title: Riemann integral

text: If is continuous, then the lower and upper Darboux sums for an untagged partition are equal to the Riemann sum for that partition, where the tags are chosen to be the minimum or maximum (respectively) of on each subinterval. (When is discontinuous on a subinterval, there may not be a tag that achieves the infimum or supremum on that subinterval.) The Darboux integral, which is similar to the Riemann integral but based on Darboux sums, is equivalent to the Riemann integral.


title: Riemann integral

text: Loosely speaking, the Riemann integral is the limit of the Riemann sums of a function as the partitions get finer. If the limit exists then the function is said to be integrable (or more specifically Riemann-integrable). The Riemann sum can be made as close as desired to the Riemann integral by making the partition fine enough.


title: Riemann integral

text: One important requirement is that the mesh of the partitions must become smaller and smaller, so that in the limit, it is zero. If this were not so, then we would not be getting a good approximation to the function on certain subintervals. In fact, this is enough to define an integral. To be specific, we say that the Riemann integral of equals if the following condition holds:


title: Riemann integral

text: Unfortunately, this definition is very difficult to use. It would help to develop an equivalent definition of the Riemann integral which is easier to work with. We develop this definition now, with a proof of equivalence following. Our new definition says that the Riemann integral of equals if the following condition holds:


title: Riemann integral

text: For all , there exists a tagged partition and such that for any tagged partition and which is a refinement of and , we have


title: Riemann integral

text: Both of these mean that eventually, the Riemann sum of with respect to any partition gets trapped close to . Since this is true no matter how close we demand the sums be trapped, we say that the Riemann sums converge to . These definitions are actually a special case of a more general concept, a net.


title: Riemann integral

text: As we stated earlier, these two definitions are equivalent. In other words, works in the first definition if and only if works in the second definition. To show that the first definition implies the second, start with an , and choose a that satisfies the condition. Choose any tagged partition whose mesh is less than . Its Riemann sum is within of , and any refinement of this partition will also have mesh less than , so the Riemann sum of the refinement will also be within of .


title: Riemann integral

text: To show that the second definition implies the first, it is easiest to use the Darboux integral. First, one shows that the second definition is equivalent to the definition of the Darboux integral; for this see the Darboux Integral article. Now we will show that a Darboux integrable function satisfies the first definition. Fix , and choose a partition such that the lower and upper Darboux sums with respect to this partition are within of the value of the Darboux integral. Let


title: Riemann integral

text: If , then is the zero function, which is clearly both Darboux and Riemann integrable with integral zero. Therefore, we will assume that . If , then we choose such that


title: Riemann integral

text: If , then we choose to be less than one. Choose a tagged partition and with mesh smaller than . We must show that the Riemann sum is within of .


title: Riemann integral

text: where and are respectively, the infimum and the supremum of "f" on . If all intervals had this property, then this would conclude the proof, because each term in the Riemann sum would be bounded by a corresponding term in the Darboux sums, and we chose the Darboux sums to be near . This is the case when , so the proof is finished in that case.


title: Riemann integral

text: Therefore, we may assume that . In this case, it is possible that one of the is not contained in any . Instead, it may stretch across two of the intervals determined by . (It cannot meet three intervals because is assumed to be smaller than the length of any one interval.) In symbols, it may happen that


title: Riemann integral

text: (We may assume that all the inequalities are strict because otherwise we are in the previous case by our assumption on the length of .) This can happen at most times.


title: Riemann integral

text: To handle this case, we will estimate the difference between the Riemann sum and the Darboux sum by subdividing the partition at . The term in the Riemann sum splits into two terms:


title: Riemann integral

text: so this term is bounded by the corresponding term in the Darboux sum for . To bound the other term, notice that


title: Riemann integral

text: Since this happens at most times, the distance between the Riemann sum and a Darboux sum is at most . Therefore, the distance between the Riemann sum and is at most .


title: Riemann integral

text: Let formula_17 be the function which takes the value 1 at every point. Any Riemann sum of on will have the value 1, therefore the Riemann integral of on is 1.


title: Riemann integral

text: Let formula_18 be the indicator function of the rational numbers in ; that is, formula_19 takes the value 1 on rational numbers and 0 on irrational numbers. This function does not have a Riemann integral. To prove this, we will show how to construct tagged partitions whose Riemann sums get arbitrarily close to both zero and one.


title: Riemann integral

text: To start, let and be a tagged partition (each is between and ). Choose . The have already been chosen, and we can't change the value of at those points. But if we cut the partition into tiny pieces around each , we can minimize the effect of the . Then, by carefully choosing the new tags, we can make the value of the Riemann sum turn out to be within of either zero or one.


title: Riemann integral

text: Our first step is to cut up the partition. There are of the , and we want their total effect to be less than . If we confine each of them to an interval of length less than , then the contribution of each to the Riemann sum will be at least and at most . This makes the total sum at least zero and at most . So let be a positive number less than . If it happens that two of the are within of each other, choose smaller. If it happens that some is within of some , and is not equal to , choose smaller. Since there are only finitely many and , we can always choose sufficiently small.


title: Riemann integral

text: Now we add two cuts to the partition for each . One of the cuts will be at , and the other will be at . If one of these leaves the interval [0, 1], then we leave it out. will be the tag corresponding to the subinterval


title: Riemann integral

text: We still have to choose tags for the other subintervals. We will choose them in two different ways. The first way is to always choose a rational point, so that the Riemann sum is as large as possible. This will make the value of the Riemann sum at least . The second way is to always choose an irrational point, so that the Riemann sum is as small as possible. This will make the value of the Riemann sum at most .


title: Riemann integral

text: Since we started from an arbitrary partition and ended up as close as we wanted to either zero or one, it is false to say that we are eventually trapped near some number , so this function is not Riemann integrable. However, it is Lebesgue integrable. In the Lebesgue sense its integral is zero, since the function is zero almost everywhere. But this is a fact that is beyond the reach of the Riemann integral.


title: Riemann integral

text: There are even worse examples. formula_19 is equivalent (that is, equal almost everywhere) to a Riemann integrable function, but there are non-Riemann integrable bounded functions which are not equivalent to any Riemann integrable function. For example, let be the Smith–Volterra–Cantor set, and let be its indicator function. Because is not Jordan measurable, is not Riemann integrable. Moreover, no function equivalent to is Riemann integrable: , like , must be zero on a dense set, so as in the previous example, any Riemann sum of has a refinement which is within of 0 for any positive number . But if the Riemann integral of exists, then it must equal the Lebesgue integral of , which is . Therefore, is not Riemann integrable.


title: Riemann integral

text: It is popular to define the Riemann integral as the Darboux integral. This is because the Darboux integral is technically simpler and because a function is Riemann-integrable if and only if it is Darboux-integrable.


title: Riemann integral

text: Some calculus books do not use general tagged partitions, but limit themselves to specific types of tagged partitions. If the type of partition is limited too much, some non-integrable functions may appear to be integrable.


title: Riemann integral

text: One popular restriction is the use of "left-hand" and "right-hand" Riemann sums. In a left-hand Riemann sum, for all , and in a right-hand Riemann sum, for all . Alone this restriction does not impose a problem: we can refine any partition in a way that makes it a left-hand or right-hand sum by subdividing it at each . In more formal language, the set of all left-hand Riemann sums and the set of all right-hand Riemann sums is cofinal in the set of all tagged partitions.


title: Riemann integral

text: Another popular restriction is the use of regular subdivisions of an interval. For example, the th regular subdivision of consists of the intervals


title: Riemann integral

text: Again, alone this restriction does not impose a problem, but the reasoning required to see this fact is more difficult than in the case of left-hand and right-hand Riemann sums.


title: Riemann integral

text: However, combining these restrictions, so that one uses only left-hand or right-hand Riemann sums on regularly divided intervals, is dangerous. If a function is known in advance to be Riemann integrable, then this technique will give the correct value of the integral. But under these conditions the indicator function formula_19 will appear to be integrable on with integral equal to one: Every endpoint of every subinterval will be a rational number, so the function will always be evaluated at rational numbers, and hence it will appear to always equal one. The problem with this definition becomes apparent when we try to split the integral into two pieces. The following equation ought to hold:


title: Riemann integral

text: If we use regular subdivisions and left-hand or right-hand Riemann sums, then the two terms on the left are equal to zero, since every endpoint except 0 and 1 will be irrational, but as we have seen the term on the right will equal 1.


title: Riemann integral

text: As defined above, the Riemann integral avoids this problem by refusing to integrate formula_26 The Lebesgue integral is defined in such a way that all these integrals are 0.


title: Riemann integral

text: The Riemann integral is a linear transformation; that is, if and are Riemann-integrable on and and are constants, then


title: Riemann integral

text: Because the Riemann integral of a function is a number, this makes the Riemann integral a linear functional on the vector space of Riemann-integrable functions.


title: Riemann integral

text: A bounded function on a compact interval is Riemann integrable if and only if it is continuous almost everywhere (the set of its points of discontinuity has measure zero, in the sense of Lebesgue measure). This is the (of characterization of the Riemann integrable functions). It has been proven independently by Giuseppe Vitali and by Henri Lebesgue in 1907, and uses the notion of measure zero, but makes use of neither Lebesgue's general measure or integral.


title: Riemann integral

text: In particular, any set that is at most countable has Lebesgue measure zero, and thus a bounded function (on a compact interval) with only finitely or countably many discontinuities is Riemann integrable. Another sufficient criterion to Riemann integrability over , but which does not involve the concept of measure, is the existence of a right-hand (or left-hand) limit at "every" point in (or ).


title: Riemann integral

text: An indicator function of a bounded set is Riemann-integrable if and only if the set is Jordan measurable. The Riemann integral can be interpreted measure-theoretically as the integral with respect to the Jordan measure.


title: Riemann integral

text: If a real-valued function is monotone on the interval it is Riemann integrable, since its set of discontinuities is at most countable, and therefore of Lebesgue measure zero. If a real-valued function on is Riemann integrable, it is Lebesgue integrable. That is, Riemann-integrability is a "stronger" (meaning more difficult to satisfy) condition than Lebesgue-integrability. The converse does not hold; not all Lebesgue-integrable functions are Riemann integrable.


title: Riemann integral

text: The Lebesgue–Vitali theorem does not imply that all type of discontinuities have the same weight on the obstruction that a real-valued bounded function be Riemann integrable on . In fact, certain discontinuities have absolutely no role on the Riemann integrability of the function—a consequence of the classification of the discontinuities of a function.


title: Riemann integral

text: If is a uniformly convergent sequence on with limit , then Riemann integrability of all implies Riemann integrability of , and


title: Riemann integral

text: However, the Lebesgue monotone convergence theorem (on a monotone pointwise limit) does not hold for Riemann integrals. Thus, in Riemann integration, taking limits under the integral sign is far more difficult to logically justify than in Lebesgue integration.


title: Riemann integral

text: It is easy to extend the Riemann integral to functions with values in the Euclidean vector space formula_29 for any . The integral is defined component-wise; in other words, if then


title: Riemann integral

text: In particular, since the complex numbers are a real vector space, this allows the integration of complex valued functions.


title: Riemann integral

text: The Riemann integral is only defined on bounded intervals, and it does not extend well to unbounded intervals. The simplest possible extension is to define such an integral as a limit, in other words, as an improper integral:


title: Riemann integral

text: This definition carries with it some subtleties, such as the fact that it is not always equivalent to compute the Cauchy principal value


title: Riemann integral

text: always, regardless of . But there are many ways for the interval of integration to expand to fill the real line, and other ways can produce different results; in other words, the multivariate limit does not always exist. We can compute


title: Riemann integral

text: In general, this improper Riemann integral is undefined. Even standardizing a way for the interval to approach the real line does not work because it leads to disturbingly counterintuitive results. If we agree (for instance) that the improper integral should always be


title: Riemann integral

text: then the integral of the translation is −2, so this definition is not invariant under shifts, a highly undesirable property. In fact, not only does this function not have an improper Riemann integral, its Lebesgue integral is also undefined (it equals ).


title: Riemann integral

text: Unfortunately, the improper Riemann integral is not powerful enough. The most severe problem is that there are no widely applicable theorems for commuting improper Riemann integrals with limits of functions. In applications such as Fourier series it is important to be able to approximate the integral of a function using integrals of approximations to the function. For proper Riemann integrals, a standard theorem states that if is a sequence of functions that converge uniformly to on a compact set , then


title: Riemann integral

text: On non-compact intervals such as the real line, this is false. For example, take to be on and zero elsewhere. For all we have:


title: Riemann integral

text: The sequence converges uniformly to the zero function, and clearly the integral of the zero function is zero. Consequently,


title: Riemann integral

text: This demonstrates that for integrals on unbounded intervals, uniform convergence of a function is not strong enough to allow passing a limit through an integral sign. This makes the Riemann integral unworkable in applications (even though the Riemann integral assigns both sides the correct value), because there is no other general criterion for exchanging a limit and a Riemann integral, and without such a criterion it is difficult to approximate integrals by approximating their integrands.


title: Riemann integral

text: A better route is to abandon the Riemann integral for the Lebesgue integral. The definition of the Lebesgue integral is not obviously a generalization of the Riemann integral, but it is not hard to prove that every Riemann-integrable function is Lebesgue-integrable and that the values of the two integrals agree whenever they are both defined. Moreover, a function defined on a bounded interval is Riemann-integrable if and only if it is bounded and the set of points where is discontinuous has Lebesgue measure zero.


title: Riemann integral

text: An integral which is in fact a direct generalization of the Riemann integral is the Henstock–Kurzweil integral.


title: Riemann integral

text: Another way of generalizing the Riemann integral is to replace the factors in the definition of a Riemann sum by something else; roughly speaking, this gives the interval of integration a different notion of length. This is the approach taken by the Riemann–Stieltjes integral.


title: Riemann integral

text: In multivariable calculus, the Riemann integrals for functions from formula_39 are multiple integrals.


title: Riemann integral

text: The Riemann integral is unsuitable for many theoretical purposes. Some of the technical deficiencies in Riemann integration can be remedied with the Riemann–Stieltjes integral, and most disappear with the Lebesgue integral, though the latter does not have a satisfactory treatment of improper integrals. The gauge integral is a generalisation of the Lebesgue integral that is at once closer to the Riemann integral.


title: Riemann integral

text: These more general theories allow for the integration of more "jagged" or "highly oscillating" functions whose Riemann integral does not exist; but the theories give the same value as the Riemann integral when it does exist.


title: Riemann integral

text: In educational settings, the Darboux integral offers a simpler definition that is easier to work with; it can be used to introduce the Riemann integral. The Darboux integral is defined whenever the Riemann integral is, and always gives the same result. Conversely, the gauge integral is a simple but more powerful generalization of the Riemann integral and has led some educators to advocate that it should replace the Riemann integral in introductory calculus courses.


title: Silage

text: Silage () is a type of fodder made from green foliage crops which have been preserved by fermentation to the point of acidification. It can be fed to cattle, sheep and other such ruminants (cud-chewing animals). The fermentation and storage process is called "ensilage", "ensiling" or "silaging". Silage is usually made from grass crops, including maize, sorghum or other cereals, using the entire green plant (not just the grain). Silage can be made from many field crops, and special terms may be used depending on type: "oatlage" for oats, "haylage" for alfalfa ("haylage" may also refer to high dry matter silage made from hay).


title: Silage

text: The crops most often used for ensilage are the ordinary grasses, clovers, alfalfa, vetches, oats, rye and maize. Many crops have ensilaging potential, including potatoes and various weeds, notably spurrey such as "Spergula arvensis". Silage must be made from plant material with a suitable moisture content: about 50% to 60% depending on the means of storage, the degree of compression, and the amount of water that will be lost in storage, but not exceeding 75%. Weather during harvest need not be as fair and dry as when harvesting for drying. For corn, harvest begins when the whole-plant moisture is at a suitable level, ideally a few days before it is ripe. For pasture-type crops, the grass is mown and allowed to wilt for a day or so until the moisture content drops to a suitable level. Ideally the crop is mowed when in full flower, and deposited in the silo on the day of its cutting.


title: Silage

text: After harvesting, crops are shredded to pieces about long. The material is spread in uniform layers over the floor of the silo, and closely packed. When the silo is filled or the stack built, a layer of straw or some other dry porous substance may be spread over the surface. In the silo, the pressure of the material, when chaffed, excludes air from all but the top layer; in the case of the stack, extra pressure is applied by weights to prevent excessive heating.


title: Silage

text: Forage harvesters collect and chop the plant material, and deposit it in trucks or wagons. These forage harvesters can be either tractor-drawn or self-propelled. Harvesters blow the chaff into the wagon through a chute at the rear or side of the machine. Chaff may also be emptied into a bagger, which puts the silage into a large plastic bag that is laid out on the ground.


title: Silage

text: In North America, Australia, northwestern Europe, and New Zealand it is common for silage to be placed in large heaps on the ground, rolled by tractor to push out the air, then covered with plastic sheets that are held down by used tires or tire ring walls. In New Zealand and Northern Europe, 'clamps' made of concrete or old wooden railway ties (sleepers) and built into the side of a bank are sometimes used. The chopped grass can then be dumped in at the top, to be drawn from the bottom in winter. This requires considerable effort to compress the stack in the silo to cure it properly. Again, the pit is covered with plastic sheet and weighed down with tires.


title: Silage

text: In an alternative method, the cut vegetation is formed into bales using a baler, making "balage" (North America) or "silage bales" (UK, Australia, New Zealand). The grass or other forage is cut and partly dried until it contains 30–40% moisture (much drier than bulk silage, but too damp to be stored as dry hay). It is then made into large bales which are wrapped tightly in plastic to exclude air. The plastic may wrap the whole of each cylindrical or cuboid bale, or be wrapped around only the curved sides of a cylindrical bale, leaving the ends uncovered. In this case, the bales are placed tightly end to end on the ground, making a long continuous "sausage" of silage, often at the side of a field. The wrapping may be performed by a bale wrapper, while the baled silage is handled using a bale handler or a front-loader, either impaling the bale on a flap, or by using a special grab. The flaps do not hole the bales.


title: Silage

text: In the UK, baled silage is most often made in round bales about , individually wrapped with four to six layers of "bale wrap plastic" (black, white or green 25-micrometre stretch film). The percentage of dry matter can vary from about 20% dry matter upwards. The continuous "sausage" referred to above is made with a special machine which wraps the bales as they are pushed through a rotating hoop which applies the bale wrap to the outside of the bales (round or square) in a continuous wrap. The machine places the bales on the ground after wrapping by moving forward slowly during the wrapping process.


title: Silage

text: "Haylage" sometimes refers to high dry matter silage of around 40% to 60%, typically made from hay. Horse haylage is usually 60% to 70% dry matter, made in small bales or larger bales.


title: Silage

text: Handling of wrapped bales is most often with some type of gripper that squeezes the plastic-covered bale between two metal parts to avoid puncturing the plastic. Simple fixed versions are available for round bales which are made of two shaped pipes or tubes spaced apart to slide under the sides of the bale, but when lifted will not let it slip through. Often used on the tractor rear three-point linkage, they incorporate a trip tipping mechanism which can flip the bales over on to the flat side or end for storage on the thickest plastic layers.


title: Silage

text: Silage undergoes anaerobic fermentation, which starts about 48 hours after the silo is filled, and converts sugars to acids. Fermentation is essentially complete after about two weeks.


title: Silage

text: Before anaerobic fermentation starts, there is an aerobic phase in which the trapped oxygen is consumed. How closely the fodder is packed determines the nature of the resulting silage by regulating the chemical reactions that occur in the stack. When closely packed, the supply of oxygen is limited, and the attendant acid fermentation brings about decomposition of the carbohydrates present into acetic, butyric and lactic acids. This product is named sour silage. If the fodder is unchaffed and loosely packed, or the silo is built gradually, oxidation proceeds more rapidly and the temperature rises; if the mass is compressed when the temperature is , the action ceases and sweet silage results. The nitrogenous ingredients of the fodder also change: in making sour silage, as much as one-third of the albuminoids may be converted into amino and ammonium compounds; in making sweet silage, a smaller proportion is changed, but they become less digestible. If the fermentation process is poorly managed, sour silage acquires an unpleasant odour due to excess production of ammonia or butyric acid (the latter is responsible for the smell of rancid butter).


title: Silage

text: In the past, the fermentation was conducted by indigenous microorganisms, but, today, some bulk silage is inoculated with specific microorganisms to speed fermentation or improve the resulting silage. Silage inoculants contain one or more strains of lactic acid bacteria, and the most common is "Lactobacillus plantarum". Other bacteria used include "Lactobacillus buchneri", "Enterococcus faecium" and "Pediococcus" species.


title: Silage

text: Ryegrasses have high sugars and respond to nitrogen fertiliser better than any other grass species. These two qualities have made ryegrass the most popular grass for silage-making for the last sixty years. There are three ryegrasses in seed form and commonly used: Italian, Perennial and Hybrid.


title: Silage

text: The fermentation process of silo or pit silage releases liquid. Silo effluent is corrosive. It can also contaminate water sources unless collected and treated. The high nutrient content can lead to eutrophication (hypertrophication), the growth of bacterial or algal blooms.


title: Silage

text: Plastic sheeting used for sealing pit or baled silage needs proper disposal, and some areas have recycling schemes for it. Traditionally, farms have burned silage plastics; however odor and smoke concerns have led certain communities to restrict that practice.


title: Silage

text: Silos are potentially hazardous: deaths may occur in the process of filling and maintaining them, and several safety precautions are necessary. There is a risk of injury by machinery or from falls. When a silo is filled, fine dust particles in the air can become explosive because of their large aggregate surface area. Also, fermentation presents respiratory hazards. The ensiling process produces "silo gas" during the early stages of the fermentation process. Silage gas contains nitric oxide (NO), which will react with oxygen (O) in the air to form nitrogen dioxide (NO), which is toxic. Lack of oxygen inside the silo can cause asphyxiation. Molds that grow when air reaches cured silage can cause organic dust toxic syndrome. Collapsing silage from large bunker silos has caused deaths. Silage itself poses no special danger.


title: Silage

text: Ensilage can be substituted for root crops. Bulk silage is commonly fed to dairy cattle, while baled silage tends to be used for beef cattle, sheep and horses. The advantages of silage as animal feed are several:


title: Silage

text: Using the same technique as the process for making sauerkraut, green fodder was preserved for animals in parts of Germany since the start of the 19th century. This gained the attention of French agriculturist Auguste Goffart of Sologne, near Orléans. He published a book in 1877 which described the experiences of preserving green crops in silos. Goffart's experience attracted considerable attention. The conditions of dairy farming in the United States suited the ensiling of green corn fodder, and was soon adopted by New England farmers. Francis Morris of Maryland prepared the first silage produced in America in 1876. The favourable results obtained in the US led to the introduction of the system in the United Kingdom, where Thomas Kirby first introduced the process for British dairy herds.


title: Silage

text: The modern silage preserved with acid and by preventing contact with air was invented by Finnish academic and professor of chemistry Artturi Ilmari Virtanen. Virtanen was awarded the 1945 Nobel prize in chemistry "for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method", practically inventing modern silage.


title: Silage

text: Early silos were made of stone or concrete either above or below ground, but it is recognized that air may be sufficiently excluded in a tightly pressed stack, though in this case a few inches of the fodder round the sides is generally useless owing to mildew. In the US, structures were typically constructed of wooden cylinders to 35 or 40 ft. in depth.


title: Silage

text: In the early days of mechanized agriculture (late 1800s), stalks were cut and collected manually using a knife and horsedrawn wagon, and fed into a stationary machine called a "silo filler" that chopped the stalks and blew them up a narrow tube to the top of a tower silo.


title: Silage

text: Fish silage is a method used for conserving by-products from fishing for later use as feed in fish farming. This way, the parts of the fish that are not used as human food such as fish guts (entrails), fish heads and trimmings are utilized as ingredients in feed pellets. The silage is performed by first grinding the remains and mixing it with formic acid, and then storing it in a tank. The acid helps with preservation as well as further dissolving the residues. Process tanks for fish silage can be aboard ships or on land.


title: Erlkönig

text: "Erlkönig" is a poem by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. It depicts the death of a child assailed by a supernatural being, the Erlking, a king of the fairies. It was originally written by Goethe as part of a 1782 Singspiel, .


title: Erlkönig

text: "Erlkönig" has been called Goethe's "most famous ballad". The poem has been set to music by several composers, most notably by Franz Schubert.


title: Erlkönig

text: An anxious young boy is being carried at night by his father on horseback. To where is not spelled out; German "" has a rather broad meaning of "yard", "courtyard", "farm", or (royal) "court". The opening line tells that the time is unusually late and the weather unusually inclement for travel. As it becomes apparent that the boy is delirious, a possibility is that the father is rushing him to medical aid.


title: Erlkönig

text: As the poem unfolds, the son claims to see and hear the "Erlkönig" (Erl-King). His father claims to not see or hear the creature, and he attempts to comfort his son, asserting natural explanations for what the child sees – a wisp of fog, rustling leaves, shimmering willows.


title: Erlkönig

text: The Erl-King attempts to lure the child into joining him, promising amusement, rich clothes and the attentions of his daughters. Finally, the Erl-King declares that he will take the child by force. The boy shrieks that he has been attacked, spurring the father to ride faster to the . Upon reaching the destination, the child is already dead.


title: Erlkönig

text: The story of the Erlkönig derives from the traditional Danish ballad "Elveskud": Goethe's poem was inspired by Johann Gottfried Herder's translation of a variant of the ballad (Danmarks gamle Folkeviser 47B, from Peter Syv's 1695 edition) into German as ("The Erl-King's Daughter") in his collection of folk songs, (published 1778). Goethe's poem then took on a life of its own, inspiring the Romantic concept of the Erlking. Niels Gade's cantata , Op. 30 (1854, text by ) was published in translation as .


title: Erlkönig

text: The poem has often been set to music, with Franz Schubert's rendition, his Opus 1 (D. 328), being the best known. Probably the next best known is that of Carl Loewe (1818). Other notable settings are by members of Goethe's circle, including the actress Corona Schröter (1782), Andreas Romberg (1793), Johann Friedrich Reichardt (1794) and Carl Friedrich Zelter (1797). Ludwig van Beethoven attempted to set it to music but abandoned the effort; his sketch however was full enough to be published in a completion by Reinhold Becker (1897). A few other 19th-century versions are those by Václav Tomášek (1815) and Louis Spohr (1856, with obbligato violin) and Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst (Polyphonic Studies for Solo Violin), though his was essentially a transcription of Schubert's version for solo violin. Twenty-first-century examples are the pianist Marc-André Hamelin's "Etude No. 8 (after Goethe)" for solo piano, based on "Erlkönig".


title: Erlkönig

text: Franz Schubert composed his Lied "Erlkönig" for solo voice and piano at the age of 17 or 18 in 1815, setting text from Goethe's poem. The work was first performed in concert on 1 December 1820 at a private gathering in Vienna. The public premiere on 7 March 1821 at the Theater am Kärntnertor was a great success, and he quickly rose to fame among the composers in Vienna. It is one of Schubert's most famous works, with enduring popularity and acclaim since its premiere in 1821.


title: Erlkönig

text: Carl Loewe's setting was published as Op. 1, No. 3 and composed in 1817–18, in the lifetime of the poem's author and also of Schubert, whose version Loewe did not then know. Collected with it were Op. 1, No. 1, "Edward" (1818; a translation of the Scottish ballad), and No. 2, "" (1823; "The Innkeeper's Daughter"), a poem of Ludwig Uhland. Inspired by a German translation of Scottish border ballads, Loewe set several poems with an elvish theme; but although all three of Op. 1 are concerned with untimely death, in this set only the "Erlkönig" has the supernatural element.


title: Erlkönig

text: Loewe's accompaniment is in semiquaver groups of six in time and marked (fast). The vocal line evokes the galloping effect by repeated figures of crotchet and quaver, or sometimes three quavers, overlying the binary tremolo of the semiquavers in the piano. In addition to an unusual sense of motion, this creates a flexible template for the stresses in the words to fall correctly within the rhythmic structure.


title: Erlkönig

text: Loewe's version is less melodic than Schubert's, with an insistent, repetitive harmonic structure between the opening minor key and answering phrases in the major key of the dominant, which have a stark quality owing to their unusual relationship to the home key. The narrator's phrases are echoed by the voices of father and son, the father taking up the deeper, rising phrase, and the son a lightly undulating, answering theme around the dominant fifth. These two themes also evoke the rising and moaning of the wind.


title: Erlkönig

text: The Erl-King, who is always heard pianissimo, does not sing melodies, but instead delivers insubstantial rising arpeggios that outline a single major chord (that of the home key) which sounds simultaneously on the piano in "una corda" tremolo. Only with his final threatening word, "Gewalt", does he depart from this chord. Loewe's implication is that the Erlking has no substance but merely exists in the child's feverish imagination. As the piece progresses, the first in the groups of three quavers is dotted to create a breathless pace, which then forms a bass figure in the piano driving through to the final crisis. The last words, , leap from the lower dominant to the sharpened third of the home key; this time not to the major but to a diminished chord, which settles chromatically through the home key in the major and then to the minor.


title: Jeep Wagoneer

text: The Jeep Wagoneer is a sport utility vehicle (SUV) nameplate of Jeep vehicles, with several models marketed for the 1963 through 1993 model years and again since the 2022 model year.


title: Jeep Wagoneer

text: Various versions of the Wagoneer were manufactured in the US and other nations by Kaiser Motors (1962−1971), by American Motors (1971−1987), by Chrysler (1987−1993), and Stellantis from 2021.


title: Jeep Wagoneer

text: A revival of the Jeep Wagoneer was introduced as a concept version on September 3, 2020, and as the production model on March 11, 2021. Sales begin in the second half of 2021 with 2022 model year versions.


title: Jeep Wagoneer

text: The first Wagoneer is the original full-size SUV-style design produced between 1962 and 1991. It was introduced in November 1962 for the 1963 model year as a successor to the Willys Jeep Station Wagon that had been built since 1946. It is a full-size body-on-frame vehicle that shared its architecture with the Gladiator pickup truck. The vehicle was introduced as a station wagon body style, later the pioneering design became known as a "sport utility vehicle" (SUV).


title: Jeep Wagoneer

text: Available initially with rear-wheel drive, the four-wheel drive SJ-body Wagoneer remained in production for 29 model years (1963–1991) with an almost unchanged body structure.


title: Jeep Wagoneer

text: The second-generation Wagoneer is an upscale version of the unibody-based compact XJ Cherokee produced between 1983 and 1990. The compact XJ Wagoneer was available in two trim levels: the "Wagoneer" and the "Wagoneer Limited". These vehicles were intended to replace the SJ-body Wagoneer models, but high demand prompted American Motors, and Chrysler after 1987, to keep the original SJ-body Wagoneer in production.


title: Jeep Wagoneer

text: The Wagoneer nameplate was reintroduced for one year as the top-of-the-line model of the Jeep ZJ platform that debuted on the mid-size Grand Cherokee for the 1993 model year. Called the Grand Wagoneer, it featured a long list of standard equipment including the Magnum 5.2 L V8 engine and unique leather interior as well as the Grand Wagoneer's traditional exterior woodgrain applique. After 6,378 were produced, the model was dropped for 1994, leaving the Grand Cherokee Limited as the top-of-the-line Jeep.


title: Jeep Wagoneer

text: The fourth-generation Wagoneer and Grand Wagoneer are full-size SUVs and full-size luxury SUVs based on the Ram 1500 (DT) chassis. It was revealed in March 2021 for the 2022 model year as the flagship model Jeep. Production of the fourth-generation Jeep Wagoneers began in 2021.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: Christine Marie Paolilla (born March 31, 1986) is a convicted American mass murderer who is serving a life sentence for fatally shooting four people, including two of her friends, in their Clear Lake City, Texas, home on July 18, 2003. The killings, which came to be known as the Clear Lake Murders, made national headlines.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: Paolilla, who was 17 years old at the time of the murders, was accompanied by her then-boyfriend, Christopher Snider. She was arrested on July 19, 2006, three years and one day after the murders were committed. Paolilla was convicted in October 2008 and sentenced to life in prison. Snider committed suicide in July 2006 before he was apprehended by police.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: Paolilla was born on Long Island, New York to Lori, a stay-at-home mom, and Charles Paolilla, a construction worker. She has one older brother. When Paolilla was 2 years old, her father was killed in a construction accident. Following the death of her husband, Lori Paolilla began abusing drugs and eventually lost custody of her children to her parents. When Paolilla was in kindergarten, she was diagnosed with alopecia which caused her to lose her hair, eyebrows, and eyelashes. As a result of the hair loss, Paolilla was forced to wear wigs. She also had poor vision and wore thick glasses. Paolilla was frequently ridiculed and bullied by her classmates for her appearance, which affected her self-confidence.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: Paolilla was eventually reunited with her mother who had overcome her drug addiction and remarried. The family then moved to Clear Lake City, Texas, a suburb of Houston. Paolilla enrolled at Clear Lake High School. She was befriended by two popular students, Rachael Koloroutis and Tiffany Rowell, who helped her improve her appearance and fit in with the other students. In 2003, Paolilla was voted "Miss Irresistible" by her school's student body. That year, she also began a relationship with 21-year-old Christopher Lee Snider. Paolilla's mother and stepfather disapproved of Snider, as did Koloroutis and Rowell, because of his frequent drug use and extensive criminal record. These fears would be substantiated, as Paolilla would increasingly use various drugs during the year she and Snider were in a relationship.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: Lori Paolilla later recalled that Snider isolated her daughter from her friends and family and indicated that she had been raped and that the relationship was both abusive and dysfunctional. Snider's family also said the relationship was tumultuous and that Paolilla was prone to jealousy. After one fight with Snider, Paolilla spent the night on the front lawn of his family's home and threatened to kill his family.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: On July 18, 2003, Paolilla and Snider went to her friend Tiffany Rowell's home in Clear Lake City. Also at the home were Rachael Koloroutis, Rowell's boyfriend Marcus Precella, and Precella's cousin Adelbert Sanchez. According to Paolilla, she and Snider planned to steal the drugs that were kept at the house but Snider reportedly got into an argument with Precella which led to the shootings of Rowell, Koloroutis, Precella, and Sanchez. All four victims were shot multiple times. Rachael Koloroutis attempted to crawl to a phone to call 911 after she was shot but Paolilla struck her in the head multiple times with the butt of a 38-caliber revolver, bashing in her skull. Koloroutis and Rowell were both shot in the crotch, a sign of sexual jealousy. Snider and Paolilla left little evidence at the crime scene leading police to suspect that the killings were drug related as Marcus Precella was said to have sold drugs from the home. Adelbert Sanchez had moved to Clear Lake to get away from violence on the north side to change his life around and he had only been in Clear Lake for about a week or two before losing his life. The only evidence police had were descriptions of the suspects who were seen walking to and from the home by neighbors.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: An hour after the murders, Snider drove Paolilla to Walgreens where she was scheduled to work the makeup counter.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: In 2004, Paolilla and Snider ended their relationship after Snider was jailed in Kentucky for car theft. Shortly thereafter, Paolilla entered rehab in Kerrville, Texas. It was there that she met Stanley Justin Rott, a heroin user with whom she began a relationship. The couple married in March 2005. Around that time, Paolilla came into a $360,000 trust fund left to her by her father. Paolilla used a portion of the money to buy an apartment. In July 2005, the second anniversary of the murders, Paolilla saw a newscast on television about the still unsolved case. She became upset after seeing sketches of the suspects given by neighbors and confessed to Rott that she and Snider had committed the murders. The couple then went into hiding. By November 2005, Paolilla and Rott were living in a motel room in San Antonio. For the next eight months, the couple holed up in the room, shooting heroin and cocaine.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: On July 8, 2006, police received an anonymous tip via Crimestoppers regarding the murders of Rowell, Koloroutis, Precella, and Sanchez. The male caller told police that he had been in rehab with Paolilla who had admitted to being a participant in the crime (it was later reported that Justin Rott was not the man who called in the tip). Police tracked Paolilla down in San Antonio and arrested her on July 19, 2006. (Paolilla's husband was also arrested as police found 70 vials of heroin in the couple's room). After their arrests, Rott told police that Paolilla had confessed to him that she had been an active participant in the murders. He stated that Paolilla had gone back into the house and beat Koloroutis to death with a gun, after finding her still clinging to life and attempting to summon help. Paolilla initially denied killing her friends, but eventually admitted to participating in the murders but placed all the blame on her ex-boyfriend, Christopher Snider. On July 21, 2006, Paolilla and Snider, who had not yet been apprehended, were charged with capital murder. Paolilla's bail was set at $500,000 as she was considered a flight risk.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: In June 2006, Christopher Snider moved to Greenville, South Carolina where he was living with a woman he met online. After Paolilla's arrest that July, one of Snider's family members called to inform him that police had issued a warrant for his arrest in relation to the murders. Acting on a tip that Snider may have committed suicide, police went to Greenville and searched near an area where Snider was reported to have been seen. His decomposing body was found in a heavily wooded area on August 5, 2006. It was later determined that Snider had overdosed on prescription medication.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: On October 13, 2008, Paolilla was convicted of four counts of capital murder. As she had been a juvenile offender at the time of the killings, she was spared the death penalty. The following day, she was sentenced to life in prison. Paolilla filed an appeal on November 29, 2008 on the grounds that "the trial court abused its discretion in setting [Paolilla's] amount of bail at $500,000". An appeals panel decided that the court did not abuse its discretion and affirmed Paolilla's original sentence. She has since filed additional appeals which have also been denied.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: As of 2022, Paolilla is incarcerated at the Crain Unit in Gatesville, Texas and will be eligible for parole in 2046, when she will be aged 60.


title: Christine Paolilla

text: The case has been profiled on the documentary crime series "20/20",<ref name="20/20"></ref> "Snapped", "Killer Kids", "Forensic Files", "Deadly Women", and "Redrum".


title: Wade–Giles

text: Wade–Giles () is a romanization system for Mandarin Chinese. It developed from a system produced by Thomas Francis Wade, during the mid-19th century, and was given completed form with Herbert A. Giles's "Chinese–English Dictionary" of 1892.


title: Wade–Giles

text: The romanization systems in common use until the late 19th century were based on the Nanjing dialect, but Wade–Giles was based on the Beijing dialect and was the system of transcription familiar in the English-speaking world for most of the 20th century. Both of these kinds of transcription were used in postal romanizations (romanized place-names standardized for postal uses). In mainland China Wade–Giles has been mostly replaced by the Hanyu Pinyin romanization system, which was officially adopted in 1958, with exceptions for the romanized forms of some of the most commonly-used names of locations and persons, and other proper nouns. The romanized name for most locations, persons and other proper nouns in Taiwan is based on the Wade–Giles derived romanized form, for example Kaohsiung, the Matsu Islands and Chiang Ching-kuo.


title: Wade–Giles

text: Wade–Giles was developed by Thomas Francis Wade, a scholar of Chinese and a British ambassador in China who was the first professor of Chinese at Cambridge University. Wade published in 1867 the first textbook on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin in English, "Yü-yen Tzŭ-erh Chi" (), which became the basis for the romanization system later known as Wade–Giles. The system, designed to transcribe Chinese terms for Chinese specialists, was further refined in 1892 by Herbert Allen Giles (in "A Chinese–English Dictionary"), a British diplomat in China and his son, Lionel Giles, a curator at the British Museum.


title: Wade–Giles

text: Taiwan used Wade–Giles for decades as the "de facto" standard, co-existing with several official romanizations in succession, namely, Gwoyeu Romatzyh (1928), Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II (1986), and Tongyong Pinyin (2000). The Kuomintang party has previously promoted Hànyǔ Pīnyīn with Ma Ying-jeou's successful presidential bid in 2008 and in a number of cities with Kuomintang elected mayors. However, the current Tsai Ing-wen administration and Democratic Progressive Party along with the majority of the people in Taiwan, both native and overseas, use spelling and transcribe their legal names in the Wade–Giles system, as well as the other aforementioned systems.


title: Wade–Giles

text: The tables below show the Wade–Giles representation of each Chinese sound (in bold type), together with the corresponding IPA phonetic symbol (in square brackets), and equivalent representations in Bopomofo and Hànyǔ Pīnyīn.


title: Wade–Giles

text: It writes as "-o" after "k", "k" and "h", otherwise as "-ê": "ko", "ko", "ho", "shê", "chê". When forms a syllable on its own, it is written "ê" or "o" depending on the character.


title: Wade–Giles

text: Wade–Giles writes as "-uo" after "k", "k", "h" and "sh", otherwise as "-o": "kuo", "kuo", "huo", "shuo", "cho".


title: Wade–Giles

text: Giles's "A Chinese–English Dictionary" also includes the syllables "chio", "chio", "hsio", "yo", which are pronounced like "chüeh", "chüeh", "hsüeh", "yüeh" in Peking dialect.


title: Wade–Giles

text: A feature of the Wade–Giles system is the representation of the unaspirated-aspirated stop consonant pairs using a character resembling an apostrophe. Thomas Wade and others have used the spiritus asper ( or ), borrowed from the polytonic orthography of the Ancient Greek language. Herbert Giles and others have used a left (opening) curved single quotation mark (‘) for the same purpose. A third group used a plain apostrophe ('). The backtick, and visually similar characters are sometimes seen in various electronic documents using the system.


title: Wade–Giles

text: Examples using the spiritus asper: "p, p, t, t, k, k, ch, ch". The use of this character preserves "b", "d", "g", and "j" for the romanization of Chinese varieties containing voiced consonants, such as Shanghainese (which has a full set of voiced consonants) and Min Nan (Hō-ló-oē) whose century-old Pe̍h-ōe-jī (POJ, often called Missionary Romanization) is similar to Wade–Giles. POJ, Legge romanization, Simplified Wade, and EFEO Chinese transcription use the letter instead of an apostrophe-like character to indicate aspiration. (This is similar to the obsolete IPA convention before the revisions of the 1970s). The convention of an apostrophe-like character or to denote aspiration is also found in romanizations of other Asian languages, such as McCune–Reischauer for Korean and ISO 11940 for Thai.


title: Wade–Giles

text: People unfamiliar with Wade–Giles often ignore the spiritus asper, sometimes omitting them when copying texts, unaware that they represent vital information. Hànyǔ Pīnyīn addresses this issue by employing the Latin letters customarily used for voiced stops, unneeded in Mandarin, to represent the unaspirated stops: "b, p, d, t, g, k, j, q, zh, ch."


title: Wade–Giles

text: Partly because of the popular omission of apostrophe-like characters, the four sounds represented in Hànyǔ Pīnyīn by "j", "q", "zh", and "ch" often all become "ch", including in many proper names. However, if the apostrophe-like characters are kept, the system reveals a symmetry that leaves no overlap:


title: Wade–Giles

text: Like Yale and Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II, Wade–Giles renders the two types of syllabic consonant (; Wade–Giles: "kung-yün"; Hànyǔ Pīnyīn: "kōngyùn") differently:


title: Wade–Giles

text: These finals are both written as "-ih" in Tongyòng Pinyin, as "-i" in Hànyǔ Pīnyīn (hence distinguishable only by the initial from as in "li"), and as "-y" in Gwoyeu Romatzyh and Simplified Wade. They are typically omitted in Zhùyīn (Bōpōmōfō).


title: Wade–Giles

text: What is pronounced in vernacular Peking dialect as a close-mid back unrounded vowel is written usually as "ê", but sometimes as "o", depending on historical pronunciation (at the time Wade–Giles was developed). Specifically, after velar initials "k", "k" and "h" (and a historical "ng", which had been dropped by the time Wade–Giles was developed), "o" is used; for example, "哥" is "ko" (Pīnyīn "gē") and "刻" is "ko" (Pīnyīn "kè"). In Peking dialect, "o" after velars (and what used to be "ng") have shifted to , thus they are written as "ge", "ke", "he" and "e" in Pīnyīn. When forms a syllable on its own, Wade–Giles writes "ê" or "o" depending on the character. In all other circumstances, it writes "ê".


title: Wade–Giles

text: What is pronounced in Peking dialect as is usually written as "o" in Wade–Giles, except for "wo", "shuo" (e.g. "說" "shuo") and the three syllables of "kuo", "kuo", and "huo" (as in 過, 霍, etc.), which contrast with "ko", "ko", and "ho" that correspond to Pīnyīn "ge", "ke", and "he". This is because characters like 羅, 多, etc. (Wade–Giles: "lo", "to"; Pīnyīn: "luó", "duō") did not originally carry the medial . Peking dialect does not have phonemic contrast between "o" and "-uo"/"wo" (except in interjections when used alone) and a medial is usually inserted in front of "-o" to form .


title: Wade–Giles

text: Note that Zhùyīn and Pīnyīn write as ㄛ "-o" after ㄅ "b", ㄆ "p", ㄇ "m" and ㄈ "f", and as ㄨㄛ "-uo" after all other initials.


title: Wade–Giles

text: Tones are indicated in Wade–Giles using superscript numbers (1–4) placed after the syllable. This contrasts with the use of diacritics to represent the tones in Pīnyīn. For example, the Pīnyīn "qiàn" (fourth tone) has the Wade–Giles equivalent "chien".


title: Wade–Giles

text: Wade–Giles uses hyphens to separate all syllables within a word (whereas Pīnyīn separates syllables only in specially defined cases, using hyphens or closing (right) single quotation marks as appropriate).


title: Wade–Giles

text: If a syllable is not the first in a word, its first letter is not capitalized, even if it is part of a proper noun. The use of apostrophe-like characters, hyphens, and capitalization is frequently not observed in place names and personal names. For example, the majority of overseas Taiwanese people write their given names like "Tai Lun" or "Tai-Lun", whereas the Wade–Giles is actually "Tai-lun". (See also Chinese names.)


title: Wade–Giles

text: Note: In Hànyǔ Pīnyīn, the so-called neutral tone is written leaving the syllable with no diacritic mark at all. In Tongyòng Pinyin, a ring is written over the vowel.


title: Wade–Giles

text: The Romanization system used in the 1943 edition of "Mathews' Chinese–English Dictionary" differs from Wade–Giles in the following ways:


title: Wade–Giles

text: Giles, Herbert A. "A Chinese–English Dictionary". 2-vol. & 3-vol. versions both. London: Shanghai: Bernard Quaritch; Kelly and Walsh, 1892. Rev. & enlarged 2nd ed. in 3 vols. (Vol. I: front-matter & "a"-"hsü", Vol. II: "hsü"-"shao", and Vol. III: "shao"-"yün"), Shanghai: Hong Kong: Singapore: Yokohama: London: Kelly & Walsh, Limited; Bernard Quaritch, 1912. Rpt. of the 2nd ed. but in 2 vols. and bound as 1, New York: Paragon Book Reprint Corp., 1964.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Pauline Kael (; June 19, 1919 – September 3, 2001) was an American film critic who wrote for "The New Yorker" magazine from 1968 to 1991. Known for her "witty, biting, highly opinionated and sharply focused" reviews, Kael's opinions often ran contrary to those of her contemporaries.


title: Pauline Kael

text: One of the most influential American film critics of her era, she left a lasting impression on the art form. Roger Ebert argued in an obituary that Kael "had a more positive influence on the climate for film in America than any other single person over the last three decades." Kael, he said, "had no theory, no rules, no guidelines, no objective standards. You couldn't apply her 'approach' to a film. With her it was all personal." Owen Gleiberman said she "was more than a great critic. She reinvented the form, and pioneered an entire aesthetic of writing."


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael was born to Isaac Paul Kael and Judith Kael ( Friedman), Jewish emigrants from Poland, on a chicken farm among other Jewish chicken farmers, in Petaluma, California. Her siblings are Louis (1906), Philip (1909), Annie, (1912), and Rose (1913). Her parents lost their farm when Kael was eight, and the family moved to San Francisco. Kael attended high school in San Francisco. In 1936 she matriculated at the University of California, Berkeley, where she studied philosophy, literature, and art, but dropped out in 1940. Kael had intended to go on to law school, but fell in with a group of artists and moved to New York City with the poet Robert Horan.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Three years later, Kael returned to Berkeley and "led a bohemian life," writing plays, and working in experimental film. In 1948, Kael and the filmmaker James Broughton had a daughter, Gina James, whom Kael would raise alone. Gina had a congenital heart defect through much of her childhood, which Kael could not afford the surgery to correct. To support her daughter and herself, Kael worked a series of menial jobs such as cook and seamstress, along with stints as an advertising copywriter.


title: Pauline Kael

text: In 1952, Peter D. Martin, the editor of "City Lights" magazine overheard Kael arguing about films in a coffeeshop with a friend and asked her to review Charlie Chaplin's "Limelight." Kael dubbed the film "Slimelight" and began publishing film criticism regularly in magazines.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael later explained her writing style: "I worked to loosen my style—to get away from the term-paper pomposity that we learn at college. I wanted the sentences to breathe, to have the sound of a human voice." Kael disparaged the supposed critic's ideal of objectivity, referring to it as "saphead objectivity," and incorporated aspects of autobiography into her criticism. In a review of Vittorio De Sica's 1946 neorealist film "Shoeshine" that has been ranked among her most memorable, Kael described seeing the film


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael broadcast many of her early reviews on the alternative public radio station KPFA, in Berkeley, and gained further local profile as the manager, from 1955 to 1960, and later, spouse of the owner, Edward Landberg, of the Berkeley Cinema-Guild and Studio. Kael programmed the films at the two-screen facility, "unapologetically repeat[ing] her favorites until they also became audience favorites." She also wrote "pungent" capsule reviews of the films, which her patrons began collecting.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael continued to juggle writing with other work until she received an offer to publish a book of her criticism. Published in 1965 as "I Lost It at the Movies," the collection sold 150,000 paperback copies and was a surprise bestseller. Coinciding with a job at the high-circulation women's magazine "McCall's," Kael (as "Newsweek" put it in a 1966 profile) "went mass."


title: Pauline Kael

text: That same year, she wrote a blistering review of the phenomenally popular "The Sound of Music" in "McCall's". After mentioning that some of the press had dubbed it "The Sound of Money," Kael called the film's message a "sugarcoated lie that people seem to want to eat." Although according to legend this review led to her being fired from "McCall's" (and "The New York Times" printed as much in Kael's obituary), both Kael and the magazine's editor, Robert Stein, denied this. According to Stein, he fired her "months later, after she kept panning every commercial movie from "Lawrence of Arabia" and "Dr. Zhivago" to "The Pawnbroker" and "A Hard Day's Night"."


title: Pauline Kael

text: Her dismissal from "McCall's" led to a stint from 1966 to 1967 at "The New Republic," whose editors continually altered Kael's writing without her permission. In October 1967, Kael wrote a lengthy essay on "Bonnie and Clyde", which the magazine declined to publish. William Shawn of "The New Yorker" obtained the piece and ran it in the "New Yorker" issue of October 21. Kael's rave review was at odds with prevailing opinion, which was that the film was inconsistent, blending comedy and violence. According to critic David Thomson, "she was right about a film that had bewildered many other critics." A few months after the essay ran, Kael quit "The New Republic" "in despair." In 1968, Kael was asked by Shawn to join "The New Yorker" staff; she alternated as film critic every six months with Penelope Gilliatt until 1979, and became sole critic in 1980 after a year's leave of absence working in the film industry.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Initially, many considered her colloquial, brash writing style an odd fit with the sophisticated and genteel "New Yorker". Kael remembered "getting a letter from an eminent "New Yorker" writer suggesting that I was trampling through the pages of the magazine with cowboy boots covered with dung." During her tenure at the "New Yorker", she was able to take advantage of a forum that permitted her to write at length—and with minimal editorial interference—thereby achieving her greatest prominence. By 1968, "Time" magazine was referring to her as "one of the country's top movie critics."


title: Pauline Kael

text: In 1970, Kael received a George Polk Award for her work as a critic at the "New Yorker." She continued to publish collections of her writing with suggestive titles such as "Kiss Kiss Bang Bang," "When the Lights Go Down," and "Taking It All In." Her fourth collection, "Deeper into Movies" (1973), won the U.S. National Book Award in the Arts and Letters category. It was the first non-fiction book about film to win a National Book Award.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael also wrote philosophical essays on movie-going, the modern Hollywood film industry, and what she perceived as the lack of courage on the part of audiences to explore lesser-known, more challenging movies (she rarely used the word "film" to describe films because she felt the word was too elitist). Among her more popular essays were a damning 1973 review of Norman Mailer's semi-fictional "Marilyn: a Biography" (an account of Marilyn Monroe's life); an incisive 1975 look at Cary Grant's career; and "Raising Kane" (1971), a book-length essay on the authorship of the film "Citizen Kane" that was the longest piece of sustained writing she had yet done.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Commissioned as an introduction to the shooting script in "The Citizen Kane Book", "Raising Kane" was first printed in two consecutive issues of "The New Yorker". The essay extended Kael's dispute of the auteur theory, arguing that Herman J. Mankiewicz, co-author of the screenplay, was virtually the sole author of the script and the film's actual guiding force. Kael further alleged that Orson Welles had actively schemed to deprive Mankiewicz of screen credit. Welles considered suing Kael for libel. He was defended by critics, scholars and friends, including Peter Bogdanovich, who rebutted Kael's claims in a 1972 article that included the revelation that Kael had appropriated the extensive research of a UCLA faculty member and did not credit him.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Woody Allen said of Kael, "She has everything that a great critic needs except judgment. And I don't mean that facetiously. She has great passion, terrific wit, wonderful writing style, huge knowledge of film history, but too often what she chooses to extol or fails to see is very surprising."


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael battled the editors of the "New Yorker" as much as her own critics. She fought with William Shawn to review the 1972 pornographic film "Deep Throat," though she eventually relented. According to Kael, after reading her negative review of Terrence Malick's 1973 film "Badlands," Shawn said, "I guess you didn't know that Terry is like a son to me." Kael responded, "Tough shit, Bill," and her review was printed unchanged. Other than sporadic confrontations with Shawn, Kael said she spent most of her work time at home, writing.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Upon the release of Kael's 1980 collection "When the Lights Go Down," her "New Yorker" colleague Renata Adler published an 8,000-word review in "The New York Review of Books" that dismissed the book as "jarringly, piece by piece, line by line, and without interruption, worthless." Adler argued that Kael's post-1960s work contained "nothing certainly of intelligence or sensibility" and faulted her "quirks [and] mannerisms," including Kael's repeated use of the "bullying" imperative and rhetorical question. The piece quickly became infamous in literary circles and was described by "Time" magazine as "the New York literary Mafia['s] bloodiest case of assault and battery in years." Although Kael refused to respond, Adler's review became known as "the most sensational attempt on Kael's reputation"; two decades later, Salon.com (ironically) referred to Adler's "worthless" denunciation of Kael as her "most famous single sentence."


title: Pauline Kael

text: In 1979, Kael accepted an offer from Warren Beatty to be a consultant to Paramount Pictures, but left the position after only a few months to return to writing criticism.


title: Pauline Kael

text: In the early 1980s, Kael was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, which sometimes has a cognitive component. As her condition worsened, she became increasingly depressed about the state of American films, along with feeling that "I had nothing new to say." In a March 11, 1991, announcement which "The New York Times" referred to as "earth-shattering," Kael announced her retirement from reviewing films regularly. At the time, Kael explained that she would still write essays for "The New Yorker," along with "some reflections and other pieces of writing about movies." Over the next 10 years, however, she published no new work save for an introduction to her 1994 compendium, "For Keeps". In the introduction (which was reprinted in "The New Yorker"), Kael stated, in reference to her film criticism, "I'm frequently asked why I don't write my memoirs. I think I have".


title: Pauline Kael

text: Though she published no new writing of her own, Kael was not averse to giving interviews, occasionally giving her opinion on new films and television shows. In a 1998 interview with "Modern Maturity", she said she sometimes regretted not being able to review: "A few years ago when I saw "Vanya on 42nd Street", I wanted to blow trumpets. Your trumpets are gone once you've quit." She died in 2001 at her home in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, of complications from Parkinson's, aged 82.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael's opinions often ran contrary to the consensus of her fellow critics. Occasionally, she championed films that were considered critical failures, such as "The Warriors" and "Last Tango in Paris". She was not especially cruel to some films that had been deplored by many critics—such as the 1972 "Man of La Mancha", in which she praised Sophia Loren's performance. She also panned films that had elsewhere attracted critical admiration, such as "Network", "A Woman Under the Influence" ("murky, ragmop movie"), "The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner", most experimental cinema (calling it "a creature of publicity and mutual congratulations on artistry"), most student films ("freshmen compositions"), "It's a Wonderful Life", "Shoah" ("logy and exhausting"), "Dances with Wolves" ("a nature boy movie") and "", the last of which Kael dubbed a "monumentally unimaginative movie." The originality of her opinions, as well as the forceful way in which she expressed them, won her ardent supporters as well as angry critics and fans.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael's reviews included a panning of "West Side Story" (1961) that drew harsh replies from the film's supporters; ecstatic reviews of "Z" and "MASH" that resulted in enormous boosts to those films' popularity; and enthusiastic appraisals of Brian De Palma's early films. Her 'preview' of Robert Altman's film "Nashville" (1975) appeared in print several months before the film was actually completed, in an attempt to prevent the studio from recutting the film and to catapult it to box-office success.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael was an opponent of the auteur theory, criticizing it both in her reviews and in interviews. She preferred to analyze films without thinking about the director's other works. Andrew Sarris, a key proponent of the theory, debated it with Kael in the pages of "The New Yorker" and various film magazines. Kael argued that a film should be considered a collaborative effort. In "Raising Kane" (1971), an essay she wrote on Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane", she points out how the film made extensive use of the distinctive talents of co-writer Herman J. Mankiewicz and cinematographer Gregg Toland.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael had a taste for antihero films that violated taboos involving sex and violence; this reportedly alienated some of her readers. However, she panned "Midnight Cowboy" (1969), the X-rated antihero film that won an Oscar for Best Picture. She also had a strong dislike for films that she felt were manipulative or appealed in superficial ways to conventional attitudes and feelings. She was particularly critical towards Clint Eastwood: her reviews of his films and acting, even if generally well-favored, were resoundingly negative. She became known as his nemesis.


title: Pauline Kael

text: She was an enthusiastic, if occasionally ambivalent, supporter of Sam Peckinpah and Walter Hill's early work, both of whom specialized in violent action dramas. Her collection "5001 Nights at the Movies" includes positive reviews of nearly all of Peckinpah's films, with the exception of "The Getaway" (1972), as well as Hill's "Hard Times" (1975), "The Warriors" (1979), and "Southern Comfort" (1981). Despite her initial dismissal of John Boorman's "Point Blank" (1967) for what she felt was its pointless brutality, she later acknowledged it was "intermittently dazzling" with "more energy and invention than Boorman seems to know what to do with ... one comes out exhilarated but bewildered".


title: Pauline Kael

text: However, Kael responded negatively to some action films that she felt pushed what she described as "right wing" or "fascist" agendas. She labeled Don Siegel's "Dirty Harry" (1971), starring Clint Eastwood, a "right-wing fantasy" and "a remarkably single-minded attack on liberal values." She also called it "fascist medievalism." In an otherwise extremely positive critique of Peckinpah's "Straw Dogs", Kael concluded that the controversial director had made "the first American film that is a fascist work of art".


title: Pauline Kael

text: In her negative review of Stanley Kubrick's "A Clockwork Orange" (1971), Kael explained how she felt some directors who used brutal imagery in their films were desensitizing audiences to violence:


title: Pauline Kael

text: In his preface to a 1983 interview with Kael for the gay magazine "Mandate", Sam Staggs wrote that "she has always carried on a love/hate affair with her gay legions. ... like the bitchiest queen in gay mythology, she has a sharp remark about everything". In the early 1980s, however, and largely in response to her review of the 1981 drama "Rich and Famous," Kael faced notable accusations of homophobia. First remarked upon by Stuart Byron in "The Village Voice", according to gay writer Craig Seligman the accusations eventually "took on a life of their own and did real damage to her reputation".


title: Pauline Kael

text: In her review, Kael called the straight-themed "Rich and Famous" "more like a homosexual fantasy," saying that one female character's "affairs, with their masochistic overtones, are creepy, because they don't seem like what a woman would get into". Byron, who "hit the ceiling" after reading the review, was joined by "The Celluloid Closet" author Vito Russo, who argued that Kael equated promiscuity with homosexuality, "as though straight women have never been promiscuous or been given the permission to be promiscuous."


title: Pauline Kael

text: In response to her review of "Rich and Famous", several critics reappraised Kael's earlier reviews of gay-themed films, including a wisecrack Kael made about the gay-themed "The Children's Hour": "I always thought this was why lesbians needed sympathy—that there isn't much they "can" do." Craig Seligman has defended Kael, saying that these remarks showed "enough ease with the topic to be able to crack jokes—in a dark period when other reviewers. ... 'felt that if homosexuality were not a crime it would spread. Kael herself rejected the accusations as "craziness", adding, "I don't see how anybody who took the trouble to check out what I've actually written about movies with homosexual elements in them could believe that stuff."


title: Pauline Kael

text: In December 1972, a month after U.S. President Richard Nixon was reelected in a landslide victory, Kael gave a lecture at the Modern Language Association, during which she said, "I live in a rather special world. I only know one person who voted for Nixon. Where they [Nixon's other supporters] are I don't know. They're outside my ken. But sometimes when I'm in a theater I can feel them." An article on the lecture in "The New York Times" included this quote.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael was subsequently misquoted as having said, "I can't believe Nixon won. I don't know anyone who voted for him" or a similar sentiment that expressed surprise at the election result. This misquote became an urban legend, and has been cited by conservatives (such as Bernard Goldberg, in his 2001 book "Bias") as an example of insularity among the liberal elite. The alleged quote has also been variously attributed to other writers, such as Joan Didion.


title: Pauline Kael

text: As soon as she began writing for "The New Yorker", Kael carried a great deal of influence among fellow critics. In the early 1970s, Cinerama distributors "initiate[d] a policy of individual screenings for each critic because her remarks [during the film] were affecting her fellow critics". In the '70s and '80s, Kael cultivated friendships with a group of young, mostly male critics, some of whom emulated her distinctive writing style. Referred to derisively as the "Paulettes," they came to dominate national film criticism in the 1990s. Critics who have acknowledged Kael's influence include, among many others, A. O. Scott of "The New York Times", David Denby and Anthony Lane of "The New Yorker", David Edelstein of "New York Magazine", Greil Marcus, Elvis Mitchell, Michael Sragow, Armond White, and Stephanie Zacharek of "Salon". It was repeatedly alleged that, after her retirement, Kael's "most ardent devotees deliberate[d] with each other [to] forge a common School of Pauline position" before their reviews were written. When confronted with the rumor that she ran "a conspiratorial network of young critics," Kael said she believed that critics imitated her style rather than her actual opinions, stating, "A number of critics take phrases and attitudes from me, and those takings stick out—they're not integral to the writer's temperament or approach".


title: Pauline Kael

text: Asked in 1998 if she thought her criticism had affected the way films were made, Kael deflected the question, stating, "If I say yes, I'm an egotist, and if I say no, I've wasted my life". Several directors' careers were profoundly affected by her, most notably that of "Taxi Driver" screenwriter Paul Schrader, who was accepted at UCLA Film School's graduate program upon Kael's recommendation. Under her mentoring, Schrader worked as a film critic before taking up screenwriting and directing full time. Derek Malcolm, who worked for several decades as a film critic for "The Guardian", said: "If a director was praised by Kael, he or she was generally allowed to work, since the money-men knew there would be similar approbation across a wide field of publications". Alternately, Kael was said to have had the power to prevent filmmakers from working; David Lean said that her criticism of his work "kept him from making a movie for 14 years" (referring to the 14-year break between "Ryan's Daughter" in 1970 and "A Passage to India" in 1984).


title: Pauline Kael

text: In 1978, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award for outstanding women who, through their endurance and the excellence of their work, have helped to expand the role of women within the entertainment industry. In his film "Willow" (1988), George Lucas named one of the villains "General Kael" after the critic. Kael had often reviewed Lucas's work without enthusiasm; in her own (negative) review of "Willow", she described the character as an ""hommage à moi"".


title: Pauline Kael

text: Though he began directing films after she retired, Quentin Tarantino was also influenced by Kael. While growing up, he read her criticism voraciously and said that Kael was "as influential as any director was in helping me develop my aesthetic". Wes Anderson recounted his efforts to screen his film "Rushmore" for Kael in a 1999 "The New York Times" article titled "My Private Screening With Pauline Kael". He later wrote to Kael, commenting: "[Y]our thoughts and writing about the movies [have] been a very important source of inspiration for me and my movies, and I hope you don't regret that". In 1997, cultural critic Camille Paglia described Kael as her second favorite critic (behind Parker Tyler), criticizing Kael's commentary on such films as "La Dolce Vita" and "Last Year at Marienbad" but also describing Kael as "unfailingly perceptive [...] [her] tart, lively, colloquial style I thought exactly right for a mass form like the movies."


title: Pauline Kael

text: In January 2000, filmmaker Michael Moore posted a recollection of Kael's response to his documentary film "Roger & Me" (1989). Moore wrote that Kael was incensed that she had to watch "Roger & Me" in a cinema (after Moore refused to send her a tape of the film for her to watch at home), and she resented "Roger & Me" winning Best Documentary at the 55th New York Film Critics Circle Awards. Moore said:two weeks later, she wrote a nasty, mean review of my film in "The New Yorker". It was OK with me that she didn't like the film, and it didn't bother me that she didn't like the point I was making, or even how I was making it. What was so incredibly appalling and shocking is how she printed outright lies about my movie. I had never experienced such a brazen, bald-faced barrage of disinformation. She tried to rewrite history... Her complete fabrication of the facts was so weird, so out there, so obviously made-up, that my first response was this must be a humor piece she had written... But, of course, she wasn't writing comedy. She was a deadly serious historical revisionist.Kael's career is discussed at length in the documentary "" (2009) by critics whose careers she helped shape, such as Owen Gleiberman and Elvis Mitchell, as well as by those who fought with her, such as Andrew Sarris. The film also shows several of Kael's appearances on PBS, including one alongside Woody Allen. Brian Kellow published a biography about Kael in 2011: "A Life in the Dark" (Viking Press).


title: Pauline Kael

text: Rob Garver's documentary "" was released in 2018. With the voice of Sarah Jessica Parker narrating for Kael, the film is a portrait of the work of the film critic and her influence on the male-dominated worlds of cinema and film criticism.


title: Pauline Kael

text: Kael briefly lived with the poet and filmmaker James Broughton, with whom she had a daughter, Gina James, who was born in 1948. Kael was married, in the 1950s, to Edward Landberg, the owner of the Berkeley Cinema-Guild and Studio. In the early 1980s, Kael was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease. She had one grandchild, William Friedman.


title: Wildlife of India

text: India is home to a large variety of wildlife. It is a biodiversity hotspot with its various ecosystems ranging from the Himalayas in the north to the evergreen rain forests in the south, the sands of the west to the marshy mangroves of the east. India lies within the Indomalayan realm and is the home to about 7.6% of mammal, 14.7% of amphibian, 6% of bird, 6.2% of reptilian, and 6.2% of flowering plant species. India's forest lands nurture about 500 species of mammals and more than 2000 bird species.


title: Wildlife of India

text: India is one of the most biodiverse regions of the world and contains three of the world’s 36 biodiversity hotspots – the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas, and the Indo-Burma hotspot. It is one of the seventeen megadiverse countries. The country has seven World Heritage Sites, eleven Biosphere Reserves in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and thirty seven Ramsar sites.


title: Wildlife of India

text: In response to decrease in the numbers of wild animals, human encroachment and poaching activities, the government of India established a system of national parks and protected areas in 1935, which was subsequently expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat. Further, federal protections were promulgated in the 1980s.


title: Wildlife of India

text: India has about 2,714 endemic lichen species. In 2020, the Lichen Park in India was developed by the Uttarakhand Forest Department in Munsiyari.


title: Wildlife of India

text: Many Indian species are descendants of species originating in Gondwana, of which India originally was a part. Peninsular India's subsequent movement towards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic change 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms. Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya. As a result, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians Notable endemics are the Nilgiri langur and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India harbours 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.


title: Wildlife of India

text: India is located at the junction of three realms namely Afrotropical, Indomalayan and Paleoarctic, and therefore, has characteristic elements from each of them, spurring migration of avifauna from these regions.


title: Wildlife of India

text: India is home to several well-known large animals, including the Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, Indian leopard, snow leopard, and clouded leopard. Bears include sloth bear, sun bear, the Himalayan black bear, the Himalayan brown bear, and deer and antelopes include the chausinga antelope, the blackbuck, chinkara gazelle, chital, sambar (deer), sangai, nilgai, Tibetan antelope, goa (antelope), Kashmir stag, musk deer, Indian muntjac, Indian hog deer, and the barasinga. It is home to big cats like Bengal tiger, Asiatic lion, Indian leopard, snow leopard, caracal, Eurasian lynx and clouded leopard. Various species of caprines, including Bhutan and Mishmi takin, Himalayan and red goral, Himalayan serow, red serow, Himalayan tahr, Siberian ibex, markhor, and Nilgiri tahr, as well as the kiang and Indian wild ass can be found. Wild sheep include blue sheep and argali. Gaur, wild water buffalo, wild yak, zebu, and gayal are also found. Small mammals include Indian crested porcupine, Indian boar, pygmy hog, Nilgiri marten, palm civet, red panda, binturong, and hog badger. Canidae include Tibetan and Bengal fox, Himalayan and Indian wolf, Ussuri Dhole and Indian Jackal. It is also home to the Striped Hyena. Aquatic mammals include Ganges river dolphin and finless porpoise. Reptiles include king cobra, Indian cobra, bamboo pit viper, Sri Lankan green vine snake, common krait, Indian rock python, Burmese python, reticulated python, mugger crocodile, gharial, saltwater crocodile and Indian golden gecko. Notable amphibians include the purple frog, Indian tree frog and Himalayan newt. Birds include Indian peacock, great Indian hornbill, great Indian bustard, ruddy shelduck, Himalayan monal, Himalayan quail, painted stork, greater and lesser flamingo, and Eurasian spoonbill.


title: Wildlife of India

text: There are about 18500 taxa of flowering plants from India. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 helped to improve the protection and security of the natural habitat. Many ecoregions, such as the "shola" forests, also exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic. Flora and Vegetation of forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman Islands, Western Ghats, and Northeast India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India, and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain. Mangrove forests such as the Sundarbans are on the coasts of states like West Bengal and Odisha. Important Indian trees include the medicinal neem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. Bamboo gardens are extremely common in jungles as well as villages. States like Sikkim and West Bengal have orchids. The national flower of India, the lotus flower, is common in lakes and ponds.


title: Wildlife of India

text: The diversity of fungi and their natural beauty occupy a prime place in the biological world and India has been a cradle for such organisms. Only a fraction of the total fungal wealth of India has been subjected to scientific scrutiny and mycologists have to unravel this unexplored and hidden wealth. One-third of the fungal diversity of the globe exists in India. The country has an array of 10 diverse biomes including Trans-Himalayan zone, Himalaya, Desert, Semi-Arid zone, Western Ghats, Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic Plain, North-Eastern India, Coasts and Islands where varied dominating regimes manifest. This enables the survival of manifold fungal flora in these regions which include hot spot areas like the Himalayan ranges, Western Ghats, hill stations, mangroves, sea coasts, freshwater bodies etc. Many fungi have been recorded from these regions and from the country, in general, comprising thermophiles, psychrophiles, mesophiles, aquatic forms, marine forms, plant and animal pathogens, edible fungi and beneficial fungi and so on. The number of fungi recorded in India exceeds 27,000 species, the largest biotic community after insects. The true fungi belong to the Kingdom Fungi which has four phyla, 103 orders, 484 families and 4979 genera. About 205 new genera have been described from India, of which 32% were discovered by C. V. Subramanian of the University of Madras. These features indicate a tenfold increase in the last 80 years.


title: Wildlife of India

text: Article 48 of the Constitution of India says, "The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country" and Article 51-A states that "it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures." The committee in the Indian Board for Wildlife, in their report, defines wildlife as "the entire natural uncultivated flora and fauna of the country" while the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 defines it as "any animal, bees, butterflies, crustacea, fish, moths and aquatic or land vegetation which forms part of any habitat."


title: Wildlife of India

text: As of 2020-21, there are 981 protected areas including 106 National Parks, 566 Wildlife Sanctuaries, 97 Conservation Reserves and 214 Community Reserves. In addition there are 51 Tiger Reserves, 18 Biosphere Reserves and 32 Elephant Reserves.


title: Wildlife of India

text: Hundreds of India's bird populations are in serious decline, according to a study spanning over 25 years.


title: Wildlife of India

text: In 2020 the Indian government created the world's first sea cucumber reserve in Lakshadweep-Dr KK Mohammed Koya Sea Cucumber Conservation Reserve, the largest marine conservation reserve - Attakoya Thangal Marine Conservation Reserve and the first protected area for marine birds in India - PM Sayeed Marine Birds Conservation Reserve.


title: Wildlife of India

text: Gir forest in India has the only surviving population of Asiatic lions in the world. In the late 1960s, there were only about 180 Asiatic lions. There were 523 Asiatic lions in the Gir National Park in Gujarat state which in 2018 increased to more than 600.


title: Wildlife of India

text: Some bird species have gone extinct in recent times, including the pink-headed duck ("Rhodonessa caryophyllacea") and the Himalayan quail ("Ophrysia superciliosa"). A species of warbler, "Acrocephalus orinus", known earlier from a single specimen collected by Allan Octavian Hume from near Rampur in Himachal Pradesh, was rediscovered after 139 years in Thailand.


title: Wildlife of India

text: Asiatic cheetah became extinct in India in the 1950. India's last recorded cheetah in the wild was said to have been shot in the Rewa area of Madhya Pradesh in the late 1940s.


title: Wildlife of India

text: The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region's popular culture. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous tales and fables such as the "Panchatantra" or the "Jataka Tales".


title: Wildlife of India

text: Notions of the wildlife of India were introduced in the west and also been made famous through "The Jungle Book" in late 1800s by Rudyard Kipling.


title: Wildlife of India

text: The Indian government has established 18 biosphere reserves, which protect larger areas of natural habitat and often include one or more national parks or reserves, along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life.


title: Wildlife of India

text: Eleven of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB) list.


title: Boarding house

text: A boarding house is a house (frequently a family home) in which lodgers rent one or more rooms on a nightly basis, and sometimes for extended periods of weeks, months, and years. The common parts of the house are maintained, and some services, such as laundry and cleaning, may be supplied. They normally provide "room and board," that is, some meals as well as accommodation.


title: Boarding house

text: Lodgers legally only obtain a licence to use their rooms, and not exclusive possession, so the landlord retains the right of access.


title: Boarding house

text: Formerly boarders would typically share washing, breakfast and dining facilities; in recent years it has become common for each room to have its own washing and toilet facilities. Such boarding houses were often found in English seaside towns (for tourists) and college towns (for students). It was common for there to be one or two elderly long-term residents. "The phrase "boardinghouse reach" [referring to a diner reaching far across a dining table] comes from an important variant of hotel life. In boardinghouses, tenants rent rooms and the proprietor provides family-style breakfasts and evening dinners in a common dining room. Traditionally, the food was put on the table, and everyone scrambled for the best dishes. Those with a long, fast reach ate best."


title: Boarding house

text: Boarders can often arrange to stay bed-and-breakfast (bed and breakfast only), half-board (bed, breakfast and dinner only) or full-board (bed, breakfast, lunch and dinner). Especially for families on holiday with children, boarding (particularly on a full-board basis) was an inexpensive alternative and much cheaper than staying in all but the cheapest hotels.


title: Boarding house

text: Boarding houses were common in most US cities throughout the 19th century and until the 1950s. In Boston in the 1830s, when landlords and their boarders were added up, between one-third and one-half of the city's entire population lived in a boarding house. Boarding houses ran from large, purpose-built buildings down to "genteel ladies" who rented a room or two as a way of earning a little extra money. Large houses were converted to boarding houses as wealthy families moved to more fashionable neighborhoods. The boarders in the 19th century ran the gamut as well, from well-off businessmen to poor laborers, and from single people to families. In the 19th century, between 1/3 to 1/2 of urban dwellers rented a room to boarders or were boarders themselves. In New York in 1869, the cost of living in a boarding house ranged from $2.50 to $40 a week. Some boarding houses attracted people with particular occupations or preferences, such as vegetarian meals.


title: Boarding house

text: The boarding house reinforced some social changes: it made it feasible for people to move to a large city, and away from their families. This distance from relatives brought social anxieties and complaints that the residents of boarding houses were not respectable. Boarding out gave people the opportunity to meet other residents, so they promoted some social mixing. This had advantages, such as learning new ideas and new people's stories, and also disadvantages, such as occasionally meeting disreputable or dangerous people. Most boarders were men, but women found that they had limited options: a co-ed boarding house might mean meeting objectionable men, but an all-female boarding house might be – or at least be suspected of being – a brothel.


title: Boarding house

text: Boarding houses attracted criticism: in "1916, Walter Krumwilde, a Protestant minister, saw the rooming house or boardinghouse system [as] "spreading its web like a spider, stretching out its arms like an octopus to catch the unwary soul." Attempts to reduce boarding house availability had a gendered impact, as boarding houses were typically operated or managed by women "matrons"; closing boarding houses reduced this opportunity for women to make a living from operating these houses.


title: Boarding house

text: Later, groups such as the Young Women's Christian Association provided heavily supervised boarding houses for young women. Boarding houses were viewed as "brick-and-mortar chastity belts" for young unmarried women, which protected them from the vices in the city. The Jeanne d'Arc Residence in Chelsea, which was operated by an order of nuns, aimed to provide a dwelling space for young French seamstresses and nannies. Married women who boarded with their families in boarding houses were accused of being too lazy to do all of the washing, cooking, and cleaning necessary to keep house or to raise children properly. While there is an association between boarding houses and women renters, men also rented, notably the poet-authors Walt Whitman and Edgar Allan Poe.


title: Boarding house

text: In the decades after the 1880s, urban reformers began working on modernizing cities; their efforts to create "uniformity within areas, less mixture of social classes, maximum privacy for each family, much lower density for many activities, buildings set back from the street, and a permanently built order" all meant that housing for single people had to be cut back or eliminated. By the early 1930s, urban reformers were typically using codes and zoning to enforce "uniform and protected single-use residential district[s] of private houses", the reformers' preferred housing type. In 1936, the FHA Property Standards defined a dwelling as "any structure used principally for residential purposes", noting that "commercial rooming houses and tourist homes, sanitariums, tourist cabins, clubs, or fraternities would not be considered dwellings" as they did not have the "private kitchen and a private bath" that reformers viewed as essential in a "proper home". As a result, boarding houses became less common in the early 20th century. Another factor that reduced boarding house numbers was that improved mass transit options made it feasible for more city residents to live in the suburbs and work in the city.


title: Boarding house

text: By the 1930s, boarding houses were becoming less common in most of the United States. In the 1930s and 1940s, "rooming or boarding houses had been taken for granted as respectable places for students, single workers, immigrants, and newlyweds to live when they left home or came to the city". However, with the housing boom in the 1950s, middle class newcomers could increasingly afford their own homes or apartments, which meant that rooming and boarding houses were beginning to be used more often by post-secondary "students, the working poor, or the unemployed". By the 1960s, rooming and boarding houses were deteriorating, as official city policies tended to ignore them.


title: Boarding house

text: The common lodging-house or flophouse usually offered a space to sleep, but little else. When used for temporary purposes, this arrangement was similar to a hostel. Flophouse beds may offer dormitory-style space for as little as one night at a time.


title: Boarding house

text: Single room occupancy (SRO) buildings rent individual rooms to residents, and have a shared bathroom; some may have a shared kitchen space for residents to cook their own meals.


title: Boarding house

text: Dormitory accommodations for post-secondary students are similar to a boarding houses when they include cafeterias.