title: 3:10 to Yuma (1957 film)

text: The marshal requests two volunteers to escort Wade to Contention City to catch a train, the 3:10 to Yuma, where he can be held for trial. Butterfield offers to pay any volunteer $200, and Dan and a drunkard posse member named Alex Potter volunteer their services. The marshal has a man pretending to be Wade placed on a stagecoach leaving town that evening, hoping to mislead Wade's men and buy Dan and Potter some time. Wade is taken to Dan's ranch, where Alice Evans, his wife, learns of her husband's decision. Wade is subsequently moved to Contention City, where Dan and Potter meet Butterfield in a hotel room to wait for the train. Wade tries to bribe Dan into letting him go; Dan's refusal to do so impresses the outlaw.


title: 3:10 to Yuma (1957 film)

text: The slain stagecoach driver's brother, Bob Moons, arrives and barges into the hotel room seeking revenge. Dan wrestles his gun away, but it goes off. Prince, having secretly tracked the party to Contention, hears the gunshot and alerts Wade's gang. The local sheriff is out of town, so Butterfield hires five local men to provide security while Wade is taken to the rail station. As the gang surrounds the hotel the locals run off, once again leaving only Dan, Alex, and Butterfield. Alex saves Dan from getting shot by an outlaw on the roof, but Prince shoots Alex in the back and has the men hang him from the hotel chandelier. Butterfield is horrified and offers to give Dan his money, planning to release Wade. Alice arrives and tries to change her husband's mind, but he is committed to see Wade brought to justice. Dan takes Wade out a back door, skillfully moving him across town as the outlaws fire at them.


title: 3:10 to Yuma (1957 film)

text: The outlaws finally catch up to Dan as the train starts to leave. Prince shouts for Wade to drop down so he can shoot Dan. Instead, Wade tells Dan to jump into the passing car, and they leap to safety together. The gang runs after the train, but Dan shoots Prince dead and the rest give up pursuit. Wade explains that he owed Dan a favor for saving his life earlier, and he claims that he has broken out of the Yuma jail before, meaning Dan will be able to claim his reward honestly. Alice sees Dan leave safely on the train as rain pours down on her, breaking the long drought.


title: 3:10 to Yuma (1957 film)

text: David Heilweil brought the story to The Associates and Aldrich, the production company of Robert Aldrich. Halstead Welles did a script. Aldrich sold this to Columbia for $100,000.


title: 3:10 to Yuma (1957 film)

text: When first released in the summer of 1957, the film became popular among audiences and critics alike for its suspense and sharp black-and-white cinematography. Ford received favorable notice for his atypical role as a villain. The following year, "3:10 to Yuma" was nominated for the British Academy of Film and Television Arts award for Best Film and the Laurel Award for Top Male Action Star, which went to Van Heflin.


title: 3:10 to Yuma (1957 film)

text: The film caused "Yuma" to enter the lexicon of Cuban slang: "Yumas" is literally Cuban for "Gringos" and used to describe American Visitors, while "La Yuma" is the United States.


title: 3:10 to Yuma (1957 film)

text: A region 1 DVD was released in 2002. A region A/1 Blu-ray DVD of the film was released as part of The Criterion Collection in 2013.


title: Fudge

text: Fudge is a type of confection that is made by mixing sugar, butter and milk, heating it to the soft-ball stage at , and then beating the mixture while it cools so that it acquires a smooth, creamy consistency. In texture, this crystalline candy falls in between fondant icing and hard caramels.


title: Fudge

text: Fruits, nuts, chocolate, caramel, candies, sweets, and other flavors are sometimes added inside or on top.


title: Fudge

text: Fudge originated in the US during the late 19th century. The term fudge is said to have come in the 17th century from the interjection fadge, meaning “to fit together in a clumsy manner” and was originally used as a verb. Recipes were printed in many periodicals and advertisements during the 1880s. Its popularity was partly due to the decreasing cost of refined white sugar and partly due to the ability to make it at home without special equipment. Its inexpensive, unrefined qualities made it popular among people looking for a candy alternative that fell between expensive, fancy candies and the cheapest sweets.


title: Fudge

text: In a letter written by Emelyn Battersby Hartridge, she recounts the purchasing of a box of fudge for 40 cents a pound in 1886 in Baltimore, Maryland. Fudge shops in tourist places such as Mackinac Island in Michigan began opening in 1887.


title: Fudge

text: Fudge-making was popular at women's colleges. A student at Vassar College in Poughkeepsie, New York, claimed to have introduced it there in 1888 by selling her own batch. The diary of another student mentions making "fudges" in 1892. An 1893 letter from another Vassar College student describes "fudges" as containing sugar, fruit, chocolate, milk, and butter. A recipe for "Fudges at Vassar" was printed in "The Sun" in 1895. Despite describing the confections as "Vassar chocolates", the recipe given comprises sugar, milk, butter, and vanilla extract. Wellesley College and Smith College have their own versions of a fudge recipe dating from the late 19th or early 20th century.


title: Fudge

text: One of the most important attributes of fudge is its texture. In forming a fondant, it is not easy to keep all vibrations and seed crystals from causing rapid crystallization into large crystals. Consequently, milkfat and corn syrup are often added. Corn syrup contains glucose, fructose (monosaccharides), and maltose (disaccharide). These sugars interact with sucrose molecules. They help prevent premature crystallization by inhibiting sucrose crystal contact. The fat also helps inhibit rapid crystallization. Controlling the crystallization of the supersaturated sugar solution is the key to making smooth fudge. Initiating crystals before the desired time will result in fudge with fewer, larger sugar grains. The final texture would then be grainy, a quality that is normally indicative of low-quality fudge.


title: Fudge

text: The endpoint temperature separates hard caramel from fudge. The higher the peak temperature, the more sugar is dissolved, and the more water evaporates, resulting in a higher sugar-to-water ratio. Before the availability of cheap and accurate thermometers, cooks would use the ice-water, or cold-water, test to determine the saturation of the confection. Fudge is made at the "soft ball" stage, which varies by altitude and ambient humidity from to . Butter is added, and then the fudge is cooled and beaten until it is thick and small sugar crystals have formed. The warm fudge is sometimes poured onto a marble slab to be cooled and shaped.


title: Fudge

text: Fudge-making evolved a variety of flavors and additives. The favored flavors vary by place. In the US, chocolate is a default flavor, with peanut butter and maple as alternatives. When it is made from brown sugar, it is called "penuche" and is typically found in New England and the Southern United States. Pralines include nuts but not usually chocolate.


title: Fudge

text: In the UK, rum-and-raisin, clotted cream and salted-caramel are popular. Tablet is a confection with similar ingredients but a distinct, grainy, brittle texture. It is often labelled as butter fudge or fudge outside of Scotland.


title: Fudge

text: "Hot fudge" sauce in the United States and Canada is a chocolate product often used as a topping for ice cream in a heated form, particularly sundaes and parfaits. It may occasionally be used as a topping for s'mores. The butter in typical fudge is replaced with heavy cream, resulting in a thick, pourable chocolate sauce while hot, becoming denser as the sauce cools. Commercial syrups (flavored with natural or artificial flavorings) are generally thinner and formulated to be usable at room temperature. One also encounters "hot caramel" or "hot butterscotch" but these commercial formulations are not very similar to fudge or hot fudge sauce.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Dom John VI (Portuguese: "João VI"; 13 May 1767 – 10 March 1826), nicknamed "the Clement", was King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves from 1816 to 1825. Although the United Kingdom of Portugal ceased to exist "de facto" beginning in 1822, he remained its monarch "de jure" between 1822 and 1825. After the recognition of the independence of Brazil under the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro of 1825, he continued as King of Portugal until his death in 1826. Under the same treaty, he also became titular Emperor of Brazil for life, while his son, Emperor Dom Pedro I, was both "de facto" and "de jure" the monarch of the newly independent country.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John VI was born in Lisbon in 1767, and he was the second son of Queen Dona Maria I and King Dom Peter III of Portugal. He became heir to the throne when his older brother Dom José, Prince of Brazil, died of smallpox in 1788 at the age of 27. Before his accession to the Portuguese throne, John bore the titles Duke of Braganza, Duke of Beja, and Prince of Brazil. From 1799, he served as prince regent due to the mental illness of his mother. In 1816, John succeeded his mother as monarch of the Portuguese Empire, with no real change in his authority, since he already possessed absolute powers as regent.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: One of the last representatives of absolute monarchy in Europe, John VI lived during a turbulent period; his reign never saw a lasting peace. Throughout his period of rule, major powers, such as Spain, France and Great Britain, continually intervened in Portuguese affairs. Forced to flee to South America across the Atlantic Ocean into Brazil when troops of the Emperor Napoleon I invaded Portugal, he found himself faced there with liberal revolts; he was compelled to return to Europe amid new conflicts. His marriage was no less conflictual, as his wife Carlota Joaquina of Spain repeatedly conspired against her husband in favor of personal interests or those of her native Spain. John lost Brazil when his son Pedro declared independence, and his other son Miguel (later Dom Miguel I of Portugal) led a rebellion that sought to depose him. According to recent scholarly research, his death may well have been caused by arsenic poisoning. Notwithstanding these tribulations John left a lasting mark, especially in Brazil, where he helped to create numerous institutions and services that laid a foundation for national autonomy, and many historians consider him to be a true mastermind of the modern Brazilian state. John's contemporaries viewed him as a kind and benevolent king, although later generations of Portuguese and Brazilians have made him the subject of frequent caricature.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: João Maria José Francisco Xavier de Paula Luís António Domingos Rafael was born 13 May 1767 during the reign of his grandfather, King Dom Joseph I of Portugal. He was the second son of the King's eldest daughter and heir, Dona Maria, Princess of Brazil (later Queen Dona Maria I), and Infante Dom Peter of Portugal (later King Dom Peter III). Peter was not only Maria's husband, but also her paternal uncle.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John was ten years old when his grandfather died and his mother ascended to the throne. His childhood and youth were lived quietly in the shadow of Queen Maria I's older son and heir apparent, Dom José, Prince of Brazil and Duke of Braganza. Folklore has Infante John as a rather uncultured youth, but according to Jorge Pedreira e Costa, he received as rigorous an education as his brother José did. Still, a French ambassador of the time painted him in unfavorable colors, seeing him as hesitant and dim. The record of this period of his life is too vague for historians to form any definitive picture. Little is known of the substance of his education. He surely received instruction in religion, law, French, and etiquette, and would presumably have learned history through reading the works of Duarte Nunes de Leão and João de Barros.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: In 1785, Henrique de Meneses, 3rd Marquis of Louriçal, arranged a marriage between John and Infanta Carlota Joaquina of Spain, daughter of the Prince and Princess of Asturias (later King Don Charles IV and Queen Doña Maria Luisa). Fearing a new Iberian Union, some in the Portuguese court viewed John's marriage to a Spanish infanta unfavorably. Carlota Joaquina endured four days of testing by the Portuguese ambassadors before the marriage pact was confirmed. Because John and Carlota Joaquina were related and because of the bride's youth (she was only 10 years old at the time), the marriage required a papal dispensation. After being confirmed, the marriage capitulation was signed in the throne room of the Spanish court with great pomp and with the participation of both kingdoms. It was followed immediately by a proxy marriage. The marriage was consummated five years later.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Carlota Joaquina was received at the Ducal Palace of Vila Viçosa at the beginning of May 1785, and on 9 June, the couple received a nuptial benediction at the palace chapel. However, the marriage seemed to be an uncomfortable one. An assiduous correspondence between John and Mariana at that time reveals that the absence of his sister weighed upon him and, comparing her to his young wife, he wrote, "She is very smart and has a lot of judgment, whereas you have rather little, and I like her a lot, but for all that I cannot love her equally." John's young bride was not inclined to docility, requiring at times the correction of Queen Maria herself. In addition, the difference in their ages (John being 17 years old) made him uncomfortable and anxious. Because Carlota Joaquina was so young, the marriage had not been consummated, and John wrote, "Here's to the arrival of the time when I shall play a lot with the Infanta. The way these things go, I think six years from now. Better that she be a bit more grown up than when she came." The consummation waited until 1790. In 1793, Carlota Joaquina gave birth to the first of nine children: Teresa, Princess of Beira.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: The death of John's older brother, Dom José, on 11 September 1788, left John as the heir apparent to the throne, with the titles of Prince of Brazil and Duke of Braganza. Great things had been hoped for from José, who associated himself with the progressive ideas of the Enlightenment and appeared to have been inclined toward the anti-clerical policies of Sebastião José de Carvalho e Melo, 1st Marquis of Pombal.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John, in contrast, was well known for his religiosity and his attachment to absolutism. The crisis of succession was aggravated with the death in November 1788 of the Queen's confessor, Inácio de São Caetano, the titular archbishop of Thessalonica. The Archbishop had been a powerful political figure, influencing a controversial choice of the Queen's ministers that favored John, but not without encountering strong opposition from important "fidalgos" who had ambitions for those posts. In the year after the deaths of his brother and the Archbishop, John became ill to the extent that his own survival was uncertain. He recovered, but in 1791, he again fell ill "bleeding from the mouth and intestines", according to notes left by the chaplain of the Marquis of Marialva, who added that John's spirit was always depressed. This created a tense climate and uncertainty about his future reign.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Meanwhile, the Queen showed increasing signs of mental instability. As a result, of her illness, the queen was deemed unfit to rule and John essentially took control of the country. John was reluctant to take the reins of power, rejecting the idea of a formal regency. This opened the way for elements of the nobility to form a "de facto" government via a Council. Rumors circulated that John exhibited symptoms of the same insanity, and that he might be prevented from ruling. According to longstanding laws that guided the institution of regency, were the regent to die or become incapable for any reason, and having children of less than fourteen years (which was John's situation at the time), government would be exercised by the guardians of those children or, if guardians had not been formally named, by the wife of the regent. In John's case, that would have been a Spanish infanta. Fear, suspicion and intrigue engulfed the entire institutional framework of the nation.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: At the same time, the French Revolution perplexed and horrified the reigning houses of Europe. In January 1793, the revolutionaries executed their former king Louis XVI, precipitating an international response. On 15 July, Portugal signed a treaty with Spain, and on 26 September allied itself with Great Britain. Both treaties pledged mutual aid against revolutionary France and brought six thousand Portuguese soldiers into the War of the Pyrenees (1793–1795), a campaign that began with an advance to Roussillon in France and ended in defeat with the French conquest of northeastern Spain. This created a delicate diplomatic problem, as Portugal could not make peace with France without damaging an alliance with Britain that involved several overseas interests. The Portuguese thus sought a neutrality that proved fragile and tense.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: After the defeat, Spain abandoned its alliance with Portugal and allied with France under the Peace of Basel. With Britain too powerful for France to attack directly, France set its sights on Portugal. In 1799, John officially assumed the reins of government as prince regent in the name of his mother; that same year, Napoleon Bonaparte staged his "coup d'état" of 18 Brumaire in France and coerced Spain into issuing an ultimatum to force the Portuguese to break with Great Britain and submit the country to the interests of Napoleon. With John's refusal, neutrality became unviable. Spain and France invaded in 1801, setting off the War of the Oranges; a defeated Portugal signed the Treaty of Badajoz and the subsequent Treaty of Madrid, under which it ceded territory to Spain, in particular Olivenza, and made concessions to the French over certain colonial territories. With conflicting interests among all the countries involved, the war was marked by ambiguous movements and secret agreements. Portugal, as the weakest player, could not avoid continued struggle. At the same time, John had to face an enemy at home. His wife, Princess Carlota Joaquina, loyal to Spanish interests, initiated an intrigue with the objective of deposing her husband and taking power herself. After this attempt failed in 1805, the Princess was exiled from court; she resided at Queluz Palace, while John took up residency at Mafra Palace. It was events like this that questioned the Portuguese people as to if John was capable of commanding the nation. That he was as incapable of ruling as his mother was.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John played a desperate game with France for time. For as long as he could, he pretended an apparent submission to France, to the point of suggesting to King George III of the United Kingdom the declaration of a fictitious state of war between their countries, but he did not obey the dictates of Napoleon's Continental System (a blockade against Great Britain). A new secret treaty with the British guaranteed him help in case of an eventual flight of the royal family. The accord greatly favored the British and preserved their influence over the country, as British merchants continued to make vast profits in trade with the Portuguese intercontinental empire. It fell to Portugal to choose between an alliance with France or with Britain, and the hesitancy to decide firmly placed Portugal at risk of war with not merely one of these powers, but with both. In October 1807, news arrived that a French army was approaching, and on 16 November, a British squadron arrived in the port of Lisbon with a force of seven thousand men with orders either to escort the royal family to Brazil or, if the government surrendered to France, to attack and conquer the Portuguese capital. The court was divided between Francophiles and Anglophiles, and after anguished consideration under pressure from both sides, John decided to accept British protection and leave for Brazil.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: The invading army led by Jean-Andoche Junot advanced with some difficulty, arriving at the gates of Lisbon only on 30 November 1807. By this time, the Prince Regent, accompanied by the entire royal family and a large following of nobles, state functionaries and servants, had already embarked, leaving the government under a regency with the recommendation that the army not engage in hostilities with the invader. The hasty departure during a rainstorm caused havoc in Lisbon as an astonished population could not believe that their prince had abandoned them. According to the account of José Acúrsio das Neves, the departure brought forth deep emotion on the part of the Prince Regent:


title: John VI of Portugal

text: To explain himself to the people, John ordered that posters be put up along the streets stating that his departure was unavoidable despite all efforts made to assure the integrity and peace of the Kingdom. The posters recommended that everyone remain calm, orderly and not resist the invaders, so that blood not be shed in vain. Because of the rush to depart, the Prince Regent was in a ship together with the Queen and John's sons Dom Pedro, Prince of Beira (later Emperor Dom Pedro I of Brazil and King Dom Pedro IV of Portugal), and Miguel (later King Dom Miguel I). This was an imprudent decision given the dangers of a transatlantic voyage in that era, since it placed at risk the succession of the crown in case of shipwreck. Carlota Joaquina and her daughters were on two other ships. The number of people who embarked with John remains a matter of controversy; in the 19th century there was talk of up to 30 thousand emigrants; more recent estimates vary between five hundred and fifteen thousand, the latter being close to the maximum capacity of the squadron of fifteen ships, including their crews. Still, the ships were overcrowded. According to Pedreira e Costa, taking into account all of the variables, the most likely numbers fall between four and seven thousand passengers plus the crews. Many families were separated, and even high officials failed to secure a place on the ships and were left behind. The voyage was not a tranquil one. Several ships were in precarious condition, and overcrowding created humiliating conditions for the nobility, the majority of whom had to sleep huddled in the open in the poops. Hygienic conditions were bad, including an epidemic of head lice. Many had failed to bring changes of clothing. Several people fell ill. Supplies were scarce, causing rationing. The flotilla spent ten days nearly becalmed in the equatorial zone under a scorching heat that caused moods to turn quite sour. The flotilla also faced two storms and was eventually dispersed near Madeira. In the middle of the voyage, Prince John changed his plans and decided to head for Salvador, Bahia, probably for political reasons. He wanted to please the inhabitants of the colony's first capital, which had given many signs of discontent with the loss of its old status. The ships carrying his wife and daughters held to the original destination of Rio de Janeiro.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: On 22 January 1808, the Prince Regent's ship and the two others arrived in Baía de Todos os Santos, Brazil. The streets of Salvador were deserted, because the governor, the Count of Ponte, preferred to await the prince's orders before permitting the people to receive him. Finding this attitude odd, John ordered that all could come as they wished. However, to allow the nobility to compose themselves after such an arduous journey, the landing was postponed until the next day, when they were received joyfully amidst a procession, the ringing of bells and a celebration of a "Te Deum" at the Cathedral of Salvador. In the following days, John received all who wished to give homage, granting the ceremony of the "beija-mão" (the kissing of the monarch's hand) and conceding various mercies. Among the latter, he decreed the creation of a public lecture series on economics and a school of surgery, but his most decisive action at this moment was the Decree of Opening the Ports to Friendly Nations ("Decreto de Abertura dos Portos às Nações Amigas"), a measure of vast political and economic importance and the first of many that went to improve conditions in the colony. Britain, however, whose economy depended in great part on maritime commerce, and for whom the Portuguese and Brazilian monarchy was now something of a protectorate, was the most direct beneficiary.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Salvador spent a month in commemorations of the presence of the court and tried to seduce the court into making it the new seat of the Kingdom. The residents offered to construct a luxurious palace as a home for the royal family, but John declined and continued his voyage, having already announced to various nations his intention to make his capital at Rio de Janeiro. His ship entered Guanabara Bay on 7 March, where he met his daughters and other members of his entourage whose ships had arrived earlier. On the 8th, the whole court finally disembarked to encounter a city adorned to receive them with nine days of uninterrupted celebrations. A well-known chronicler of the era, Father Perereca, eyewitness to the arrival, while lamenting the news of the invasion of metropolitan Portugal, also intuited the significance of the arrival of the court on Brazilian soil:


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John helped change Brazil from an ordinary colony into a booming society. This was done, in large part, to the establishment of a new government in the capital, Rio de Genaro. With a government, the essential apparatus of a sovereign state became inevitable: the senior civil, religious, and military officials, aristocrats and liberal professionals, skilled artisans, and public servants. For many scholars, the transfer of the court to Rio began the establishment of the modern Brazilian state and constituted Brazil's first step toward true independence. While Brazil at this time remained formally and juridically a Portuguese colony, in the words of Caio Prado, Jr.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: But first it was necessary to provide accommodations for the newcomers, a difficult problem to resolve given the cramped proportions of the city of Rio at that time. In particular, there were few homes suitable for the nobility, especially in the case of the royal family, who were installed in the viceregal palace, known today as the Paço Imperial (Imperial Palace). Though large, it was comfortless and nothing like Portuguese palaces. As large as it was, it was not enough to accommodate everyone, so neighboring buildings were also requisitioned, such as the Carmelite Convent, the town hall, and even the jail. To meet the needs of other nobles, and to install new government offices, innumerable small residences were hastily expropriated, their proprietors arbitrarily ejected, at times violently in the face of resistance. Despite the efforts of Viceroy Marcos de Noronha e Brito and of Joaquim José de Azevedo, the regent was still poorly accommodated. Merchant Elias Antônio Lopes offered his country house, the Quinta da Boa Vista, a sumptuous villa in excellent location that immediately met with the prince's satisfaction. Renovations and expansion transformed this into the Paço de São Cristóvão ("Palace of Saint Christopher"). Carlota Joaquina, for her part, preferred to settle on a farm near the beach of Botafogo, continuing her habit of living apart from her husband.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: The city, which at that time had about 70,000 inhabitants, saw itself transformed overnight. The additional populace, full of new requirements, imposed a new organization in the supply of food and other consumer goods, including luxury items. It took years for the Portuguese to settle in, causing years of chaos in the daily life of Rio; rents doubled, taxes rose, and food was in short supply, requisitioned by the imported nobility. This soon dispelled popular enthusiasm over the prince regent's arrival. The very shape of the city began to change, with the construction of innumerable new residences, villas and other buildings, and various improvements to services and infrastructure. Likewise, the presence of the court introduced new standards of etiquette, new fashions and new customs, including a new social stratification.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Among the customs, John continued in Brazil the ancient Portuguese ceremony of the "beija-mão", which he esteemed greatly and which fascinated the Brazilians and became part of their folklore. He received his subjects daily, except for Sundays and holidays. The long lines waiting to pay their respects and receive favors were a mix of nobles and commoners. According to painter Henry L’Evêque, "the Prince, accompanied by a Secretary of State, a Chamberlain and some household officials, received all the petitions that were presented to him; listened attentively to all the complaints, all the requests of the applicants; consoled one, encouraged others... The vulgarity of the manners, the familiarity of speech, the insistence of some, the prolixity of others, none of this bored him. He seemed to forget that he was their master, and remember only that he was their father." Oliveira Lim wrote that he "never confused the faces or the pleas, and the applicants marveled at how well he know their lives, their families, even small incidents that had occurred in the past and which they could not believe had risen to the notice of the King."


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Throughout his stay in Brazil, John formalized the creation of a huge number of institutions and public services and boosted the economy, culture and other areas of national life. All these measures were taken principally because of the practical needs of administering a large empire in a territory previously lacking of these resources, because the predominant idea continued to be that Brazil would remain a colony, given that it was expected that the court would return to its old metropolis once the European political situation returned to normal. However, these advances became the basis for Brazil's future autonomy. This is not to say that all was amenities and progress. A series of political crises began shortly after the Prince Regent's arrival with the invasion of Cayenne in French Guiana in 1809 in retaliation for the French invasion of Portugal, serious economic problems, and an unfavorable trade agreement negotiated in 1810 with the British government, which in practice flooded the small internal market with useless trinkets, disadvantaged exports, and the creation of new national industries. Laurentino Gomes writes that John granted more hereditary titles in his first eight years in Brazil than had been granted in the previous three hundred years of the Portuguese monarchy, not even counting more than five thousand insignia and commendations of the honorific orders of Portugal.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: When Napoleon was defeated in 1815, the European powers held the Congress of Vienna to reorganize the political map of the continent. Portugal participated in these negotiations, but given British overtures contrary to the interests of the House of Braganza, Portugal's ambassador to the Congress, the Count of Palmela, counseled the regent to remain in Brazil, as did the powerful Prince Talleyrand, in order to strengthen the ties between metropolis and colony, including the suggestion to elevate Brazil to the condition of a kingdom united to Portugal. The British representative to the Congress also ended up supporting the idea, which resulted in the effective foundation of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves on 16 December 1815, a juridical institution rapidly recognized by other nations.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: With the death of his mother Maria I on 20 March 1816, John assumed the throne as King Dom John VI. However, he was not immediately consecrated as king; he was acclaimed only on 6 February 1818, with grand festivities. Meanwhile, several political matters came to the fore. John's wife, the ambitious Carlota Joaquina, had begun to conspire against Portuguese interests while still in Europe. Shortly after her arrival in Brazil, she established understandings with both Spaniards and with nationalists of the Río de la Plata region (now Argentina and Uruguay) to try to secure a monarchy of her own, perhaps as a regent of Spain, perhaps as queen of a new monarchy created from Spanish colonies in South America, perhaps by deposing her husband. This made any meaningful marriage to John impossible, despite his show of patience, and only the force of convention had them appear together in public. While the Queen gained many sympathizers, her plots uniformly failed. Despite that, she managed to influence her husband to involve himself more directly in Spanish colonial politics. These efforts led to the capture of Montevideo in 1817 and the annexation of Cisplatina Province in 1821.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: During the same period, problems arose in finding a wife for John's son Dom Pedro, Prince Royal of Portugal (the new title for the heir apparent). Europe at the time considered Brazil distant, backward and unsafe, so it was not a simple task to find suitable candidates. After a year of seeking, the ambassador Pedro José Joaquim Vito de Meneses Coutinho, 6th Marquis of Marialva, finally secured an alliance with one of Europe's most powerful royal houses, the Austrian Habsburgs, after seducing the Austrian court with numerous lies, a display of pomp, and the distribution of gold bars and diamonds among the nobility. Dom Pedro married Archduchess Maria Leopoldina of Austria, daughter of Emperor Francis I, in 1817. The Emperor and his minister Metternich considered the alliance "an advantageous pact between Europe and the New World," strengthening the monarchical regime in both hemispheres and granting Austria a new sphere of influence.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Meanwhile, the situation in Portugal was by no means tranquil. With the King absent and the country devastated by the Peninsular War and the consequent mass hunger and enormous exodus of emigrants, Portugal became a "de facto" British protectorate upon the final expulsion of the French. It was administered by William Carr Beresford, who took a high hand in his dealings with the Portuguese government. From the time John ascended the throne, the Portuguese pressed for his return, initiated liberal rebellions, and formed secret societies with the objective of bringing into session the Portuguese Cortes, which had not met since 1698. Similar liberal agitation occurred in Brazil. In 1817, the Pernambucan Revolt broke out in Recife, a republican movement that established a provisional government in Pernambuco and spread into other Brazilian states; it was put down severely. Back in Portugal, the Liberal Revolution of 1820 broke out in Porto on 24 August 1820. A governing junta was set up, with repercussions in Lisbon. It met as the General Extraordinary and Constituent Cortes ("Cortes Gerais Extraordinárias e Constituintes"), formed a government and convened elections for deputies without bothering to consult King John. The movement gained support from the Island of Madeira, the Azores and reached the captaincy of Grão-Pará and Bahia in Brazil. It led even to an uprising by the military garrison of Rio de Janeiro itself.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: On 30 January 1821, the Cortes met in Lisbon and decreed the formation of a Council of Regency to exercise power in the name of King John. It freed many political prisoners and demanded the King's immediate return. On 20 April, John convoked a meeting in Rio to choose deputies to the Constituent Cortes, but the following day, protests in the plaza were put down violently. In Brazil, the general opinion was that the King's return to Portugal could mean loss of the autonomy Brazil had gained and a return to its prior colonial status. Under pressure, John tried to find a middle way by sending his son Prince Pedro to Lisbon to grant a constitution and establish the basis of a new government. The prince, however, already leaning toward liberal ideas, refused. The crisis had gone too far and there was no turning back. John named Pedro regent for Brazil in his name and left for Lisbon on 25 April 1821 after a stay of thirteen years in Brazil, a country he would always miss.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: The ships bringing John and his court arrived in Lisbon on 3 July. His return was orchestrated in such a manner as not to imply that the King had been coerced, but in fact a new political environment had already been established. A constitution had been drafted, and the King was required to swear loyalty to it on 1 October 1822. It called for him to surrender various prerogatives. The Queen refused to follow her husband in agreeing to this, and thus was dispossessed of her political rights and deposed of her title as queen. Meanwhile, John lost out in Brazil as well. His son Pedro, opting to stay in that country, led a revolt that proclaimed Brazilian independence on 1822-09-07; as part of this action, he assumed the title of emperor of Brazil. Tradition says that before journeying to Portugal, John had anticipated future events and had said to his son: "Pedro, Brazil will soon be separated from Portugal: if so, put the crown on your head before some adventurer grabs it." According to the memoirs of the Count of Palmela, Brazilian independence had come about through common accord between King John and Prince Pedro. In any event, later correspondence between the two shows the prince's concern not to disturb his father. However, Portugal did not officially recognize Brazilian independence at this time.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: The liberal constitution to which the King had sworn loyalty was in effect only for a few months. Not everyone in Portugal supported liberalism, and an absolutist movement arose. On 23 February 1823 in Trás-os-Montes, Francisco Silveira, Count of Amarante, proclaimed an absolute monarchy; this did not immediately have an effect, and new agitations followed. the King's younger son, Infante Miguel, instigated by his mother Carlota Joaquina, led another revolt known as the Vilafrancada on 27 May, with the intent of restoring absolutism. John changed the game by supporting Miguel to avoid his own deposition (which was desired by Carlota Joaquina's party). He appeared in public on his birthday alongside his son, who wore a uniform of the National Guard, a military corps that had been disbanded by the liberals, receiving the applause of the militia. the King personally went to Vila Franca to better administer the uprising, ultimately returning to Lisbon in triumph. The political climate was undecided, and even the staunchest defenders of liberalism feared to take a strong stand on its behalf. Before its dissolution, the Cortes protested against any change in the recently approved constitution, but the absolute regime was restored, the Queen's rights re-established, and the King acclaimed for a second time on 5 June. John repressed demonstrations against this restoration, deported some of the liberals and arrested others, ordered the restoration of judiciary and institutions more in line with the new political orientation and created a commission to draft a basis for a new charter to replace the constitution.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John's alliance with Infante Miguel did not bear fruit. Influenced as always by his mother, Miguel led the April Revolt or "Abrilada" by the Lisbon military garrison on 29 April 1824. The revolt started on the pretext of crushing the Freemasons and defending the King from threats of death that the Masons has supposedly made against him, but John was taken into custody at the Bemposta Palace, while several of Miguel's political enemies were also imprisoned elsewhere. The infante's intent was to force his father to abdicate. Alerted to the situation, the diplomatic corps managed to enter Bemposta Palace. Those who held the King could not resist such authorities and restored a measure of freedom to the King. On 9 May, on the advice of friendly ambassadors, John pretended to travel to Caxias but, in fact, went and sought refuge with a British fleet anchored in the port. From aboard the Royal Navy ship "Windsor Castle", he reprimanded his son, deposed him from command of the army, and ordered him to release his political prisoners. Miguel was exiled. With the defeat of the rebellion, both liberals and absolutists came out into the streets to celebrate the survival of the legitimate government. On 14 May, the King returned to Bemposta, reconstituted the council of ministers and showed generosity to the others who had rebelled. Still, this did not dissuade the Queen from further conspiracies. The police discovered another rebellion planned for 26 October, on the basis of which John placed his wife under house arrest in Queluz Palace.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: At the end of his reign, King John ordered the creation of a free port in Lisbon, but the measure was not implemented. He ordered further inquiry into the death of his former friend the Marquis of Loulé, but final judgment was never rendered. On 5 June he granted amnesty to those involved in the Porto uprising, except for nine officers who were exiled. On the same day, the old constitution of the Kingdom came back into force, and the Cortes reconvened to prepare a new text. The change of constitution faced several obstacles, mainly from Spain and from supporters of the Queen.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Portugal's biggest problems at this time, however, related to the independence of Brazil, which had been the country's largest source of wealth. The loss of Brazil had a great negative impact on the Portuguese economy. An expedition to reconquer the former colony was even considered, but the idea was soon abandoned. Difficult negotiations and consultations undertaken in Europe in Rio de Janeiro with British diplomatic mediation resulted in the final recognition of the independence on 29 August 1825. At the same time, John freed all the Brazilians who were prisoners and authorized trade between both nations. It was agreed that Pedro would govern Brazil as Emperor, while John kept for himself the honor of Titular Emperor of Brazil; from this time, he signed official documents as "His Majesty the Emperor and King Dom John VI" ("Sua Majestade o Imperador e Rei Dom João VI"). Brazil was required to pay certain funds that it had borrowed from Portugal. Nothing in the treaty spoke of the succession of the two crowns, but Pedro, still acting as the Prince Royal of Portugal and Algarve, implicitly remained heir to the Portuguese throne.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: On 4 March 1826, John returned from the Hieronymites Monastery where he had lunched and retired to Bemposta Palace feeling poorly. He was racked for several days by symptoms including vomiting and convulsions. He appeared to be getting better, but by way of prudence designated his daughter Infanta Isabel Maria as regent. On the night of 9 March, he took a turn for the worse and died at approximately 5 a.m. on 10 March. The infanta immediately assumed the internal government of Portugal, and Pedro was recognized as the legitimate heir as King Dom Pedro IV. Doctors could not definitively determine a cause of death, but it was suspected that John had been poisoned. His body was embalmed and buried in the mausoleum of the Kings of Portugal, the Royal Pantheon of the House of Braganza, in the Monastery of São Vicente de Fora. In the 1990s, a team of investigators exhumed the Chinese ceramic pot that contained his bowels. Fragments of his heart were rehydrated and submitted to an analysis that detected enough arsenic to kill two people, confirming longstanding suspicions of assassination by poison.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: As a youth, John was a retiring figure, heavily influenced by the clergy, and lived surrounded by priests and attending daily Mass in the church. Nonetheless, Oliveira Lima affirms that rather than being an expression of personal piety, this merely reflected Portuguese culture at that time, and that the King


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John had a great appreciation of sacred music and was a great reader of works about art, but he detested physical activity. He appeared to have suffered periodic crises of depression. An aversion to changes in his routine extended to his clothing: he wore the same coat until it tore, forcing his chamberlains to sew it on his body while he slept in it. He suffered from panic attacks when he heard thunder, staying in his rooms with the windows shut and receiving no one.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John's marriage was never a happy one. Rumors circulated that at the age of 25 he fell in love with Eugênia José de Menezes, his wife's chaperone. She became pregnant, and John was suspected of being the father. The case was hushed up, and the young woman was sent to Spain to bear the child. She gave birth to a daughter, whose name is unknown. The mother lived the rest of her life in nunneries and John supported her financially.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: In the precarious and spare environment of Rio, the King's personal habits were simple. In contrast to his relative isolation in Portugal, he became more personally dynamic and interested in nature. He moved frequently between the Paço de São Cristóvão and the viceregal palace in the city, staying also at times at Paquetá Island, Governador Island, at Praia Grande (the beach at Niterói), and at the House of Santa Cruz. He went hunting and happily slept in a tent or under a tree. He liked the countryside, despite the swarms of mosquitoes and other pests and the scorching heat of the tropics that were detested by the majority of the Portuguese and other foreigners.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: In the course of his few years living in Brazil, John ordered the creation of a series of institutions, projects and services that brought the country immense economic, administrative, juridical, scientific, cultural, artistic and other benefits, although not all went successfully, and some were downright dysfunctional or unnecessary, as Hipólito José da Costa mordantly observed. Among these, he was responsible for establishing the Imprensa Régia (the country's first publishing house), the Rio de Janeiro Botanical Garden the Arsenal de Marinha, the Fábrica de Pólvora (gunpowder factory), Rio's fire department, Brazil's merchant marine, and the charity hospital known as the Casa dos Expostos. He also established various educational programs in Rio, Pernambuco, Bahia and other places, teaching such subjects as dogmatic and moral theology, integral calculus, mechanics, hydrodynamics, chemistry, arithmetic, geometry, French, English, botany and agriculture, among others. He instigated the foundation of various societies and academies for scientific, literary and artistic studies, such as the Junta Vacínica (administering the smallpox vaccine), the Royal Bahiense Society of Men of Letters, the Academic Institute of Sciences and Fine Arts, the Fluminense Academy of Sciences and Arts, the Escola Anatômica, Cirúrgica e Médica do Rio de Janeiro, the Royal Academy of Artillery, Fortification and Design, the Academia dos Guardas-Marinhas, the Academia Militar, the National Library of Brazil, the Royal Museum (now National Museum of Brazil), the Teatro Real de São João (now Teatro João Caetano), as well as recruiting internationally famous soloists and patronizing other musicians of the Royal Chapel, including Father José Maurício, the leading Brazilian composer of his time, supporting also the coming of the Missão Artística Francesa, which resulted in the establishment of the Escola Real de Ciências, Artes e Ofícios, predecessor of the present-day Escola Nacional de Belas Artes of the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, of fundamental importance the renewal of teaching and art production in Brazil.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John's policies led to far-reaching economic changes, beginning with the opening of the ports and the abolition of the Portuguese commercial monopolies, with the United Kingdom being the great beneficiary. On the one hand, traders based in Brazil had to face strong foreign competition; on the other, it encouraged the creation of new manufacturing and other economic activities that were previously banned, poor or nonexistent in Brazil. At the same time, he created such high-level administrative bodies as the War Ministry, the Foreign Ministry, and the Ministry of Marine and Overseas; the Councils of State and of Finance, the Supreme Military Council, the Military Archive, the Bureaus of Justice and of Conscience and Orders, the Casa de Suplicação (Supreme Court), the Intendency General of Police, the first Bank of Brazil the Royal Board of Commerce, Agriculture, Factories and Navigation, and the General Postal Administration, as well as bringing Brazilians into administrative and staff positions, which helped diminish tensions between the natives and the Portuguese. He also encouraged agricultural production, especially cotton, rice and sugar cane, opened roads and encouraged the development of inland waterways, stimulating the movement of people, goods and products between regions.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: According to Pedreira and Costa, few Portuguese monarchs have as large a place in the popular imagination as Dom John VI. That image is very varied, "but rarely for good reason. ... It is not strange that the tribulations of his marriage and family life and the references to his personality and personal customs, inviting easy caricature and circulation of an unflattering, if not comic, tradition." the King is popularly shown as indolent, silly and clumsy, subjugated by a shrewish wife, a disgusting glutton who always had baked chicken in his coat pockets to eat them at any time with greasy hands, a version typified by the Brazilian film "Carlota Joaquina – Princesa do Brasil" (1995), a parody mixed with sharp social criticism. That work had enormous repercussions, but, according to the critical commentary of Ronaldo Vainfas, "it is a story full of errors of all types, misrepresentations, imprecisions, inventions"; for historian Luiz Carlos Villalta, "it constitutes a broad attack on historical knowledge", in contrast to director Carla Camurati's stated intent "to produce a cinematic narrative that would constitute a type of historical novel with pedagogic function and, at the same time, would offer the viewer knowledge of the past and would help, as a people, to think about the present. It does not offer new historical knowledge to the viewer, even if one were to treat history as a novel: it reinforces, in truth, the ideas that the viewers bring, being zero in terms of increased knowledge... In this way, it leads the viewer more to debauchery than to critical reflection on the history of Brazil".


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Diverse visual representations of John range from an overweight, oversized, sloppy appearance to a dignified and elegant character. As for historians' portrayals, researcher Ismênia de Lima Martins writes, "If there is agreement among all authors who relied on the testimony of those who knew him closely for his kindness and affability, all the rest is controversy. While some pointed to his countenance of a statesman, others considered him a coward and completely unprepared to govern. In any event, Dom João VI left his indelible mark on Portuguese-Brazilian history, a fact that resonates to the present, through a historiography that insists on judging the King, despite the transformations that discipline experienced over the course of the twentieth century".


title: John VI of Portugal

text: In governing, John always depended on strong auxiliaries. Prominent among these were Rodrigo de Sousa Coutinho, 1st Count of Linhares; António de Araújo e Azevedo, 1st Count of Barca; and Tomás Antônio de Vila Nova Portugal. They may be considered the mentors of many of John's most important undertakings, but according to John Luccock: "The prince regent has been various times accused of apathy; to me, he seemed to have greater sensitivity and strength of character than was generally attributed to him by both friends and opponents. He was placed in new circumstances by which he was tested, bowing before them with patience; if incited, he acted with vigor and promptness". He also praised King John's character, reaffirming his kindness and attention. Oliveira Lima, with his classic "Dom João VI no Brasil" (1908), was one of the major figures responsible for the beginning of John's large-scale rehabilitation. He researched innumerable documents of the era without finding unfavorable descriptions of the King by Brazilians or by ambassadors and other diplomats accredited to the court. On the contrary, he found many accounts that painted him in favorable colors, such as the testimonies left by the British consul Henderson and the U.S. minister Sumter, who "greatly preferred to address himself directly to the monarch, always willing to do justice, than to confer with his ministers... deeming him in this matter much more advanced than his courtiers". Diplomatic documents also confirm the breadth of his political vision, aiming to give Brazil an importance in the Americas comparable to the United States, adopting a discourse similar the U.S. doctrine of Manifest Destiny. He asserted his authority without violence, more in a persuasive and affable manner; his conduct of international affairs, although sometimes unsuccessful and somewhat given to imperialist ambitions, in many other ways was far-seeing and harmonious, as indicated by the many actions described above that improved the living conditions of the Brazilian colony.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Nonetheless, the French general Jean-Andoche Junot described John as "a weak man, suspicious of everyone and everything, jealous of his authority but incapable of making it respected. He is dominated by the fathers [that is, priests] and can act only under the duress of fear", and several Brazilian historians such as , Tobias Monteiro and Luiz Norton draw him in comparably dark colors. Among the Portuguese, such as Oliveira Martins and Raul Brandão, he was invariably portrayed as a burlesque figure until the conservative resurgence of 1926, when he began to find defenders, such as Fortunato de Almeida, Alfredo Pimenta and Valentim Alexandre. It is also certain that many were disaffected with him, that he raised taxes and aggravated the debt, multiplied titles and hereditary privilege, that he could not allay the vast array of internal dissensions or eliminate entrenched administrative corruption, and that he left Brazil on the brink of bankruptcy when he emptied the treasury to return to Portugal.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Whatever the King's character may have been, the importance of his reign for a remarkable spurt of development for Brazil and, indeed, for the very unity of that nation is incontestable. Gilberto Freyre affirms that "Dom John VI was one of the personalities who had the greatest influence over the formation of the nation... he was an ideal mediator... between tradition – which he incarnated – and innovation – which he welcomed and promoted – during that decisive period for the Brazilian future". As Laurentino Gomes puts it, "no other period of Brazilian history testifies to such profound decisive and rapid changes as the thirteen years in which the Portuguese court lived in Rio de Janeiro". Scholars such as Oliveira Lima, Maria Odila da Silva Dias, Roderick Barman and the aforementioned Laurentino believe that had John not come to the Americas and installed a strong central government, the large territory of Brazil, with important regional differences, would probably have fragmented into several distinct nations, as occurred with the vast neighboring Spanish colony. This opinion was shared by the British admiral Sir Sidney Smith, who served as commander of the squadron that escorted the Portuguese royal court as they fled to Brazil.


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Recent biographies try to separate fact from legend and counter the folklore of ridicule that had formed around King John and which lacks documentary basis. Lúcia Bastos warns that even today we need to be careful to place certain matters in their historical context, such as the question of corruption, noting that although there were enormous costs and clear abuses, at that time there was no clear separation between the public treasury and the monarch's private accounts, and in the logic of the Old Regime "the King is the owner of the state... of which the distribution of spoils forms part: the King is the dispenser of justice and spoils". Before dying on Saint Helena, John's most powerful enemy, Napoleon, said of him: "He was the only one who deceived me." José Joaquim Carneiro de Campos, the Marquis of Caravelas, praised John in the Brazilian Senate on the occasion of the King's death, saying, "All of us who are here have many reasons to praise the memory of King John VI, we all ought to be grateful, for the benefits he gave us: he raised Brazil to a kingdom, provided well for all of us, treated us always with great affection, and all Brazilians are obligated to him."


title: John VI of Portugal

text: John married Carlota Joaquina of Spain (25 April 1775 – 7 December 1830) in 1785 and had several children:


title: John VI of Portugal

text: "By the Grace of God, John VI, King of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves, of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India, etc".


title: John VI of Portugal

text: When Portugal recognized the independence of Brazil, references to the former united kingdom were finally removed from the royal title; under the Treaty of Rio de Janeiro, King John VI became titular Emperor of Brazil and, from 15 November 1825 onwards he adopted the style:<br>


title: John VI of Portugal

text: "By the Grace of God, John VI, Emperor of Brazil, King of Portugal and the Algarves, of either side of the sea in Africa, Lord of Guinea and of Conquest, Navigation and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia and India, etc".


title: John VI of Portugal

text: Patrilineal descent is the principle behind membership in royal houses, as it can be traced back through the generations, which means that John VI is, ultimately, a member of the Robertian dynasty.


title: Judith Ivey

text: Judith Lee Ivey (born September 4, 1951) is an American actress and theatre director. She has twice won the Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play: for "Steaming" (1981) and "Hurlyburly" (1984). She has also appeared in several films and television series. For her role in "What the Deaf Man Heard" (1997), she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Limited Series or Movie.


title: Judith Ivey

text: Ivey was born on September 4, 1951, in El Paso, Texas, the daughter of Nathan Aldean Ivey, a college instructor and dean and Dorothy Lee (née Lewis), a teacher.


title: Judith Ivey

text: Between 1965 and 1968 she attended Union High School through tenth grade in Dowagiac, Michigan. She graduated from Marion High School in Marion, Illinois, in 1970, and is an alumna of John A. Logan College, Southern Illinois University (Carbondale), and Illinois State University (Normal, Illinois).


title: Judith Ivey

text: Ivey won two Tony Awards as Best Featured Actress in a Play for "Steaming" in 1983 and "Hurlyburly" in 1985. She was also nominated for "Park Your Car in Harvard Yard" in 1992 and a revival of "The Heiress" in 2013. Other Broadway theatre credits include "Piaf", "Bedroom Farce", "Blithe Spirit", Voices in the Dark, and "Follies".


title: Judith Ivey

text: She portrayed Amanda in "The Glass Menagerie" at the Long Wharf Theatre and reprised the role in March 2010 at the Roundabout Theatre in New York, as well as the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles. She received the Lucille Lortel Award for Best Actress for that portrayal. Ivey portrayed Ann Landers in the solo play "The Lady With All the Answers" at the Cherry Lane Theatre (off-Broadway) in October 2009. She was nominated for Best Solo Performance for the Lucille Lortel Award and Drama Desk Award. In 2016, she returned to the Cherry Lane Theatre in Israel Horovitz's play "Out Of The Mouths Of Babes" with Estelle Parsons, directed by Barnet Kellman.


title: Judith Ivey

text: Ivey has appeared in numerous films, including "Brighton Beach Memoirs", "Miles from Home", "Compromising Positions", "Harry & Son", "The Woman in Red", "Sister, Sister", "In Country", "Hello Again", "The Lonely Guy", "There Goes the Neighborhood", "The Devil's Advocate", "What Alice Found", and "Flags of Our Fathers".


title: Judith Ivey

text: Despite a long history of theater and film performances, Ivey is often associated with the role of B.J. Poteet in the final season of "Designing Women". She appeared on "Will & Grace" as the mother of Dr. Leo Markus, and also appeared on "Grey's Anatomy", "Person of Interest", "White Collar", "Nurse Jackie", "Big Love", and "".


title: Judith Ivey

text: Other television roles include starring roles as Kate McCrorey in the 1990–91 series "Down Home", set in a Texas coastal town, Alexandra Buchanan in the short-lived series "The 5 Mrs. Buchanans", and "Buddies" with Dave Chappelle. Ivey was also in the 1985 TV remake of "The Long Hot Summer", in the role of Noel Varner (Joanne Woodward's role in the 1958 film version). The miniseries also starred Jason Robards and Don Johnson. Ivey was nominated for an Emmy for her performance in "What the Deaf Man Heard", a Hallmark Hall of Fame presentation. She also provided the voice of Eleanor Sherman in the animated series "The Critic". Ivey appeared in the television miniseries "Rose Red" (based on a Stephen King novel) as Cathy, one of the psychics investigating a haunted house.


title: Judith Ivey

text: Ivey was married to actor Ricardo Gutierrez. They divorced before her move to New York. She is now married to Tim Braine and they have two children.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi is a public institute of technology located in New Delhi, India. It is one of the 23 IITs created to be Centres of Excellence for training, research and development in science, engineering and technology in India.


title: IIT Delhi

text: Established in 1961, was formally inaugurated in August 1961 by Prof. Humayun Kabir, Minister of Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs. First admissions were made in 1961.The current campus has an area of 320 acres (or 1.3 km) and is bounded by the Sri Aurobindo Marg on the east, the Jawaharlal Nehru University Complex on the west, the National Council of Educational Research and Training on the south, and the New Ring Road on the north, and flanked by Qutub Minar and the Hauz Khas monuments.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The institute was later decreed in the Institutes of National Importance under the Institutes of Technology Amendment Act, 1963, and accorded the status of a full University with powers to decide its academic policy, conduct its examinations, and award its degrees.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The concept of IIT was first introduced by Sh. N.M.Sircar, then a Member of Education on Viceroy's executive council. Following his recommendations, the first Indian Institute of Technology was established in the year 1950 in Kharagpur. In his report, Shri Sircar had suggested that such Institutes should also be started in different parts of the country. The Government having accepted these recommendations of the Sircar Committee decided to establish more Institutes of Technology with the assistance of friendly countries who were prepared to help. The first offer of help came from the USSR who agreed to collaborate in the establishment of an Institute through UNESCO at Bombay. This was followed by the Institutes of Technology at Madras, Kanpur, and Delhi with collaborations with West Germany, the United States, and UK respectively.


title: IIT Delhi

text: H.R.H. Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh laid the foundation stone of the college at Hauz Khas on 28 January 1959 during his visit to India. The first admissions were made in 1961. The College of Engineering & Technology was registered as a society on 14 June 1960 under the Societies Registration Act No. XXI of 1860 (Registration No. S1663 of 1960–61). The students were asked to report at the college on 16 August 1961, and the college was formally inaugurated on 17 August 1961 by Humayun Kabir, Minister of Scientific Research & Cultural Affairs. Initially, the college ran in the Kashmiri Gate campus of Delhi College of Engineering (now known as Delhi Technological University) before shifting to its permanent campus in Hauz Khas. The Department of Textile Technology of Delhi College of Engineering was shifted out en-block to mark the beginning of the IIT Delhi at its new campus at Hauz Khas. The college was later accorded the status of a university and was renamed as Indian Institute of Technology Delhi. IIT Delhi celebrated its Golden Jubilee in 2011, and its Diamond Jubilee in 2021.


title: IIT Delhi

text: In 2018, IIT Delhi was one of the first six institutes to be awarded the Institute of Eminence status. According to a government statement issued earlier, these IoEs will have greater autonomy in that they will be able to admit foreign students up to 30% of the admitted students and recruit foreign faculty up to 25% of the faculty strength with enhanced research funding.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The primary campus of IIT Delhi is located in Hauz Khas, South Delhi, with Sonipat and Jhajjar being the two satellite campuses. The campus of is surrounded by the Hauz Khas area and monuments such as the Qutub Minar and Lotus Temple. The campus is also close to other educational institutions such as the Jawaharlal Nehru University, Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, National Institute of Fashion Technology, National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) and Indian Statistical Institute.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The student residential zone consists of 14 student hostels which are named after the mountain ranges of India. It is divided into two main sectors— one for the 11 boys hostels and another for the 3 girls hostels.


title: IIT Delhi

text: Initially announced in 2012, the new IITD-Sonipat campus was unveiled in April 2018 by the Chief Minister of Haryana at the Technopark at Rajiv Gandhi Education City, Sonipat. The Technopark, of which this campus is part of, itself was established at a cost of INR175 crore (1.75 billion). The Campus in Sonipat focuses on Executive and Faculty Development programs for the engineering and technical colleges of Haryana state, as well as design and development of advanced technology, incubate more start-ups and promote industry collaboration.


title: IIT Delhi

text: Facilities include research & development labs set up by corporations jointly with IIT Delhi, business incubators, Impact Lab for Path, a global health innovation hub, high-end central research facility and Centre of Excellence in Smart manufacturing, training centers, and convention facilities. It can incubate and house 100 startups with residential facilities.


title: IIT Delhi

text: IITD-Jhajjar campus is located next to the AIIMS-Delhi's Jhajjar campus at Badsa village in Jhajjar district of Haryana. IIT-Delhi and AIIMS are jointly setting up a biomedical research park at this campus, including a joint Ph.D. supervision program and provision for adjunct faculty. IITD-Jhajjar is funded by the IITD and managed by the "Foundation for Innovation and Technology Transfer" (FITT).


title: IIT Delhi

text: All IITs follow the same organization structure which has the President of India as visitor at the top of the hierarchy. Directly under the president is the IIT Council. Under the IIT Council is the board of governors of each IIT.


title: IIT Delhi

text: Under the board of governors is the director, who is the chief academic and executive officer of the IIT. Under the director, in the organizational structure, comes the deputy director. Under the director and the deputy director, come the deans, heads of departments, registrar.


title: IIT Delhi

text: IIT Delhi offers Bachelor of Technology programs in various fields as well as dual degree B.Tech. - M.Tech. programs. Admission to these programs is done through Joint Entrance Examination – Advanced.


title: IIT Delhi

text: IIT Delhi also offers postgraduate programs awarding M.Tech. (by coursework), M.S. (by research), M.Sc., M. Des., MBA (DMS Delhi) under various departments and centres. The admission to M.Tech. program is carried out mainly based on Graduate Aptitude Test in Engineering (GATE). M.Des ( Master of Design ) admissions are through Common Entrance Examination for Design (CEED), M.Sc. admissions are through Joint Admission Test for Masters (JAM) and MBA admissions are through Common Admission Test (CAT).


title: IIT Delhi

text: In March 2018, IIT Delhi formally inaugurated a new Department of Design to bolster Research and Education on Design. The 25-year-old design course was earlier functioning under the ambit of IDDC (Instrument Design and Development Centre). IIT Delhi would be starting the B.Des (Bachelor of Design) program from the academic year 2022–2023.


title: IIT Delhi

text: Internationally, IIT Delhi was ranked 185 in the QS World University Rankings of 2022 and 54 in QS Engineering and Technology subject rankings of 2021. The same rankings ranked it 43 in Asia in 2020 and 18 among BRICS nations in 2019. It was ranked 401–500 in the world by the "Times Higher Education World University Rankings" of 2020, 67 in Asia and 38 among Emerging Economies University Rankings in 2020.


title: IIT Delhi

text: IIT Delhi ranked first among government engineering colleges in India by "India Today" in 2020. It ranked second among engineering colleges by "Outlook India" in 2019 and first by "The Week" in 2019. It ranked second among engineering colleges by the "National Institutional Ranking Framework" (NIRF) in 2020 and 2021. It ranked third and fourth in overall universities in 2020 and 2021 respectively.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The Department of Management Studies ranked 8th among management schools in India by NIRF in 2020, 17th by "Business Today"s "India's best B-schools 2019".


title: IIT Delhi

text: The institute organises its annual cultural fest Rendezvous, originally started in 1976. It is a four-day-long event held in October every year. In the 2019 version, Rendezvous hosted 280+ events, 15,000+ participants and 200+ artists from more than 25 countries.


title: IIT Delhi

text: Tryst, a technical fest organised by the student community of IIT Delhi is North India's largest science, technological and management festival. With 75+ events, Tryst attracts nearly 40,000+ students all across the nation.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The Office of Career Services (OCS), previously known as the Training and Placement (T&P) Unit, had the primary aim of helping students to find a job upon graduation. Its role has evolved with OCS focusing on year – round activities to provide career counseling, interview preparation and talks to expose students to the multitude of opportunities available.


title: IIT Delhi

text: There are a number of student bodies in IIT Delhi, each with its own set of responsibilities. The highest student body in IIT Delhi is the Student Affairs Council (SAC).


title: IIT Delhi

text: The Students Affairs Council is the apex student body of IIT-Delhi. The primary objective of SAC is to look after all the issues/problems concerning the students of IIT Delhi. The administrative decisions related to student affairs and infrastructure related issues are also addressed by SAC. The grievances and suggestions of the students are directed to the concerned administration for redressal through the SAC framework. SAC consists of the various boards of IIT Delhi and other committees.


title: IIT Delhi

text: As the name suggests BSW works for the welfare of all the students of IITD. The BSW shall organize welfare activities from time to time and look into other aspects of student welfare. The BSW shall provide financial aid to the needy students as per the decided rules. BSW has the responsibility of organising Speranza, the annual youth festival of IIT Delhi.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The board monitors the sports domain of the institute. It is responsible for maintaining the sports grounds of different sports, conducting Inter Hostel sports competition, ensure and manage the participation of IIT Delhi in Inter IIT Sports Meet (the annual sports event of all the IITs). Apart from this, BSA is also responsible for conducting Sportech, the annual Sports Festival of IIT Delhi.


title: IIT Delhi

text: The other student council is the Co-curricular and Academic Interaction Council (CAIC). which deals with the academic and co-curricular activities of the students. There are 45 student representatives to the CAIC: 22 from the UG students and 23 from the PG students, apart from 2 representatives from each co-curricular body. The co-curricular activities under the CAIC are:


title: IIT Delhi

text: The Association for Computing Machinery is an educational and scientific society which works with the motto of "Advancing Computing as a Science and Profession". The IIT Delhi Student Chapter of the ACM was established in 2002 to address the needs of the IIT Delhi computing community. The goal of the chapter is to create interest among the students for computer science, apart from what they learn during the course work. The chapter organises workshops and talks on different subjects by speakers who are well known in their area. These talks give students opportunities to learn about advanced research subjects. Apart from these, some non-technical activities are also organised. The IIT Delhi Chapter won the ACM Student Chapter Excellence Award for its Outstanding Activities during 2009–10. In 2012, the team of Rudradev Basak, Nikhil Garg, and Pradeep Mathias of IIT Delhi, achieved India's best ever rank at the ACM ICPC World Finals, by finishing 18th


title: IIT Delhi

text: The Technology Business Incubator Unit (TBIU) is the incubation cell at IIT Delhi. It has been in active operation in the institute since the year 2000. The objective of the TBIU is primarily to promote partnership with new technology entrepreneurs and start-up companies. Every year, startups are selected into the incubation program and provided support to create innovative technology companies.


title: Dean (education)

text: Dean is a title employed in academic administrations such as colleges or universities for a person with significant authority over a specific academic unit, over a specific area of concern, or both. In the United States and Canada, deans are usually the head of each constituent college and school that make up a university. Deans are common in private preparatory schools, and occasionally found in middle schools and high schools as well.


title: Dean (education)

text: A "dean" (Latin: "decanus") was originally the head of a group of ten soldiers or monks. Eventually an ecclesiastical dean became the head of a group of canons or other religious groups.


title: Dean (education)

text: When the universities grew out of the cathedral schools and monastic schools, the title of dean was used for officials with various administrative duties.


title: Dean (education)

text: In Bulgarian and Romanian universities, a dean is the head of a faculty, which may include several academic departments. Every faculty unit of university or academy. The dean can appoint his deputies: a vice dean of university work and vice dean of science activity.


title: Dean (education)

text: In a Canadian university or a college, a dean is typically the head of a faculty, which may include several academic departments. Typical positions include dean of arts, dean of engineering, dean of science and dean of business. Many universities also have a dean of graduate studies, responsible for work at the postgraduate level in all parts of the university.


title: Dean (education)

text: The job description for deans at the University of Waterloo is probably typical, and reads in part, "The dean of a faculty is primarily a university officer, serving in that capacity on the senate, appropriate major committees and on other university bodies. As university officer, the dean has the dual role of making independent judgments on total university matters and representing the particular faculty's policies and points of view. The dean should oversee the particular faculty's relations with other faculties to ensure that they are harmonious and serve the total university's objectives. The dean will report directly to the vice president, academic and provost."


title: Dean (education)

text: There may be associate deans responsible to the dean for particular administrative functions. McGill University also uses the title of pro-dean to refer to the ad hoc officer responsible for administering a PhD thesis defence. They serve as the direct representative of the dean of graduate and postdoctoral studies and are responsible for the defence being handled in strict correspondence with the university regulations.


title: Dean (education)

text: In German speaking countries the Dean ('Dekan') is the head of an academic unit on the secondary level of a university, in most cases a faculty. Each university has broad discretion in grouping individual subjects together to form faculties, in some cases this might lead to a relatively loose compound of self-administered departments with a comparably weak dean's role, in other cases faculties might be organised in a more centralised manner. The dean is usually always a senior professorial member of the faculty, elected by the faculty council. Deans are not appointed by the university leadership but are an expression of the faculty's right to academic self-administration.


title: Dean (education)

text: A dean is aided by several pro-deans (Prodekan) who take over certain responsibilities of faculty administration and by an assistant dean (Dekanatsrat). The pro-deans are likewise elected professorial members of the faculty, while the assistant dean is usually a longterm administrative role with a strong academic background.


title: Dean (education)

text: In some universities in the United Kingdom the term "dean" is used for the head of a faculty, a collection of related academic departments. Examples include "Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Humanities". Similar usage is found in Australia and New Zealand.


title: Dean (education)

text: In collegiate universities such as Oxford and Cambridge, each college may have a dean who is responsible for discipline. An interview with the dean as a result of misbehaviour is referred to as a being "deaned". The dean may also, or instead, be responsible for the running of the college chapel. At Queens' College, Cambridge, and Jesus College, Cambridge, for example, the posts of "Dean of College" and "Dean of Chapel" are separate; likewise at Trinity College, Dublin, the posts of senior and junior deans (charged with the discipline of junior and senior members respectively) are distinct from the deans of residence (who organise worship in the college chapel). At Oxford the dean of the cathedral is the head of Christ Church.


title: Dean (education)

text: The University of Durham also has a dean of colleges, who is chosen from the various college principals and masters and takes a parallel role to the faculty deans in university-wide debate. There are also deans of Durham Law School and Durham University Business School.


title: Dean (education)

text: The dean of King's College London is unusual role among British universities, in that its dean is an ordained person, responsible for overseeing the spiritual development and welfare of all students and staff, as well as fostering vocations among the worshiping community.


title: Dean (education)

text: The term and position of dean is prevalent in American higher education. Although usage differs from one institution to another, the title is used in two principal ways:


title: Dean (education)

text: Almost every American law school, medical school, divinity school, or other professional school is part of a university, and so refers to its highest-ranking administrator as a dean. Most have several assistant or associate deans as well (such as an associate dean of academics or an associate dean of students), as well as a select few vice deans.


title: Dean (education)

text: The American Bar Association regulations on the operation of law schools, which must be followed for such an institution to receive and maintain ABA accreditation, define the role of the law school dean. These regulations specify that "A law school shall have a full-time dean, selected by the governing board or its designee, to whom the dean shall be responsible." Thus, a law school dean may not simply be a professor selected by fellow professors, nor even by the president of the university.


title: Dean (education)

text: Similar standards exist with respect to medical school deans. Specifically, the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), which accredits medical schools, thereby making them eligible for federal grants and state licensure, sets forth the operative conditions. LCME regulations require that the "chief official of the medical school, who usually holds the title 'dean,' must have ready access to the university president or other university official charged with final responsibility for the school, and to other university officials as are necessary to fulfill the responsibilities of the dean's office." The LCME further require that the dean "must be qualified by education and experience to provide leadership in medical education, scholarly activity, and care of patients" and that "[t]he dean and a committee of the faculty should determine medical school policies."


title: Dean (education)

text: Although most high schools are led by a principal or headmaster, a few (particularly private preparatory schools) refer to their chief authority as a dean. In large schools or some boarding schools there may be a dean of men or boys, and a dean of women or girls, or each year (freshman, sophomore, etc.) may have a dean. Some junior high schools and high schools have a teacher or administrator referred to as a dean who is in charge of student discipline and to some degree administrative services.


title: United States license plate designs and serial formats

text: In the United States, the appearance of license plates is frequently chosen to contain symbols, colors, or slogans associated with the issuing jurisdiction, which are the 50 U.S. states, the District of Columbia, the five inhabited U.S. territories, and Native American tribes, each of which independently registers motor vehicles. Regular-issue license plates for passenger vehicles typically have six or seven characters, with vanity plates having up to eight characters in a few states.


text: Formats for license plate numbers are consistent within the state. For example, Delaware is able to use six-digit all-numeric serials because of its low population. Several states, particularly those with higher populations, use seven-character formats of three letters and four digits, including 1ABC234 in California and ABC-1234 (with or without a space or dash) in Georgia, Michigan, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin. Other seven-character formats include Connecticut and Illinois, which use AB-12345, and Maryland, which uses 1AB2345.


text: Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, and New Jersey use four letters and two numbers: Arkansas uses an ABC-12D format, Colorado an ABC-D12 format, Florida a 12A-BCD format, and New Jersey an A12-BCD format. Several less-populous states—Alaska, Hawaii, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, and South Carolina—use a three-letter, three-number format, namely ABC-123 or 123-ABC.


text: Arizona uses a distinctive format with six characters. Except for the fourth character in each serial, which is always a number, the characters in a serial can be either letters or numbers.


text: License plate numbers are usually assigned in ascending order, beginning with a starting point such as AAA-001. Thus, an observer familiar with the sequence can determine roughly when the plate was issued. In a few cases, numbers have been assigned in descending order. For example, when Virginia switched to seven characters for its standard issue in 1993, numbers beginning with AAA-1000 were already in use for extra-cost, optional-issue plates; therefore, the new standard license plates were issued in descending order from ZZZ-9999.


text: In some states, the month of expiration or the county of registration is incorporated into the plate's serial. The last number on a Massachusetts license plate indicates the month the vehicle's registration expires (for example, "1234 AB" would expire in April, the fourth month; "0" indicates October expirations; and "X" and "Y" were used for November and December expirations, respectively, on commercial plates and pre-1978 passenger plates). The same applies to the first number or letter on West Virginia plates ("1" to "9" for January through September, and "O", "N", and "D" for October, November, and December expirations, respectively). Additionally, the first letter of Missouri passenger plates denotes the month of expiration. The month's position within the calendar year corresponds to the letter's position within the alphabet; i.e. the letters progress from "A" and "B" for January to "Y" and "Z" for December.


text: In Alabama, Montana, Nebraska, South Dakota, and Wyoming, a one- or two-digit number representing the county of issue begins a license plate number. Standard-issue Idaho license plate numbers begin with a single-letter or a number-letter code representing the county of issue; for example, vehicles registered in Ada County start with 1A, vehicles in Twin Falls County start with 2T, and vehicles in Valley County start with V (as there is only one county that starts with the letter V). County codes have been based on historical population figures, the county names in alphabetical order, or some combination thereof. In Montana, for example, the county codes were assigned around 1930 and have not changed since. Other states like Indiana and Tennessee also once used the practice, with Tennessee discontinuing in the 1980s and Indiana in 2008.


text: Four jurisdictions in the United States use letters to designate a residence where a vehicle was registered. In Hawaii, the license plates have a unique letter designation based on the island counties that residents purchased or registered the vehicles from; a vehicle with a registration number beginning with H or Z is registered in Hawai‘i County, one beginning with K is registered in Kaua‘i County, one beginning with M or L is registered in Maui County, and one beginning with any other letter (and not containing H, K, L, M, or Z) is registered in the City and County of Honolulu. In the U.S. territory of Guam, the license plates use the first two letters that are coded by village of issuance, for example, "TM-1234" refers to a vehicle that was registered by a person who lives the village of Tamuning. In the U.S. Virgin Islands, a vehicle with a registration number beginning with C is registered in St. Croix, J in St. John, and T in St. Thomas.


text: Several states do require vehicles to display county codes, but these codes are not part of the serial. Indiana and Ohio display two-number county codes, while Kansas plates display two-letter county codes, but these codes are placed on a sticker or are printed in the corner of the plate in a smaller font size. Texas places the county name only on the windshield registration sticker, where the car's license plate number is also printed. Florida, Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi, Ohio, and Tennessee place the full name of the county of registration explicitly on their standard-issue plates, although not as part of the serial. However, Florida allows its residents to choose either "Sunshine State" or "In God We Trust" in place of the county name, and Georgia allows drivers to choose the slogan "In God We Trust" in place of the county name.


text: For various reasons related to visibility and readability, some states and territories exclude certain letters from use in their license plate serial formats. The most commonly skipped characters are I, O, and Q, with some states using only one or two of the three while others will skip all three of these letters. Other states, such as Colorado, Georgia, and South Carolina have gradually adopted one or more of these letters over a course of years after previously skipping them in order to accommodate the demands of population growth and depletion of available serial combinations. The most common argument behind skipping I, O, and Q is that they can be too easily confused with 0, 1, and other characters, particularly when there isn't adequate spacing or divider between numbers and letters.


text: California only uses I, O, and Q in between two other letters, for example "1AQA000". A unique example of character use is Texas, which skips all vowels along with the letter Q on passenger plates.


text: In amateur radio license plate issues, some states use a unique slashed zero character in place of the standard "0" character due to lack of spacing between letters and numbers. Iowa is a unique example in the use of this character, which began using the slashed zero beginning in 2012 on all standard passenger plates as opposed to the traditional symbol for zero to differentiate it from the letter "O" which is also used. In Pennsylvania, the die used for the number "0" is different than the one used for the letter "O" since the state's number dies are taller and narrower than its letter dies.


text: In the states, special plates displaying the International Symbol of Accessibility are issued to persons with disabilities that entitle them to special parking privileges. Alternately, a placard, which in some jurisdictions can be hung from the rear view mirror, may be issued; the placard has the advantage of being transferred from vehicle to vehicle.


text: The following tables give information on license plates currently being issued, with 2014 or later expiration dates, for private (non-commercial) use on passenger vehicles by the governments of the fifty U.S. states, the District of Columbia, the five inhabited U.S. territories, and Native American tribes. Information on serial numbering patterns is also given. Older designs and serial formats previously issued may still be valid for continued usage in certain jurisdictions; these are noted in a separate table below.


text: In addition to "regular" passenger plates, all jurisdictions also provide plates for other types of vehicles that may only be roughly similar in design and layout. Additionally, there has been an increasing trend in the field of "specialty" plates to promote specific causes or interests. To keep this table as simple as possible, most of these alternate types of plates will not be noted. More information may also be found within the individual articles for each state, as linked within the table. Exceptions to this guideline may be made for specialty plates that are available at no extra cost to the motorist, as these tend to be seen more commonly on the roads.


text: Plates with the following designs and serial formats are no longer being issued but may still be valid for use in certain instances. This table does not include year of manufacture registrations.


text: Diplomatic license plates are issued by the United States Department of State to accredited diplomats.


text: Prior to 1984 license plates for diplomatic vehicles were provided by the jurisdiction where the foreign mission was located. The District of Columbia provided license plates for missions headquartered in the capital, and New York provided plates for members of the United Nations, etc. Upon passage of the Foreign Missions Act in 1984 registration authority for foreign mission vehicles was centralized with the U.S. Department of State.


text: From 1984 until August 28, 2007, all plates issued followed the pattern of a letter identifying the status of the owner, followed by the two-letter country code, followed by a random three or four-digit number (S "AB" 1234). For member countries of the Organization of American States (OAS), a subset of that numbering pattern was allotted to vehicles based at those countries' missions to the OAS. Plates issued to cars based at the headquarters of the United Nations in New York City were issued in the reverse format, with the three or four-digit number first, followed by the two-letter country code, followed by the status code (1234 "AB" S).


text: The location of the status codes, either as the first or last character, allows the city of assignment to be easily identified because representatives of certain countries are limited to travel in a certain radius from their base. The status codes used until 2007 were "C" for Foreign Consul; "D" for Diplomat; "S" for Non-Diplomatic Staff; and "A" for the OAS. Status codes used for U.N. personnel until 2007 were "A" for the U.N. Secretariat; "D" for U.N. missions and diplomatic personnel; and "S" for U.N. Staff. The rights of the driver and car under diplomatic immunity are defined by this status code.


text: The country codes are unique to each particular country, but do not correlate to ISO Country Codes or other standards format. For example, in the system used until 2007, France is "DJ" rather than "F", and Australia is "XZ" rather than "AUS".


title: Houston Oilers

text: The Houston Oilers were a professional American football team that played in Houston from its founding in 1960 to 1996 before relocating to Memphis, and later Nashville, Tennessee becoming the Tennessee Titans. The Oilers began play in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League (AFL). The team won two AFL championships before joining the NFL as part of the AFL–NFL merger in the late 1960s.


title: Houston Oilers

text: The Oilers competed in the AFL's East division – along with the Buffalo Bills, the New York Jets and the Boston Patriots – before the merger, after which they joined the newly formed AFC Central. Throughout their existence the team was owned by Bud Adams. For the majority of their time in Houston, the team played their home games at the Astrodome, while Jeppesen Stadium and Rice Stadium hosted the team for their first eight years.


title: Houston Oilers

text: The Houston Oilers were the first champions of the American Football League, winning the 1960 and 1961 contests, but they never won another championship. The Oilers appeared in the 1962 AFL Championship, losing in double overtime to their in-state rivals, the Dallas Texans (now the Kansas City Chiefs); they also won the AFL East Division title in 1967 and qualified for the AFL Playoffs in 1969, both times losing to the Oakland Raiders. From 1978 to 1980, the Oilers, led by Bum Phillips and in the midst of the Luv Ya Blue campaign, appeared in the 1978 and 1979 AFC Championship Games, but lost both. The Oilers were a consistent playoff team from 1987 to 1993, an era that included both of the team's only division titles (1991 and 1993), as well as the dubious distinction of being on the losing end of the largest comeback in NFL history. For the rest of the Oilers' time in Houston, however, they compiled losing seasons in almost every other year.


title: Houston Oilers

text: The Houston Oilers' main colors were Columbia blue and white, with scarlet trim, while their logo was a simple derrick. Oilers jerseys were always Columbia blue for home and white for away. The helmet color was Columbia blue with a white derrick from 1960 through 1965, silver with a Columbia blue derrick from 1966 through 1971, and Columbia blue with a white and scarlet derrick from 1972 through 1974, before changing to a white helmet with a Columbia blue derrick beginning in 1975 and lasting the remainder of the team's time in Houston.


title: Houston Oilers

text: Owner Bud Adams, who had openly threatened to move the team since the late 1980s, relocated the Houston Oilers to Tennessee after the 1996 season, where they were known as the Tennessee Oilers for the 1997 and 1998 seasons. The Tennessee Oilers played the 1997 season in Memphis before moving to Nashville in 1998. In 1999, to coincide with the opening of their new stadium, Adams changed the team name to the Tennessee Titans and the color scheme from Columbia Blue, Scarlet, and White to Titans Blue, Navy, White, and Silver with scarlet accents. The franchise retained the Houston Oilers' team history and records, while the team name was officially retired by then-NFL Commissioner Paul Tagliabue, thus preventing a future Houston, Texas NFL team from using the Houston Oilers' name.


title: Houston Oilers

text: The Houston Oilers began in 1960 as a charter member of the American Football League. They were owned by Bud Adams, a Houston oilman, who had made several previous unsuccessful bids for an NFL expansion team in Houston. Adams was an influential member of the eight original AFL owners, since he, Dallas Texans/Kansas City Chiefs founder Lamar Hunt and Buffalo Bills founder Ralph Wilson were more financially stable than the other five (all three would go on to own their franchises for over forty years, whereas the others pulled out by the 1980s).