north of the Arctic Circle, its northernmost point being at Cape Nordkyn, Norway.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The climate across Scandinavia varies from tundra (Köppen: ET) and subarctic (Dfc) in the north, with cool marine west coast climate (Cfc) in northwestern coastal areas reaching just north of Lofoten, to humid continental (Dfb) in the central portion and marine west coast (Cfb) in the south and southwest.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The region is rich in timber, iron and copper with the best farmland in southern Sweden. Large petroleum and natural-gas deposits have been found off Norway's coast in the North Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: Much of the population of the Scandinavian Peninsula is naturally concentrated in its southern part, which is also its agricultural region. The largest cities of the peninsula are Stockholm, Sweden; Oslo, Norway; Gothenburg, Sweden; Malmö, Sweden and Bergen, Norway, in that order.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The Scandinavian Peninsula occupies part of the Baltic Shield, a stable and large crust segment formed of very old, crystalline metamorphic rocks. Most of the soil covering this substrate was scraped by glaciers during the Ice Ages of antiquity, As a consequence of this scouring, the elevation of the land and the cool-to-cold climate, a relatively small percentage of its land is arable.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The glaciation during the Ice Ages also deepened many of the river valleys, which were invaded by the sea when the ice melted, creating the noteworthy fjords of Norway. In the southern part of the peninsula, the glaciers deposited vast numbers of terminal moraines, configuring a very chaotic landscape. These terminal moraines covered all of what is now Denmark.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: Although the Baltic Shield is mostly geologically stable and hence resistant to the influences of other neighbouring tectonic formations, the weight of nearly four kilometres of ice during the Ice Ages caused all of the Scandinavian terrain to sink. When the ice sheet disappeared, the shield rose again, a tendency that continues to this day at a rate of about one metre per century. Conversely, the southern part has tended to sink to compensate, causing flooding of the Low Countries and Denmark.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The crystalline substrate of the land and absence of soil in many places have exposed mineral deposits of metal ores, such as those of iron, copper, nickel, zinc, silver and gold. The very most valuable of these have been the deposits of iron ore in northwestern Sweden. In the 19th century these deposits prompted the building of a railway from northwestern Sweden to the Norwegian seaport of Narvik so that the iron ore could be exported by ship to places like southern Sweden, Germany, Great Britain and Belgium for smelting into iron and steel. This railway is in a region of Norway and Sweden that otherwise does not have any railways because of the very rugged terrain, mountains and fjords of that part of Scandinavia.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The first recorded human presence in the southern area of the peninsula and Denmark dates from 12,000 years ago. As the ice sheets from the glaciation retreated, the climate allowed a tundra biome that attracted reindeer hunters. The climate warmed up gradually, favouring the growth of evergreen trees first and then deciduous forest which brought animals like aurochs. Groups of hunter-fisher-gatherers started to inhabit the area from the Mesolithic (8200 BC), up to the advent of agriculture in the Neolithic (3200 BC).


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The northern and central part of the peninsula is partially inhabited by the Sami, often referred to as "Lapps" or "Laplanders," who began to arrive several thousand years after the Scandinavian Peninsula had already been inhabited in the south. In the earliest recorded periods they occupied the arctic and subarctic regions as well as the central part of the peninsula as far south as Dalarna, Sweden. They speak the Sami language, a non-Indo-European language of the Uralic family which is related to Finnish and Estonian. The first inhabitants of the peninsula were the Norwegians on the west coast of Norway, the Danes in what is now southern and western Sweden and southeastern Norway, the Svear in the region around Mälaren as well as a large portion of the present day eastern seacoast of Sweden and the Geats in Västergötland and Östergötland. These peoples spoke closely related dialects of an Indo-European language, Old Norse. Although political boundaries have shifted, descendants of these peoples still are the dominant populations in the peninsula in the early 21st century.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: Although the Nordic countries look back on more than 1,000 years of history as distinct political entities, the international boundaries came late and emerged gradually. It was not until the middle of the 17th century that Sweden had a secure outlet on the Kattegat and control of the south Baltic coast. The Swedish and Norwegian boundaries were finally agreed and marked out in 1751. The Finnish-Norwegian border on the peninsula was established after extensive negotiation in 1809, and the common Norwegian-Russian districts were not partitioned until 1826. Even then the borders were still fluid, with Finland gaining access to the Barents Sea in 1920, but ceding this territory to the Soviet Union in 1944.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: Denmark, Sweden and the Russian Empire dominated the political relationships on the Scandinavian Peninsula for centuries, with Iceland, Finland and Norway only gaining their full independence during the 20th century. The Kingdom of Norway long held in personal union by Denmark fell to Sweden after the Napoleonic Wars and only attained full independence in 1905. Having been an autonomous grand duchy within the Russian Empire since 1809, Finland declared independence during the Soviet revolution of Russia in 1917. Iceland declared its independence from Denmark in 1944, while Denmark was under the occupation of Nazi Germany. Iceland was encouraged to do this by the British and American armed forces that were defending Iceland from Nazi invasion.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: The Wehrmacht invaded Norway in 1940 and the German Army occupied all of Norway until May 1945. With the acquiescence of the Kingdom of Sweden, German troops moved from northern Norway, across northern Sweden, into Finland, which had become an ally of Nazi Germany. Then, in the spring of 1941, the German Army and the Finnish Army invaded the Soviet Union together. The Republic of Finland had a grievance against the Soviet Union because the Red Army had invaded southeastern Finland in the Winter War (1939–40) and had taken a large area of territory away from Finland.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: In 1945, Norway, Denmark and Iceland were founding members of the United Nations. Sweden joined the U.N. soon after. Finland joined during the 1950s. The first Secretary General of the United Nations, Trygve Lie, was a Norwegian citizen. The second Secretary General of the United Nations, Dag Hammarskjöld, was a Swedish citizen. Thus the people of the Scandinavian Peninsula had a strong influence in international affairs during the 20th century.


title: Scandinavian Peninsula

text: In 1949, Norway, Denmark and Iceland became founding members of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation for their defence against East Germany, the Soviet Union and all other potential invaders, and these three countries remain members as of 2021.


title: Karamchand Gandhi

text: Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi (1822 — 16 November 1885) was a political figure in Porbandar. He served as Diwan of Porbandar and Rajkot. He was the father of Mahatma Gandhi.


title: Karamchand Gandhi

text: The Gandhi family originated from the village of Kutiana in what was then Junagadh State. In the early 18th century, Lalji Gandhi moved to Porbandar and entered the service of its ruler, the Rana. Successive generations of the family served as civil servants in the state administration before Uttamchand, Karamchand's father, became "diwan" in the early 19th century under the then Rana of Porbandar, Khimojiraj. In 1831, Rana Khimojiraj died suddenly and was succeeded by his 12-year-old only son, Vikmatji. As a result, Rana Khimojiraj's widow, Rani Rupaliba, became regent for her son. She soon fell out with Uttamchand and forced him to return to his ancestral village in Junagadh. While in Junagadh, Uttamchand appeared before its Nawab and saluted him with his left hand instead of his right, replying that his right hand was pledged to Porbandar's service. In 1841, Vikmatji assumed the throne and reinstated Uttamchand as his "diwan".


title: Karamchand Gandhi

text: Like his father, Uttamchand Gandhi, Karamchand had become a court official, or chief minister, of the local ruling prince of Porbandar. Karamchand's duties included advising the royal family of Porbandar and hiring other government officials.


title: Karamchand Gandhi

text: Karamchand had very little formal education, but his knowledge and experience made him a good administrator. He was said to be kind and generous, but also to have a bad temper. He learned from experience by watching his father work and attending religious ceremonies. There were some areas, however, in which he never gained much knowledge, including geography and history. Nonetheless, Karamchand excelled as chief minister in Porbandar.


title: Karamchand Gandhi

text: In spite of Karamchand's success in his job, he did not find ways to accumulate wealth. The Gandhis had plenty to eat, a respectable number of servants, and a few nice pieces of furniture, but they were by no means wealthy. The money Karamchand brought in just covered the household expenses.


title: Karamchand Gandhi

text: Karamchand married four times. His first three marriages ended with the deaths of his wives; among which two died immediately after giving birth to two daughters. He later married Putlibai Gandhi (1844 — 12 June 1891) in 1857, and their marriage lasted until his death in 1885. This marriage produced four children - three sons including Laxmidas Gandhi (1860 — 9 March 1914), Karsandas Gandhi (1866 — 22 June 1913) & Mohandas Gandhi (2 October 1869 — 30 January 1948) and a daughter named Raliatbehn (1862 — December 1960). Mohandas Gandhi was his youngest child. All his children got married during his lifetime.


title: Karamchand Gandhi

text: In 1885, Karamchand suffered a serious attack of fistula. Putlibai and her children (especially Mohandas) took care of him. His condition began to deteriorate day by day, and although doctors attempted many different types of treatment, it was to no avail. He later suggested a surgery for that, but his family doctor refused to do so. Karamchand's condition continued to deteriorate further until, finally, he died on the 16th of November aged 63. As his son Mohandas (Mahatma Gandhi) would later recall the events of that night: "That night (of 16th November), his uncle Tulsidas (Karamchand's younger brother) came to their home. Though death was imminent, no one accepted the fact that it would be his (Karamchand's) last night. When Tulsidas used to come to visit his ailing elder brother, he would sit behind him during day. That night, around 10:30 or 11, when then 16-year old Mohandas was massaging his father's legs, Tulsidas came there and told him to go. He happily went to his bed, where his wife Kasturba was sleeping. Within seconds, their servant called him and told that Karamchand's condition was serious. But as everyone had already realized that his condition was serious, they realized that he had died."


title: Brown note

text: The brown note, also sometimes called the brown frequency or brown noise, is a hypothetical infrasonic frequency capable of causing fecal incontinence by creating acoustic resonance in the human bowel. The name is a metonym for the common color of human faeces. Attempts to demonstrate the existence of a "brown note" using sound waves transmitted through the air have failed.


title: Brown note

text: Frequencies supposedly involved are between 5 and 9 Hz, which are below the lower frequency limit of human hearing. High-power sound waves below 20 Hz are felt in the body, not heard by the ear as sound.


title: Brown note

text: Air is a very inefficient medium for transferring low frequency vibration from a transducer to the human body. Mechanical connection of the vibration source to the human body, however, provides a potentially dangerous combination. The U.S. space program, worried about the harmful effects of rocket flight on astronauts, ordered vibration tests that used cockpit seats mounted on vibration tables to transfer "brown note" and other frequencies directly to the human subjects. Very high power levels of 160 dB were achieved at frequencies of 2–3 Hz. Test frequencies ranged from 0.5 Hz to 40 Hz. Test subjects suffered motor ataxia, nausea, visual disturbance, degraded task performance and difficulties in communication. These tests are assumed by researchers to be the nucleus of the current urban myth.


title: Brown note

text: In February 2005 the television show "MythBusters" attempted to verify whether the "brown note" was a reality.


title: Brown note

text: They used twelve Meyer Sound 700-HP subwoofers—a model and quantity that has been employed for major rock concerts. Normal operating frequency range of the selected subwoofer model was 28 Hz to 150 Hz but the 12 enclosures at "MythBusters" had been specially modified for deeper bass extension. Roger Schwenke and John Meyer directed the Meyer Sound team in devising a special test rig that would produce very high sound levels at infrasonic frequencies. The subwoofers' tuning ports were blocked and their input cards were altered. The modified cabinets were positioned in an open ring configuration, in four stacks, with each stack containing three subwoofers. Test signals were generated by a SIM 3 audio analyzer, with its software modified to produce infrasonic tones. A Brüel & Kjær sound level analyzer, fed with an attenuated signal from a model 4189 measurement microphone, displayed and recorded sound pressure levels.


title: Brown note

text: The hosts on the show tried a series of frequencies as low as 5 Hz, attaining a level of 120 decibels of sound pressure at 9 Hz and up to 153 dB at frequencies above 20 Hz, but the rumored physiological effects did not materialize. The test subjects all reported some physical anxiety and shortness of breath, even a small amount of nausea, but this was dismissed by the hosts, noting that sound at that frequency and intensity moves air rapidly in and out of one's lungs. The show declared the brown note myth "busted".


title: Endocarditis

text: Endocarditis is an inflammation of the inner layer of the heart, the endocardium. It usually involves the heart valves. Other structures that may be involved include the interventricular septum, the chordae tendineae, the mural endocardium, or the surfaces of intracardiac devices. Endocarditis is characterized by lesions, known as "vegetations", which is a mass of platelets, fibrin, microcolonies of microorganisms, and scant inflammatory cells. In the subacute form of infective endocarditis, the vegetation may also include a center of granulomatous tissue, which may fibrose or calcify.


title: Endocarditis

text: There are several ways to classify endocarditis. The simplest classification is based on cause: either "infective" or "non-infective", depending on whether a microorganism is the source of the inflammation or not. Regardless, the diagnosis of endocarditis is based on clinical features, investigations such as an echocardiogram, and blood cultures demonstrating the presence of endocarditis-causing microorganisms.


title: Endocarditis

text: Signs and symptoms include fever, chills, sweating, malaise, weakness, anorexia, weight loss, splenomegaly, flu-like feeling, cardiac murmur, heart failure, petechia (red spots on the skin), Osler's nodes (subcutaneous nodules found on hands and feet), Janeway lesions (nodular lesions on palms and soles), and Roth's spots (retinal hemorrhages).


title: Endocarditis

text: Infective endocarditis is an infection of the inner surface of the heart, usually the valves. Symptoms may include fever, small areas of bleeding into the skin, heart murmur, feeling tired, and low red blood cells. Complications may include valvular insufficiency, heart failure, stroke, and kidney failure.


title: Endocarditis

text: The cause is typically a bacterial infection and less commonly a fungal infection. Risk factors include valvular heart disease including rheumatic disease, congenital heart disease, artificial valves, hemodialysis, intravenous drug use, and electronic pacemakers. The bacterial most commonly involved are streptococci or staphylococci.


title: Endocarditis

text: The diagnosis of infective endocarditis relies on the Duke criteria, which were originally described in 1994 and modified in 2000. Clinical features and microbiological examinations are the first steps to diagnose an infective endocarditis. The imaging is also crucial. Echocardiography is the cornerstone of imaging modality in the diagnosis of infective endocarditis. Alternative imaging modalities as computer tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and positron emission tomography/computer tomography (PET/CT) with 2-[18F]fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) are playing an increasing role in the diagnosis and management of infective endocarditis.


title: Endocarditis

text: The usefulness of antibiotics following dental procedures for prevention is unclear. Some recommend them in those at high risk. Treatment is generally with intravenous antibiotics. The choice of antibiotics is based on the blood cultures. Occasionally heart surgery is required.


title: Endocarditis

text: The number of people affected is about 5 per 100,000 per year. Rates, however, vary between regions of the world. Males are affected more often than females. The risk of death among those infected is about 25%. Without treatment it is almost universally fatal.


title: Endocarditis

text: Nonbacterial thrombotic endocarditis (NBTE) is most commonly found on previously undamaged valves. As opposed to infective endocarditis, the vegetations in NBTE are small, sterile, and tend to aggregate along the edges of the valve or the cusps. Also unlike infective endocarditis, NBTE does not cause an inflammation response from the body. NBTE usually occurs during a hypercoagulable state such as system-wide bacterial infection, or pregnancy, though it is also sometimes seen in patients with venous catheters. NBTE may also occur in patients with cancers, particularly mucinous adenocarcinoma where Trousseau syndrome can be encountered. Typically NBTE does not cause many problems on its own, but parts of the vegetations may break off and embolize to the heart or brain, or they may serve as a focus where bacteria can lodge, thus causing infective endocarditis.


title: Endocarditis

text: Another form of sterile endocarditis is termed Libman–Sacks endocarditis; this form occurs more often in patients with lupus erythematosus and is thought to be due to the deposition of immune complexes. Like NBTE, Libman-Sacks endocarditis involves small vegetations, while infective endocarditis is composed of large vegetations. These immune complexes precipitate an inflammation reaction, which helps to differentiate it from NBTE. Also unlike NBTE, Libman-Sacks endocarditis does not seem to have a preferred location of deposition and may form on the undersurfaces of the valves or even on the endocardium.


title: Jump scare

text: A jump scare (often shortened to jumpscare) is a technique often used in horror films and video games, intended to scare the audience by surprising them with an abrupt change in image or event, usually co-occurring with a loud, jarring sound. The jump scare has been described as "one of the most basic building blocks of horror movies". Jump scares can startle the viewer by appearing at a point in the film where the soundtrack is quiet and the viewer is not expecting anything alarming to happen, or can be the sudden payoff to a long period of suspense.


title: Jump scare

text: Some critics have described jump scares as a lazy way to frighten viewers, and believe that the horror genre has undergone a decline in recent years following an over-reliance on the trope, establishing it as a cliché of modern horror films.


title: Jump scare

text: While editing "Cat People" (1942), Mark Robson created the jump scare, in which quiet tension builds and is suddenly and unexpectedly interrupted by a loud noise, cut, or fast movement, startling the viewer. In the film, Alice is walking home along a deserted street late at night, and realizes Irena is following her. Alice begins to panic, running, and the silence of the night, the contrast between light and deep shadow, shots of the fearful Alice, and the intermittent clacking of high heels set up suspense: abruptly, a bus enters the frame with a loud unpleasant noise, scaring the viewer. The jump scare device is sometimes called the Lewton Bus after producer Val Lewton, who used it in subsequent films. Prior to the 1980s, jump scares were a relatively rare occurrence in horror movies; however, they (in particular the Lewton Bus) became increasingly common in the early 1980s as the "slasher" subgenre increased in popularity.


title: Jump scare

text: "Carrie", released in 1976, has one of the first modern jump scares. The scene, which occurs at the end of the film, is credited as the inspiration for the use of a final jump scare in the 1980 movie "Friday the 13th", to show that an apparently dead villain had survived.


title: Jump scare

text: The 1979 film "When a Stranger Calls" uses a form of jump scare to suddenly reveal the location of the antagonist to both the protagonist and the audience. Film writer William Cheng describes this as causing a "sudden vanishing of the protective walls surrounding the film's protagonist", in turn giving the viewer at home a sense that the intruder is also somehow closer to them.


title: Jump scare

text: The 2009 film "Drag Me to Hell" contains jump scares throughout, with director Sam Raimi saying he wanted to create a horror film with "big shocks that'll hopefully make audiences jump."


title: Jump scare

text: One of the earliest games to have a jump scare was Atari's 1985 "Rescue On Fractalus", where the rescued astronaut may be a disguised alien and suddenly appears at the cockpit window, breaking it to gain entry and kill the player.


title: Jump scare

text: "Resident Evil" is often cited as an early video game to use jump scares. The player, during the course of the game, walks through a hallway where the music begins to lower. About halfway through the hall, zombie dogs will suddenly leap through the windows and the music will peak in volume and intensity.


title: Jump scare

text: The video game "Daylight" was described as being a "vehicle for jump scares", and though reviewers praised its successful use of jump scares, they commented that as the game wore on jump scares alone weren't a sufficient tool for scaring players.


title: Jump scare

text: The 2014 video game franchise "Five Nights at Freddy's" was described as "perfect for live streaming" in part due to its use of jump scares.


title: Jump scare

text: In 2004, "K-fee" (Kaffee), a German caffeinated energy drink company, released nine television advertisements that feature peaceful footage, such as a car driving through a green valley, or two people at a beach. A zombie or gargoyle then pops up on the screen, along with a loud, high-pitched scream, potentially scaring the viewer. At the end of each advertisement, the slogan, "So wach warst du noch nie", which translates into English as, "You’ve never been so awake", appears on the screen, simulating the effect the energy drink will have on its consumers. Four radio ads were also released


title: Jump scare

text: such as a Christmas story and a meditation audio, both in German and English, this last to expand the brand to the United Kingdom. Three "less caffeine" commercials were released, featuring a man in a monster suit or a man dressed as a teddy bear, minus the screams. These commercials received so many complaints from German viewers that they were ultimately pulled from television. An English commentator Rhys Production 11 interviewed with two of the actors who starred in the commercials, Brad Johnson and his brother Adam Johnson, where it is revealed that the company originally used puppets "to create scary objects." which was planned by one of the actor's friend. However, the plan did not work and that, according to Brad himself, they both played the two characters in the commercial.


title: Jump scare

text: Throughout the late 2000s and early 2010s (before YouTube was acquired by Google in 2013 and their modern-day terms of service were developed), it was a common practical joke for YouTube users to disguise videos that contained jump scares as something family-friendly and innocent; one such example included the infamous "stare at the red dot" or "look at the spiral for 30/60 seconds" video trend, where the object of the video was to compel the viewer to become engrossed in following the video's command over the course of several seconds before abruptly inserting a loud scream complete with a disturbing image, usually from a pop culture horror film. These videos have since been deleted en masse by YouTube under their "shocking content" policy (unless there is explicit notification in the title of the video warning viewers of such content ahead of time).


title: Jump scare

text: YouTube also prohibits jump scares in video advertising. In August 2018, a video marketing "The Nun" depicts the iOS device volume icon muting before the titular character appears with an incredibly loud scream. The ad was removed shortly afterward for violating the site's "shocking content policy".


title: Jump scare

text: An Internet screamer or simply, screamer is an image, video or application on the Internet that has a sudden change designed to startle the user. They often include a scary face with a loud scream.