title: Rho

text: These characters are used only as mathematical symbols. Stylized Greek text should be encoded using the normal Greek letters, with markup and formatting to indicate text style.


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: She is best known for her role as Assistant State's Attorney Rhonda Pearlman on HBO’s "The Wire". She is also known for her roles as a serial killer Heather Taffet (aka "The Gravedigger") on the Fox series "Bones" and White House Counsel Cynthia Panabaker on NBC's series "The Blacklist".


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: Lovejoy was born in Abilene, Texas. Her father was in the Air Force and worked from Dyess Air Force Base.


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: Lovejoy lived in Connecticut, then Pittsburgh, before moving with her mother to Elkhart, Indiana, while Lovejoy was still in the fourth grade. Her mother, Marcia Fulmer, met her second husband in Elkhart and worked as Arts and Entertainment editor at "The Elkhart Truth". While in the fifth grade, Lovejoy played her first acting role as one of Big Daddy's grandchildren in an Elkhart Civic Theatre production of "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" in which her mother played the part of Mae (aka "Sister Woman"). Lovejoy subsequently appeared in several productions at the Elkhart Civic Theatre, often alongside her mother.


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: In 1980 Lovejoy graduated from Elkhart Memorial High School. In 1984 she graduated from the University of Evansville with a double major in Theater and Communications. She also earned a Master of Fine Arts from the New York University Tisch School of the Arts three years later.


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: In 1990 Lovejoy appeared in her first television role as Rosemary Kennedy in the ABC mini-series "The Kennedys of Massachusetts". Throughout the 1990s and 2000s she appeared on such series as "Law & Order", "Seinfeld", "Third Watch", "Spin City", "NYPD Blue", "The West Wing", "Cold Case" and "".


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: From 2002 to 2008 Lovejoy starred as Assistant State's Attorney Rhonda Pearlman on HBO’s "The Wire". From 2009 to 2011 she played the recurring role of the serial kidnapper and murderer Heather Taffet (aka "The Gravedigger") on the television series "Bones". In 2011 Lovejoy also appeared in the role of the mother of a student in the film "Bad Teacher" starring Cameron Diaz.


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: Lovejoy has also guest starred or held recurring roles on such TV series as "Lie to Me", "", "Criminal Minds", "Body of Proof", "Girls", "Orange Is the New Black", "American Gothic" and "Shameless".


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: Lovejoy has also appeared in several Broadway productions, including "Six Degrees of Separation" (1990), "Getting and Spending" (1998), "The Gathering" (2001) and Nora Ephron’s "Lucky Guy" starring Tom Hanks (2013).


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: In 2019, Lovejoy took part in "Promethea in Prison", a theatrical project that involved a reading of the ancient Greek play "Prometheus Bound". It featured an all-female cast that also included Sonja Sohn, one of Lovejoy's co-stars in "The Wire".


title: Deirdre Lovejoy

text: Also in 2019, Lovejoy starred in a one-person play she wrote, titled "Bird Elephant China". The autobiographical play dealt with a series of unexplained seizures that Lovejoy experienced in 2009. The seizures affected her memory and her ability to walk and talk for almost a year. She also experienced hallucinations during this time. Lovejoy has been seizure free since 2009.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Jean-Léon Gérôme (11 May 1824 – 10 January 1904) was a French painter and sculptor in the style now known as academicism. His paintings were so widely reproduced that he was "arguably the world's most famous living artist by 1880." The range of his oeuvre included historical painting, Greek mythology, Orientalism, portraits, and other subjects, bringing the academic painting tradition to an artistic climax. He is considered one of the most important painters from this academic period. He was also a teacher with a long list of students.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Jean-Léon Gérôme was born at Vesoul, Haute-Saône. He went to Paris in 1840 where he studied under Paul Delaroche, whom he accompanied to Italy in 1843. He visited Florence, Rome, the Vatican and Pompeii. On his return to Paris in 1844, like many students of Delaroche, he joined the atelier of Charles Gleyre and studied there for a brief time. He then attended the École des Beaux-Arts. In 1846 he tried to enter the prestigious Prix de Rome, but failed in the final stage because his figure drawing was inadequate.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: His painting "The Cock Fight" (1846) is an academic exercise depicting a nude young man and a very thinly draped young woman with two fighting cocks, with the Bay of Naples in the background. He sent this painting to the Paris Salon of 1847, where it gained him a third-class medal. This work was seen as the epitome of the Neo-Grec movement that had formed out of Gleyre's studio (including Henri-Pierre Picou and Jean-Louis Hamon), and was championed by the influential French critic Théophile Gautier, whose review made Gérôme famous and effectively launched his career.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme abandoned his dream of winning the Prix de Rome and took advantage of his sudden success. His paintings "The Virgin, the Infant Jesus and Saint John" and "Anacreon, Bacchus and Eros" took a second-class medal at the Paris Salon in 1848. In 1849, he produced the paintings "Michelangelo" (also called "In his Studio") and "A Portrait of a Lady".


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1851, he decorated a vase later offered by Emperor Napoleon III of France to Prince Albert, now part of the Royal Collection at St. James's Palace, London. He exhibited "Greek Interior", "Souvenir d'Italie", "Bacchus and Love, Drunk" in 1851; "Paestum" in 1852; and "An Idyll" in 1853.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1852, Gérôme received a commission to paint a large mural of an allegorical subject of his choosing. "The Age of Augustus, the Birth of Christ", which combined the birth of Christ with conquered nations paying homage to Augustus, may have been intended to flatter Napoleon III, whose government commissioned the mural and who was identified as a "new Augustus." A considerable down payment enabled Gérôme to travel and research, first in 1853 to Constantinople, together with the actor Edmond Got, and in 1854 to Greece and Turkey and the shores of the Danube, where he was present at a concert of Russian conscripts making music under the threat of a lash.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1853, Gérôme moved to the Boîte à Thé, a group of studios in the Rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs, Paris. This became a meeting place for artists, writers and actors, where George Sand entertained the composers: Hector Berlioz, Johannes Brahms and Gioachino Rossini and the novelists Théophile Gautier and Ivan Turgenev.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1854, he completed another important commission, decorating the Chapel of St. Jerome in the church of St. Séverin in Paris. His "Last Communion of St. Jerome" in this chapel reflects the influence of the school of Ingres on his religious works.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: To the Universal Exhibition of 1855 he contributed "Pifferaro", "Shepherd", and "The Age of Augustus, the Birth of Christ", but it was the modest painting "Recreation in a Russian Camp" that garnered the most attention.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1856, Gérôme visited Egypt for the first time. His itinerary followed the classic Grand Tour of the Near East, up the Nile to Cairo, across to Faiyum, then further up the Nile to Abu Simbel, then back to Cairo, across the Sinai Peninsula through Sinai and up the Wadi el-Araba to Jerusalem and finally Damascus. This heralded the start of many Orientalist paintings depicting Arab religious practice, genre scenes and North African landscapes.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Among these are paintings in which the Oriental setting is combined with depictions of female nudity. "The Slave Market", "The Large Pool of Bursa", "Pool in a Harem", and similar subjects were works of imagination in which Gérôme combined accurately observed Middle Eastern architectural details with idealized nudes painted in his Paris studio. (In 2019, the right wing populist German party, Alternative for Germany, used "The Slave Market" in a campaign poster in the 2019 European Parliament election.)


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In his travels, Gérôme collected artefacts and costumes for staging oriental scenes in the studio, and also made oil studies from nature for the backgrounds. In an autobiographical essay of 1878, Gérôme described how important oil sketches made on the spot were for him: "Even when worn out after long marches under the bright sun, as soon as our camping spot was reached I got down to work with concentration. But Oh! How many things were left behind of which I carried only the memory away! And I prefer three touches of color on a piece of canvas to the most vivid memory, but one had to continue on with some regret."


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme's reputation was greatly enhanced at the Paris Salon of 1857 by his display of "Egyptian Recruits Crossing the Desert", "Memnon and Sesostris", "Camels Watering", and "Suite d'un bal masqué" (purchased by the duc d'Aumale, now in the Musée Condé in Chantilly; a copy made by Gérôme in 1859, "The Duel After the Masquerade", is in the Walters Art Museum).


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1858, he helped to decorate the Paris house of Prince Napoléon Joseph Charles Paul Bonaparte in the Pompeian style. The prince had bought his "Greek Interior" (1850), a depiction of a brothel also in the Pompeian manner.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In "Ave Caesar! Morituri te Salutant", shown at the Salon of 1859, Gérôme returned to the painting of Classical subjects, but the picture failed to interest the public. "King Candaules" (1859) and "Phryne Before the Areopagus" and "Socrates Seeking Alcibiades in the House of Aspasia" (both 1861) gave rise to some scandal by reason of the subjects selected by the painter, and inspired bitter attacks by Paul de Saint-Victor and Maxime Du Camp. Also at the 1861 Salon he exhibited "Egyptian Chopping Straw" and "Rembrandt Biting an Etching", two very minutely finished works.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1863, he married Marie Goupil (1842–1912), the daughter of the international art dealer Adolphe Goupil. They had four daughters and one son. His oldest daughter was Jeanne (1863-1944) and she was followed by Suzanne (1867-1941; married to Aimé Morot), Blanche (1868-1918) and Madeleine (1875-1905). Upon his marriage he moved to a house in the Rue de Bruxelles, close to the Folies Bergère. He expanded it into a grand house with stables with a sculpture studio below and a painting studio on the top floor.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme was appointed as one of the three professors at the École des Beaux-Arts. He started with sixteen students. Between 1864 and 1904, more than 2,000 students received at least some of their art education through Gérôme's atelier at the École des Beaux-Arts. Places in Gérôme's atelier were limited, keenly sought and highly competitive. Only the best students were admitted and aspirants considered it an honour to be selected. Gérôme progressed his students through drawing from antique works, casts and followed by life study with live models generally selected on the basis of their physique, but occasionally for their facial expression in a sequence of exercises known as the "academie." Students drew parts of a bust before the entire bust, then parts of the live model before preparing full figures. Only when they had mastered sketching were they permitted to work in oils. They were also taught to draw clearly and correctly before consideration of tonal qualities. In his school, the floor sloped so that students had the fullest view of the model from the rear of the room. Students sat around any model in order of seniority, with the more senior students towards the rear so that they could draw the full figure, while the more junior members sat towards the front and concentrated on the bust or other part of the anatomy.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: According to John Milner, who studied with Gérôme, his atelier was the most "riotous" and "lewd" of all the studios at Beaux-Arts. Students were treated to bizarre initiation rites which included slashing each other's canvases, throwing students down stairs, out of windows, and onto upturned stools, staging fencing matches on the model's dais, in the nude and with paintbrushes loaded with paint.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme attended every Wednesday and Saturday, demanding punctilious attendance to his instructions. His reputation as a severe critic was well-known. One of his American students, Stephen Wilson Van Shaick, commented that Gérôme was "merciless in judgement" yet possessed a "singular magnetism." Although Gérôme was very demanding of his students, he offered them considerable assistance outside Beaux-Arts, inviting them to his personal studio, making recommendations to the Salon on their behalf, and encouraging them to study with his colleagues.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme was elected, on his fifth attempt, a member of the Institut de France in 1865. Already a knight in the Légion d'honneur, he was promoted to an officer in 1867. In 1869, he was elected an honorary member of the British Royal Academy. The King of Prussia, Wilhelm I, awarded him the Grand Order of the Red Eagle, Third Class. His influence became extensive and he was a regular guest of Empress Eugénie at the Imperial Court in Compiègne.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Along with the most eminent French artists, he was invited to the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. The Société des Peintres Orientalistes Français (Society of French Orientalist Painters), founded in 1893, named Gérôme honorary president.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: "The Execution of Marshal Ney" was exhibited at the Salon of 1868. On behalf of Ney's descendants, Gérôme was asked to withdraw the painting, but did not comply. The general reception was very split and the 1868 Salon marked the beginning of a lasting divide between Gérôme and many French art critics, who accused him of relying on literary techniques, of commercialising art, and of bringing politics into art. Henri Oulevay made a caricature where Gérôme is depicted in front of the wall with the art critics as the firing squad.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1872 Gérôme produced "Pollice Verso", a painting of bloody gladiators and blood-thirsty Vestal virgins in the Colosseum that became one of his most famous works. Alexander Turney Stewart purchased the painting from Gérôme at a price of 80,000 francs, setting a new record for the artist. Gérôme's imagery of the turned thumb to signal life or death for a fallen gladiator was repeated in a multitude of movies, from the silent era up to and including the 2000 Oscar-winner "Gladiator".


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme returned successfully to the Salon in 1873 with his painting "L'Eminence Grise" (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), a colorful depiction of the main stair hall of the palace of Cardinal Richelieu, popularly known as the Red Cardinal ("L'Eminence Rouge"), who was France's "de facto" ruler under King Louis XIII beginning in 1624. In the painting, François Le Clerc du Trembly, a Capuchin friar dubbed "L'Eminence Grise" (the Gray Cardinal), descends the ceremonial staircase immersed in reading the Bible while all others either bow before him or fix their gaze on him. As Richelieu's chief adviser, "L'Eminence Grise" was called "the power behind the throne," which became the known definition of his title.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In his thirties, Gérôme took up sculpture. His first work was a large bronze statue of a gladiator holding his foot on his victim, based on his painting Pollice Verso (1872) and shown to the public at the Universal Exhibition of 1878. The same year he exhibited a marble statue at the Salon of 1878, based on his early painting "Anacreon, Bacchus and Eros" (1848).


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Aware of contemporary experiments of tinting marble (such as by those by John Gibson), he produced "Dancer with Three Masks" combining movement with color, first exhibited in 1902 and now in the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Caen.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Among his other sculptures are "Omphale" (1887) and the statue of the duc d'Aumale which stands in front of the Château de Chantilly (1899).


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: He experimented with mixed ingredients, using for his statues tinted marble, bronze and ivory inlaid with precious stones and paste. His "Dancer" was exhibited in 1891.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: His lifesize statue "Bellona", in ivory, bronze, and gemstones, attracted great attention at the 1892 exhibition in the Royal Academy of London.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme then began a series of conquerors, wrought in gold, silver and gems: "Bonaparte Entering Cairo" (1897), "Tamerlane" (1898), and "Frederick the Great" (1899).


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1903 Gérôme executed a two sculpture commission, "Metallugical Worker" and "Metallurgical Science" for the American millionaire Charles M. Schwab meant to glorify Steel production. Schwab sent an actual steel worker to Paris to pose for the works.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: During the last decades of his career, as his own work fell out of fashion, Gérôme was harshly critical of Impressionism. In 1894, he caused a scandal over his opposition to the Caillebotte bequest to the state which eventually became the foundation of the Musée d'Orsay collection. He organized a public demonstration in his atelier and gave interviews to reporters, including these comments published in the journal "L'Éclair":


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: The Institut de France cannot remain still before such a scandal...How can the government dare welcome such a collection of inanities into a museum? Why, have you seen the collection? The state, the ward of such junk!... What lessons are our young artists going to receive from now on? They'll all start to do Impressionism! Ah! these people believe they are painting nature, nature so admirable in all its manifestations! What pretension! Nature is not for them! This Monet, do you remember his cathedrals? And that man used to know how to paint! Yes, I've seen good things by him, but now!


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Similarly he objected to the Manet memorial exhibition at the École des Beaux Arts in 1884. But he did attend the opening, after which he paid Manet the backhanded compliment that the exhibition was "not so bad as I thought."


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Beginning in 1890, Gerome again drew inspiration from the ancient world with an interconnected, slyly self-referential series of paintings and sculptures that depicted Pygmalion and Galatea; the spirit of Tanagra; and himself.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 1890, Gérôme made at least two paintings of the mythical Greek sculptor Pygmalion kissing his statue of Galatea at the very moment she is transformed from marble into living flesh. The most famous of these paintings titled "Pygmalion and Galatea" is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art; it shows the sculptor and his living statue from the rear. A variation (in private hands) shows them from the front.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Also in 1890, responding to widespread fascination with the ancient Tanagra figurines recently excavated in Greece, Gérôme sculpted the 5-foot-high, tinted-marble "Tanagra", a female nude personifying the Tyche, or presiding spirit, of the ancient city. She holds on her upraised palm a figurine of a female Hoop Dancer (Gérôme's own invention, inspired by, but not a copy of, an actual Tanagra figurine). "Inspired by his characteristic desire for both archaeological accuracy and realism, Gérôme delicately tinted the skin, hair, lips, and nipples of his "Tanagra", causing a sensation at the Salon of 1890."


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme subsequently created smaller, gilded bronze versions of "Tanagra"; several versions of the "Hoop Dancer" figurine held by "Tanagra" (these became "Gérôme's most popular and widely reproduced sculpture"); two paintings of an imaginary ancient Tanagra workshop where copies of his own Hoop Dancer are on display; and two self-portraits of himself sculpting "Tanagra" from a living model in his Paris atelier, in which a Hoop Dancer and two different versions of "Pygmalion and Galatea" can be seen in the background. This complex self-portrait has been called "a summation of Gérôme's remarkable career as both painter and sculptor."


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In this cycle of works, with its exploration of Classical antiquity, creative inspiration, doppelgängers, and female beauty, we see Gérôme "powerfully evoking the continuous interplay between painting and sculpture, reality and artifice, as well as highlighting the inherently theatrical nature of the artist's studio."


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Beginning in the mid-1890s, in the last decade of his life, Gérôme made at least four paintings personifying Truth as a nude woman, either thrown into, at the bottom of, or emerging from a well. The imagery was inspired by an aphorism of the philosopher Democritus, "Of truth we know nothing, for truth is in a well."


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: "Truth Coming Out of Her Well, Armed with Her Whip to Chastise Mankind" was exhibited in the "Salon du Champ de Mars" of 1896. It has been assumed that the painting was a comment on the Dreyfus affair, but art historian Bernard Tillier argues that Gérôme's images of Truth and the well were part of his ongoing diatribe against Impressionism.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme himself invoked the metaphor of Truth and the well in a preface he wrote for Émile Bayard's "Le Nu Esthétique", published in 1902, to characterize the profound and irreversible influence of photography:


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Photography is an art. It forces artists to discard their old routine and forget their old formulas. It has opened our eyes and forced us to see that which previously we have not seen; a great and inexpressible service for Art. It is thanks to photography that Truth has finally come out of her well. She will never go back.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In 2012, the in Moulins, France, which now owns the painting, mounted the exhibition "La vérité est au musée" ("Truth is at the Museum"), which collected numerous drawings, sketches, and variants made by Gérôme, and by other artists, relating to the painting and its theme. The multiple interpretations of the painting's enigmatic meaning prompted one of the museum's curators to say, "C'est notre Joconde à nous." ("This is our "Mona Lisa".")


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: By the end of his life, Gérôme felt very much a man out of his time. In 1903, recalling his first meeting with Charles Jalabert in 1840, he wrote:At that time, Paris had nothing to do with the Paris of today: no railways, no bicycles, no cars; we were less agitated, and certain districts, among others the one we lived in and which we called the Latin Quarter, had a provincial aspect in their calm and tranquility. Now everything is changed; we no longer walk, we run like crazy; if we are not crushed during the day, we have a good chance of being murdered at night. It is charming. We have witnessed the end of a world, we are witnessing the dawn of a new one, which lacks the picturesque and above all serenity. The day is not far off when, through our customs, our ways of being, our love of the dollar ("auri sacra fames"), we will no longer be French, neither in spirit nor in heart. Horrible to think of! We will be Americans!


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: On 31 December 1903, Gérôme wrote to his student and former assistant Albert Aublet, "I begin to have enough of life. I've seen too much misery and misfortune in the lives of others. I still see it every day, and I'm getting eager to escape this theatre." He was to live just ten more days.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: On 10 January 1904, "the maid found him dead in the little room next to his atelier, slumped in front of a portrait of Rembrandt and at the foot of his own painting "Truth""—but the source for this anecdote, the biographer Moreau-Vauthier, does not specify which painting of "Truth". He was 79.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: At his own request, he was given a simple burial service without flowers. But the Requiem Mass given in his memory was attended by a former president of the Republic, most prominent politicians, and many painters and writers. He was buried in the Montmartre Cemetery in front of the statue "La Douleur (Pain)", which he had cast for his son Jean who had died in 1891.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme's legacy lived on through the works of his thousands of students from many countries, including: Odilon Redon, Mary Cassatt, Vasily Vasilyevich Vereshchagin, Stanisław Chlebowski, Ahmed Ali Bey, Henri-Camille Danger and Hosui Yamamoto, and many who traveled to Paris from the United States to study under him, including Thomas Eakins, Edwin Lord Weeks, and Gottardo Piazzoni.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme's prodigious energy, long career, and wide popularity resulted in an enormous body of work that now resides in museums and private collections around the world; Ackerman's revised "catalogue raisonné" of 2018 lists approximately 700 paintings and 70 sculptures.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: In the early 1870s Gérôme was known for an astonishing range of visual exotica, all realized in precise, minute detail, achieved with thin layers of paint that revealed nary a brushstroke...His works were particularly sought after by wealthy Americans...Over the course of his career, Gérôme sold to American patrons 144 paintings, nearly a quarter of his production. [A work by Gérôme in the Nob Hill mansion of Leland Stanford was destroyed in the San Francisco earthquake and fire of 1906.] Despite his prodigious output and enormous transatlantic success, most scholarly articles of recent decades cite Gérôme's work as a noxious blend of the trite, the exploitative and the stultifying academic. However, the latest scholarship is re-evaluating Gérôme and his importance in the nineteenth century. A 2010 essay by art historian Mary G. Morton…points out that, contrary to most twenty- and twenty-first century perspectives…Americans [in the 1800s] found Gérôme's paintings complex, edifying and completely modern.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: His well-researched and minutely detailed images of gladiator combats, chariot races, slave markets, and many other subjects from the ancient world created an indelible impression on popular culture.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: His ethnographic imagery of Arab and Islamic culture, controversial in his own lifetime, is now even more closely scrutinized, as is his penchant for female nudity; modern critics raise issues of "cultural appropriation" and "sexual exploitation". These issues of sex and race were epitomized by the use in 2019 of his painting "The Slave Market" in an anti-Muslim campaign poster by the right wing populist German party, Alternative for Germany, to the consternation of the American museum that owns the painting.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Despite charges that the Orientalizing paintings of Gérôme (and others) exploited and indulged in stereotypes of Arab and Muslim cultures, there is now "a high level of interest in collecting Gérôme's art in the Middle East," as evinced by high prices paid at auction for his work by the Qatar Museums Authority in Doha. "They want to take it back and have it for themselves," says art historian Emily M. Weeks. Egyptian industrialist and art collector Shafik Gabr sees Gérôme and other Orientalist painters as "intrepid early globalists who put themselves at risk to document a new world opened by Napoleon Bonaparte’s Egyptian expedition from 1798 to 1801…'I have been inspired by these painters…These people traveled under very difficult circumstances with no knowledge of what to expect. They didn't travel to conquer or find oil. They traveled to discover and to understand.'"


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: Gérôme's highly vocal opposition to Impressionism was a losing argument, and his work was relegated to the margins of art history by critics, historians, and museum professionals who believed thathis chosen themes corrupted the loftier purposes of art, thus leading to commercialism...they also objected to his orientalism, which they disparaged for being untrue, a perversion or concoction of the true Orient...Now, with the exhibition at the Getty Museum, and a larger version of the show opening at the Musée d'Orsay in October 2010, Gérôme is finally receiving the attention he deserves. No longer will he be lost in time, although his paintings, the way he developed them, and his relationship with many of the major issues of artistic creativity in the nineteenth century and beyond will remain controversial.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: As with other painters of Classical Realism and Academic art of the 19th century, Gérôme's prestige and popularity sharply declined in the 20th century; his painting "The Snake Charmer", which sold for $19,500 in 1888, sold for $500 in 1942. Now his works are once again sought-after in the international art market. In 2008, his painting "Femme circassienne voilée" or "Veiled Circassian Beauty" (1876) was auctioned for 2,057,250 GBP; it now belongs to the Qatar Museums Authority in Doha. In 2019, his painting "The Harem in the Kiosk" (c. 1870–1875) realized 2,655,000 GBP at auction, and his painting "Riders Crossing the Desert" (1870) realized 3,135,000 GBP.


title: Jean-Léon Gérôme

text: The most wide-ranging single collection of Gérôme's work may be the several rooms dedicated to displaying his paintings and sculptures at the Musée Georges-Garret in the artist's hometown of Vesoul. Gérôme donated several works to the museum during his lifetime, and his heirs donated more works after his death.


title: The Book of Giants

text: The Book of Giants is an apocryphal Jewish book which expands upon the Genesis narrative of the Hebrew Bible, in a similar manner to the Book of Enoch. Together with this latter work, the "Book of Giants" "stands as an attempt to explain how it was that wickedness had become so widespread and muscular before the flood; in so doing, it also supplies the reason why God was more than justified in sending that flood." The text's composition has been dated to before the 2nd century BC.


title: The Book of Giants

text: The "Book of Giants" is an antediluvian (pre-Flood) narrative that was received primarily in Manichaean literature and known at Turfan. However, the earliest known traditions for the book originate in Aramaic copies of a "Book of Giants" among the Dead Sea Scrolls. References to the "Giants" mythology are found in: Genesis 6:1-4, the books of Enoch (Ethiopic, Slavonic, Hebrew, Greek), Jubilees, Genesis Apocryphon, 2 and 3 Baruch (Slavonic), the Damascus Document, and visions in Daniel 7:9-14. This book tells of the background and fate of these ante-diluvial giants and their fathers, the Watchers (called "grigori" in the Slavonic 2 Enoch), the "sons of God" or "holy ones" (Daniel 4:13, 17) who rebelled against heaven when—in forbidden violation of the strict "boundaries of creation" —they commingled, in their lust, with the "daughters of men."


title: The Book of Giants

text: Their even more corrupt offspring, the giants, were variously called thereafter "nephilim", "gibborim", or "rephaim," being the earthly half-breed races that fought against God and his righteous followers whose numbers diminished as the world was overwhelmed with corruption and evil; the Manichaean fragments give these wicked ones the general name "demons" (Greek Enoch calls them "bastards"). Though the terms for the Watchers and their offspring are often confused in their various translations and iterations, collectively these rebellious races are referred to as the "fallen angels" in the apocryphal sources, as also in the biblical narratives that reference them.


title: The Book of Giants

text: Since before the latter half of the twentieth century, the "Book of Giants" had long been known as a Middle Iranian work (which some scholars now believe was written originally in Eastern Aramaic) that circulated among the Manichaeans as a composition attributed to Mani ("c". AD 216 – 274)—a Parthian citizen of southern Mesopotamia who appears to have been a follower of Elkesai, a Jewish-Christian prophet and visionary who lived in the early years of the second century. Some scholars, concordant with supporting evidence for the ancient sect's geographical distribution, have posited both genetic and ritual-custom similarities between the Elcesaites and the earlier Second Temple Jewish sect of the Essenes ("Essaioi" "Saints").


title: The Book of Giants

text: During the twentieth century a number of finds shed considerable light on the literary evidence for the Book of Giants. The 1943 publication by W. B. Henning of the Manichaean fragments from the Book of Giants discovered at Turfan in Western China (in what is now Xinjiang Province) have substantiated the many references to its circulation among, and use by, the Manichaeans. Further identification of the Manichaean Book of Giants was revealed in 1971 when Jósef T. Milik discovered several additional Aramaic fragments of Enochic works among the Dead Sea Scrolls; finding that the fragments bore close resemblance to Mani's "Book of Giants", he concluded that "Giants" was originally an integral part of 1 Enoch itself. These fragmentary scrolls in Aramaic, which represented an Enochic tradition that was likely introduced to Mani in his sojourn with the Elcesaites, appeared to have been the primary source utilized by Mani in the compilation of his book, in which he made the legend of the Watchers and the giants "a cornerstone of his theological speculations." For many scholars, the Qumran fragments confirmed the "Book of Giants" to originally have been an independent composition from the Second Temple period.


title: The Book of Giants

text: Among the fragments discovered at Qumran, ten manuscripts of the "Book of Giants" are identified by Loren Stuckenbruck. These fragments (1Q23, 1Q24, 2Q26, 4Q203, 4Q530, 4Q531, 4Q532, 4Q556, 4Q206, and 6Q8) were found in caves 1, 2, 4, and 6 at the site. These discoveries led to further classification of the Enochic works. In the third group of classification, ten Aramaic manuscripts contain parts of the "Book of Giants" which were only known through the Manichaean sources until the recognition of them at Qumran.


title: The Book of Giants

text: There has been much speculation regarding the original language of the Book of Giants. It was generally believed to have had a Semitic origin. Indeed, the discovery of this text at Qumran led scholars, such as C. P. van Andel and Rudolf Otto, to believe that while these ancient Aramaic compositions of the book were the earliest known, the work probably had even earlier Hebrew antecedents. It was R. H. Charles, translator and publisher in 1906 of "The Book of Enoch", who asserted that Enoch was "built upon the debris of" an older Noah saga than that in Genesis which only cryptically refers to the Enoch myth. But Milik himself offered his own hypothesis that Enoch's 'creation story' and law of God account naturally predate the Mosaic Sinai accounts in Genesis: He saw Genesis 6:1-4—long a puzzling passage to biblical scholars—as a quotation from what he believed ultimately to have been the earlier Enoch source. More recent scholarship, such as that of Klaus Beyer, indicates that the "Book of Giants" (parts of which have been found in Hebrew at Qumran) was "originally composed in Hebrew during the 3rd century BCE, while the names of the giants Gilgamesh and Hobabish betray a Babylonian provenance"—which Babylonian-origins claim based on the name appearances, however, is refuted by Martínez.


title: The Book of Giants

text: The text unearthed at Qumran in 1948 was composed of fragments in Aramaic. Because of the book's fragmentation, it was difficult for the documents' linguistic researchers and specialists to know, in its subsequently varied permutations, the exact order of the content. The "Giants" work is closely related to the 1 Enoch analogue, which also tells a story of the giants, but one which is far more elaborate. The Qumran "Book of Giants" also bears resemblance to the Manichaean "Book of Giants" that came after it. Scholars, beyond their many questions of the Enochic tradition's oral or written transmission, still don't know why the Qumran community considered the Enochic texts so important that they possessed and retained so many copies in comparison to other textual traditions found there.


title: The Book of Giants

text: The "Book of Giants" is an expansive narrative of the biblical story of the birth of "giants" in Genesis 6.1-4. In this story, the giants came into being when the Watcher "sons of God" (who, per the story's corroborative Jubilees account [Jub 4:15; 5:6], God originally dispatched to earth for the purpose of instructing and nurturing humanity "in proper ritual and ethical conduct," "to do what is just and upright upon the earth") were seduced by and had sexual intercourse with human women, who then birthed a hybrid race of giants. These Watchers ("grigori") and giants ("nephilim") engaged in destructive and grossly immoral actions which devastated humanity, including the revealing of heaven's holy "secrets" or "mysteries to their wives and children" and to mankind generally.


title: The Book of Giants

text: When Enoch heard of this, he was distressed and petitioned God, who in his longsuffering and by divine revelation and counsel called Enoch to preach repentance unto them, that the earthly races might avoid God's wrath and destruction. In his mercy, God chose also to give the fallen Watchers an additional chance to repent by transmitting dreams to several of their giant-sons, including two brothers named Ohyah and Hahyah who relayed the dreams to an assembly of their "grigori" and "nephilim" companions. This assembly of Watcher-giant associates were perplexed by the dreams, so they sent a giant named Mahway to Enoch's abode and to the places of his preaching (for Mahway had been instructed that he must first "hear" the prophet speak before petitioning him for the "oracle"). Enoch, in his attempt to intercede on their behalf, provided not only the oracle that the Watchers and giants had requested, but also twin "tablets" that revealed the full meaning of their dreams and God's future judgment against them.


title: The Book of Giants

text: When the Watchers and giants had at last heard heaven's response, many chose, in their transcendent pride and arrogance, rather than to turn from their evil ways, to act in defiance against God. The Qumran fragments are incomplete at this point.


title: The Book of Giants

text: The Qumran "Book of Giants", like its Manichaean counterpart, affiliates the names of the Sumerian hero Gilgamesh and the monster Humbaba with the Watchers and giants.


title: The Book of Giants

text: The Manichaean version is similar to the one found in Qumran, only adapted to Mani's story of the cosmos. The fallen angels are here archontic demons escaped from their prisons in the sky, where they were placed when the world was constructed. They would have caused a brief revolt, and in the process, two hundred of them escaped to the Earth. While most given names are simply transliterated into Iranian language, Ohyah and Hahyah are renamed "Sam" and "Nariman". This version also contains a complete ending, telling how the forces of the Light, led by four angels identified with Michael, Gabriel, Raphael, and Istrael, subdue the demons and their offspring in battle.


title: The Book of Giants

text: Much of the content in the "Book of Giants" is similar, and most closely relates, to 1 Enoch 7:3-6, a passage which sheds light on the characterizing features of the giants. It reveals that the giants were born of the Watcher "sons of God" and the "daughters of men." The giants, as their "prostituted" half-breed offspring, began to devour the works of what they perceived to be a lesser race (mankind) and went on to kill and to viciously exploit them in slavery and sexual debauchery. They also had sexual intercourse with animals, and raped one another. They murdered on a massive scale, and also aborted their own children.


title: The Book of Giants

text: The authorship of the Qumran "Book of Giants" is still a question among scholars. Some initially believed that the manuscript (despite so many extant copies from Qumran of the overall Enochic work) to have been little used among the desert sectaries; but more recent scholarship declares: "We know that the Qumran Essenes copied, studied, and "valued" the writings and teachings ascribed to Enoch". The Qumran discoveries decidedly ruled out any possibility that the Manicheans were the composers of the "Book of Giants", for their work followed later.


title: The Book of Giants

text: As far as comparisons that might be made with canonical texts, the books of Daniel and 1 Enoch both have similarities; for example in their visionary elements. Stuckenbruck suggests that "these similarities ... allow for the possibility that the author of Daniel 7 knew the early Enochic traditions well enough to draw on and then adapt them for his own purposes. Nowhere is this clearer than in the throne-theophany itself".


title: The Book of Giants

text: All of these Enochic writings would have held significance from the beginning of the first century. Indeed, the early Christian church treasured Enoch and held it canonical. However, due in no small part to the influence of the Alexandrian philosophers who ill-favored it — its contents thought by many of the Hellenistic era to be foolish or strange — the overall Enochic work rapidly ran afoul of ideas held by the Christian and Jewish doctors, who considered it a tainted product of the Essenes of Qumran. Milik has speculated the reason why the book was censored by Christian authors was its popular usage by Manichaeans. The book was soon banned by such orthodox authorities as Hilary, Jerome, and Augustine in the fourth century and it gradually passed out of circulation, finally becoming lost to the knowledge of Western Christendom — only sundry fragments remained.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: The Dzungar Khanate, also written as the Zunghar Khanate, was an Inner Asian khanate of Oirat Mongol origin. At its greatest extent, it covered an area from southern Siberia in the north to present-day Kyrgyzstan in the south, and from the Great Wall of China in the east to present-day Kazakhstan in the west. The core of the Dzungar Khanate is today part of northern Xinjiang, also called Dzungaria.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: About 1620 the western Mongols, known as the Oirats, united in Dzungaria. In 1678, Galdan received from the Dalai Lama the title of "Boshogtu Khan", making the Dzungars the leading tribe within the Oirats. The Dzungar rulers used the title of Khong Tayiji, which translates into English as "crown prince". Between 1680 and 1688, the Dzungars conquered the Tarim Basin, which is now southern Xinjiang, and defeated the Khalkha Mongols to the east. In 1696, Galdan was defeated by the Qing dynasty and lost Outer Mongolia. In 1717 the Dzungars conquered Tibet, but were driven out a year later by the Qing. In 1755, Qing China took advantage of a Dzungar civil war to conquer Dzungaria and destroyed the Dzungars as a people. The destruction of the Dzungars led to the Qing conquest of Mongolia, Tibet, and the creation of Xinjiang as a political administrative unit.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: "Dzungar" is a compound of the Mongolian word "jegün" (züün), meaning "left" or "east" and "γar" meaning "hand" or "wing". The region of Dzungaria derives its name from this confederation. Although the Dzungars were located west of the Khalkas, the derivation of their name has been attributed to the fact that they represented the left wing of the Oirats. In the early 17th century, the head of the Oirat confederation was the leader of the Khoshut, Gushi Khan. When Gushi Khan decided to invade Tibet to replace the local Tsangpa khan in favor of rule by the Gelug, the Oirat army was organized into left and right wing. The right wing consisting of Khoshuts and Torguts remained in Tibet while the Choros and Khoid of the Left wing retreated north into the Tarim basin, since then the powerful empire of the Choros became known as the Left Wing, i.e. Zuungar.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: The Oirats were originally from the area of Tuva during the early 13th century. Their leader, Quduqa Bäki, submitted to Genghis Khan in 1208 and his house intermarried with all four branches of the Genghisid line. During the Toluid Civil War, the Four Oirat (Choros, Torghut, Dörbet, and Khoid) sided with Ariq Böke and therefore never accepted Kublaid rule. After the Yuan dynasty's collapse, the Oirats supported the Ariq Bökid Jorightu Khan Yesüder in seizing the Northern Yuan throne. The Oirats held sway over the Northern Yuan khans until the death of Esen Taishi in 1455, after which they migrated west due to Khalkha Mongol aggression. In 1486, the Oirats became embroiled in a succession dispute which gave Dayan Khan the opportunity to attack them. In the latter half of the 16th century, the Oirats lost more territory to the Tumed.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: In 1620, the leaders of the Choros and Torghut Oirats, Kharkhul and Mergen Temene, attacked Ubasi Khong Tayiji, the first Altan Khan of the Khalkha. They were defeated and Kharkhul lost his wife and children to the enemy. An all out war between Ubasi and the Oirats lasted until 1623 when Ubasi was killed. In 1625, a conflict erupted between the Khoshut chief Chöükür and his uterine brother Baibaghas over inheritance issues. Baibaghas was killed in the fight. However, his younger brothers Güshi Khan and Köndölön Ubashi took up the fight and pursued Chöükür from the Ishim River to the Tobol River, attacking and killing his tribal followers in 1630. The infighting among the Oirats caused the Torghut chief Kho Orluk to migrate westwards until they came into conflict with the Nogai Horde, which they destroyed. The Torghuts founded the Kalmyk Khanate but still stayed in contact with the Oirats in the east. Every time a great assembly was called, they sent representatives to attend.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: In 1632, the Gelug Yellow Hat sect in Qinghai was being repressed by the Khalkha Choghtu Khong Tayiji, so they invited Güshi Khan to come and deal with him. In 1636, Güshi led 10,000 Oirats in an invasion of Qinghai which resulted in the defeat of a 30,000 strong enemy army and the death of Choghtu. He then entered Central Tibet, where he received from the 5th Dalai Lama the title of Bstan-'dzin Choskyi Rgyal-po (the Dharma King Who Upholds the Religion). He then claimed the title of Khan, the first non-Genghisid Mongol to do so, and summoned the Oirats to completely conquer Tibet, creating the Khoshut Khanate. Among those involved was Kharkhul's son, Erdeni Batur, who was granted the title of Khong Tayiji, married the khan's daughter Amin Dara, and sent back to establish the Dzungar Khanate on the upper Emil River south of the Tarbagatai Mountains. Batur returned to Dzungaria with the title Erdeni (given by the Dalai Lama) and much booty. During his reign he made three expeditions against the Kazakhs. The conflicts by the Dzungars are remembered in a Kazakh ballad "Elim-ai". The Dzungars also went to war against the Kyrgyz, Tajiks, and Uzbeks when they invaded deep into Central Asia to Yasi (Turkestan) and Tashkent in 1643.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: In 1653, Sengge succeeded his father Batur, but he faced dissent from his half brothers. With the support of Ochirtu Khan of the Khoshut, this strife ended with Sengge's victory in 1661. In 1667 he captured Erinchin Lobsang Tayiji, the third and last Altan Khan. However, he himself was assassinated by his half-brothers Chechen Tayiji and Zotov in a coup in 1670.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Sengge's younger brother Galdan Boshugtu Khan had been residing in Tibet at the time. Upon his birth in 1644 he was recognized as the reincarnation of a Tibetan lama who had died the previous year. In 1656 he left for Tibet, where he received education from Lobsang Chökyi Gyaltsen, 4th Panchen Lama and the 5th Dalai Lama. Upon learning of his brother's death, he immediately returned from Tibet and took revenge on Chechen. Allied with Ochirtu Sechen of the Khoshut, Galdan defeated Chechen, and drove Zotov out of Dzungaria. In 1671 The Dalai Lama bestowed the title of Khan on Galdan. Sengge's two sons Sonom Rabdan and Tsewang Rabtan revolted against Galdan but they were defeated. Although, already married Anu-Dara, granddaughter of Ochirtu, he came into conflict with his grandfather in law. Fearing Galdan's popularity, Ochirtu supported his uncle and rival Choqur Ubashi who refused to recognize Galdan's title. The victory over Ochirtu in 1677 resulted Galdan's domination of the Oirats. In the next year the Dalai Lama gave the highest title of Boshoghtu (or Boshughtu) Khan to him,


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: From the late 16th century onward, the Yarkent Khanate fell under the influence of the Khojas. The Khojas were Naqshbandi Sufis who claimed descent from the prophet Muhammad or from the first four Arab caliphs. By the reign of Sultan Said Khan in the early 16th century, the Khojas already had a strong influence in court and over the khan. In 1533, an especially influential Khoja named Makhdum-i Azam arrived in Kashgar, where he settled and had two sons. These two sons hated each other and they passed down their mutual hatred down to their children. The two lineages came to dominate large parts of the khanate, splitting it between two factions: the Aq Taghliq (White Mountain) in Kashgar and the Qara Taghliq (Black Mountain) in Yarkand. Yulbars patronized the Aq Taghliqs and suppressed the Qara Taghliqs, which caused much resentment, and resulted in his assassination in 1670. He was succeeded by his son who ruled from only a brief period before Ismail Khan was enthroned. Ismail reversed the power struggle between the two Muslim factions and drove out the Aq Taghliq leader, Afaq Khoja. Afaq fled to Tibet, where the 5th Dalai Lama aided him in enlisting the help of Galdan Boshugtu Khan.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: In 1680, Galdan led 120,000 Dzungars into the Yarkent Khanate. They were aided by the Aq Taghliqs and Hami and Turpan, which had already submitted to the Dzungars. Ismail's son Babak Sultan died in the resistance against in the battle for Kashgar. The general Iwaz Beg died in the defense of Yarkand. The Dzungars defeated the Moghul forces without much difficulty and took Ismail and his family prisoner. Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: In 1681, Galdan invaded the north of Tengeri Mountain and attacked the Kazakh Khanate but failed to take Sayram. In 1683 Galdan's armies under Tsewang Rabtan took Tashkent and Sayram. They reached the Syr Darya and crushed two Kazakh armies. After that Galdan subjugated the Black Kyrgyz and ravaged the Fergana Valley. His general Rabtan took Taraz city. From 1685 Galdan's forces aggressively pushed westward, forcing the Kazakhs ever further west. The Dzungars established dominion over the Baraba Tatars and extracted yasaq (tribute) from them. Converting to Orthodox Christianity and becoming Russian subjects was a tactic by the Baraba to find an excuse not to pay yasaq to the Dzungars.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: The Oirats had established peace with the Khalkha Mongols since Ligdan Khan died in 1634 and the Khalkhas were preoccupied with the rise of the Qing dynasty. However, when the Jasaghtu Khan Shira lost part of his subjects to the Tüsheet Khan Chikhundorj, Galdan moved his orda near the Altai Mountains to prepare an attack. Chikhundorj attacked the right wing of the Khalkhas and killed Shira in 1687. In 1688, Galdan dispatched troops under his younger brother Dorji-jav against Chikhundorj but they were eventually defeated. Dorji-jav was killed in battle. Chikhundorj then murdered Degdeehei Mergen Ahai of the Jasaghtu Khan who was on the way to Galdan. To avenge the death of his brother, Galdan established friendly relations with the Russians who were already at war with Chikhundorj over territories near Lake Baikal. Armed with Russian firearms, Galdan led 30,000 Dzungar troops into Khalkha Mongolia in 1688 and defeated Chikhundorj in three days. The Siberian Cossacks, meanwhile, attacked and defeated a Khalkha army of 10,000 near Lake Baikal. After two bloody battles with the Dzungars near Erdene Zuu Monastery and Tomor, Chakhundorji and his brother Jebtsundamba Khutuktu Zanabazar fled across the Gobi Desert to the Qing dynasty and submitted to the Kangxi Emperor.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Late in the summer of 1690, Galdan crossed the Kherlen River with a force of 20,000 and engaged a Qing army at Battle of Ulan Butung 350 kilometers north of Beijing near the western headwaters of the Liao River. Galdan was forced to retreat and escaped total destruction because the Qing army did not have the supplies or ability to pursue him. In 1696, the Kangxi Emperor led 100,000 troops into Mongolia. Galdan fled from the Kherlen only to be caught by another Qing army attacking from the west. He was defeated in the ensuing Battle of Jao Modo near the upper Tuul River. Galdan's wife, Anu, was killed and the Qing army captured 20,000 cattle and 40,000 sheep. Galdan fled with a small handful of followers. In 1697 he died in the Altai Mountains near Khovd on 4 April. Back in Dzungaria, his nephew Tsewang Rabtan, who had revolted in 1689, was already in control as of 1691.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Galdan installed Abd ar-Rashid Khan II, son of Babak, as puppet khan in the Yarkent Khanate. The new khan forced Afaq Khoja to flee again, but Abd ar-Rashid's reign was also ended unceremoniously two years later when riots erupted in Yarkand. He was replaced by his brother Muhammad Imin Khan. Muhammad sought help from the Qing dynasty, Khanate of Bukhara, and the Mughal Empire in combating the Dzungars. In 1693, Muhammad conducted a successful attack on the Dzungar Khanate, taking 30,000 captives. Unfortunately Afaq Khoja appeared again and overthrew Muhammad in a revolt led by his followers. Afaq's son Yahiya Khoja was enthroned but his reign was cut short in 1695 when both he and his father were killed while suppressing local rebellions. In 1696, Akbash Khan was placed on the throne, but the begs of Kashgar refused to recognize him, and instead allied with the Kyrgyz to attack Yarkand, taking Akbash prisoner. The begs of Yarkand went to the Dzungars, who sent troops and ousted the Kyrgyz in 1705. The Dzungars installed a non-Chagatayid ruler Mirza Alim Shah Beg, thereby ending the rule of Chagatai khans forever. Abdullah Tarkhan Beg of Hami also rebelled in 1696 and defected to the Qing dynasty. In 1698, Qing troops were stationed in Hami.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: In 1698 Galdan's successor Tsewang Rabtan reached Tengiz lake and Turkestan, and the Dzungars controlled Zhei-Su and Tashkent until 1745. The Dzungars' war on the Kazakhs pushed them into seeking aid from Russia.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Tsewang Rabtan's brother Tseren Dondup invaded the Khoshut Khanate in 1717, deposed Yeshe Gyatso, killed Lha-bzang Khan, and looted Lhasa. The Kangxi Emperor retaliated in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars in the Battle of the Salween River, not far from Lhasa. A second and larger expedition sent by Kangxi expelled the Dzungars from Tibet in 1720. They brought Kälzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and installed him as the 7th Dalai Lama in 1721. The people of Turpan and Pichan took advantage of the situation to rebel under a local chief, Amin Khoja, and defected to the Qing dynasty.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Tsewang Rabtan died suddenly in 1727 and was succeeded by his son Galdan Tseren. Galdan Tseren drove out his half-brother Lobszangshunu. He continued the war against the Kazakhs and the Kalkha Mongols. In retaliation against attacks against his Khalkha subjects, the Yongzheng Emperor of the Qing dynasty sent an invasion force of 10,000, which the Dzungars defeated near the Khoton Lake. The next year however, the Dzungars suffered a defeat against the Khalkhas near Erdene Zuu Monastery. In 1731, the Dzungars attacked Turpan, which had previously defected to the Qing dynasty. Amin Khoja led the people of Turpan in a retreat into Gansu where they settled in Guazhou. In 1739, Galdan Tseren agreed to the boundary between Khalkha and Dzungar territory.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Galdan Tseren died in 1745, triggering widespread rebellion in the Tarim Basin, and starting a succession dispute among his sons. In 1749 Galden Tseren's son Lama Dorji seized the throne from his younger brother, Tsewang Dorji Namjal. He was overthrown by his cousin Dawachi and the Khoid noble Amursana, but they too fought over control of the khanate. As a result of their dispute, in 1753, three of Dawachi's relatives ruling the Dörbet and Bayad defected to the Qing and migrated into Khalkha territory. The next year, Amursana also defected. In 1754, Yusuf, the ruler of Kashgar, rebelled and forcefully converted the Dzungars living there to Islam. His older brother, Jahan Khoja of Yarkand, also rebelled but was captured by the Dzungars due to the treachery of Ayyub Khoja of Aksu. Jahan's son Sadiq gathered 7,000 men in Khotan and attacked Aksu in retaliation. In the spring of 1755, the Qianlong Emperor sent an army of 50,000 against Dawachi. They met almost no resistance and destroyed the Dzungar Khanate within the span of 100 days.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Dawachi fled into the mountains north of Aksu but was captured by Khojis, the beg of Uchturpan, and delivered to the Qing.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: After defeating the Dzungar Khanate, the Qing planned to install khans for each of the four Oirat tribes, but Amursana wanted to rule over all the Oirats. Instead the Qianlong Emperor made him only khan of the Khoid. In the summer, Amursana along with Mongol leader Chingünjav led a revolt against the Qing. Unable to defeat the Qing, Amursana fled north to seek refuge with the Russians and died of smallpox in Russian lands. In the spring of 1762 his frozen body was brought to Kyakhta for the Manchu to see. The Russians then buried it, refusing the Manchu request that it be handed over for posthumous punishment.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: When Amursana rebelled against the Qing dynasty, the Aq Taghliq khojas Burhanuddin and Jahan rebelled in Yarkand. Their rule was not popular and the people greatly disliked them for appropriating anything they needed from clothing to livestock. In February 1758, The Qing sent Yaerhashan and Zhao Hui with 10,000 troops against the Aq Taghliq regime. Zhao Hui was besieged by enemy forces at Yarkand until January 1759, but otherwise the Qing army did not encounter any difficulties on campaign. The khoja brothers fled to Badakhshan where they were captured by the ruler Sultan Shah, who executed them and handed Jahan's head to the Qing. The Tarim Basin was pacified in 1759.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: According to the Qing scholar Wei Yuan (1794–1857), the Dzungar population before the Qing conquest was around 600,000 in 200,000 households. Wei Yuan wrote that about 40 percent of the Dzungar households were killed by smallpox, 20 percent fled to Russia or Kazakh tribes, and 30 percent were killed by Manchu bannermen. For several thousands of li, there were no gers except of those who had surrendered. Wen-Djang Chu wrote that 80 percent of the 600,000 or more Dzungars were destroyed by disease and attack which Michael Clarke described as "the complete destruction of not only the Dzungar state but of the Dzungars as a people."


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: It's argued by the historian Peter Perdue that the destruction of the Dzungars was the result of an explicit policy of extermination launched by the Qianlong Emperor which lasted for two years. His commanders were reluctant to carry out his orders, which he repeated several times using the term "jiao" (extermination) over and over again. The commanders Hadaha and Agui were punished for only occupying Dzungar lands but letting the people escape. The generals Jaohui and Shuhede were punished for not showing sufficient zeal in exterminating rebels. Qianlong explicitly ordered the Khalkha Mongols to "take the young and strong and massacre them." The elderly, children, and women were spared but they could not preserve their former names or titles. Mark Levene, a historian whose recent research interests focus on genocide, states that the extermination of the Dzungars was "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence."


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Widespread anti-Dzungar opinion by former Dzungar subjects contributed to their genocide. The Muslim Kazakhs and former people of the Yarkent Khanate in the Tarim Basin (now called Uyghurs), were treated poorly under by the Buddhist Dzungars, who used them as slave labor, and participated in the Qing invasion and attacked the Dzungars. Uyghur leaders like Khoja Emin were granted titles within the Qing nobility, and acted as an intermediary with Muslims from the Tarim Basin. They told the Muslims that the Qing only wanted to kill Oirats and that they would leave the Muslims alone. They also convinced the Muslims to aid the Qing in killing Oirates.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: After the destruction of the Dzungar Oirat people, the Qing dynasty sponsored the settlement of millions of Han, Hui, Xibe, Daur, Solon, Turkic Oasis people (Uyghurs) and Manchus in Dzungaria since the land had been emptied. Stanley W. Toops notes that modern Xinjiang's demographic situation still reflects the settlement initiative of the Qing dynasty. One third of Xinjiang's total population consisted of Han, Hui, and Kazakhs in the north while around two-thirds were Uyghurs in southern Xinjiang's Tarim Basin. Some cities in northern Xinjiang such as Ürümqi and Yining were essentially made by the Qing settlement policy.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: The elimination of the Buddhist Dzungars led to the rise of Islam and its Muslim Begs as the predominant moral political authority in Xinjiang. Many Muslim Taranchis also moved to northern Xinjiang. According to Henry Schwarz, "the Qing victory was, in a certain sense, a victory for Islam". Ironically, the destruction of the Dzungars by the Qing led to the consolidation of Turkic Muslim power in the region, since Turkic Muslim culture and identity was tolerated or even promoted by the Qing.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: In 1759, the Qing dynasty proclaimed that the land formerly belonging to the Dzungars was now part of "China" (Dulimbai Gurun) in a Manchu memorial. The Qing ideology of unification portrayed the "outer" non-Han Chinese like the Mongols, Oirats, and Tibetans together with the "inner" Han Chinese as "one family" united in the Qing state. The Qing described the phrase "Zhong Wai Yi Jia" (中外一家) or "Nei Wai Yi Jia" (內外一家, "interior and exterior as one family"), to convey this idea of "unification" to different peoples.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: ‡ Note: "Although Amursana had de facto control of some areas of Dzungaria during 1755–1756, he could never officially become Khan due to the inferior rank of his clan, the Khoid."


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: Oirat society was similar to other nomadic societies. It was heavily dependent on animal husbandry but also practiced limited agriculture. After the conquest of the Yarkent Khanate in 1680, they used people from the Tarim Basin as slave labour to cultivate land in Dzungaria. The Dzungar economy and industry was fairly complex for a nomadic society. They had iron, copper, and silver mines producing raw ore, which the Dzungars made into weapons and shields, including even firearms, bullets, and other utensils. The Dzungars were able to indigenously manufacture firearms to a degree that was unique in Central Asia at the time. In 1762, the Qing army discovered four large Dzungar bronze cannons, eight "soaring" cannons, and 10,000 shells.


title: Dzungar Khanate

text: In 1640, the Oirats created an Oirat Mongol Legal Code which regulated the tribes and gave support to the Gelug Yellow Hat sect. Erdeni Batur assisted Zaya Pandita in creating the Clear Script.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Abdullah Gül (; ; born 29 October 1950) is a Turkish politician who served as the 11th President of Turkey, in office from 2007 to 2014. He previously served for four months as Prime Minister from 2002 to 2003, and concurrently served as both Deputy Prime Minister and as Foreign Minister between 2003 and 2007. He is currently a member of the Advisory Panel for the President of the Islamic Development Bank.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Advocating staunch Islamist political views during his university years, Gül became a Member of Parliament for Kayseri in 1991 and was re-elected in 1995, 1999, 2002 and 2007. Initially a member of the Islamist Welfare Party, Gül joined the Virtue Party in 1998 after the former was banned for anti-secular activities. When the party split into hardline Islamist and modernist factions in 2000, Gül joined fellow party member Recep Tayyip Erdoğan in advocating the need for reform and moderation. He ran against serving leader Recai Kutan for the Virtue Party leadership at a time when Erdoğan was banned from holding political office. As the candidate for the modernist camp, he came second with 521 votes while Kutan won 633. He co-founded the moderate Justice and Development Party (AKP) with Erdoğan in 2001 after the Virtue Party was shut down in the same year, while hardline conservative members founded the Felicity Party instead.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Gül became Prime Minister after the AKP won a landslide victory in the 2002 general election while Erdoğan was still banned from office. His government removed Erdoğan's political ban by March 2003, after which Erdoğan became an MP for Siirt in a by-election and took over as Prime Minister. Gül subsequently served as Minister of Foreign Affairs and Deputy Prime Minister until 2007. His subsequent bid for the Presidency drew strong and highly vocal opposition from ardent supporters of secularism in Turkey and was initially blocked by the Constitutional Court due to concerns over his Islamist political background. He was eventually elected Turkey's first President with a background in Islamic politics after the 2007 snap general election.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: As President, Gül came under criticism for giving assent to controversial laws which have been regarded by the political opposition as unconstitutional. In June 2013, he signed a bill restricting alcohol consumption into law despite initially indicating a possible veto, which was seen as a contributing factor to sparking the 2013–14 anti-government protests. Other controversies included a law tightening internet regulation in 2013, a law increasing political control over the judiciary in 2014 designed to protect then Prime Minister Erdoğan and others from corruption charges and a law giving the National Intelligence Organization (MİT) controversial new powers also in 2014. Gül took a mediating approach during the Gezi Park anti-government protests and government corruption scandals.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Since leaving office, Gül has progressively become more publicly critical of his successor, Erdoğan, and the democratic backsliding in Turkey. He was mooted as a potential joint opposition candidate in the 2018 Turkish presidential election, initially supported by the Republican People's Party (CHP) and the Felicity Party (SP). However, having failed to gain the support of the third major opposition party, namely the Good Party, Gül announced that he had taken his name out of consideration due to the lack of universal opposition-backing. He has since been involved, though not officially, with the Democracy and Progress Party (DEVA) of fellow former AKP member Ali Babacan.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Gül was born in Kayseri, central Anatolia on 29 October 1950, the 27th anniversary of the proclamation of Turkish independence, also known as Republic Day in Turkey. His father is Ahmet Hamdi Gül, a retired air force mechanic, and his mother is Adviye Satoğlu.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Gül studied Economics at Istanbul University. During his graduate education, he spent two years (1976–78) in London and studied at the University of Exeter in the United Kingdom. Returning to Turkey in 1978, he became an instructor in the Department of Industrial Engineering at Sakarya University while working on his doctoral research on Turkey's economic relations with other Muslim countries. He received his PhD from Istanbul University in 1983. Between 1983 and 1991, he worked at the Islamic Development Bank (IDB) in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. He was conferred an honorary PhD degree from Amity University, Noida on 8 February 2009, and a LL.D from the University of Dhaka on 13 February 2010.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Gül became acquainted with politics early during his high school years. During his university education, he became a member of the Islamist-nationalist "Millî Türk Talebe Birliği" (National Turkish Students' Union) in the line of Necip Fazıl's "Büyük Doğu" ("Grand Orient") current.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: He was elected a member of the Turkish parliament for the "Refah Partisi" (RP, "the Welfare Party") from the Kayseri electoral district in 1991 and 1995. During these years, he made statements about the political system of Turkey that was designed by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the Turkish National Movement, which included "This is the end of the republican period" and "The secular system has failed and we definitely want to change it". These statements caused controversy when his candidacy for the 2007 presidential election was announced by Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: In 1999, he kept his seat as a member of the "Fazilet Partisi" (FP, "the Virtue Party") which was subsequently outlawed by the Constitutional Court for its violation of the Constitution. Its predecessor, the "Refah Partisi", was also outlawed by the Constitutional Court for its violation of the Constitution, especially the principle of secularism. By this time, Gül had apparently moderated his views and was reportedly considered to be part of the Virtue Party's reformist faction. Since 1993 in Ankara, he had been organizing an informal think-tank involving a group of Refah politicians who were discontented with the leadership of Necmettin Erbakan: these included Melih Gökçek, Bülent Arınç, Abdüllatif Şener, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and Beşir Atalay. In August 2001, this group founded the "Adalet ve Kalkınma Partisi" (Justice and Development Party), a party which billed itself as a moderate conservative party in the European tradition. He was elected once again to represent Kayseri in 2002.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: An interview he gave in 2002 summarizes his criticisms of the "Refah Partisi" under the leadership of Necmettin Erbakan and his portrayal of the AKP as a moderate party:In the Welfare Party, there were groups demanding sharia rule. Welfare did not represent the local values we are now cultivating. The ideology of the party was partially shaped by alien imports. [He was referring to the impact of the Islamist ideology of the Iranian Revolution and Arab states on Welfare's ideology.] Our vision was at odds with the rest of the party. The despotic rule of Erbakan Hoca made it impossible for us to realize our vision under the rubric of the National View. We believe that modernization and being Muslim complement each other. We accept the modern values of liberalism, human rights, and market economy.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: After the Justice and Development Party (AKP) won the most votes in the November 2002 general election, Gül was appointed Prime Minister, as AKP leader Recep Tayyip Erdoğan was still banned from participating in politics. After Gül's government secured legislation allowing Erdoğan's return to politics, the latter took over as prime minister on 14 March 2003. Gül was appointed deputy prime minister and foreign minister.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: After becoming foreign minister in March 2003, Gül became the key player in Turkey's attempts to receive an accession date for the European Union and in its attempts to improve relations with Syria and maintaining its relationship with the Turkic-speaking countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus. On 8 January 2008, Gül flew to the United States to meet with U.S. President George W. Bush and U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Prime Minister Erdoğan announced on 24 April 2007 that Gül would be the Justice and Development Party candidate in the 2007 presidential election. Previously, there had been speculation that Erdoğan himself would be the party's candidate, which had provoked substantial opposition from secularists. When a boycott of opposition parties in Parliament deadlocked the election process, Gül formally withdrew his candidacy on 6 May 2007. If elected he would be the first president to have been involved with Islamist parties. But a few days later, on 11 May 2007 when he inquired after the alterations to the Turkish constitution which now allowed the people to elect the president directly rather than a parliamentary vote, Gül announced that he was still intending to run.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Following the July 2007 parliamentary election, the AKP renominated Gül as its presidential candidate on 13 August; the election was again held as a vote of parliament. On 14 August, Gül submitted his candidacy application to parliament and expressed his commitment to secularism at a news conference.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: On 28 August 2007, he was elected president in the third round of voting; in the first two rounds, a two-thirds majority of MPs had been required, but in the third round he needed only a simple majority. Gül was sworn in immediately thereafter. The process was a very low-key affair.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Gül's swearing-in was not attended by the Chief of the Turkish General Staff and was boycotted by the opposition Republican People's Party; then the hand-over of power at the presidential palace was held behind closed doors. Gül's wife was not present. The traditional evening reception hosted by the new president at the presidential palace for the country's highest authorities was announced for 11:30 in the morning and wives were not invited.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: His presidency was described as a "new era in Turkish politics", for being the first president of Turkey with a background in Islamic politics.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Gül received messages of congratulation from the US, EU and German authorities while Turkey's prime minister Tayyip Erdoğan made a statement saying "a structure doomed to uncertainty has been overcome".


title: Abdullah Gül

text: In September 2008 Gül became the first Turkish leader to visit Armenia where, in meetings with President Serzh Sarkisian, the two leaders formulated a solution to the tendentious problem of the genocide question, sparking a major debate in Turkey, but both the Armenian and Turkish parliaments refused to ratify the agreement. In November 2011, President Gül led a state visit to the United Kingdom as a guest of Queen Elizabeth II. The President met political and business leaders, visited the Olympic Park and was guest of honor at a state banquet at Buckingham Palace.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: In November 2013, Gül called on Muslim countries to fight against what he called Islamophobia during his address at the 29th session of the COMCEC in Istanbul. he said:Islamophobia remains a critical problem, which instigates unsubstantial prejudices against our region and Muslims. Terror plays a role in the persistence of such problems. We have to combat any form of deviation playing into the hands of people who equate terrorism with Islam, the religion of love, tolerance and conciliation.


title: Abdullah Gül

text: Gül has been a critic of Israel and Western countries which established relations with Israel at the expense of Palestine. After the Israeli raid on the MV "Mavi Marmara" in 2010, he advocated the complete ending of diplomatic relations with Israel, stating that "Israel will turn into a complete apartheid regime in the next 50 years if it does not allow for the establishment of an independent and proud Palestinian state with its capital in east Jerusalem. That is why we are exerting efforts to achieve a fair peace with a strategic point of view, which is to Israel's own interests."


title: Abdullah Gül

text: On 31 December 2012, he stated with respect to the Arab spring and democratization of the Arab world: "But democracy is not only about elections. The task of creating essential democratic institutions – the rule of law, habits of accountability, gender equality, and freedom of expression and faith – still awaits these countries".


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: Michael S. Schmidt (born September 1983) is a two time Pulitzer prize winning American journalist, author, and correspondent for "The New York Times" in Washington, D.C. He covers national security and federal law enforcement, has broken several high-profile stories. He is also a national security contributor for MSNBC and NBC News.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: Among the major stories he has broken was the existence of Hillary Clinton private email server. During the Trump presidency, he broke several major stories, including about the Mueller investigation, other investigations of Trump and Trump's efforts to overturn the election.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: In 2018, he won two Pulitzer Prizes for his work the previous year. He won one of the Pulitzer Prizes for breaking the news that President Trump had asked the FBI director James Comey for a loyalty pledge, and to close the federal investigation into Michael Flynn. That story led the Justice Department to appoint a special counsel Robert S. Mueller III to investigate President Trump.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: With another reporter at the Times, Schmidt won a Pulitzer Prize for a story about sexual harassment allegations against Fox News personality Bill O'Reilly that led to Fox firing O'Reilly. He shared the 2018 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service and the 2018 Gerald Loeb Award for Investigative business journalism for stories on the sexual predator allegations against film producer Harvey Weinstein that led to the rise of the Me Too movement.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: In September 2020, Schmidt's first book, "Donald Trump v. The United States: Inside the Struggle to Stop a President", was released by Penguin Random House. The book received positive reviews and rose to number three on "The New York Times" Best Seller list and number two on both Amazon and number two on the "Wall Street Journal"'s best-seller list.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: Earlier in Schmidt's career he was a sports reporter and broke several major stories about doping in baseball including that Sammy Sosa, David Ortiz and Manny Ramirez has tested positive for performance-enhancing drugs.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: Schmidt was born to a Jewish family in Nyack, New York. His parents are Rachel and James Schmidt. James Schmidt is a well known wealth manager. Michael Schmidt went to high school at John Randolph Tucker High School in Richmond, Virginia, where he played baseball. He graduated from Lafayette College in Easton, Pennsylvania, in 2005 with an AB in international affairs after co-founding and editing "Marooned" with classmate Erin Koen.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: Schmidt began working for "The Times" as a news clerk in 2005. In December 2007, he was made a staff reporter, covering performance-enhancing drugs and legal issues in sports.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: In 2009, Schmidt broke the stories that David Ortiz, Manny Ramirez and Sammy Sosa were among the roughly 100 players who tested positive for a performance-enhancing drug in 2003.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: In 2010, Schmidt broke the story about how the firm of baseball super agent Scott Boras had provided tens of thousands of dollars in loans to a young prospect, raising questions about whether Boras' firm had broken rules designed to prevent players from being exploited.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: Schmidt was a correspondent for "The Times" in Iraq in 2011. During his time in Iraq, he uncovered a series of classified documents in a junkyard in Baghdad. The documents were testimony from Marines about the 2005 Haditha Massacre. In that incident, the Marines had killed 26 Iraqi civilians. An Iraqi junkyard attendant had used other classified American documents to cook smoked carp. The story, which ran as American troops were leaving Iraq in 2011, was widely praised.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: In May 2015, Schmidt was part of a group of "Times" reporters who broke a series of stories about the Justice Department charging FIFA executives. Schmidt was in the lobby of a hotel in Switzerland when law enforcement officers arrested the executives.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: In December 2015, a New York Times story by Schmidt and Matt Apuzzo (written together with Julia Preston) criticized the US government for missing crucial evidence during the visa vetting process for Tashfeen Malik, who would later become one of the shooters in the 2015 San Bernardino attack. The director of the FBI dismissed the reporting as "garble" and it turned out that rather than having "talked openly on social media about her views on violent jihad" as stated in the article, she had mentioned these in private communications. The New York Times' public editor called for "systemic changes" after these articles by Schmidt and his coauthors (both of which had relied on anonymous government sources).


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: Schmidt has been one of the Times' lead reporters on the federal and Congressional investigations into connections between Donald Trump's associates and the Russians. On March 5, 2017, Schmidt broke the story that the FBI director James Comey had asked the Justice Department to publicly refute Trump's claims that President Obama had him wire-tapped during the 2016 campaign. Schmidt also broke several other stories about the Trump presidency, including that Trump ordered his chief of staff, John Kelly, to give his son-in-law, Jared Kushner, a security clearance despite wide spread concerns in the intelligence community about Kushner having access to the country's most closely guarded secrets.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: In March 2015, Schmidt broke the story that Hillary Clinton had exclusively used a personal email account when she was secretary of state. The story said that Clinton "may have violated federal requirements that officials’ correspondence be retained as part of the agency's record." In response to the story, Mrs. Clinton announced that she would release all of her work related emails from her time in office.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: After breaking the story, he was the lead reporter covering the Hillary Clinton email controversy. Defenders of Hillary Clinton have said that Schmidt's coverage of her was not fair and he has been frequently criticized by the group Media Matters and other liberals. After breaking the Clinton email story, Media Matters's founder and chairman, David Brock, wrote an open letter to The New York Times about the story, asking for a "prominent correction as soon as possible". The Times did not run a correction. The inspector general for the State Department said in May 2016 that Clinton's use of the account had violated State Department's record keeping policies.


title: Michael S. Schmidt

text: On May 16, 2017, Schmidt broke the story that James Comey, the former FBI director in the Trump Administration, had written an FBI memo detailing President Donald Trump's alleged ordering of Comey to end the FBI's investigation of Michael Flynn prior to the conclusion of the investigation's findings. The story led the Justice Department to appoint the former FBI director Robert Mueller to investigate Trump, which eventually produced the Mueller report.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: In statistics, propagation of uncertainty (or propagation of error) is the effect of variables' uncertainties (or errors, more specifically random errors) on the uncertainty of a function based on them. When the variables are the values of experimental measurements they have uncertainties due to measurement limitations (e.g., instrument precision) which propagate due to the combination of variables in the function.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: It may be defined by the absolute error . Uncertainties can also be defined by the relative error , which is usually written as a percentage.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Most commonly, the uncertainty on a quantity is quantified in terms of the standard deviation, , which is the positive square root of the variance. The value of a quantity and its error are then expressed as an interval . If the statistical probability distribution of the variable is known or can be assumed, it is possible to derive confidence limits to describe the region within which the true value of the variable may be found. For example, the 68% confidence limits for a one-dimensional variable belonging to a normal distribution are approximately ± one standard deviation from the central value , which means that the region will cover the true value in roughly 68% of cases.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: If the uncertainties are correlated then covariance must be taken into account. Correlation can arise from two different sources. First, the "measurement errors" may be correlated. Second, when the underlying values are correlated across a population, the "uncertainties in the group averages" will be correlated. For very expensive data or complex functions, the error propagation may be achieved with a surrogate model, e.g. based on Bayesian probability theory.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Let formula_1 be a set of "m" functions, which are linear combinations of formula_2 variables formula_3 with combination coefficients formula_4:


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Also let the variance–covariance matrix of "x" = ("x", ..., "x") be denoted by formula_7 and let the mean value be denoted by formula_8:


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: This is the most general expression for the propagation of error from one set of variables onto another. When the errors on "x" are uncorrelated, the general expression simplifies to


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Note that even though the errors on "x" may be uncorrelated, the errors on "f" are in general correlated; in other words, even if formula_7 is a diagonal matrix, formula_11 is in general a full matrix.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: The general expressions for a scalar-valued function "f" are a little simpler (here a is a row vector):


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Each covariance term formula_21 can be expressed in terms of the correlation coefficient formula_22 by formula_23, so that an alternative expression for the variance of "f" is


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: When "f" is a set of non-linear combination of the variables "x", an interval propagation could be performed in order to compute intervals which contain all consistent values for the variables. In a probabilistic approach, the function "f" must usually be linearised by approximation to a first-order Taylor series expansion, though in some cases, exact formulae can be derived that do not depend on the expansion as is the case for the exact variance of products. The Taylor expansion would be:


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: where formula_30 denotes the partial derivative of "f" with respect to the "i"-th variable, evaluated at the mean value of all components of vector "x". Or in matrix notation,


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: where J is the Jacobian matrix. Since f is a constant it does not contribute to the error on f. Therefore, the propagation of error follows the linear case, above, but replacing the linear coefficients, "A" and "A" by the partial derivatives, formula_32 and formula_33. In matrix notation,


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: That is, the Jacobian of the function is used to transform the rows and columns of the variance-covariance matrix of the argument.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Neglecting correlations or assuming independent variables yields a common formula among engineers and experimental scientists to calculate error propagation, the variance formula:


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: where formula_37 represents the standard deviation of the function formula_38, formula_39 represents the standard deviation of formula_40, formula_41 represents the standard deviation of formula_42, and so forth.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: It is important to note that this formula is based on the linear characteristics of the gradient of formula_38 and therefore it is a good estimation for the standard deviation of formula_38 as long as formula_45 are small enough. Specifically, the linear approximation of formula_38 has to be close to formula_38 inside a neighbourhood of radius formula_45.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Any non-linear differentiable function, formula_49, of two variables, formula_50 and formula_51, can be expanded as


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: now, taking variance on both sides, and using the formula for variance of a linear combination of variables:


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: where formula_55 is the standard deviation of the function formula_38, formula_57 is the standard deviation of formula_50, formula_59 is the standard deviation of formula_51 and formula_61 is the covariance between formula_50 and formula_51.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Error estimates for non-linear functions are biased on account of using a truncated series expansion. The extent of this bias depends on the nature of the function. For example, the bias on the error calculated for log(1+"x") increases as "x" increases, since the expansion to "x" is a good approximation only when "x" is near zero.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: For highly non-linear functions, there exist five categories of probabilistic approaches for uncertainty propagation; see Uncertainty quantification for details.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: In the special case of the inverse or reciprocal formula_75, where formula_76 follows a standard normal distribution, the resulting distribution is a reciprocal standard normal distribution, and there is no definable variance.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: However, in the slightly more general case of a shifted reciprocal function formula_77 for formula_78 following a general normal distribution, then mean and variance statistics do exist in a principal value sense, if the difference between the pole formula_79 and the mean formula_80 is real-valued.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: This table shows the variances and standard deviations of simple functions of the real variables formula_81, with standard deviations formula_82 covariance formula_83, and correlation formula_84.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: The real-valued coefficients formula_50 and formula_51 are assumed exactly known (deterministic), i.e., formula_87.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: In the columns "Variance" and "Standard Deviation", "A" and "B" should be understood as expectation values (i.e. values around which we're estimating the uncertainty), and formula_38 should be understood as the value of the function calculated at the expectation value of formula_81.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: For uncorrelated variables (formula_90, formula_91) expressions for more complicated functions can be derived by combining simpler functions. For example, repeated multiplication, assuming no correlation, gives


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: For the case formula_93 we also have Goodman's expression for the exact variance: for the uncorrelated case it is


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: If "A" and "B" are uncorrelated, their difference "A-B" will have more variance than either of them. An increasing positive correlation (formula_96) will decrease the variance of the difference, converging to zero variance for perfectly correlated variables with the same variance. On the other hand, a negative correlation (formula_97) will further increase the variance of the difference, compared to the uncorrelated case.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: For example, the self-subtraction "f=A-A" has zero variance formula_98 only if the variate is perfectly autocorrelated (formula_99). If "A" is uncorrelated, formula_100, then the output variance is twice the input variance, formula_101. And if "A" is perfectly anticorrelated, formula_102, then the input variance is quadrupled in the output, formula_103 (notice formula_104 for "f = aA - aA" in the table above).


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: We can calculate the uncertainty propagation for the inverse tangent function as an example of using partial derivatives to propagate error.


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: where formula_106 is the absolute uncertainty on our measurement of . The derivative of with respect to is


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: A practical application is an experiment in which one measures current, , and voltage, , on a resistor in order to determine the resistance, , using Ohm's law, .


title: Propagation of uncertainty

text: Given the measured variables with uncertainties, and , and neglecting their possible correlation, the uncertainty in the computed quantity, , is:


title: Rob Pelinka

text: Robert Todd Pelinka Jr. (born December 23, 1969) is an American basketball executive, lawyer, sports agent, and former college basketball player from Lake Bluff, Illinois (suburban Chicago). Pelinka is currently the vice president of basketball operations and general manager of the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA).


title: Rob Pelinka

text: Before joining the Lakers, he was Kobe Bryant's agent and president and CEO of The Landmark Sports Agency, LLC. Pelinka has represented many players who have been top-14 picks since the 2003 NBA draft, including two at the 2010 NBA draft and 2nd-overall 2011 NBA draft selection Derrick Williams. In the 2012 NBA draft, Pelinka represented Dion Waiters and Andre Drummond, who were selected 4th and 9th overall, respectively. Pelinka was formerly Kevin Durant's agent; he resigned as Carlos Boozer's agent following a controversy in which Boozer signed a contract with the Utah Jazz after allegedly promising to re-sign with the Cleveland Cavaliers.


title: Rob Pelinka

text: Pelinka played basketball for Lake Forest High School, earning All-American honors. As a junior, he led Lake Forest High School to its first conference championship. Entering his senior season, Pelinka was overlooked by many Division I scouts and recruiters. However, his MVP performance in a four-game tournament, where he made all 42 of his free throws, and his impressive season statistics enabled him to become a highly recruited athlete by the end of his senior year. He was selected to several regional all-star lists and to play on several regional all-star teams as a senior.


title: Rob Pelinka

text: He was recruited by the University of Michigan, where he has the distinction of being the only person in school history to have been a member of three National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Final Four teams: the 1988–89 NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Champion Wolverines basketball team as well as both the 1991–92 and the 1992–93 national championship runners-up, which were best remembered as the Fab Five teams. Pelinka holds a Juris Doctor "cum laude" from the University of Michigan Law School (1996) and Bachelor of Business Administration from the University of Michigan Ross School of Business (1993). Pelinka was also named the 1993 NCAA Male Walter Byers Scholar Athlete of the Year.


title: Rob Pelinka

text: Pelinka is the son of Robert Todd Pelinka Sr., a former high school basketball coach who taught him the fundamentals of basketball.


title: Rob Pelinka

text: Pelinka became a high school All-American basketball player at Lake Forest High School. Regarded as one of the best shooters in the Chicago area, along side teammate Coley Brannon. the junior led Lake Forest to their first conference championship as an all-conference guard. However, the team lost in the first round of postseason play in 1987. Pelinka also played in the Chicago pro-amateur leagues where he played against local stars such as Mark Aguirre, Tim Hardaway, Kevin Duckworth and Kendall Gill.


title: Rob Pelinka

text: By his senior season, he was listed at , and moved to the point guard position from the shooting guard position in the absence of Douglass, who had graduated and joined future Big Ten opponent Wisconsin, as a starting point guard. As a senior, Pelinka was a preseason selection by the "Chicago Sun-Times" as one of the top 50 Chicago metropolitan area high school basketball players and top five North Suburban players. However, he was not a national preseason top 500 pick by "Street & Smith"'s basketball magazine, which may have been because his senior season marked the first season that the three-point shot was adopted by state high school associations and Pelinka was mainly a shooter. Furthermore, scouts such as Chicago-based David Kaplan, who questioned his true height and dribbling ability, doubted whether he was talented enough to play for either of his targeted colleges (Michigan and Notre Dame) even in late December of his senior year despite his having had multiple 30-point efforts already.