title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Job performance is measured by objective rating performance and subjective ratings. Although the former is better than subjective ratings, most of studies in job performance and GCA have been based on supervisor performance ratings. This rating criterion is considered problematic and unreliable, mainly because of its difficulty to define what is a good and bad performance. Rating of supervisors tends to be subjective and inconsistent among employees. Additionally, supervisor rating of job performance is influenced by different factors, such as halo effect, facial attractiveness, racial or ethnic bias, and height of employees. However, Vinchur, Schippmann, Switzer and Roth (1998) found in their study with sales employees that objective sales performance had a correlation of 0.04 with GCA, while supervisor performance rating got a correlation of 0.40. These findings were surprising, considering that the main criterion for assessing these employees would be the objective sales.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: In understanding how GCA is associated job performance, several researchers concluded that GCA affects acquisition of job knowledge, which in turn improves job performance. In other words, people high in GCA are capable to learn faster and acquire more job knowledge easily, which allow them to perform better. Conversely, lack of ability to acquire job knowledge will directly affect job performance. This is due to low levels of GCA. Also, GCA has a direct effect on job performance. In a daily basis, employees are exposed constantly to challenges and problem solving tasks, which success depends solely on their GCA. These findings are discouraging for governmental entities in charge of protecting rights of workers. Because of the high correlation of GCA on job performance, companies are hiring employees based on GCA tests scores. Inevitably, this practice is denying the opportunity to work to many people with low GCA. Previous researchers have found significant differences in GCA between race / ethnicity groups. For instance, there is a debate whether studies were biased against Afro-Americans, who scored significantly lower than white Americans in GCA tests. However, findings on GCA-job performance correlation must be taken carefully. Some researchers have warned the existence of statistical artifacts related to measures of job performance and GCA test scores. For example, Viswesvaran, Ones and Schmidt (1996) argued that is quite impossible to obtain perfect measures of job performance without incurring in any methodological error. Moreover, studies on GCA and job performance are always susceptible to range restriction, because data is gathered mostly from current employees, neglecting those that were not hired. Hence, sample comes from employees who successfully passed hiring process, including measures of GCA.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: The correlation between income and "g", as measured by IQ scores, averages about .40 across studies. The correlation is higher at higher levels of education and it increases with age, stabilizing when people reach their highest career potential in middle age. Even when education, occupation and socioeconomic background are held constant, the correlation does not vanish.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: The "g" factor is reflected in many social outcomes. Many social behavior problems, such as dropping out of school, chronic welfare dependency, accident proneness, and crime, are negatively correlated with "g" independent of social class of origin. Health and mortality outcomes are also linked to "g", with higher childhood test scores predicting better health and mortality outcomes in adulthood (see Cognitive epidemiology).


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: In 2004, psychologist Satoshi Kanazawa argued that "g" was a domain-specific, species-typical, information processing psychological adaptation, and in 2010, Kanazawa argued that "g" correlated only with performance on evolutionarily unfamiliar rather than evolutionarily familiar problems, proposing what he termed the "Savanna-IQ interaction hypothesis". In 2006, "Psychological Review" published a comment reviewing Kanazawa's 2004 article by psychologists Denny Borsboom and Conor Dolan that argued that Kanazawa's conception of "g" was empirically unsupported and purely hypothetical and that an evolutionary account of "g" must address it as a source of individual differences, and in response to Kanazawa's 2010 article, psychologists Scott Barry Kaufman, Colin G. DeYoung, Deirdre Reis, and Jeremy R. Gray published a study in 2011 in "Intelligence" of 112 subjects taking a 70-item computer version of the Wason selection task (a logic puzzle) in a social relations context as proposed by evolutionary psychologists Leda Cosmides and John Tooby in "The Adapted Mind", and found instead that "performance on non-arbitrary, evolutionarily familiar problems is more strongly related to general intelligence than performance on arbitrary, evolutionarily novel problems".


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Heritability is the proportion of phenotypic variance in a trait in a population that can be attributed to genetic factors. The heritability of "g" has been estimated to fall between 40 and 80 percent using twin, adoption, and other family study designs as well as molecular genetic methods. Estimates based on the totality of evidence place the heritability of "g" at about 50%. It has been found to increase linearly with age. For example, a large study involving more than 11,000 pairs of twins from four countries reported the heritability of "g" to be 41 percent at age nine, 55 percent at age twelve, and 66 percent at age seventeen. Other studies have estimated that the heritability is as high as 80 percent in adulthood, although it may decline in old age. Most of the research on the heritability of "g" has been conducted in the United States and Western Europe, but studies in Russia (Moscow), the former East Germany, Japan, and rural India have yielded similar estimates of heritability as Western studies.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: As with heritability in general, the heritability of "g" can be understood in reference to a specific population at a specific place and time, and findings for one population do not apply to a different population that is exposed to different environmental factors. A population that is exposed to strong environmental factors can be expected to have a lower level of heritability than a population that is exposed to only weak environmental factors. For example, one twin study found that genotype differences almost completely explain the variance in IQ scores within affluent families, but make close to zero contribution towards explaining IQ score differences in impoverished families. Notably, heritability findings also only refer to total variation within a population and do not support a genetic explanation for differences between groups. It is theoretically possible for the differences between the average "g" of two groups to be 100% due to environmental factors even if the variance within each group is 100% heritable.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Behavioral genetic research has also established that the shared (or between-family) environmental effects on "g" are strong in childhood, but decline thereafter and are negligible in adulthood. This indicates that the environmental effects that are important to the development of "g" are unique and not shared between members of the same family.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: The genetic correlation is a statistic that indicates the extent to which the same genetic effects influence two different traits. If the genetic correlation between two traits is zero, the genetic effects on them are independent, whereas a correlation of 1.0 means that the same set of genes explains the heritability of both traits (regardless of how high or low the heritability of each is). Genetic correlations between specific mental abilities (such as verbal ability and spatial ability) have been consistently found to be very high, close to 1.0. This indicates that genetic variation in cognitive abilities is almost entirely due to genetic variation in whatever "g" is. It also suggests that what is common among cognitive abilities is largely caused by genes, and that independence among abilities is largely due to environmental effects. Thus it has been argued that when genes for intelligence are identified, they will be "generalist genes", each affecting many different cognitive abilities.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Much research points to "g" being a highly polygenic trait influenced by many common genetic variants, each having only small effects. Another possibility is that heritable differences in "g" are due to individuals having different "loads" of rare, deleterious mutations, with genetic variation among individuals persisting due to mutation–selection balance.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: A number of candidate genes have been reported to be associated with intelligence differences, but the effect sizes have been small and almost none of the findings have been replicated. No individual genetic variants have been conclusively linked to intelligence in the normal range so far. Many researchers believe that very large samples will be needed to reliably detect individual genetic polymorphisms associated with "g". However, while genes influencing variation in "g" in the normal range have proven difficult to find, many single-gene disorders with intellectual disability among their symptoms have been discovered.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: It has been suggested that the "g" loading of mental tests have been found to correlate with heritability, but both the empirical data and statistical methodology bearing on this question are matters of active controversy. Several studies suggest that tests with larger "g" loadings are more affected by inbreeding depression lowering test scores. There is also evidence that tests with larger "g" loadings are associated with larger positive heterotic effects on test scores, which has been suggested to indicate the presence of genetic dominance effects for "g".


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: "g" has a number of correlates in the brain. Studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) have established that "g" and total brain volume are moderately correlated (r~.3–.4). External head size has a correlation of ~.2 with "g". MRI research on brain regions indicates that the volumes of frontal, parietal and temporal cortices, and the hippocampus are also correlated with "g", generally at .25 or more, while the correlations, averaged over many studies, with overall grey matter and overall white matter have been found to be .31 and .27, respectively. Some but not all studies have also found positive correlations between "g" and cortical thickness. However, the underlying reasons for these associations between the quantity of brain tissue and differences in cognitive abilities remain largely unknown.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Most researchers believe that intelligence cannot be localized to a single brain region, such as the frontal lobe. Brain lesion studies have found small but consistent associations indicating that people with more white matter lesions tend to have lower cognitive ability. Research utilizing NMR spectroscopy has discovered somewhat inconsistent but generally positive correlations between intelligence and white matter integrity, supporting the notion that white matter is important for intelligence.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Some research suggests that aside from the integrity of white matter, also its organizational efficiency is related to intelligence. The hypothesis that brain efficiency has a role in intelligence is supported by functional MRI research showing that more intelligent people generally process information more efficiently, i.e., they use fewer brain resources for the same task than less intelligent people.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Small but relatively consistent associations with intelligence test scores include also brain activity, as measured by EEG records or event-related potentials, and nerve conduction velocity.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Evidence of a general factor of intelligence has also been observed in non-human animals. Studies have shown that "g" is responsible for 47% of the variance at the species level in primates and around 55% of the individual variance observed in mice. A review and meta-analysis of general intelligence, however, found that the average correlation among cognitive abilities was 0.18 and suggested that overall support for "g" is weak in non-human animals.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: While not able to be assessed using the same intelligence measures used in humans, cognitive ability can be measured with a variety of interactive and observational tools focusing on innovation, habit reversal, social learning, and responses to novelty. Non-human models of "g" such as mice are used to study genetic influences on intelligence and neurological developmental research into the mechanisms behind and biological correlates of "g".


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Similar to "g" for individuals, a new research path aims to extract a general collective intelligence factor "c" for groups displaying a group's general ability to perform a wide range of tasks. Definition, operationalization and statistical approach for this "c" factor are derived from and similar to "g". Causes, predictive validity as well as additional parallels to "g" are investigated.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Height is correlated with intelligence (r~.2), but this correlation has not generally been found within families (i.e., among siblings), suggesting that it results from cross-assortative mating for height and intelligence, or from another factor that correlates with both (e.g. nutrition). Myopia is known to be associated with intelligence, with a correlation of around .2 to .25, and this association has been found within families, too.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Cross-cultural studies indicate that the "g" factor can be observed whenever a battery of diverse, complex cognitive tests is administered to a human sample. The factor structure of IQ tests has also been found to be consistent across sexes and ethnic groups in the U.S. and elsewhere. The "g" factor has been found to be the most invariant of all factors in cross-cultural comparisons. For example, when the "g" factors computed from an American standardization sample of Wechsler's IQ battery and from large samples who completed the Japanese translation of the same battery were compared, the congruence coefficient was .99, indicating virtual identity. Similarly, the congruence coefficient between the "g" factors obtained from white and black standardization samples of the WISC battery in the U.S. was .995, and the variance in test scores accounted for by "g" was highly similar for both groups.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Most studies suggest that there are negligible differences in the mean level of "g" between the sexes, but that sex differences in cognitive abilities are to be found in more narrow domains. For example, males generally outperform females in spatial tasks, while females generally outperform males in verbal tasks. Another difference that has been found in many studies is that males show more variability in both general and specific abilities than females, with proportionately more males at both the low end and the high end of the test score distribution.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Differences in "g" between racial and ethnic groups have been found, particularly in the U.S. between black- and white-identifying test takers, though these differences appear to have diminished significantly over time, and to be attributable to environmental (rather than genetic) causes. Some researchers have suggested that the magnitude of the black-white gap in cognitive test results is dependent on the magnitude of the test's "g" loading, with tests showing higher "g" loading producing larger gaps (see Spearman's hypothesis), while others have criticized this view as methodologically unfounded. Still others have noted that despite the increasing "g" loading of IQ test batteries over time, the performance gap between racial groups continues to diminish. Comparative analysis has shown that while a gap of approximately 1.1 standard deviation in mean IQ (around 16 points) between white and black Americans existed in the late 1960s, between 1972 and 2002 black Americans gained between 4 and 7 IQ points relative to non-Hispanic Whites, and that "the "g" gap between Blacks and Whites declined virtually in tandem with the IQ gap." In contrast, Americans of East Asian descent generally slightly outscore white Americans. It has been claimed that racial and ethnic differences similar to those found in the U.S. can be observed globally, but the significance, methodological grounding, and truth of such claims have all been disputed.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Elementary cognitive tasks (ECTs) also correlate strongly with "g". ECTs are, as the name suggests, simple tasks that apparently require very little intelligence, but still correlate strongly with more exhaustive intelligence tests. Determining whether a light is red or blue and determining whether there are four or five squares drawn on a computer screen are two examples of ECTs. The answers to such questions are usually provided by quickly pressing buttons. Often, in addition to buttons for the two options provided, a third button is held down from the start of the test. When the stimulus is given to the subject, they remove their hand from the starting button to the button of the correct answer. This allows the examiner to determine how much time was spent thinking about the answer to the question (reaction time, usually measured in small fractions of second), and how much time was spent on physical hand movement to the correct button (movement time). Reaction time correlates strongly with "g", while movement time correlates less strongly.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: ECT testing has allowed quantitative examination of hypotheses concerning test bias, subject motivation, and group differences. By virtue of their simplicity, ECTs provide a link between classical IQ testing and biological inquiries such as fMRI studies.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: One theory holds that "g" is identical or nearly identical to working memory capacity. Among other evidence for this view, some studies have found factors representing "g" and working memory to be perfectly correlated. However, in a meta-analysis the correlation was found to be considerably lower. One criticism that has been made of studies that identify "g" with working memory is that "we do not advance understanding by showing that one mysterious concept is linked to another."


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Psychometric theories of intelligence aim at quantifying intellectual growth and identifying ability differences between individuals and groups. In contrast, Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development seeks to understand qualitative changes in children's intellectual development. Piaget designed a number of tasks to verify hypotheses arising from his theory. The tasks were not intended to measure individual differences, and they have no equivalent in psychometric intelligence tests. For example, in one of the best-known Piagetian conservation tasks a child is asked if the amount of water in two identical glasses is the same. After the child agrees that the amount is the same, the investigator pours the water from one of the glasses into a glass of different shape so that the amount appears different although it remains the same. The child is then asked if the amount of water in the two glasses is the same or different.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Notwithstanding the different research traditions in which psychometric tests and Piagetian tasks were developed, the correlations between the two types of measures have been found to be consistently positive and generally moderate in magnitude. A common general factor underlies them. It has been shown that it is possible to construct a battery consisting of Piagetian tasks that is as good a measure of "g" as standard IQ tests.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: The traditional view in psychology is that there is no meaningful relationship between personality and intelligence, and that the two should be studied separately. Intelligence can be understood in terms of what an individual "can" do, or what his or her "maximal" performance is, while personality can be thought of in terms of what an individual "will typically" do, or what his or her general tendencies of behavior are. Research has indicated that correlations between measures of intelligence and personality are small, and it has thus been argued that "g" is a purely cognitive variable that is independent of personality traits. In a 2007 meta-analysis the correlations between "g" and the "Big Five" personality traits were found to be as follows:


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Some researchers have argued that the associations between intelligence and personality, albeit modest, are consistent. They have interpreted correlations between intelligence and personality measures in two main ways. The first perspective is that personality traits influence performance on intelligence "tests". For example, a person may fail to perform at a maximal level on an IQ test due to his or her anxiety and stress-proneness. The second perspective considers intelligence and personality to be "conceptually" related, with personality traits determining how people apply and invest their cognitive abilities, leading to knowledge expansion and greater cognitive differentiation.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Some researchers believe that there is a threshold level of "g" below which socially significant creativity is rare, but that otherwise there is no relationship between the two. It has been suggested that this threshold is at least one standard deviation above the population mean. Above the threshold, personality differences are believed to be important determinants of individual variation in creativity.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Others have challenged the threshold theory. While not disputing that opportunity and personal attributes other than intelligence, such as energy and commitment, are important for creativity, they argue that "g" is positively associated with creativity even at the high end of the ability distribution. The longitudinal Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth has provided evidence for this contention. It has showed that individuals identified by standardized tests as intellectually gifted in early adolescence accomplish creative achievements (for example, securing patents or publishing literary or scientific works) at several times the rate of the general population, and that even within the top 1 percent of cognitive ability, those with higher ability are more likely to make outstanding achievements. The study has also suggested that the level of "g" acts as a predictor of the "level" of achievement, while specific cognitive ability patterns predict the "realm" of achievement.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Research on the G-factor, as well as other psychometric values, has been widely criticized for not properly taking into account the eugencist background of its research practices. The reductionism of the G-factor has been attributted to having evolved from "pseudoscientific theories" about race and intelligence.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Raymond Cattell, a student of Charles Spearman's, rejected the unitary "g" factor model and divided "g" into two broad, relatively independent domains: fluid intelligence (G"f") and crystallized intelligence (G"c"). G"f" is conceptualized as a capacity to figure out novel problems, and it is best assessed with tests with little cultural or scholastic content, such as Raven's matrices. G"c" can be thought of as consolidated knowledge, reflecting the skills and information that an individual acquires and retains throughout his or her life. G"c" is dependent on education and other forms of acculturation, and it is best assessed with tests that emphasize scholastic and cultural knowledge. G"f" can be thought to primarily consist of "current" reasoning and problem solving capabilities, while G"c" reflects the outcome of "previously" executed cognitive processes.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: The rationale for the separation of G"f" and G"c" was to explain individuals' cognitive development over time. While G"f" and G"c" have been found to be highly correlated, they differ in the way they change over a lifetime. G"f" tends to peak at around age 20, slowly declining thereafter. In contrast, G"c" is stable or increases across adulthood. A single general factor has been criticized as obscuring this bifurcated pattern of development. Cattell argued that G"f" reflected individual differences in the efficiency of the central nervous system. G"c" was, in Cattell's thinking, the result of a person "investing" his or her G"f" in learning experiences throughout life.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Cattell, together with John Horn, later expanded the G"f"-G"c" model to include a number of other broad abilities, such as G"q" (quantitative reasoning) and G"v" (visual-spatial reasoning). While all the broad ability factors in the extended G"f"-G"c" model are positively correlated and thus would enable the extraction of a higher order "g" factor, Cattell and Horn maintained that it would be erroneous to posit that a general factor underlies these broad abilities. They argued that "g" factors computed from different test batteries are not invariant and would give different values of "g", and that the correlations among tests arise because it is difficult to test just one ability at a time.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: However, several researchers have suggested that the G"f"-G"c" model is compatible with a "g"-centered understanding of cognitive abilities. For example, John B. Carroll's three-stratum model of intelligence includes both G"f" and G"c" together with a higher-order "g" factor. Based on factor analyses of many data sets, some researchers have also argued that G"f" and "g" are one and the same factor and that "g" factors from different test batteries are substantially invariant provided that the batteries are large and diverse.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Several theorists have proposed that there are intellectual abilities that are uncorrelated with each other. Among the earliest was L.L. Thurstone who created a model of "primary mental abilities" representing supposedly independent domains of intelligence. However, Thurstone's tests of these abilities were found to produce a strong general factor. He argued that the lack of independence among his tests reflected the difficulty of constructing "factorially pure" tests that measured just one ability. Similarly, J.P. Guilford proposed a model of intelligence that comprised up to 180 distinct, uncorrelated abilities, and claimed to be able to test all of them. Later analyses have shown that the factorial procedures Guilford presented as evidence for his theory did not provide support for it, and that the test data that he claimed provided evidence against "g" did in fact exhibit the usual pattern of intercorrelations after correction for statistical artifacts.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: More recently, Howard Gardner has developed the theory of multiple intelligences. He posits the existence of nine different and independent domains of intelligence, such as mathematical, linguistic, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, meta-cognitive, and existential intelligences, and contends that individuals who fail in some of them may excel in others. According to Gardner, tests and schools traditionally emphasize only linguistic and logical abilities while neglecting other forms of intelligence. While popular among educationalists, Gardner's theory has been much criticized by psychologists and psychometricians. One criticism is that the theory does violence to both scientific and everyday usages of the word "intelligence." Several researchers have argued that not all of Gardner's intelligences fall within the cognitive sphere. For example, Gardner contends that a successful career in professional sports or popular music reflects bodily-kinesthetic "intelligence" and musical "intelligence", respectively, even though one might usually talk of athletic and musical "skills", "talents", or "abilities" instead. Another criticism of Gardner's theory is that many of his purportedly independent domains of intelligence are in fact correlated with each other. Responding to empirical analyses showing correlations between the domains, Gardner has argued that the correlations exist because of the common format of tests and because all tests require linguistic and logical skills. His critics have in turn pointed out that not all IQ tests are administered in the paper-and-pencil format, that aside from linguistic and logical abilities, IQ test batteries contain also measures of, for example, spatial abilities, and that elementary cognitive tasks (for example, inspection time and reaction time) that do not involve linguistic or logical reasoning correlate with conventional IQ batteries, too.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Robert Sternberg, working with various colleagues, has also suggested that intelligence has dimensions independent of "g". He argues that there are three classes of intelligence: analytic, practical, and creative. According to Sternberg, traditional psychometric tests measure only analytic intelligence, and should be augmented to test creative and practical intelligence as well. He has devised several tests to this effect. Sternberg equates analytic intelligence with academic intelligence, and contrasts it with practical intelligence, defined as an ability to deal with ill-defined real-life problems. Tacit intelligence is an important component of practical intelligence, consisting of knowledge that is not explicitly taught but is required in many real-life situations. Assessing creativity independent of intelligence tests has traditionally proved difficult, but Sternberg and colleagues have claimed to have created valid tests of creativity, too. The validation of Sternberg's theory requires that the three abilities tested are substantially uncorrelated and have independent predictive validity. Sternberg has conducted many experiments which he claims confirm the validity of his theory, but several researchers have disputed this conclusion. For example, in his reanalysis of a validation study of Sternberg's STAT test, Nathan Brody showed that the predictive validity of the STAT, a test of three allegedly independent abilities, was almost solely due to a single general factor underlying the tests, which Brody equated with the "g" factor.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: James Flynn has argued that intelligence should be conceptualized at three different levels: brain physiology, cognitive differences between individuals, and social trends in intelligence over time. According to this model, the "g" factor is a useful concept with respect to individual differences but its explanatory power is limited when the focus of investigation is either brain physiology, or, especially, the effect of social trends on intelligence. Flynn has criticized the notion that cognitive gains over time, or the Flynn effect, are "hollow" if they cannot be shown to be increases in "g". He argues that the Flynn effect reflects shifting social priorities and individuals' adaptation to them. To apply the individual differences concept of "g" to the Flynn effect is to confuse different levels of analysis. On the other hand, according to Flynn, it is also fallacious to deny, by referring to trends in intelligence over time, that some individuals have "better brains and minds" to cope with the cognitive demands of their particular time. At the level of brain physiology, Flynn has emphasized both that localized neural clusters can be affected differently by cognitive exercise, and that there are important factors that affect all neural clusters.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Perhaps the most famous critique of the construct of "g" is that of the paleontologist and biologist Stephen Jay Gould, presented in his 1981 book "The Mismeasure of Man". He argued that psychometricians fallaciously reified the "g" factor into an ineluctable "thing" that provided a convenient explanation for human intelligence, grounded only in mathematical theory rather than the rigorous application of mathematical theory to biological knowledge. An example is provided in the work of Cyril Burt, published posthumously in 1972: "The two main conclusions we have reached seem clear and beyond all question. The hypothesis of a general factor entering into every type of cognitive process, tentatively suggested by speculations derived from neurology and biology, is fully borne out by the statistical evidence; and the contention that differences in this general factor depend largely on the individual's genetic constitution appears incontestable.The concept of an innate, general cognitive ability, which follows from these two assumptions, though admittedly sheerly an abstraction, is thus wholly consistent with the empirical facts." Spearman's "g" and the concept of inherited, immutable intelligence were a boon for eugenicists and pseudoscientists alike.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Many researchers have criticized Gould's arguments. For example, they have rejected the accusation of reification, maintaining that the use of extracted factors such as "g" as potential causal variables whose reality can be supported or rejected by further investigations constitutes a normal scientific practice that in no way distinguishes psychometrics from other sciences . Critics have also suggested that Gould did not understand the purpose of factor analysis, and that he was ignorant of relevant methodological advances in the field . While different factor solutions may be mathematically equivalent in their ability to account for intercorrelations among tests, solutions that yield a "g" factor are psychologically preferable for several reasons extrinsic to factor analysis, including the phenomenon of the positive manifold, the fact that the same "g" can emerge from quite different test batteries, the widespread practical validity of "g", and the linkage of "g" to many biological variables.


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: John Horn and John McArdle have argued that the modern "g" theory, as espoused by, for example, Arthur Jensen, is unfalsifiable, because the existence of a common factor like "g" follows tautologically from positive correlations among tests. They contrasted the modern hierarchical theory of "g" with Spearman's original two-factor theory which was readily falsifiable (and indeed was falsified).


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Joseph Graves Jr. and Amanda Johnson have argued that "g" "...is to the psychometricians what Huygens' ether was to early physicists: a nonentity taken as an article of faith instead of one in need of verification by real data."


title: G factor (psychometrics)

text: Some especially harsh critics have called the g factor, and psychometrics, as a form of pseudoscience.


title: Icona Pop

text: Icona Pop ( ) is a Swedish electropop duo which formed in 2009, with electro house and indie pop music influences. Its two members, Caroline Hjelt (born 8 November 1987) and Aino Jawo (born 7 July 1986), grew up in Stockholm and create what the Swedish press has described as music which "you can both laugh and cry to at the same time". They signed to TEN Music Group in 2009 and are currently also in a label deal with Ultra Music. Their biggest hit to date has been "I Love It".


title: Icona Pop

text: Caroline Hjelt (born 8 November 1987, of a Swedish mother and Sweden-Finnish father) and Aino Jawo (born 7 July 1986, of a Finnish mother and Gambian father) attended the same music school in Stockholm, but met by chance at a party in February 2009 and formed the duo. Four weeks later, they had written songs for their very first performance. Two years later, the two described their music as "classical pop melodies with drums and synths".


title: Icona Pop

text: The English-language press, including "NME", "The Guardian", "Rolling Stone" and "Pitchfork Media", have praised the duo. "The Guardian" described the debut single "Manners" as "effortlessly cool". The duo have worked in the studio with producers including Style of Eye, Patrik Berger (Robyn), Elof Loelv (Niki & The Dove) and Starsmith.


title: Icona Pop

text: In fall 2012, they released an extended play "Iconic" in the US and the album "Icona Pop" in Sweden. The duo have performed in those countries as well as, the UK, Germany, Italy, Canada, and Hong Kong and have also been interviewed by members of the Swedish and worldwide press.


title: Icona Pop

text: In the summer of 2012, they took part in a number of festivals including electro music festival Summerburst in Gothenburg and also appeared at the Stockholm Stadium, at the start of an international festival and broadcast via Sveriges Television (SVT).


title: Icona Pop

text: "I Love It", a pre-release of their self-titled debut album "Icona Pop" charted on Sverigetopplistan, the official Swedish singles chart. The song, which features vocals from British recording artist Charli XCX, was also featured in the 2012 video game "", in a German television commercial for Coca-Cola Light in January 2013, the theme song to the MTV reality-television series "Snooki & JWoww", and in an episode of the HBO comedy-drama television series "Girls "and the popular vampire-teen drama television series "The Vampire Diaries". The second single "Ready for the Weekend" was released on 11 September 2012. Both tracks appear on their second EP, released on 16 October 2012. "I Love It" was also used in the commercial for the Samsung Galaxy S4.


title: Icona Pop

text: Their EP "Iconic EP" peaked at No. 21 on the U.S. iTunes dance chart. In 2013, they embarked on a tour of the United States with Passion Pit and Matt & Kim. In January 2013, "I Love It" was featured in the third episode of the second season of "Girls", the comedy-drama series created by Lena Dunham. Two months later, the duo was named one of Fuse's 30 must-see artists at the South by Southwest festival. The same month, "I Love It" was featured in the 16th episode of the fourth season, "Bring It On", of "The Vampire Diaries". On 26 March 2013, "I Love It" was performed on the week 2 results episode of "Dancing with the Stars". On 3 May 2013, the duo performed "I Love It" on the NBC late-night talk show "Late Night with Jimmy Fallon" and on ABC's "Good Morning America" morning news/entertainment show. Three days later, "I Love It" was featured in the Fox musical-comedy series, "Glee". The song was performed by the "New Directions" in Glee's 22nd and final episode of season four, "All or Nothing". It was also featured in a 2013 ShoeDazzle commercial.


title: Icona Pop

text: On 19 May 2013, the duo performed "I Love It" at the "Billboard" Music Awards, wearing custom lit outfits by designer Geoffrey Mac. The song was featured in a commercial for the WNBA's forthcoming season that was aired during the 4th quarter of Game 7 of the Heat-Pacers Eastern Conference Championship game on 3 June 2013. It was also featured in a commercial during the Spurs-Heat basketball game on 9 June 2013.


title: Icona Pop

text: On 4 June 2013, the duo released their single "Girlfriend". Icona Pop revealed in an interview that they recorded their international album with all new songs. They said that "the new album isn't just going to be sixteen tracks like 'I Love It'" and that they are trying new genres and sounds. In July 2013, they received two Teen Choice awards for Choice Music Breakout Group and Choice Single: Group.


title: Icona Pop

text: On 28 July 2013, "All Night" was released as the official third single from the album. It gained moderate success on European charts. On 4 August 2013, the duo visited Montreal, where they performed at the Osheaga Festival. They also appeared on "Ellen" in December of that year.


title: Icona Pop

text: On 23 June 2014, the duo released a new single called "Get Lost" which gained less international attention. In the same period, the duo also performed as the opening act for Katy Perry and Miley Cyrus tours. They also collaborated with Tiesto for the song "Let's Go" and with Cobra Starship for the single "Never Been in Love" which became a successful hit in Italy.


title: Icona Pop

text: On 26 May 2015, the duo released the single "Emergency", a collaboration with Erik Hassle. The song peaked a few weeks later on the Billboard Dance Chart, making their second single to top that chart after "All Night". The song was also featured in the video game "FIFA 16". In July, the EP "Emergency" was released. It includes the critically acclaimed "First Time" and the smash-hit "Clap Snap".


title: Icona Pop

text: The duo was announced as an opening act for the North American leg of One Direction's "On the Road Again" tour in 2015. Also in 2015, their song "We Got The World" was featured in the movie "Pitch Perfect 2". On 23 February 2016, Icona Pop performed a new single, "Someone Who Can Dance" at the Grammis in Stockholm. On 20 October 2016, the duo released their single "Brightside". On 16 June 2017, Icona Pop released a new single "GIRLS GIRLS", co-written by Tove Lo. In October 2017, they released a song with Australian duo Peking Duk called "Let You Down". In late December 2017, the duo released an EP called "Så mycket bättre 2017 – Tolkningarna" including 7 covered songs. In early March 2018, the duo collaborated with Avon on a music video called "All My Girls". In late April 2018, the duo was featured on a song called "Faded Away" by Sweater Beats. In late May 2018, Icona Pop said on their social media that they were currently working on their third studio album. In June 2019 the duo performed at St. Louis Pridefest. Icona Pop released a song with R3hab called "This Is How We Party" on 8 February 2019. On 26 July 2019, the duo returned with the first single from the upcoming third studio album – "Next Mistake". The Swedish duo have signed to Ultra Music as of 2019.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Lawrence Lamond Phillips (May 12, 1975 – January 13, 2016) was an American gridiron football running back who played in the National Football League (NFL) for three seasons. A highly touted collegiate prospect, Phillips' professional career was cut short by legal troubles that continued up until his death.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips won the 1995 Orange Bowl and the 1996 Fiesta Bowl with Nebraska, leading to him being selected sixth overall in the 1996 NFL Draft by the St. Louis Rams. However, his frequent legal problems and inconsistent performances resulted in the Rams releasing him near the end of the 1997 season. After playing only two games for the Miami Dolphins, Phillips pursued a comeback with the San Francisco 49ers in 1999, but was released due to questions over his work ethic. He last played professionally in the Canadian Football League (CFL) for two seasons with the Montreal Alouettes and Calgary Stampeders. With the Alouettes in 2002, Phillips was named an All-Star and won the Grey Cup before further legal problems and work ethic concerns ended his career the next season.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Remaining in trouble with the law, Phillips was serving a 31-year sentence on assault convictions when he was charged in 2015 for murdering his cellmate. While awaiting trial, he committed suicide in solitary confinement.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips was born in Little Rock, Arkansas, and later moved to California, where he grew up in foster homes. He attended West Covina High School in West Covina, California for his freshman and sophomore years. He was a varsity starter both on offense as a running back and defense as an outside linebacker. He then attended Baldwin Park High School in Baldwin Park, California for his junior and senior years, and his team won a CIF championship his junior season, which attracted the attention of colleges, including the University of Nebraska.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: In 1993, his freshman year at Nebraska, Phillips gradually worked his way up the player ranks. He came off the bench to rush for 137 yards and a touchdown in the Cornhuskers' 14–13 win at Pac-10 champion UCLA. In the second half of the 1994 Orange Bowl, he sparked the Husker ground game, carrying 13 times for 64 of the 183 rushing yards against a formidable Seminole defense. All but one of Phillips' carries came in the fourth quarter, during which he scored on a 12-yard touchdown run. This game established him as the primary running back in the Nebraska offense.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: By his sophomore year, Phillips became the focal point of the offense because of injuries to quarterbacks Tommie Frazier and Brook Berringer. He tied a school record by rushing for 100 yards or more in 11 straight games in 1994 despite frequently playing against eight or nine-man defensive fronts. Against the #3 Miami Hurricanes, Phillips had 96 yards on 19 carries, including a 25-yard run that was the longest rushing play the Hurricanes had allowed all season. During the regular season, he ran for 1,722 yards, still a Nebraska record for a sophomore. Phillips' performance in the Orange Bowl that year was key to Nebraska securing its undefeated season and the national championship in 1994.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Less than two weeks after Phillips helped Nebraska win the 1994 championship, he pleaded not guilty to charges of assault, vandalism, and disturbing the peace. The charges came from a March 1994 incident, in which Phillips was accused of grabbing a 21-year-old college student "around the neck". Phillips entered a pretrial diversion program earlier, but was charged on November 18, 1994, after failing to complete the requirements of the program.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Shortly before the start of the next season, Phillips' eligibility was in question for receiving a $100 lunch from a sports agent during the 1994 season. When Nebraska officials became aware of the violation, he allegedly reimbursed the agent. The NCAA ruled him eligible just in time for the season opener, but continued to investigate other unspecified issues involving Phillips.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: When the 1995 season finally arrived, Phillips became an early front-runner for the Heisman Trophy. In Nebraska's second game of the season, against Michigan State—playing its first game under new coach Nick Saban—Phillips had 206 rushing yards and four touchdowns on 22 carries. After only two games, he was averaging more than 11 yards per carry and had scored six touchdowns.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Hours after the team returned from East Lansing on September 10, 1995, Phillips broke into backup quarterback Scott Frost's apartment by climbing the outside of the building to the third floor and entering through some sliding doors. He then assaulted his ex-girlfriend, basketball player Kate McEwen. Phillips dragged McEwen out of the apartment by the hair and down three flights of stairs before smashing her head into a mailbox. Phillips was subsequently arrested, and eventually suspended by head coach Tom Osborne. The case became a source of controversy and media attention, with the perception that Osborne was coddling a star player by not kicking Phillips off the team permanently. Osborne walked out on a press conference when asked, "If one of your players had roughed up a member of your family and had dragged her down a flight of steps, would you have reinstated that player to the team?" Outraged Nebraska faculty proposed that any student convicted of a violent crime should be prohibited from representing the university on the football field. Osborne defended the decision, saying that abandoning Phillips might do more harm than good, stating the best way to help Phillips was within the structured environment of the football program. Osborne stated, "I felt the only thing I could put in a place that would keep him on track was football, because that was probably the only consistent organizing factor in his life." After a six-game suspension, Osborne reinstated Phillips for the Iowa State game, although touted freshman Ahman Green continued to start. Phillips also played against Kansas and Oklahoma.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Despite pressure from the national media, Osborne named Phillips the starter for the Fiesta Bowl, which pitted No. 1 Nebraska against No. 2 Florida for the national championship. In the game, Phillips rushed for 165 yards and two touchdowns on 25 carries and scored a touchdown on a 16-yard reception in the Cornhuskers' 62–24 victory. The performance boosted Phillips' draft stock. With Osborne's encouragement, he decided to turn pro a year early.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: At the 1996 NFL Draft, teams had to decide if Phillips' talent was worth the risk, considering his character issues. Based solely on football talent, he was considered a top five, perhaps even number one pick. He was widely expected to be selected by the new Baltimore Ravens with the fourth pick to fill their vacant running back position. However, Baltimore decided to select the best available player regardless of position, and with the fourth pick they selected offensive tackle (and future Hall of Famer) Jonathan Ogden. During the draft, ESPN analyst Joe Theismann stated in regard to Phillips: "Everybody's called him the best player in the draft."


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips was drafted sixth overall by the St. Louis Rams. The Rams thought so highly of Phillips that on the same day of the draft, they traded his predecessor, future Pro Football Hall of Fame running back Jerome Bettis, to the Pittsburgh Steelers. On July 29, 1996, Phillips signed a three-year, $5.625-million contract. He received no signing bonus, but his salaries were $1.5 million in 1996, $1.875 million in 1997 and $2.25 million in 1998. Also, he had a chance to receive some guaranteed money in the future if he met certain conditions. The chaos he created at Nebraska continued in St. Louis; in less than two years with the Rams, he spent 23 days in jail.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: In 1996, Phillips played 15 games with 11 starts. He carried the ball 193 times for 632 yards and 4 touchdowns. In 1997, Phillips surpassed his entire 1996 total in only 10 games and nine starts, rushing for 634 yards. However, on November 20, the Rams abruptly released him. According to reports at the time, Rams team officials told the press that coach Dick Vermeil told Phillips that he was being demoted to second string due to his inconsistent performance and inability to stay out of trouble. Phillips stormed out of the Rams' facility and missed that day's meeting and practice. The Rams lost patience with him and decided to cut ties with him. A teary-eyed Vermeil at the time said Phillips was potentially the best running back he ever coached. In the 2016 documentary "Running For His Life: the Lawrence Phillips Story", Vermeil revealed that Phillips collapsed on the field during pre-game warmup for his 10th (and final) game with the 1996 Rams. Trainers revealed that he had alcohol on his breath, and told Vermeil that they had smelled alcohol on his breath on a number of previous occasions. He was known to stay in bars until 4 a.m. on the night before games. The following Monday, Vermeil called Phillips into his office and told him that he was cutting him. While Vermeil was known for having little tolerance for off-the-field misconduct, he knew Phillips was a talented player and gave him numerous chances to stay on the right path. He did say, though, that if given the chance to do it over again, he would have kept Phillips on the roster. In that same film, Vermeil revealed that he reached out to a friend, Miami Dolphins head coach Jimmy Johnson, to give Phillips a chance with the Dolphins.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips lasted two games in Miami, rushing for 44 yards on 18 carries for a 2.4 yard-per-carry average. The Dolphins released him after he pleaded no contest to assaulting a woman at a Plantation, Florida nightclub.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips missed the 1998 season before attempting a comeback in 1999; he set NFL Europe offensive records with the Barcelona Dragons (1,021 yards and 14 touchdowns) and attracted interest from several NFL teams.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips returned stateside with the San Francisco 49ers in the fall of 1999. The 49ers interviewed him several times before seemingly being assured that he put his past difficulties behind him, though general manager Bill Walsh told him that the 49ers would not hesitate to cut him if he stepped out of line. He was in contention for the starting job before pulling a hamstring in training camp. Additionally, his blocking left much to be desired. He was beaten out for the starting slot by Charlie Garner. He did, however, become the 49ers' primary kick returner.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Although Phillips stayed out of trouble off the field, his on-field performance was of greater concern to the 49ers. His blocking skills were so suspect that he was almost never in the game on passing downs. Their concerns were validated during Week 3's "Monday Night Football" game against the Arizona Cardinals, when cornerback Aeneas Williams rushed in on a blitz and Phillips failed to pick it up. Williams ended up knocking Steve Young unconscious on the play with a hard, but clean, hit. Young suffered what would prove to be a career-ending concussion; he did not play again for the rest of the season and was all but forced to retire. In the same game, Phillips ran for a 68-yard touchdown to put the game away 24–10, outrunning Williams to the end zone. Nonetheless, his missed block on Williams led the 49ers to question his work ethic.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: By November, the 49ers began to lose patience with Phillips. According to coach Steve Mariucci, Phillips actually began losing interest early in the season, to the point that he was finding "reasons and ways why he shouldn't practice." However, the situation came to a head in the run-up to the 49ers' game against the New Orleans Saints. Phillips refused to practice at all on November 10 and 12, and openly mocked coaching directives. Mariucci called a meeting with his staff, at which Phillips' position coach, Tom Rathman, threatened to stay in San Francisco if Phillips made the trip. That night, the 49ers handed Phillips a three-game suspension for conduct detrimental to the team.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Walsh said soon after Phillips was suspended that he could not envision Phillips playing another down for the 49ers. On November 16, Mariucci announced that the 49ers would cut ties with Phillips at the first opportunity. In making the announcement, Mariucci said that the only reason the 49ers did not release Phillips right away was that his entire signing bonus would have counted against the team's salary cap for 1999, thus tying up nearly all of their cap room. Finally, on November 23, 1999, the 49ers waived him.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: In 2001, Phillips signed with the Florida Bobcats of the Arena Football League. However, before playing a down for them, he was released after leaving the team without telling his coach.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips then moved on to the Canadian Football League. He had some difficulty getting a Canadian work visa due to his criminal record, but was eventually cleared to join the Montreal Alouettes. He showed signs of his old form, notching 1,022 yards, 13 touchdowns, and a spot on the CFL Eastern All-Star Team while helping lead them to the 90th Grey Cup. However, he showed signs of lapsing into his old habits off the field. He walked out on the team at least once during the season, and his agent severed ties with him twice.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips briefly held out of training camp before the 2003 season due to a salary dispute. On May 1, shortly after his return, the Alouettes released him for not meeting the team's "minimum behavioural standards." It later emerged that he was charged with sexual assault. Phillips signed with the Calgary Stampeders (rushing for 486 yards on 107 carries and 1 touchdown), but was again released, for arguing with head coach Jim Barker.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: On August 21, 2005, Phillips was arrested for assault after driving a car into three teenagers following a dispute with them during a pick-up football game in Los Angeles, California. At the time of the arrest, Phillips was also wanted by the San Diego Police Department in connection with two alleged domestic abuse incidents involving a former girlfriend, who claimed that Phillips choked her to the point of unconsciousness. In addition, the Los Angeles Police Department was seeking Phillips in connection with another allegation of domestic abuse that occurred in Los Angeles. In March 2006, Phillips was ordered to stand trial on charges of felony assault with a deadly weapon stemming from the August 21, 2005 incident. On October 10, 2006, he was found guilty on seven counts. On October 3, 2008, he was sentenced to 10 years in a California state prison; that sentence was subsequently reduced to seven years.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: While serving that sentence, Phillips was convicted in August 2009 for the assault on his former girlfriend Amaliya Weisler on seven counts, including assault with great bodily injury, false imprisonment, making a criminal threat, and auto theft. On December 18, 2009, Phillips was sentenced to 25 years in prison on the 2009 convictions, to run consecutive to the 2008 sentence, for a total of 31 years.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips, California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation number G31982, was admitted to Kern Valley State Prison on October 16, 2008. Under California law, since his crimes harmed other persons, he was required to serve at least 85 percent of his sentence before becoming eligible for parole with good behavior, meaning that he would not have even been considered for release until he was 57 years old.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: On April 12, 2015, Phillips' cellmate, Damion Soward, the cousin of former NFL wide receiver R. Jay Soward, was found dead in the cell the two men shared. Soward, who was serving a sentence of 82 years to life for a murder conviction, was choked to death, and Phillips was regarded as the prime suspect in the case.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: On September 1, Phillips was charged with first-degree murder in Soward's death. On November 9, the prosecutor was granted a motion to reconsider whether to seek the death penalty.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips was awaiting trial in segregated custody when he was found unresponsive in his cell by correctional officers around midnight on January 12, 2016. Phillips was pronounced dead at 1:30 a.m. in a suspected suicide. The day before, a judge ruled that there was enough evidence to bind Phillips over for trial in the murder of Soward.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: On January 15, it was announced that Phillips' family agreed to donate his brain to be examined for chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) at Boston University.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: A coroner determined that Phillips hanged himself in prison. He had a do not resuscitate note taped to his chest.


title: Lawrence Phillips

text: Phillips' funeral was held on January 23 at Christ's Church of the Valley in San Dimas, California. He was buried two days later at Inglewood Park Cemetery in Inglewood, California.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Francisco Sánchez Gómez (21 December 194725 February 2014), known as Paco de Lucía (;), was a Spanish virtuoso flamenco guitarist, composer, and record producer. A leading proponent of the new flamenco style, he was one of the first flamenco guitarists to branch into classical and jazz. Richard Chapman and Eric Clapton, authors of "Guitar: Music, History, Players", describe de Lucía as a "titanic figure in the world of flamenco guitar", and Dennis Koster, author of "Guitar Atlas, Flamenco", has referred to de Lucía as "one of history's greatest guitarists".


title: Paco de Lucía

text: De Lucía was noted for his fast and fluent picados (fingerstyle runs). A master of contrast, he often juxtaposed picados and rasgueados (flamenco strumming) with more sensitive playing and was known for adding abstract chords and scale tones to his compositions with jazz influences. These innovations saw him play a key role in the development of traditional flamenco and the evolution of new flamenco and Latin jazz fusion from the 1970s. He received acclaim for his recordings with flamenco singer Camarón de la Isla in the 1970s, recording ten albums which are considered some of the most important and influential in flamenco history.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Some of de Lucía's best known recordings include "Río Ancho" (later fused with Al Di Meola's "Mediterranean Sundance"), "Entre dos aguas", "La Barrosa", "Ímpetu", "Cepa Andaluza" and "Gloria al Niño Ricardo". His collaborations with guitarists John McLaughlin, Al Di Meola and Larry Coryell in the late 1970s saw him gain wider popularity outside his native Spain. De Lucía formed the Paco de Lucía Sextet in 1981 with his brothers, singer Pepe de Lucía and guitarist Ramón de Algeciras, and collaborated with jazz pianist Chick Corea on their 1990 album, "Zyryab". In 1992, he performed live at Expo '92 in Seville and a year later on the Plaza Mayor in Madrid. He also collaborated with guitarist Juan d'Anyelica on his album Cositas Buenas. After 2004 he greatly reduced his public performances, retiring from full touring, and typically only gave several concerts a year, usually in Spain and Germany and at European festivals during the summer months.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Paco de Lucía was born on 21 December 1947 as Francisco Sánchez Gómez in Algeciras, province of Cádiz, in southern Spain. He was the youngest of the five children of flamenco guitarist Antonio Sánchez Pecino and Portuguese mother Lúcia Gomes; his brothers include flamenco singer Pepe de Lucía and flamenco guitarist Ramón de Algeciras (now deceased).


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Playing in the streets as a young boy, there were many Pacos and Pablos in Algeciras. In Spain and Latin America, any of these children with common first names would be referred to as follows: '"Name of Child", (son or daughter) of "Name of Mother"', or "Paco (son) of Lucía" in his case, instead of using the child's last name. Later, after learning to play the guitar and tasked with figuring out a way to bill himself, wanting to honor his Portuguese mother Lucía Gomes, he adopted the stage name "Paco de Lucía".


title: Paco de Lucía

text: His father Antonio received guitar lessons from a cousin of Melchor de Marchena: Manuel Fernández (aka Titi de Marchena), a guitarist who arrived in Algeciras in the 1920s and established a school there. Antonio introduced Paco to the guitar at a young age and was extremely strict in his upbringing from the age of 5, forcing him to practice up to 12 hours a day, every day, to ensure that he could find success as a professional musician. At one point, his father took him out of school to concentrate solely on his guitar development. In a 2012 interview de Lucía stated that, "I learned the guitar like a child learns to speak."


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Flamenco guitarist and biographer Donn Pohren and record producer José Torregrosa compared Paco's relationship with his father to the relationship of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Leopold Mozart in the way both fathers "moulded their sons" into becoming world-class musicians, and both continued to dictate even after the latter became famous.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Paco's brother Ramón idolized Niño Ricardo, and taught his complex falsetas to his young brother, who would learn them with relative ease and change them to his own liking and embellish them. This initially angered Ramón, who considered Ricardo's works to be sacred and thought his brother was showing off; but he soon began to respect his brother immensely, and came to realize that he was a prodigious talent, "fuera de serie" (out of the ordinary).


title: Paco de Lucía

text: As also with Ramón, Ricardo was Paco's most important influence, and his first guitar hero; Paco said "all of us youngsters would look up to him, trying to learn from him and copy him." In 1958, at age 11, Paco made his first public appearance on Radio Algeciras. That year, he met Sabicas for the first time in Málaga. A year later, he was awarded a special prize at the Festival Concurso International Flamenco de Jerez de la Frontera flamenco competition.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: At the age of 14 he made his first record with his brother Pepe, "Los Chiquitos de Algeciras" ("The little ones from Algeciras"). In the early 1960s, de Lucía toured with the flamenco troupe of dancer José Greco. In New York City in 1963, at the age of 15, he had his second encounter with Sabicas and his first encounter with Mario Escudero, both of whom became de Lucía's mentors and later close friends. They urged him to start writing his own material, advice he took to heart. In 1964, he met Madrileño guitarist Ricardo Modrego with whom he recorded three albums: "Dos guitarras flamencas" (1964), "12 canciones de García Lorca para guitarra" and "12 éxitos para 2 guitarras flamencas" (1965).


title: Paco de Lucía

text: His early albums were traditional flamenco recordings and he recorded classics such as "Malagueña" on the "12 éxitos para 2 guitarras flamencas" album. He toured again with José Greco in 1966 and recorded "Ímpetu", a bulerias composed by Mario Escudero, for his debut solo album, "La fabulosa guitarra de Paco de Lucía" (1967). He appeared at the 1967 Berlin Jazz Festival. According to Gerhard Klingenstein, top jazz musicians who appeared at the festival (i.e. Miles Davis, Thelonious Monk), profoundly influenced de Lucía, and sparked a fascination for jazz that remained with him throughout his life.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In the late 1960s, de Lucía toured Europe with a group called Festival Flamenco Gitano and encountered other new talents in the flamenco world including singer Camarón de la Isla, with whom he enjoyed a fruitful collaboration between 1968 and 1977. They recorded ten albums together and received considerable acclaim. Richard Nidel said that their partnership was "central to the history of flamenco in the last quarter of the twentieth century."


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Organizers began offering de Lucía lucrative contracts for concert tours in 1967, which he declined as he preferred to tour in company, which he did with his brother Ramón, de la Isla and other musicians. De Lucía recorded many albums with his brother, including "Canciones andaluzas para 2 guitarras" (1967), "Dos guitarras flamencas en América Latina" (1967), "Fantasía flamenca de Paco de Lucía" (1969), and "12 Hits para 2 guitarras flamencas y orquesta de cuerda" (1969). They met Esteban Sanlucar in Buenos Aires and Juan Serrano in Detroit, and during 1970 spent considerable time in New York City where they grew close to Sabicas and Mario Escudero, playing together into the night.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: De Lucía made a cameo appearance, dressed as a Mexican guitarist, in the 1971 western "Hannie Caulder", playing the melody of Ken Thorne's main theme over a string section. That year, he released the album "El mundo del flamenco", which included a version of Mario Escudero's "Ímpetu", a bulerías. "Guitar International" mentioned his "very aggressive" approach to playing "Ímpetu". Escudero was a major influence on de Lucía during this period, inspiring him to explore new possibilities for flamenco. He began working with record producer José Torregrosa.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: De Lucía's 1972 release "El duende flamenco de Paco de Lucía" was considered a groundbreaking album in the flamenco community. As the 1970s progressed, de Lucía continued to produce groundbreaking albums and ventured into an increasingly unconventional and innovative style of flamenco with jazz influences. His next release, "Fuente y caudal", acclaimed particularly for his "Entre dos aguas", which has become arguably his best-known composition, and also for "Solera" and "Cepa Andaluza". "Entre dos aguas", a rumba featuring bongos with an electric bass, means "Between two waters", referring to his home town of Algeciras, where the Mediterranean meets the Atlantic. Biographer Pohren describes "Cepa Andaluza" as a "phenomenal" bulerías, which is "accompanied by palmas, shouts of encouragement and general jaleo, and makes one want to leap up and dance." The album also features several other tracks named after Andalusian landmarks, a theme de Lucía continued in his later albums.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: The "Fuente y caudal" album was one of the best-selling Spanish records for several months and de Lucía and Torregrosa found that the additional instruments and approach away from traditional flamenco proved more popular with the general public. The early influences of the traditional players became increasingly less apparent as de Lucía embraced jazz and other influences, creating his own voice and distinct style, yet never venturing too far from his roots.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: On 18 February 1975, de Lucía became the first-ever flamenco performer to perform at the Teatro Real of Madrid. He played a set with his brother Ramón, in front of a relatively young audience without the use of effects. Pohren said that de Lucía's performance "was brilliant technically, and played a meaningful, moving, traditional brand of flamenco that did not betray what Paco had in store for the flamenco guitar in the future." The recording was released as "En vivo desde el Teatro Real".


title: Paco de Lucía

text: His 1976 album, "Almoraima", was a wider success and featured "Almoraima" and "Río Ancho". The album was named after a former convent of the same name located about from Algeciras on the road to Jimena de la Frontera, which had recently been converted into a hotel complex. The album featured significant Arabic and jazz influences especially in the bulerías composition of the same name; the name Almoraima is of Arabic origin from the Moorish period. De Lucía performed on an episode of "Parkinson" on BBC in the UK, in which Michael Parkinson said "a marvelous young musician who is making his very first appearance on British television. His unconventional and modern approach to playing flamenco has already made him a big star in Europe, particularly in his native Spain."


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 1977, de Lucía married Casilda Varela, the daughter of General Varela and descendant to a powerful Basque industrialist Ampuero family; they had three children. He released his final album, "Castillo de Arena" with Camarón de la Isla, The lyrics were written by Antonio Sánchez, with the exception of the bulerías "Samara", which Sánchez and de la Isla wrote together. This would be his last LP with a singer for at least 15 years. He reportedly said that the human voice is "naturally too limited" and that he prefers the exploration of different instrumentalists; he also said a busy schedule was the reason for lack of recordings with singers.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: He performed extensively across the US and Europe during this period, increasing his popularity outside Spain and the flamenco community in Europe, and met many jazz, Latin and other musicians who continued to influence de Lucía's evolution as a "Nuevo flamenco" player. He began to show a very keen interest in jazz fusion and rock, and in 1977 performed with Carlos Santana in the Plaza de toros de las Arenas bullring in Barcelona. He was invited by Al Di Meola to record on his "Mediterranean Sundance" piece for his album "Elegant Gypsy". Despite considerable new interest in flamenco and de Lucía's playing generated by the album, traditionalist flamenco critics did not approve of the piece and hated that many people considered "Mediterranean Sundance" flamenco music and frowned upon de Lucía. Di Meola informed the critics not to worry and that "Paco is not leaving flamenco, but expanding it." In 1978, Paco and his brothers recorded "Interpreta a Manuel de Falla", a classical effort of compositions by Manuel de Falla.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 1979, de Lucía, John McLaughlin, and Larry Coryell formed The Guitar Trio and together made a tour of Europe and released a video recorded at London's Royal Albert Hall entitled "Meeting of the Spirits". Pohren said that de Lucía's decision to work with musicians like McLaughlin, Di Meola, Coryell, and Chick Corea must have been an "exciting and stimulating" experience for him, given their technical musical knowledge and ability to improvise and said that they carried him "so far afield that at times he must have been profoundly confused, a man running the risk of losing his musical identity." This concerned de Lucía, who said in a late 1990s interview, "I have never lost the roots in my music, because I would lose myself. What I have tried to do is have a hand holding onto tradition and the other scratching, digging in other places, trying to find new things I can bring into flamenco."


title: Paco de Lucía

text: The Guitar Trio continued touring in 1980, with Larry Coryell being replaced by Al Di Meola in 1981. De Lucía reportedly suffered from headaches and backaches while performing because he found it difficult to improvise and follow McLaughlin and Coryell's advanced knowledge of jazz improvisation. Paco professed, "Some people assume that they were learning from me, but I can tell you it was me learning from them. I have never studied music, I am incapable of studying harmony—I don't have the discipline, playing with McLaughlin and Di Meola was about learning these things."


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Also in 1981, The Guitar Trio released one of their most successful records, "Friday Night in San Francisco", which sold over 1 million copies and generated a significant interest in flamenco music in America and Europe. It featured an extended combination of "Mediterranean Sundance" and "Río Ancho"; this became arguably the piece most associated with the musicians. De Lucía also formed the Paco de Lucía Sextet in 1981 (which included his brothers Ramón and Pepe), and released the first of its three albums that same year. On 30 August 1981, de Lucía performed a solo set at St. Goarshausen in Germany, where he performed "Monasterio de Sal" and "Montino" among others and later performed with The Guitar Trio. The event was broadcast on national WDR television.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 1982, de Lucía put on a series of concerts with jazz pianist Chick Corea. Corea was a considerable influence on him in the 1980s and he and McLaughlin adapted a version of his piece "Spain", performing it live together several times in the mid to late 1980s. He released a "Golden" double compilation album in 1982, "La Guitarra de Oro de Paco de Lucía", covering de Lucía's earliest recordings with Ricardo Modrego of Federico García Lorca songs to date, and featured two siguiriyas, a flamenco form in which he hadn't indulged in his recordings since 1972.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 1983, the Guitar Trio released "Passion, Grace & Fire", and he had an acting role in Carlos Saura's highly acclaimed film "Carmen", for which he was also nominated for a BAFTA Film Award for Best Score. De Lucía composed original film scores for several films in the 1980s, including "The Hit", a 1984 film in which he provided the soundtrack with Eric Clapton, with a minor contribution by Roger Waters.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: On his 1984 album, "Live... One Summer Night", de Lucía not only played guitar, but also filled the role of producer. Paco de Lucía has also appeared as himself on television in documentaries and TV shows and accepted a position as a judge at Seville's 1984 Bienal de Flamenco.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: By the mid-1980s, both the Sextet and the Guitar Trio had reached its plateau and stopped performing together, although de Lucía would continue to perform with McLaughlin as a duo across Europe in 1986 and later. In a 1986 interview with "Down Beat" magazine, Di Meola said that the reason for the breakdown was that their performances were designed to "drive the audience berserk" with a display of astonishing virtuosity and that they had run out of new spectacular fast runs to impress the audiences. Di Meola remarked that the music had become too "wild and crazy" and that he preferred to explore the quieter side of music, something Paco also felt, saying that he preferred "controlled expression to velocity." In May 1986, he performed at the Centro de Bellas Artes Rock music festival alongside the likes of Earl Klugh, Spyro Gyra, and Dave Valentin.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 1987, de Lucía performed for the first time in the Soviet Union, and went back to his roots with his highly successful release, "Siroco". "Siroco" is often cited as his best album and one of the greatest flamenco albums of all time.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: His compositions "La Cañada", the opening track, a tango called "La Barrosa", an alegrías named after the Playa la Barrosa in the province of Cadiz, and "Gloria al Niño Ricardo", a soléa, received considerable attention and are considered modern flamenco classics. Eric Clapton and Richard Chapman described "La Barrosa", a sweet alegrías played in B major, as, "full of effortless delicacy with cascading phrases." "Gloria al Niño Ricardo" is dedicated to Niño Ricardo who was de Lucía's "first hero" of the guitar. Several of his compositions from "Siroco" formed the staple of de Lucía's later concert performances, and he often began his concerts with "La Cañada".


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 1989, de Lucía refused to perform at the bullring in Seville with Plácido Domingo and Julio Iglesias.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Although the sextet had declined after 1986, in 1990 they got together to record "Zyryab", a groundbreaking Arabic flamenco/jazz album with jazz pianist Chick Corea and fellow virtuoso flamenco guitarist Manolo Sanlúcar. The album is named after Ziryab, an 8th–9th century Shiraz-born poet/musician at the Umayyad court in Córdoba, credited with introducing to Spain the Persian lute, which evolved into the Spanish guitar—and according to some, established flamenco itself. One track on the album, a tarantas, is dedicated to Sabicas. The album was critically well-received; "Jazz Times" praised the passion and rhythm of the musicians featuring on the album.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Until asked to perform and interpret Joaquín Rodrigo's "Concierto de Aranjuez" in 1991, de Lucía was not proficient at reading musical notation. Biographer Pohren, however, at the time of writing his biography in 1992, said that he was still not proficient and had found a bizarre way of learning the piece, locking himself away.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: His performance with the orchestra under Edmon Colomer was highly acclaimed, a sensitive, atmospheric rendition that composer Rodrigo himself praised, describing it as "pretty, exotic, inspired ... I might add that Paco plays it with a great deal of feeling, far more than is normally heard. And that goes for the orchestra that backs him up." In 1992, he performed live at the bullring at Seville Expo '92, and a year later on the Plaza Mayor in Madrid, playing "La Barrosa". In 1995, he and Bryan Adams recorded the hit song and video "Have You Ever Really Loved A Woman" on the soundtrack for the American film "Don Juan DeMarco".


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 1996, his first "golden hits" album, "Antología", was in the top 20 in Spain for at least 16 weeks, selling over 65,000 copies. In 1997, de Lucía performed in a tribute show to the assassinated Spanish politician Miguel Angel Blanco, alongside Julio Iglesias, Los Del Rio, and other musicians. In 1998 he released and produced "Luzia", dedicated to his dying mother (hence the Portuguese spelling of her name). It is considered to be one of de Lucía's most complete and mature artistic statements.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: De Lucía lived for five years in Quintana Roo, Mexico, but returned to his native Spain in 2003 after professing to have become really tired with spending his whole life touring for six to eight months a year, getting up at the crack of dawn and living in hotels. He continued to keep a holiday home in Mexico though and regularly visited with his family.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 2004 he toured the United States and Canada with Seville flamenco singer La Tana, but subsequently greatly reduced his live performances in public. He retired from full touring, and would only give a few concerts a year, usually in Spain and Germany and at European festivals during the summer months. Pohren described de Lucía as "extremely timid and retiring", saying that, "Being a very private person, [he] was dismayed at the ensuing popularity and lionization, and the increased pressure fame placed upon his shoulders, demanding that he constantly innovate and work harder to achieve technical and revolutionary perfection."


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 2003, de Lucía released "Integral" (2003), a 26CD Limited Edition Box Set, and "Por Descubrir", a compilation album. In 2004, de Lucía released "Cositas Buenas" with Javier Limón. It was released on Blue Thumb Records by Universal Music Spain S.L., and features four bulerías, two rumba tracks, a tangos and a tientos. It won the Latin Grammy Award for Best Flamenco Album in 2004 and the "Billboard" Latin Music Award for Latin Jazz Album of the Year in 2005.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 2005, he was nominated for producer of the year by the Latin Grammy for La Tana's "Tu, Ven a Mi", which was de Lucía's first recording where he directed another artist since working on Camarón de la Isla's "Potro de rabia y miel".


title: Paco de Lucía

text: In 2004, he won the Prince of Asturias Awards in Arts, and on 23 March 2007, the University of Cadiz recognized de Lucía's musical and cultural contributions by conferring on him the title of Doctor Honoris Causa. In 2010, he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Berklee College of Music in Boston, and performed at the Montreux Festival. He was also known for some years to select countries where he did not usually perform, and played at the Arena in Pula, Croatia in 2006 and 2010, and in Turkey, Morocco and Tunisia in 2013. He appeared at the 49th Carthage International Festival on 31 July, playing at the Roman Theatre.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: De Lucía died of a heart attack on 25 February 2014, while on holiday with his family in Playa del Carmen, Quintana Roo, Mexico. While playing soccer with his son on the beach, he asked his wife to take him to the hospital because he felt a "strange coolness in his throat." He was taken to a hospital and was able to enter the emergency room on his own, but had to be helped into a gurney. Soon after, he lost consciousness and died.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: His brother Pepe commented that de Lucía had quit a two-pack a day smoking habit 20 days earlier, and vowed to take up more sports activity after the death of his friend Félix Grande. His remains are buried at the municipal cemetery of his hometown Algeciras, Andalucía. De Lucía posthumously won the Latin Grammy Award for Album of the Year for his album "Canción Andaluza" at the 2014 awards ceremony. Shortly after his passing, the regional government of the Community of Madrid announced that the new northern terminus of Line 9 of the city's Metro system would be named after him as a tribute.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: De Lucía was widely considered to be the world's premier flamenco guitarist and by many to be Spain's greatest musical export. He had a revolutionary influence on flamenco music both as a composer and otherwise. His influence on flamenco guitar has been compared with that of Andrés Segovia's on classical guitar.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: His album "Fuente y Caudal" ("Fountain and Flow") has been cited by many to have changed the world of flamenco guitar beyond traditional flamenco culture. Along with Enrique Morente and Camarón de la Isla, de Lucía was the first artist to break away from traditional flamenco and form what is now known as "nuevo flamenco". As a composer, de Lucía was the first Spanish artist to mix jazz with Andalusian music in a more or less systematic way. This includes, but is not limited to, his collaborations with Di Meola, McLaughlin, and Pedro Iturralde.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Esteban de Sanlúcar and Mario Escudero were also major influences on him and sources of inspiration. According to biographer Pohren, de Lucía was "fascinated with jazz" and held a deep respect for high-tech jazz musicians, regarding Di Meola, McLaughlin, Coryell and Corea as highly as musicians as he did his flamenco mentors. Despite these influences, according to the "Jazz Times", "Most flamenco fans can trace the music's history to either Before Paco or After Paco." In 2004 interview with "El País" he said "I have always found that the more technique you have the easier it is to express yourself. If you lack technique you lose the freedom to create." Like many other flamenco guitarists he often played a Hermanos Conde guitar and had his own signature model, but had a range of guitars in his collection.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Richard Chapman and Eric Clapton describe de Lucía as a "titanic figure in the world of flamenco guitar", highlighting his "astounding technique and inventiveness" and his broad range of musical ideas from other styles, such as Brazilian music and jazz. He is noted for his innovation and colour in harmony and his remarkable dexterity, technique, strength and fluidity in his right hand, capable of executing extremely fast and fluent picados. A master of contrast, he often juxtaposes picados with rasgueados and other techniques and often adds abstract chords and scale tones to his compositions with jazz influences.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Bill Milkowski of "Down Beat" described him as "the portrait of studied concentration and pristine perfection: stiff backed and stern faced, with a distinguished air about him that some might misread as haughtiness. He's proud and majestic, like a regal Arabian steed prancing with grace and elegance, yet able to reveal great power." Craig Harris of AllMusic noted his "deeply personal melodic statements and modern instrumentation." "Atlanta" magazine said, "The guitar, when used properly, can be one of the most haunting and beautiful instruments to create sound ... when he brushes his fingers across the strings, [he] can create some of the most incredible music. It's almost like a lullaby."


title: Paco de Lucía

text: José Luis Acosta, president of the Spanish Artists and Editors Society stated that "Paco was and will be a universal artist, who took the guitar and flamenco sentiment to the heart of the whole world." In 2015, "Billboard" magazine named de Lucía as one of The 30 Most Influential Latin Artists of All Time, an editor writes: "The virtuoso intrumentalist popularized flamenco worldwide, and brought the Spanish sound to the forefront of avant-garde jazz.". In the same year, he was posthumously inducted into the Latin Songwriters Hall of Fame for his contributions to flamenco music. On 21 December 2016, Google commemorated the anniversary of de Lucía's birth with a Google Doodle created by Google artist Sophie Diao that was shown in Spain, Mexico, and several South American nations.


title: Paco de Lucía

text: Another of Paco de Lucía's contributions was the inclusion of the cajón, an Afro-Peruvian instrument Caitro Soto exposed to him during his visit to Peru in the late 1970s. He understood this instrument, which he saw as a permanent solution to the need for percussion in flamenco. Along with Rubem Dantas, he added its percussive elements and it became an essential tool of contemporary flamenco and later, other international musical trends.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: Catherine Anne Cesnik (born November 17, 1942; disappeared November 7, 1969) was an American Catholic religious sister who taught English and drama at Archbishop Keough High School in Baltimore, Maryland. On November 7, 1969, Cesnik disappeared. Her body was discovered on January 3, 1970, near a garbage dump in the Baltimore suburb of Lansdowne. Her unsolved murder served as the basis for the Netflix documentary series "The Keepers" in 2017.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: Catherine Anne Cesnik was born on November 17, 1942, in the Lawrenceville neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. She was the eldest child of Joseph and Anna Omulac Cesnik. Her paternal grandparents, John (Jan) and Johanna Tomec Česnik, were Slovenians who emigrated from Yugoslavia, while her maternal grandfather, Joseph Omulac, came from Yugoslavia and maternal grandmother, Martha Hudok, came from Austria. Cesnik had three siblings.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: Cesnik attended St. Mary's School on 57th Street and St. Augustine High School, both in Lawrenceville. She was valedictorian at the graduation of her high school class in 1960, after being the May Queen and the president of the senior class and the student council.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: In the fall of 1969, Cesnik was teaching drama and English at Archbishop Keough High School in Baltimore, Maryland, a school for girls that had opened in 1965. On November 7, 1969, she left the apartment she shared with Helen Russell Phillips at the Carriage House Apartments, at 131 North Bend Road in Catonsville, en route to the Edmondson Village Shopping Center to purchase a gift for her sister's engagement at Hecht's jewelry store. She cashed a paycheck at First National Bank in Catonsville that night. She may have made a purchase at Muhly's Bakery in Edmondson Village, since a box of buns from that bakery was found in the front seat of her car. At 4:40am the next morning, Russell's friends, Peter McKeon and Gerard J. Koob, both Catholic priests, found Cesnik's car, in muddy condition, and illegally parked across from her apartment complex. Residents at the apartment complex noticed Cesnik in her car at approximately 8:30 that night, and others spotted her car illegally parked across the street about two hours later.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: Immediately after Cesnik's disappearance, police searched the area for her body without success. On January 3, 1970, her body was found by a hunter and his son in an informal landfill located on the 2100 block of Monumental Road, in a remote area of Lansdowne.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: In 2017, CBS Baltimore reported allegations from three women that during Cesnik's tenure at Archbishop Keough High School, two of the priests, Joseph Maskell and E. Neil Magnus, were sexually abusing the girls at the school in addition to trafficking them to others.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: In 1995, Teresa Lancaster and Jean Wehner (née Hargadon), former students at Keough who say they were sexually abused by Maskell, filed a lawsuit against him, the school, gynecologist Christian Richter, the School Sisters of Notre Dame, the Archdiocese of Baltimore, and William H. Keeler. The trial court dismissed the action as time-barred by the statute of limitations. The plaintiffs appealed. A "writ of certiorari" was granted by the Maryland Court of Appeals, which upheld the lower court decision, ruling in part, "...that the mental process of repression of memories of past sexual abuse does not activate the discovery rule. The plaintiffs suits are thus barred by the statute of limitation."


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: Wehner said that Cesnik once came to her and said gently, "Are the priests hurting you?" Both women have said that she was the only member of the school's staff who helped them and other girls abused by Maskell, "et al.", and have said that she was murdered prior to discussing the matter with the archdiocese of Baltimore. "The Baltimore Sun" reported in late 2016 that since 2011 the archdiocese has paid out settlements to Maskell's alleged victims.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: Wehner says that, two months before Cesnik's body was discovered, and only a day or two after Cesnik disappeared on November 1969, Maskell drove her to a wooded site near Fort Meade and showed her the body. Wehner says she remembers trying repeatedly to brush off the maggots crawling on Cesnik's face while frantically repeating the words, "Help me, help me." Her account was brought into question by scientific evidence showing that it would have been impossible for maggots to be alive at that time of year. However, Spitz, who worked on the case, later confirmed that there had been maggots in both the victim's mouth and trachea when found. Meteorological records also reveal that temperatures during the week in question were warm enough for maggots to hatch. "The Huffington Post" reported that Maskell told Wehner, "You see what happens when you say bad things about people?"


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: Several days later, on November 13, 1969, the body of Joyce Malecki, a 20-year-old woman who looked like Wehner, was discovered by two hunters in the same wooded location where Maskell had driven Wehner. Cesnik's body was not found until January 3, 1970, and its discovery by two hunters was not in the wooded location near Fort Meade, but on the open hill trash dump of a small business property in Lansdowne.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: In 2016, the Baltimore County Police Department (BCPD) reassigned the case due to retiring officers, prompting new interviews and further investigation into the alleged sexual abuse at Keough. After obtaining permission from the state's attorney's office, the BCPD exhumed the body of Maskell, who died of a major stroke in 2001, but did not find a DNA match to evidence from the crime scene. Police spokeswoman Elise Armacost announced that this discovery does not exclude Maskell from being a suspect in the case.


title: Murder of Catherine Cesnik

text: Netflix produced a seven-part documentary series about the case called "The Keepers", which debuted on May 19, 2017. The series features interviews with women who were Cesnik's students, with some who say they were sexually abused by Maskell and others.


title: 221B Baker Street

text: 221B Baker Street is the London address of the fictional detective Sherlock Holmes, created by author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. In the United Kingdom, postal addresses with a number followed by a letter may indicate a separate address within a larger, often residential building. Baker Street in the late 19th century was a high-class residential district, and Holmes's apartment would probably have been part of a Georgian terrace.


title: 221B Baker Street

text: The residence was introduced in the novel "A Study in Scarlet" (1887). At the time the Holmes stories were published, addresses in Baker Street did not go as high as 221. Baker Street was later extended, and in 1932 the Abbey National Building Society moved into premises at 219–229 Baker Street. For many years, Abbey National employed a full-time secretary to answer mail addressed to Sherlock Holmes. In 1990, a blue plaque signifying 221B Baker Street was installed at the Sherlock Holmes Museum, situated elsewhere on the same block, and there followed a 15-year dispute between Abbey National and the Holmes Museum for the right to receive mail addressed to 221B Baker Street. Since the closure of Abbey House in 2005, ownership of the address by the Holmes Museum has not been challenged, despite its location between 237 and 241 Baker Street. Its postal code is NW1 6XE.


title: 221B Baker Street

text: When the "Sherlock Holmes" stories were first published, street numbers in Baker Street did not go as high as 221.


title: 221B Baker Street

text: The section north of Marylebone Road near Regent's Park – now including 221 Baker Street – was known in Doyle's lifetime as Upper Baker Street. In his first manuscript, Doyle put Holmes's house in Upper Baker Street. However, a British crime novelist named Nigel Morland claimed that, late in Doyle's life, he identified the junction of Baker Street and George Street, about 500 metres south of the Marylebone Road, as the location of 221B. Sherlockian experts have also held to alternative theories as to where the original 221B was located and have maintained that it was further down Baker Street.


title: 221B Baker Street

text: While at medical school in Edinburgh from 1876–1880, Doyle resided at 23 George Square near the university. The residence next door is 23-B.


title: 221B Baker Street

text: When street numbers were reallocated in the 1930s, the block of odd numbers from 215 to 229 was assigned to an Art Deco building known as Abbey House, constructed in 1932 for the Abbey Road Building Society, which the society and its successor (which subsequently became Abbey National plc) occupied until 2002.


title: 221B Baker Street

text: Almost immediately, the building society started receiving correspondence from Sherlock Holmes fans all over the world, in such volumes that it appointed a permanent "secretary to Sherlock Holmes" to deal with it. A bronze plaque on the front of Abbey House carried a picture of Holmes and a quotation, but was removed from the building several years ago. Its present whereabouts are unknown. In 1999, Abbey National sponsored the creation of a bronze statue of Sherlock Holmes that now stands at the entrance to Baker Street Underground station.