title: Processed cheese

text: In the United States, processed cheese is defined, categorized, and regulated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) under the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations Title 21, Section 133 ("Cheeses and Cheese-Related Products"). Pasteurized process cheese can be made from a single cheese, or a blend of several cheeses. Cream, milk fat, water, salt, color, and spices may also be added. The mixture is heated with an emulsifier, poured into a mold, and allowed to cool. The definitions include:


title: Processed cheese

text: The FDA does not maintain a standard of identity for either "pasteurized prepared cheese product", a designation which particularly appears on many Kraft products, or "pasteurized process cheese product", a designation which appears particularly on many American store- and generic-branded singles. Products labeled as such may use milk protein concentrate (MPC) in the formulation, which is not listed in the permitted optional dairy ingredients. The desire to use inexpensive imported milk protein concentrate is noted as motivation for the introduction of these and similar terms, and for the relabeling of some products. After an FDA Warning Letter protesting Kraft's use of MPC in late 2002, some varieties of Kraft Singles formerly labeled "pasteurized process cheese food" became "pasteurized prepared cheese product", Velveeta was relabeled from "pasteurized process cheese spread" to "pasteurized prepared cheese product", and Easy Cheese from "pasteurized process cheese spread" to "pasteurized cheese snack".


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo (), officially the Province of Iloilo (; ; ), is a province in the Philippines located in the Western Visayas region. Its capital is the City of Iloilo, the regional center of Western Visayas. Iloilo occupies a major southeast portion of the Visayan island of Panay and is bordered by the province of Antique to the west, Capiz to the north, the Jintotolo Channel to the northeast, the Guimaras Strait to the east, and the Iloilo Strait and Panay Gulf to the southwest.


title: Iloilo

text: Just off Iloilo's southeast coast is the island province of Guimaras, once part of Iloilo but now an independent province. Across the Panay Gulf and Guimaras Strait is Negros Occidental, occupying the northwestern half of the larger island of Negros. Iloilo City, its capital, is the center of the Iloilo–Guimaras Metropolitan Area or Metro Iloilo–Guimaras, and is geographically located in the province and is grouped under the province by the Philippine Statistics Authority but remains politically independent from the provincial government. According to the 2020 census, the population of the province (excluding Iloilo City) is 2,051,899. If Iloilo City is included, the population is 2,509,525 in total.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo is renowned for its rich history and culture, which has resulted in the preservation of numerous old Spanish-era historic sites, including the Miag-ao Church, a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Philippines, and San Joaquin Campo Santo, which, along with San Joaquin Church and Santa Barbara Church, has been recognized as a National Cultural Treasure by the National Museum of the Philippines. While the southern portion of the province is noted for its Spanish-era churches and structures, the northern portion is noted for its white sand beaches and crystal clear waters, namely the Bantigue Sand Bar, the Tangke Lagoon, Cabugao Island, and Antonia Island, which are all part of the Islas de Gigantes. Sicogon Island, located to the south of the group of islands, is also a tourist island destination in the province that is slowly regaining its popularity after the stalled development caused by martial law in the 1970s.


title: Iloilo

text: The name of the province is derived from Iloilo City, which in turn is derived from the older name "Ilong-ilong" (Philippine Spanish: "Ilong̃-ílong̃") meaning "nose-like", in (Fijian Mirror - English) referring to the promontory between two rivers (Iloilo and Batiano) where the Fort San Pedro and the 17th-century Spanish port were located.


title: Iloilo

text: No pre-Hispanic written accounts of Iloilo and Panay island exist today. Oral tradition, in the form of recited epics like the Hinilawod, has survived to a small degree. A few recordings of these epic poems exist. The most notable are the works of noted Filipino Anthropologist Felipe Jocano.


title: Iloilo

text: While no current archaeological evidence exist describing pre-Hispanic Iloilo, an original work by Pedro Alcantara Monteclaro published in 1907 called "Maragtas" details the alleged accounts of the founding of the various pre-Hispanic polities on Panay Island. The book is based on oral and written accounts available to the author at the time. The author made no claim on the historical accuracy of the accounts.


title: Iloilo

text: According to Maragtas, Madja-as was founded after ten datus fled Borneo and landed on Panay Island. The book then goes on to detail their subsequent purchase of the coastal lands in which they settled from the native Ati people.


title: Iloilo

text: Datu Paiburong, one of the ten fleeing datus, established a settlement and named it Irong-Irong after an islet of the same name on the Batiano River.


title: Iloilo

text: Spain eventually succeeded on conquering of the island of Panay when Spanish conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi moved his headquarters from the island of Cebu and creating the first Spanish settlement in the island in Ogtong in 1566. This is mainly due in part to the rivalries between the Bisaya and the Moro, of which the former found an ally in Spanish against the latter. The Bisayas accepted alliances with Spain, to defend themselves against the enslaving Moros. To this end, Iloilo contributed troops in the Castille War against the Sultanate of Brunei.


title: Iloilo

text: In 1581, the encomienda in Ogtong was moved to La Villa Rica de Arevalo, because of frequent coastal raids by the Dutch privateers. Furthermore, an attack in the year 1600 (Part of the Spanish–Moro conflict) where there was a large Muslim armada to destroy Iloilo City, led by two Moros named Sirungan and Salikala who lead the Muslim force of 70 ships and 4,000 warriors that had raided and attacked several Visayan islands in order to abduct slaves to sell to their allies in the Sultanate of Demak and the Sultanate of Malacca, eventually caused the move of the city center further on to the mouth of the Irong-Irong river founding what is now Iloilo City and constructing Fort San Pedro to defend it in 1616.


title: Iloilo

text: Nevertheless, when the 4,000 Moros led by Sirungan and Salikala tried to attack Iloilo City they were repulsed with heavy losses in the town of Arevalo by a force of 1,000 Hiligaynon warriors and 70 Mexican arquebusiers under the command of Juan García de Sierra, the Spanish officer who died in the battle. The Spanish Christianized the area.


title: Iloilo

text: Soon, the area itself began to prosper, due to its successful textile and sugar industry. As a result, it received Chinese immigrants from the west (that worked for its trades) and Latinos from the ports of Mexico in the east (to man its military installations).


title: Iloilo

text: During the American colonial period, Iloilo became a home to many firsts: including the first department stores and cinema theaters in the Commonwealth of the Philippines. Iloilo experienced severe devastation during the events of World War II. It became a province of the newly fledged Republic of the Philippines when the archipelago gained independence from the United States on July 4, 1946.


title: Iloilo

text: The province covers a total area of occupying the central and eastern section of Panay island in the Western Visayas region. If Iloilo City is included for geographical purposes, Iloilo has an area of . The province is bordered by the province of Antique to the west, Capiz to the north, the Jintotolo Channel to the northeast, the Visayan Sea and Guimaras Strait to the east, and the Iloilo Strait and Panay Gulf to the southwest.


title: Iloilo

text: The province is divided into two distinct geographic regions; the highlands of the Central Panay Mountain Range on the western border and the lowland plains which account for a larger portion of the province. Small islands east of its northernmost tip also dot the Visayan Sea - of these, Pan de Azucar and Sicogon are well-known. Mount Baloy is the highest mountain in Iloilo with an elevation of above sea level, located on the triple border of Iloilo, Capiz, and Antique. Other peaks are Mount Llorente 4,409 ft. (1,344m), Mount Sansanan 4,219 ft. (1,286m), Mount Napulak 4,095 ft. (1,248 m), Mount Balabag 3,728 ft. (1,136m).


title: Iloilo

text: Expansive fishponds and mangrove wetlands are found along the coasts and rivers of Iloilo City and the towns of Oton, Leganes, Zarraga, Dumangas, Anilao, Banate, Barotac Viejo, Barotac Nuevo, Ajuy, Balasan and Carles.


title: Iloilo

text: The Province of Iloilo consists of 42 municipalities and two cities (one component and one highly urbanized).


title: Iloilo

text: The population of Iloilo in the 2020 census was 2,051,899 people, with a density of . If the highly urbanized city of Iloilo is included for statistical purposes, the province's total population is 2,361,042 people, with a density of .


title: Iloilo

text: People from Iloilo are called Ilonggos. There are three local languages used in the province: Hiligaynon (Ilonggo), Kinaray-a and Capiznon. Hiligaynon and dialects/variants of it are spoken in Iloilo City and in some towns of the province, especially to the northeast. Tagalog and English are widely used as administrative, educational, and commercial languages.


title: Iloilo

text: Hiligaynon is concentrated in the city of Iloilo and surrounding areas, as well as the northeastern portion of the province, Guimaras and the Negros Island (especially in Negros Occidental and to a lesser extent in Negros Oriental), as well as the provinces of South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat, and North Cotabato in Soccsksargen, Mindanao. It is also spoken in the neighboring provinces, such as Capiz, Antique, Aklan, Masbate, Palawan and Romblon as well as in some parts of Maguindanao. It is also spoken as a second language by Cebuano speakers in Negros Oriental, Kinaray-a speakers in Antique, Aklanon/Malaynon speakers in Aklan, and Capiznon speakers in Capiz.


title: Iloilo

text: The language is referred to as "Ilonggo" in Iloilo and Negros Occidental. More precisely, Ilonggo is an ethno-linguistic group referring to the people living in southeastern Panay and its associated culture. The boundaries of the language called Ilonggo and that called Hiligaynon are unclear. The disagreement of which name is correct extends to Philippine language specialists and native laypeople.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo is a Roman Catholic-predominated province comprising about 87% of the population. Protestant churches also exist such as members of Iglesia Filipina Independiente or Aglipayan Church, Baptists, Presbyterians, Methodists, Adventists, and other Evangelical Christians; There are also non-Protestant and other Christian sects such as Iglesia Ni Cristo, Church of Christ of Latter day Saints (Mormons) and Jehovah's Witnesses while non-Christians are usually represented by Muslims, and to a lesser extent, Buddhists and Hindus.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo's economy is vibrant, because of good political will and the cooperation of the Ilonggos. Iloilo's "economic boom" made thousands of jobs, and made the province one of the most competitive in the country. Iloilo City is the center for real estate, accommodation, medical centers, education, shopping centers, business centers, IT/BPO centers and many more. Iloilo's northern part consists of a strong fishing industry and a booming tourism industry. It is near the Visayan Sea, which makes that part of province one of the leading areas in fisheries in the nation. The central part is an agri-industrial center producing a wide array of agricultural products such as corn, rice, bananas, pineapples and sugar among others as well as high-end crops in the Bucari Area in Leon and in the highlands of Alimodian, as well as inland resorts and trekking sites. The sugar industries is centered in Passi City and its neighboring towns like Lambunao, Duenas, San Enrique and Bingawan. Southern Iloilo's economy is mostly based on tourism because of the century-old churches and colonial buildings and its beaches and marine reserves especially in Guimbal, Miagao and San Joaquin towns.


title: Iloilo

text: Spanish architecture can be seen in old buildings in downtown Iloilo. Ancient Indonesians, Malaysians and Vietnamese, and later the Indian, Arab, Chinese, Korean and Japanese merchants were already trading with the Ilonggos, long before the arrival of the Mexicans, Spaniards and other Europeans. The ruling Spanish government encouraged these foreign merchants to trade in Iloilo but they were not given privileges like ownership of land. Foreign merchants and Spaniards intermarried with the locals, and the Mestizo class was eventually born from their union. The Mestizo offspring of the local nobilities later emerged as the ruling class of the Ilonggos (see Principalía).


title: Iloilo

text: The town's fiesta is one of the most important events for Ilonggos. Almost every town (municipality) in Iloilo, and even the seven districts of Iloilo City, has a fiesta or festival celebrated annually.


title: Iloilo

text: As a leading province during the Spanish Colonial Era, the province of Iloilo is widely known for its beautiful old world architecture similar to that of Latin American Countries. Spanish colonial Churches are amongst the well-known tourist sites in the province. Some natural sites are also in here as well as mixed-use parks that sprawl around the province.


title: Iloilo

text: Miag-ao Church. A World Heritage Site. The Aztec-Baroque inspired church with Filipino botanicals used to carved on the façade. It is known for its intricate façade and pyramidal bell towers. The church was used as a fortress during the olden days. It is a massive structure built of yellowish Limestones.


title: Iloilo

text: Molo Church. The Gothic Renaissance Church of Molo was used as a watch tower to warn the people if there are any attackers on the shore of Iloilo City. It is a fine coral stone church with Classical and Gothic details. It is also known as the feminist church because of the beautiful female saints lining inside the church.


title: Iloilo

text: Jaro Cathedral. The Neo-Romanesque church has a distinctive feature with its bell tower as it is located across a busy street from the church, on Jaro Plaza. Though the belfry was adjacent to an earlier church, an earthquake destroyed the church and left the tower. In response to Molo Church's all-female theme, the church has its all-male ensemble of saints placed on the main pillars inside, with the exception of the Virgin's icon.


title: Iloilo

text: Jaro Belfry. The belfry was used to serve as a watch tower against marauding Moros during Spanish times. It is made of bricks and limestone blocks, and has three stories, standing 29 meters high. In the 1787 earthquake, the belfry was heavily damaged. Reconstruction only began in 1833 under the supervision of an Augustinian friar, Fr. Jesse Alvarez.


title: Iloilo

text: Cabatuan Church. This Neoclassic Church, known to be the most massive Hispanic structure in Iloilo is built of red bricks. It is believed to be the largest red brick structure in the Visayas and it was given the title "Model of Temples" by the 'El Eco de Panay'. The Cabatuan Church is known to be the only extant Spanish colonial church with three facades.


title: Iloilo

text: San Jose Church. The beautiful church in front of plaza Libertad is considered the most historic amongst the churches in Iloilo City. It is a Byzantine-Neoclassic Church planned to look like the Spanish Church of Valencia del Cid. The Church is known for its collection of priceless Catholic treasures.


title: Iloilo

text: San Joaquin Church. The militaristic church on the coast of San Joaquin overlooks the sea. Carved on a disproportionately large pediment on the façade is an intricate sculptural relief depicting the Spanish victory over Moroccan forces in the Battle of Tetuan. The church is one of the National Cultural Treasures in Iloilo by the National Museum of the Philippines, together with San Joaquin Campo Santo.


title: Iloilo

text: San Joaquin Campo Santo. A Roman Catholic cemetery known for its imposing Spanish Baroque mortuary chapel that shows a hint of oriental influences. Its hexagonal shape is supported with walls made from coral stones quarried from the nearby coast, fossils, and red clay bricks, while its dome roof consists of galvanized iron sheets. The cemetery is the grandest and best preserved in the province.


title: Iloilo

text: Passi City Church. This is considered a militaristic church in that it was planned as a ‘fortress church’ and the proof of this can be seen in the massive buttresses which support the front and back walls of the church. The church was built to replace churches that had been destroyed by an earthquake in 1612 and subsequent churches that had been destroyed by fires.


title: Iloilo

text: Old Capitol building of the Province of Iloilo. A National Historical Site. The building was built with wood stone during the Spanish colonization. It served as the capitol when the civil government of Iloilo was founded in 1901. The National Historical Institute (NHI) formally recognized the Old Capitol as a historical landmark through a marker installed on its walls on April 11, 2010.


title: Iloilo

text: Bucari Area. Bucari Area is an area with mountainous terrain situated in the highlands of Leon and Alimodian. It is known as the "Summer Capital of Iloilo" and declared as a special economic zone for tourism and ecological enterprise due to its cool climate, topography, highland attractions and scenery.


title: Iloilo

text: Bulabog Putian National Park. Bulabog Puti-an National Park is a protected rain forest area known for being a living museum of flora and fauna. Hundreds of local and foreign tourists visit the 847 eco-tourism park to immerse in the area's natural attractions such as its various forms of wildlife and more than 30 caves. It is located within the municipalities of San Enrique and Dingle.


title: Iloilo

text: Islas de Gigantes. The Islas de Gigantes is an island group found in the offshores of the municipality of Carles. The place is known for its numerous caves, white sand beaches, emerald-like shores and lagoon, and rock formations.


title: Iloilo

text: Santa Barbara Church. The Santa Barbara Parish Church and Convent is considered to be the "Cradle of Independence" in Panay and in the Visayas. In 1991, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines declared Santa Barbara Church and Convent as a National Landmark. The church was the site where General Martin Delgado of the Visayan Revolutionary Government started the junta that resulted in the first Cry of Revolution against the Spaniards outside Luzon. It was also used as the general headquarters and military hospital of the revolutionary forces.


title: Iloilo

text: Calle Real Heritage District. Calle Real, or the J.M. Basa Street in Iloilo City, was once the main commercial center of the city during the Imperial Spanish and American periods. It houses numerous old colonial buildings, including the popular Eusebio Villanueva Building, formerly known as the International Hotel.


title: Iloilo

text: Plaza Libertad. The historic plaza where the flag of the first Philippine Republic was raised in triumph after Spain surrendered Iloilo, its last capital in Asia, to the revolutionary forces led by Gen. Martin Delgado on December 25, 1898.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo River Esplanade. The Esplanade is Iloilo City's newest hub for dining, leisure and recreation. Poised to be the longest linear park in the country with a current total length of over 9 kilometers.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo Golf and Country Club. The Iloilo Golf Course and Country Club is the oldest golf course in South East Asia. It all began in the 1850s when the British, led by Iloilo-based Vice Consul Nicholas Loney known today as the “Father of the Philippine Sugar Industry."


title: Iloilo

text: The airport serves the Province of Iloilo, including its capital city, Iloilo City, the regional center of the Western Visayas region in the Philippines. It opened its doors to commercial traffic on June 14, 2007, after a decade of planning and construction located at Cabatuan, Iloilo, replacing Mandurriao Airport in Mandurriao, Iloilo City and inherited its IATA and ICAO airport codes from its predecessor. The fourth-busiest airport in the Philippines, it is the first airport in both Western Visayas and the island of Panay to be built to international standards, and one of the four airports in the region planned to be an international gateway. It is one of the 2 international airports in Western Visayas, the other one being Kalibo International Airport.


title: Iloilo

text: The airport serves tourists to the island of Sicogon in Carles, Iloilo. The airport has been redeveloped and opened in 2018. Charter flights to and from Sicogon to Manila and vice versa took place in late 2018. It is located in Barangay San Fernando on the island.


title: Iloilo

text: The Port of Iloilo, considered the leader of trade and a commercial hub for Western Visayas is also one of the safest natural seaports in the Philippines. The Iloilo Commercial Port Complex is located on 20.8 hectares of reclaimed land. It includes 11,400 sq. meters of open space for operations, supplemented by an area of 97,000 sq. meters, a crane, rails of 348 lineal meters; roll-on-roll-off support; a 7,800 container freight stations; and a 720 sq. meter passenger shed. The port complex is ideal for ships plying international routes having a berth length of 400 meters, a width of 26.26 meters and a berthing depth of 10.50 meters.


title: Iloilo

text: A number of shipping companies use the Port of Iloilo, including Lorenzo Shipping Corporation, 2GO, Amigo Shipping Company, New Panay Shipping Company, Sulpicio Lines, and Trans-Asia Shipping Lines Inc. Fast ferries serve Iloilo-Bacolod routes eight times daily. 2GO inter-island, overnight ferries serve longer routes, going to Manila, Bacolod, Cebu, Zamboanga and Cagayan de Oro City. Pumpboat ferries cross the Iloilo Strait to Guimaras constantly during the day and on special trips at night.


title: Iloilo

text: Roll-on/roll-off ferry service, known as RO-RO, is available between Iloilo City and Guimaras, but the ro-ro to Negros is available from Dumangas, Iloilo including ro-ro from Iloilo to Palawan.


title: Iloilo

text: It is ranked third in terms of ship calls at 11,853, fourth in cargo throughout at 491,719 million metric tons and fourth in passenger traffic at 2.4 million annually.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo is one of the most accessible provinces in the Philippines. Iloilo can be reached by plane on regular commercial international flights from Hong Kong and Singapore to the Iloilo International Airport. Direct domestic flights connect Iloilo to other major cities in the Philippines including Manila, Cebu, Davao, General Santos, Puerto Princesa, Zamboanga and Cagayan de Oro. Direct ferry routes and roll-on roll-off connections on the Philippines’ nautical highway are also available between Iloilo and all other major cities in the country.


title: Iloilo

text: By plane, travel time to the Iloilo takes around 1 hour from Manila, 30 minutes from Cebu, 2 hours and 30 minutes from Hong Kong, and 3 hours and 30 minutes from Singapore. By direct ferry, Iloilo is approximately 1.5 hours away from Bacolod, and 15 minutes away from Guimaras. By land, Iloilo is around 4–5 hours away from Boracay, 3 hours away from Kalibo, and 2 hours away from Roxas City.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo International Airport – The Iloilo International Airport is the primary gateway to Iloilo. It serves regularly scheduled direct domestic flights to Iloilo from major Philippine airlines including Manila, Cebu, Davao, General Santos, Puerto Princesa, and Cagayan de Oro. The airport also serves international flights from Iloilo to Hong Kong and Singapore. Flights to Iloilo are served by Cebu Pacific, Philippine Airlines, PAL Express, and TigerAir. The Iloilo Airport is located approximately 19 kilometers or 20 minutes away by taxi from Iloilo City.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo Seaports – Ferries in Iloilo depart and arrive at various seaports in Iloilo City and Iloilo Province depending on the route and vessel type. (1) Ferry terminals along the Iloilo River in Lapuz district, Iloilo City serves fastcraft ferries to and from Bacolod, RORO ferries to and from Guimaras, and ferries to and from Palawan. (2) The Iloilo Domestic Port in Fort San Pedro, Iloilo City Proper, serves shipping companies with routes to and from Manila, Cebu, Cagayan de Oro, and Zamboanga.


title: Iloilo

text: The province of Iloilo, including the city of Iloilo, is the center of education in the Western Visayas region. It has the largest number of universities in the region, with a total of ten major universities.


title: Iloilo

text: Stallion F.C. is an association football club founded in Barotac Nuevo. The club is affiliated with the Iloilo Football Association and currently playing in Division 1 of the United Football League. Since 2018, Kaya F.C. has played its home game in Iloilo. It is also the home of the Iloilo United Royals who play for MPBL.


title: Iloilo

text: Kaya F.C.–Iloilo is a Filipino professional football club based in Iloilo City. It plays in the Philippines Football League, the highest tier of Philippine football. The club has won one UFL cup and one Copa Paulino Alcantara. Kaya has also competed in the AFC Cup.


title: Iloilo

text: Iloilo City is home to regional television stations of GMA Network (GMA TV6 & GMA News TV 28), TV5 (UHF 36 & AksyonTV 46), Solar channels (9TV TV-4) ETC UHF 32 & 2nd Avenue UHF 24), IBC (VHF 12), (BEAM UHF 26) and ABS-CBN (ABS-CBN TV10, ABS-CBN Sports+Action (UHF 38)).


title: Walter Lewin

text: Walter Hendrik Gustav Lewin (born January 29, 1936) is a Dutch astrophysicist and retired professor of physics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Lewin earned his doctorate in nuclear physics in 1965 at the Delft University of Technology and was a member of MIT's physics faculty for 43 years beginning in 1966 until his retirement in 2009.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Lewin's contributions in astrophysics include the first discovery of a rotating neutron star through all-sky balloon surveys and research in X-ray detection in investigations through satellites and observatories. Lewin has received awards for teaching and is known for his lectures on physics and their publication online via YouTube, MIT OpenCourseWare and edX.


title: Walter Lewin

text: In December 2014, MIT revoked Lewin's Professor Emeritus title after an MIT investigation determined that Lewin had violated university policy by sexually harassing an online student in an online MITx course he taught in fall 2013.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Lewin was born to Walter Simon Lewin and Pieternella Johanna van der Tang in 1936 in The Hague, Netherlands. He was a child when Nazi Germany occupied The Netherlands during World War II. It is unclear if his paternal grandparents Gustav and Emma Lewin, who were Jewish, were killed in Auschwitz in 1942, or died of typhus or starvation. According to a YouTube video by Walter Lewin, his parents were killed in Auschwitz. To protect the family, Lewin’s father — who was Jewish, unlike his mother — decided one day to simply leave without telling anyone. His mother was left to raise the children and run a small school she and her husband had started together. After the war ended, his father resurfaced; Lewin describes having a “more or less normal childhood.” His parents continued running the school, which he says strongly influenced his love of teaching.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Walter Lewin taught high school physics while studying for his PhD, then he went to Massachusetts Institute of Technology in January 1966 as a post-doctoral associate, and was appointed an assistant professor. He was promoted to associate professor of physics in 1968 and to full professor in 1974.


title: Walter Lewin

text: At MIT, Lewin joined the X-ray astronomy group and conducted all-sky balloon surveys with George W. Clark. Through the late seventies, there were about twenty successful balloon flights. These balloon surveys led to the discovery of five new X-ray sources, whose spectra were very different from the X-ray sources discovered during rocket observations. The X-ray flux of these sources was variable. Among them was GX 1+4 whose X-ray flux appeared to be periodic with a period of about 2.4 minutes. This was the first discovery of a slowly rotating neutron star.


title: Walter Lewin

text: In October 1967 when Scorpius X-1 was observed, an X-ray flare was detected. The flux went up by a factor of about 4 in ten minutes after which it declined again. This was the first detection of X-ray variability observed during the observations. The rockets used by other researchers could not have discovered that the X-ray sources varied on such short time scales because they were only up for several minutes, whereas the balloons could be in the air for many hours.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Lewin was co-investigator on the Small Astronomy Satellite 3 (SAS-3) project. He directed the burst observations and discovered several X-ray bursters, among them was the "rapid burster" which can produce thousands of X-ray bursts in one day. His group also discovered that the "rapid burster" produces two types of bursts and established a classification of bursts as type I (thermonuclear flashes) and type II (accretion flow instabilities).


title: Walter Lewin

text: Lewin was co-principal investigator on High Energy Astronomy Observatory 1 HEAO-1 (A4), which has yielded the first all sky catalog at high-energy X rays. With H. Pedersen and J. van Paradijs, Lewin made extensive studies of optical bursts which are associated with X-ray bursts; for X-ray detections they used SAS-3 and the Japanese observatory "Hakucho". Their combined burst observations demonstrated that the optical bursts are a few seconds delayed relative to the X-ray bursts. This established the size of the accretion disc surrounding the accreting neutron stars.


title: Walter Lewin

text: In his search for millisecond X-ray pulsations from low-mass X-ray binaries, in 1984–85 Lewin made guest observations with the European observatory EXOSAT in collaboration with colleagues from Amsterdam and Garching, Germany. This led to the unexpected discovery of intensity-dependent quasi-periodic oscillations (QPO) in the X-ray flux of GX 5-1. During 1989 to 1992, using the Japanese observatory "Ginga", Lewin and his co-workers studied the relation between the X-ray spectral state and the radio brightness of several bright low-mass X-ray binaries.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Lewin was closely involved in ROSAT observations of the nearby galaxies M31 and Messier 81. Lewin and his graduate student Eugene Magnier have made deep optical charge-coupled device observations of M31 in four colors; they have published a catalogue of 500,000 objects. Lewin and his graduate student David Pooley initiated the successful X-ray observations within six days of the appearance of supernova SN 1993J in M81.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Lewin collaborated with his close friend Jan van Paradijs of the University of Amsterdam from 1978 until van Paradijs' death. They co-authored 150 papers.


title: Walter Lewin

text: He became a corresponding member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1993 and a fellow of the American Physical Society in 1993.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Lewin and graduate student Jeffrey Kommers have worked on data from the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO). This was a collaboration with the BATSE Group in Huntsville, AL. In early December 1995, with co-workers Chryssa Kouveliotou and Van Paradijs, they discovered a new type of X-ray burst source: (GRO J1744-28) the Bursting Pulsar, and received a NASA Achievement Award for this discovery.


title: Walter Lewin

text: In 1996–1998, Lewin's collaboration with Michiel van der Klis in Amsterdam led to the discovery of kHz oscillations in many X-ray binaries.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Using the Chandra X-ray Observatory, Lewin and his graduate student David Pooley made extensive studies of supernovae and faint X-ray sources in globular clusters. This research was done in collaboration with scientists from the University of Washington, IAS in Princeton, UC Berkeley, the University of Amsterdam and Utrecht in The Netherlands, and the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, DC. The research on supernovae produced the first X-ray spectrum with unprecedented energy resolution of SN 1989S. The research on globular clusters demonstrated that X-ray binary stars are cooked in the cores of the clusters where the stellar density is very high.


title: Walter Lewin

text: With graduate student Jon Miller, Lewin made extensive studies of black-hole X-ray binaries in our galaxy. Evidence was found for spectral distortions of the iron line (in X-rays) indicative of the influence of general relativity on the iron-line emission in the vicinity of the "event horizon" of the black holes. This research on black-hole binaries is continuing using all available observatories in orbit – among them: Chandra, the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE), and the European observatories XMM-Newton, Integral and NuSTAR.


title: Walter Lewin

text: On April 3, 2012, Lewin was ranked by the Princeton Review among "The Best 300". He was the only MIT faculty member (albeit, retired) to make it to that list.


title: Walter Lewin

text: For about 15 years (starting in 1982) Lewin was on MIT Cable TV, with every week a different 1-hour program. They were aired 24 hours per day helping freshmen with their weekly homework assignments (they were called "help sessions"). Walter Lewin's 1992 lectures on Newtonian mechanics (co-lectured with Bob Ledoux) and Lewin's help sessions have been shown for over six years (starting in 1995) on UWTV in Seattle, WA, reaching an audience of about four million people. Years later, Bill Gates wrote to Lewin that he watched him very frequently on UWTV. Lewin personally responded to thousands of e-mail requests that he received per year from UWTV viewers. Videos of Lewin's 94 lectures on Newtonian mechanics (1999), electricity and magnetism (2002) and the physics of vibrations and waves (2004), among others, could be viewed on the MIT OpenCourseWare web site until MIT removed them after finding that Lewin had sexually harassed a student in the online course. The videos can also be viewed on YouTube, iTunes and Earth Academic.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Since February 2015, Lewin has been running and managing his own YouTube channel called "Lectures by Walter Lewin. They will make you ♥ Physics". All of his lectures can be viewed online on this channel. Here Lewin vlogs about his everyday life and also host quizzes on physics and art. In April 2021, this channel crossed a million subscribers. In year 2021, his channel gathered over 52 million views, and gathered over 96 million views in total. Several of Lewin's lectures have been viewed more than a million times. His 2011 farewell lecture "For the Love of Physics" is one of his most popular lectures. As of January 2022, this lecture has been viewed around 15 million times - 1 million times on MIT's OCW, 6.9 million times on the channel "For the Allure of Physics" and 6.9 million times on his personal channel. In 2007, The New York Times featured Lewin on the front page, talking about his massive influence on online education.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Two of Lewin's courses were converted into edX courses, 8.01x (classical mechanics) and 8.02x (electricity and magnetism). People who pass "x" courses receive a certificate from MIT. Lewin's course on electricity and magnetism went online in February 2013, Newtonian mechanics is online as of September 2013. As of May 2014, there were yet no plans to convert 8.03 "vibrations and waves" into an edX course.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Videos of Lewin's lectures on Videos on Teaching Excellence at MIT, YouTube and iTunes U have been viewed more than 12 million times by people all over the world – including Bill Gates, who has confessed to repeated viewings.


title: Walter Lewin

text: In the summer of 2012, Lewin returned from his retirement to deliver a lecture series initiated and funded by the Japanese Broadcasting Corporation (NHK). Each lecture features a selection of physics demonstrations that Lewin has used in his more than 43 years of teaching physics at MIT. The lectures consist of 8 TV programs that were broadcast in Japanese on NHK in Japan in 2013. As of 2015, a region 2 DVD box set of this series is available in Japanese, with an optional partial English audio track and English subtitles.


title: Walter Lewin

text: In early December, 2014, MIT determined that Lewin had sexually harassed an online MITx learner, in violation of MIT's policies. "Inside Higher Ed" reported that this learner was one of at least 10 female students to whom Lewin had sent inappropriate messages. The victim, a 32-year-old woman living in France, said that she came forward to ensure that the case was not forgotten, stating that Lewin pushed her to participate in sexual role-playing. As a consequence of its internal investigation, MIT revoked Lewin's professor emeritus title, and removed his lectures from the institute's online learning platforms.


title: Walter Lewin

text: Lewin is an art enthusiast and collector. He has lectured on the subject at MIT. In the 1970s and 1980s, he collaborated with the artist Otto Piene, who was one of the founders of the ZERO movement and the director of MIT's Center for Advanced Visual Studies, and Peter Struycken, who is a computer artist.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Eugene Ellsworth Landy (November 26, 1934 – March 22, 2006) was an American psychologist known for his unconventional 24-hour therapy and treatment of celebrity clients. His most notable patient was the Beach Boys' Brian Wilson, with whom he formed a controversial business and creative partnership in the 1980s.


title: Eugene Landy

text: As a teenager, Landy aspired to show business, briefly managing child performer George Benson. During the 1960s, he studied psychology, earning his doctorate at the University of Oklahoma. After moving to Los Angeles, he treated many celebrity clients, including musician Alice Cooper and actors Richard Harris, Rod Steiger, Maureen McCormick, and Gig Young. He also developed an unorthodox 24-hour regimen intended to stabilize his patients by micromanaging their lives with a team of counselors and doctors.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Brian Wilson became a patient of Landy's program in 1975. Landy was discharged within a year due to his burdensome fees. In 1982, Landy was re-employed as Wilson's therapist, subsequently becoming his executive producer, business manager, co-songwriter, and business adviser. Landy co-produced Wilson's debut solo album "Brian Wilson" (1988) and its unreleased follow-up "Sweet Insanity" (1991), as well as allegedly ghostwriting portions of Wilson's first memoir "" (1991).


title: Eugene Landy

text: In 1989, the state of California revoked Landy's professional license amidst accusations of ethical violations and patient misconduct. Landy continued to act as Wilson's business partner until a 1992 restraining order barred Landy from contacting the musician ever again. After the 1990s, Landy continued his practice with licensure in New Mexico and Hawaii until his death. In 2014, Landy's treatment of Wilson was dramatized in the biographical film "Love & Mercy", in which Landy is portrayed by Paul Giamatti.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Eugene Ellsworth Landy was born on November 26, 1934, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, the only child of Jules C. Landy, a medical doctor and psychology professor, and Frieda Mae Gordon Landy, also a psychology professor. At the age of five, Eugene was revealed to have an IQ of 150 after being tested at the University of Pittsburgh.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Landy dropped out of school in the sixth grade, later claiming to be dyslexic. At age 16, he pursued a career in show business, producing a nationally syndicated radio show, and discovering 10-year-old George Benson. Landy briefly served as Benson's manager and worked odd jobs as a radio producer, promoting records and producing a single for Frankie Avalon. Benson later stated, "My people developed a distrust for [Landy] when he made them sign a power of attorney that they didn't understand, and he got all my mail and all my checks."


title: Eugene Landy

text: Honoring his parents' wishes, Landy resumed his formal education at Los Angeles City College, where he earned an AA in chemistry. After falling ill with dysentery while attending medical school at the National Autonomous University of Mexico, he switched to psychology. He earned a bachelor's degree in psychology from California State University, Los Angeles in 1964 and a master's degree in the discipline from the University of Oklahoma in 1967, completing his training with a PhD from the latter institution in 1968.


title: Eugene Landy

text: After completing his studies, Landy worked for the Peace Corps, eventually moving to Los Angeles to work as a drug counselor at Harbor Hospital and as a popular part-time instructor at San Fernando Valley State College. Landy began developing ideas for his 24-hour treatment program while engaging in postdoctoral work at Rancho Santa Fe. It was there that he practiced "marathon therapy", in which a therapist takes control of a group of people for a day or more. In 1968, he worked briefly as an intern at Gateways Hospital in Echo Park, Los Angeles, where he developed his methods further, experimenting with treatment on teenage drug abusers with varying degrees of success. He attributed his failures to having too little control over their nighttime activities; he tried evening rap groups and made himself available at all hours for talking therapies for their nocturnal anxiety attacks. Landy went on to call his new system milieu therapy.


title: Eugene Landy

text: While serving the hospital, Landy became cultured in the language used by its teenagers. In 1971, he authored a book on hippie jargon called "The Underground Dictionary", published by Simon & Schuster.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Around 1972, Landy founded a Beverly Hills clinic, the Foundation for the Rechanneling of Emotions and Education (FREE). Interns employed at the clinic used Landy's approach on a partial basis. In the early 1970s, he also started penetrating Hollywood social circles, becoming a consultant on various television shows, including "The Bob Newhart Show". He soon began treating many celebrity clients, earning $200 an hour (~$1,425 in 2022 terms).


title: Eugene Landy

text: Some of Landy's patients included Alice Cooper, Richard Harris, Rod Steiger, and Gig Young, who died in an apparent murder–suicide along with his wife in 1978. In a 1976 interview with "Rolling Stone", Landy claimed that he had treated others, but that he was in no position to explain his background. He added, "I've treated a tremendous number of people in show business; for some reason I seem to be able to relate to them. I think I have a nice reputation that says I'm unorthodox by orthodox standards but basically unique by unorthodox standards." Unusually, he had his own press kit.


title: Eugene Landy

text: In 1988, psychiatrist and Landy colleague Sol Samuels described Landy as "a maverick in the field of psychology. He's done things that no other psychologist has done in treating the psychotic and the drug addict. ... What he was doing really was translating the hospital environment to the home environment. I think he got some remarkable results – with people who can afford it." Arnold Horowitz, who was an assistant to Landy in the 1970s, stated that Landy used methods that were based "upon very very heavily reality confrontation on a very consistent basis. ... Gene, in addition to being eloquent at times ... is ... "dramatic"."


title: Eugene Landy

text: Landy was initially hired to treat Brian Wilson by Wilson's wife Marilyn in October 1975. According to Marilyn, she had "tried to find doctors who could deal with" her husband for several years, but "Brian's ability to 'put on' these professionals made it difficult to find someone who could deal with him on his own level." During the previous spring and summer, she had employed Wilson's cousin, basketball player Stan Love, to supervise Wilson's daily activities and reverse his physical decline, Psychiatrists and therapists were then found for Wilson, but he refused to attend sessions. After hearing about Landy from a friend, Marilyn met with him to discuss the situation. Landy told her that Brian was an "undiagnosed and untreated schizophrenic." Marilyn said that, during one of Landy's visits to their home, "Brian just walked in the room and said, 'Something's wrong with me. I need your help,' and that started it all."


title: Eugene Landy

text: Wilson publicly rebelled against the program, saying that the only reason that he went along with it was so that he would not be committed to a psychiatric facility. Under Landy's program, he was forced to maintain a routine of exercise and productivity, as well as limit his meetings with friends that were deemed as negative influences. In Landy's own words,


title: Eugene Landy

text: Beach Boys road manager Rick Nelson later claimed that Landy had attempted to exert unwelcome artistic control over the group. During the recording of the band's album "15 Big Ones" (1976), group meetings were supervised by Landy, and discussions over each song for the record were reported to last for up to eight hours. Another report suggested that Landy had asked for a percentage of the band's income. At Landy's insistence, Wilson appeared on "Saturday Night Live", choosing to perform a solo piano rendition of "Good Vibrations" which received mixed feedback. Landy stood off-camera holding signs for Wilson that read "smile". He said that critics missed the point of this exercise, explaining that Wilson's performance "was a terrible thing" as a one-shot, but if he continued making appearances then he would have gradually overcome his stage fright.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Landy had initially charged a monthly fee of $10,000, which he gradually raised to $18,000. Steve Love, Wilson's cousin and band manager, fired Landy in December 1976 when Landy raised his fees to $20,000 (equivalent to $ in ). By this time, Marilyn had become disenchanted with the doctor and his requests for additional compensation. She recalled confronting Landy at his office with her husband. "Brian said, 'You son of a bitch!' You have to understand that I have never seen Brian get physical, ever, "ever". I saw him take his fist and start to punch this man, and I started screaming. Landy said, ""No, no, no," let him do it, let him do it! ... he needs to take his anger out on me...' That was a therapeutic session, if you can believe it."


title: Eugene Landy

text: Landy remembered "15 Big Ones" as "the only major success" the Beach Boys had in recent years; "Brian and I did that together. Right after that, I had to leave the situation. ... I was interested in making Brian a whole human being; they [the Beach Boys management] were interested in getting another album done in time for 1977." In 1977, Wilson was asked if Landy had too much control; he said, "I thought so, but there was nothing I could do about it and I eventually gave in to it. ... [He had] control of my life legally through the commitment of my wife. ... He definitely helped me. It cost over a hundred thousand dollars – he charged a hell of a lot per month." Wilson then reported that Landy was replaced with a different doctor.


title: Eugene Landy

text: In 1982, Wilson was brought back to Landy's care after overdosing on a combination of alcohol, cocaine, and other psychoactive drugs. Landy monitored Wilson's drug intake and used the psychiatrist Sol Samuels to prescribe Wilson medication. Landy's assistant Kevin Leslie stood with Wilson at every moment, earning Leslie the nickname "Surf Nazi". Leslie also gave Wilson medication at Landy's direction. Initially, Leslie was paid salary by Landy, but was eventually paid directly by Wilson. In 1988, Samuels took credit with performing the "actual supervision of the therapy ... giving the medication and the occasional psychotherapy as he needs it. What Gene has been doing is hiring the people to be with him, and so forth, much as a parent would do if asked to get some help in the house."


title: Eugene Landy

text: In the mid-1980s, Landy stated of Wilson, "I influence all of his thinking. I'm practically a member of the band ... [We're] partners in life." Wilson later responded to popular allegations, "People say that Dr. Landy runs my life, but the truth is, I'm in charge." Landy echoed: "He's got a car phone in his car. If he wants to call somebody, he calls somebody. ... He can go anywhere, on his own, anytime he wants." A "Rolling Stone" journalist who spent one week with Wilson and Landy reported: "With the exception of taking a brief drive by himself to the market to pick up groceries, Brian appeared to be incapable of making a move without Landy's okay. During one interview session, the Landy line seemed to ring every thirty minutes. Yet Brian appears to be a willing participant in the program."


title: Eugene Landy

text: Even though the Beach Boys had hired Landy, part of the regimen involved cutting Wilson's contact from the group, as Landy reasoned: "You can't deal with people who only want to use you." Wilson said that "Dr. Landy doesn't like me to be in touch with my family too much. He thinks it's unhealthy." For example, Brian remembered participating in an interview with his brother Carl Wilson, "and the interviewer asked Carl what it was between him and me. He goes, 'Well, Brian and I don't have to talk to each other. We're just Beach Boys, but we don't need to be friends.' And that's true. Although, whenever I think about him, I feel rotten."


title: Eugene Landy

text: In 1986, Wilson met his future wife and manager Melinda Ledbetter, a Cadillac saleswoman and former model, while browsing through a car dealership. Six months after meeting Wilson, she had reported Landy to the state's attorney general, who informed her that nothing could be done without the cooperation of Wilson's family. Ledbetter felt that the family had been at their "rope's end" with Wilson, and that they did not know what to do to help him. She said that three years into their relationship, Landy ordered Wilson to sever ties with her.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Between 1983 and 1986, Landy charged about $430,000 annually, forcing Wilson's family members to devote some publishing rights to his fee. Landy received 25% of the copyright to all of Wilson's songs, regardless of whether he contributed to them or not, which band manager Tom Hulett explained was an incentive for Landy to reignite Wilson's drive. "It was sort of like, 'Gee, there's nothing coming in now, if you can go make this person well to go create some income ...'" Landy expressed similar views. "Saying that [I would share in future songwriting royalties] in '84 was like me telling you, 'I'll pay you a million dollars if you can get up and fly around the room.'" This arrangement was revoked in 1985, with Landy only receiving rights with a percentage equal to his writing contributions. Landy reported that he never received any money, since Wilson had not published any material before the pact was voided. Afterward, Wilson paid Landy a salary of about $300,000 a year for advice on creative decisions.


title: Eugene Landy

text: In late 1987, Landy and Wilson became creative partners in a company called Brains and Genius, a business venture where each member would contribute equally and share any profits from recordings, films, soundtracks, or books. Landy was then credited as co-writer and executive producer for Wilson's debut solo album, "Brian Wilson", released in 1988. Co-producer Russ Titelman disparaged Landy's role in the album's creation, calling him disruptive and "anti-creative". Wilson's cousin and bandmate Mike Love denied Landy's claims that the Beach Boys were preventing Wilson from participating on their recordings, and believed that the reason Landy encouraged Wilson to pursue a solo career "was to destroy us. Then he would be the sole custodian of Brian's career and legacy." Landy maintained that his songwriting collaborations on "Brian Wilson" earned him less than $50,000.


title: Eugene Landy

text: In a September 1991 "Billboard" interview, Landy falsely claimed to have co-written and co-produced the 1965 hit "Eve of Destruction" under the pseudonym P.F. Sloan. This prompted the real P.F. Sloan to pen a letter to "Billboard" that rebuked Landy's claim. Sloan later surmised that Landy had made the claim in order to gain credibility and appease members of the medical community who were questioning why Landy felt that he was an appropriate songwriting collaborator for Wilson.


title: Eugene Landy

text: For the publishing of Wilson's autobiographic memoir, "", Landy stood to earn 30% of its proceeds. The book glorifies Landy and its contents were challenged for plagiarism. Landy denied accusations that he was involved as a ghostwriter. Wilson later distanced himself from the book. In a 1995 court case, Wilson's lawyers argued that HarperCollins were aware that Wilson's statements in the book were either manipulated or written by Landy.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Action was taken against Landy's professional practice as a result of the Beach Boys' and Wilson family's struggles for control. A former nurse and girlfriend of Wilson's brought Landy to the state's attention in 1984. The state was then aided by journals written by songwriter Gary Usher during a ten-month collaboration with Wilson. These journals depicted Wilson as a virtual captive dominated by Landy, who was determined to fulfill his show business ambitions through Wilson. By this time, Wilson had become Landy's only patient.


title: Eugene Landy

text: In February 1988, the State of California Board of Medical Quality charged Landy with ethical and license code violations stemming from the improper prescription of drugs and various unethical personal and professional relationships with patients, citing one case of sexual misconduct with a female patient, along with Wilson's psychological dependency on Landy. Landy denied the allegations, but later admitted to one of the seven charges which accused him of wrongfully prescribing drugs to Wilson. Landy surrendered his psychological license, complying with an agreement made with the state of California, and was not allowed applications for reinstatement for the next two years.


title: Eugene Landy

text: An August 1988 board meeting with the Beach Boys had Landy promising that Brian would reconnect with the group, which Love says: "was a ruse to get us to write a letter in his defense against the California authorities. We never wrote the letter, and Brian's public behavior continued to unsettle." Landy and his colleagues said that his treatment of Wilson ended in February 1988 at the request of the state attorney general's office, but the deputy attorney who drafted the complaint reported that he was not aware of any such request, nor was the office advised that they sever Landy's relationship with Wilson. Co-producers of Wilson's solo album said they witnessed no changes, and Landy's assistants remained with Wilson. Sol Samuels said this was because Landy had little direct involvement with Wilson's treatment, and that it was instead the people Landy hired who continued to regulate Wilson's medication.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Peter Reum, a therapist who met Wilson while attending a Beach Boys fan convention in 1990, was alarmed by Wilson's demeanor and speculated that he may have tardive dyskinesia, a neurological condition brought on by prolonged usage of antipsychotic medication. Reum phoned biographer David Leaf, who then reported Reum's observations to Carl Wilson. It was then discovered that Landy had been named as a chief beneficiary in a 1989 revision of Brian's will, collecting 70%, with the remainder split between his girlfriend and Brian's two daughters. This discovery was made by Kay Gilmer, a publicist employed by Landy in March 1990. She phoned Gary Usher to explain why his messages were not being returned, to which Usher warned: "If Landy knows that you're calling me, he'd kill you. He'd literally kill you." Gilmer left her job two weeks later, taking expired drug bottles as well as names, phone numbers, and bank account information that she later turned over to the California Board of Medical Quality Assurance.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Aided by Gilmer's findings, Stan Love filed unsuccessfully for conservatorship on May 17, 1990. A press conference with Stan at the lectern featured an unexpected appearance from Brian. While reading from a piece of paper, Brian was given a microphone and said: "I have heard of the charges made by Stan Love, and I think they are outrageous, which means they are out of the ballpark ... I feel great." In a later interview from 1991, Brian acknowledged the revision of his will and repeatedly stated, "We might change that".


title: Eugene Landy

text: Audree, Carl, Carnie, and Wendy Wilson contested Landy's control of Brian, pursuing legal action on May 7, 1991. Brian responded in an interview, "They probably want control of me, but they will not get it, they will not get it. I say let sleeping dogs lie. If the formula works, don't goof with it. That's one of my major philosophies in life. It's been working." The ruling was finalized on February 3, 1992, when Landy was barred by court order from contacting Brian, leaving his affairs to the hands of conservator Jerome S. Billet. In December 1992, Landy was fined $1,000 for violating the court order when he visited Brian in June for his birthday.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Landy estimated that, from 1983 to 1991, his fees had cost Wilson approximately $3 million. In 1991, Wilson told reporters that his prescribed medications included Cogentin, Eskalith, Xanax, Navane, and Serentil.


title: Eugene Landy

text: Landy's treatment of Wilson in the 1980s was dramatized in the 2014 biographical film "Love & Mercy", in which Landy is portrayed by Paul Giamatti. These events are told from the point of view of Wilson's then-girlfriend Melinda Ledbetter. Screenwriter Oren Moverman stated that virtually everything in the 1980s portions was sourced from conversations he had with Ledbetter. He felt that Landy was the most difficult character to write for, "even though many things that he says in the movie I actually have recording of, in real life he was a cartoon and in real life he was so over the top." Giamatti said he prepared for the role by meeting Landy's early career acquaintances and listening to hours of tapes where "he'd just keep talking and talking, in these completely huge paragraphs. They were brilliant-sounding, but if you dug into them they didn't make much sense."


title: Eugene Landy

text: Landy's son Evan disputed the film's accuracy, believing that his father was unfairly portrayed. Mike Love commented that Evan's account was "very interesting because you get an intimate look at someone who was with Brian every day for a few years." Although he had not watched the film, he also said that it overstated Ledbetter's role in stopping the treatment. Both Brian Wilson and Melinda Ledbetter have attested to the accuracy of the film's portrayal of Eugene Landy, with Brian Wilson stating "[Giamatti] was very scary as Landy — he even got his voice right." Ledbetter said: "After I first saw the film, I had to just drive around for a couple of hours to clear my head, then I remembered that what Landy did to Brian was even worse. You don't get a sense of it in the movie, but it happened on a daily basis, for years."


title: Eugene Landy

text: Landy's first three marriages ended in divorce. Obituarist Margalit Fox of "The New York Times" identified longtime domestic partner Alexandra Morgan as his fourth wife and survivor. He had at least one son, Evan (born 1961/1962), from his second marriage.


title: Eugene Landy

text: After the 1990s, Landy continued a psychotherapeutic practice with licensure in New Mexico and Hawaii up until his death. He died, aged 71, on March 22, 2006, in Honolulu, Hawaii, of pneumonia and lung cancer.


title: Eugene Landy

text: In 1995, music producer Don Was commented that Wilson was "so different from his public image as a drug burnout or of someone catatonic and propped up by a greedy psychologist. ... I knew Landy. I was around for the tail end of it, and I saw some gray in there; he wasn't just this evil guy who took over Brian." Mike Love said in a 2004 interview, "He was very tough and egregious and scandalously expensive with Brian's money. But I have to give credit for saving Brian's life. ... He was the only guy we knew who could handle Brian because Brian was a monumental case."


title: Eugene Landy

text: When asked what his reaction to Landy's death had been, Wilson responded: "I was devastated." Wilson's daughter Carnie quoted her father saying, "Dr. Landy died today. I know a lot of people didn't like him, but I loved him." In 2015, Wilson reflected, "I thought he was my friend, but he was a very fucked-up man," and also, "I still feel that there was benefit. I try to overlook the bad stuff, and be thankful for what he taught me."


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: Gaṅgaikoṇḍa Chōḻapuram is a village located near to Jayankondam, Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu, India. It became the capital of the Chola dynasty in c. 1025 by Chola emperor Rajendra I, and served as the capital for around 250 years.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The town is about approximately northeast of Tiruchirapalli international airport. As of 2014, the ancient city exists as a heritage town in the Ariyalur district of Tamil Nadu, India. The great Arulmigu Peruvudaiyar Temple at this place is next only to the Arulmigu Peruvudaiyar Kovil at Thanjavur in its monumental nature and surpasses it in sculptural quality. It has been recognised as a World Heritage site by UNESCO.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The city was founded by Rajendra I to commemorate his victory over the Pala Dynasty. The translation of the city's name may be split into "Gangai" (Ganga)/ "Konda" (Obtained)/ "Chola" (Chola)/ "Puram" (City). Hence, it refers to the city of the Cholas built on a locale to commemorate the occasion when the water of the Ganga was obtained. It is now a small village, its past eminence only remembered by the existence of the Mahashiva Temple. The Chola Empire included the whole of southern India to the river Tungabhadra in the north. For administrative and strategic purposes, they built a new capital and named it Gangaikonda Cholapuram.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The city seems to have had two fortifications, one inner and the other outer. The outer was probably wider. The remains of the outer fortification can be seen as a mound running all around the palace.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: Excavations suggest that the outer fortification was built of burnt bricks, was about six to eight feet wide. It consisted of two walls, the intervening space (the core) being filled with sand. The bricks are fairly large in size and are made of well-burnt clay. The Tamil Nadu State Archaeological Department has taken up fresh excavations to probe a nearby village named Ayudhkalam which is believed to have weapon manufacturing workshops, as the name suggest.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The surviving temple in Gangaikonda Cholapuram was completed in 1035 CE. Rajendra emulated the temple built by his father after his victory in a campaign across India that Chola era texts state covered Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Bengal. After his victory, he demanded that the defeated kingdoms send pots of Ganges River water and pour it into the well of this temple.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: Rajendra I, according to Tamil tradition, thereafter assumed the name of Gangaikonda Cholan, meaning the one who conquered the Ganges. He established Gangaikonda Cholapuram as his capital from the medieval Chola capital of Thanjavur, which would go on to become the capital for the next 250 years. Rajendra I built the entire capital with several temples using plans and infrastructure recommended in Tamil Vastu and Agama sastra texts. These included a Dharma Sasta, Vishnu and other temples. However, all of these were destroyed in the late 13th and 14th centuries except the Brihadishvara temple. The other Chola landmarks are evidenced by soil covered mounds and excavated broken pillar stumps and brick walls found over an area of several kilometres from the surviving temple.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The reasons for the city's destruction are unclear. According to Vansanthi, the Pandyas who defeated the Cholas during the later part of the 13th century "may have razed the city to the ground" to avenge their previous defeats. However, it is unclear why other temples were destroyed and this temple was spared, as well as why there are around 20 inscriptions from later Cholas, Pandyas and Vijayanagar Empire indicating various gifts and grants to this temple. An alternate theory links the destruction to the raids and wars, particularly with the invasion of the capital city and the territories that were earlier a part by the Chola Empire along with Madurai by the armies of Delhi Sultanate led by the Muslim commander Malik Kafur in 1311, followed by Khusrau Khan in 1314 and Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1327. The period that followed saw wars between the Hindu kings and the Muslim Sultans who seceded the Delhi Sultanate and carved out new polity such as the nearby Madurai Sultanate (1335–1378). The Vijayanagara Empire defeated the Madurai Sultanate in 1378 and this temple along with other Chola era temples thereafter came under Hindu kings again who repaired and restored many of them. The temple has been re-consecrated in 2017 with installation of a dwajasthambam and performing maha kumbhabhishekam


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: Chola rulers were patrons of the arts and architecture. They built the temple of Gangaikondacholisvara. The temple has sculptures of exceptional quality. The bronzes of Bhogasakti and Subrahmanya are masterpieces of Chola metal icons. The Saurapitha (Solar altar), the lotus altar with eight deities, is considered auspicious. The shiva lingam is made from single rock.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The Chola rulers constructed enormous stone temple complexes with intricate carvings of Hindu gods. Rajaraja I built the famous Brihdrishvara temple at Thanjavur, which is about 50 km away from city of Gangaikonda Cholapuram, between 1003 and 1010 CE. Shiva is worshipped here. The grandeur of this temple has not been diminished by age. There is a massive statue of Nandi, the sacred bull of Shiva, in the central courtyard of the temple.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The exquisite bronze statues of the Chola period are known the world over for their grace and lifelike appearance. Many beautiful figures of Nataraja, or the dancing Shiva, were made during the Chola era.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The royal palace also was built of burnt brick. The ceilings were covered with flat tiles of small size, laid in a number of courses, in fine lime mortar. The pillars were probably made of polished wood, supported on granite bases; a few pillar bases have survived to this day. Iron nails and clamps have been recovered from this palace site. There is a tunnel that links the palace and the temple inner 1st prakaara (north).


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: In the reign of Virarajendra Chola, Rajendra's third son, the palace at Gangaikondacholapuram is referred to as Chola-Keralan Thirumaligai (Chola Keralan palace) evidently after one of the titles of Rajendra I. The same inscription mentions a few parts of the palace as "adibhumi" (the ground floor), "Kilaisopana" (the eastern portico), and a seat named "Mavali vanadhirajan". Evidently the palace was multistoried. In an inscription dated in the 49th year of Kulothunga I (1119 CE) reference is made to Gangaikondacholamaligai at this place. It is likely that there were more than one royals building each having their own name.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: Besides the names of the palace and fort walls, the names of a few roads and streets are preserved in the epigraphs. The entryways named Thiruvasal, the eastern gate and the Vembugudi gate, evidently the south gate leading to the village Vembugudi situated in that direction are mentioned. Reference is also found to highways named after Rajaraja and Rajendra as Rajarajan Peruvali and Rajendran Peruvali. Other streets mentioned in epigraphs are the ten streets ("Pattu teru"), the gateway lane ("Thiruvasal Narasam") and the "Suddhamali lane". The inscription also refers to the highways, "Kulottungacholan Thirumadil peruvali", "Vilangudaiyan Peruvali" and "Kulaiyanai pona Peruvali" (the highway through which a short elephant passed by).


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: The epigraphs also refer to the "Madhurantaka Vadavaru", now called the Vadavaru, running about six kilometers east of the ruined capital. Madhurantaka Vedavaru, named after one of the titles of Rajendra I, was a source of irrigation to a vast stretch of land bordering the capital. An irrigation channel called Anaivettuvan is also mentioned.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: There were both wet and dry lands inside the Fort, used for cultivation and other purposes. The present positions of the existing temples throw some light on the lay out of the city. With the palace as the centre to the city, the great temple, and the other temples in the city seem to have been erected. Towards the northeast ("Isanya") of the palace is the great temple of Siva. The Siva temple according to Vastu and traditional texts should be in the northeast of the city or village and should face east. The temple of Vishnu should be in the west.


title: Gangaikonda Cholapuram

text: A number of small tanks and ponds mentioned in inscriptions and a number of wells, supplied drinking water to the residents.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) rights are widely diverse in Europe per country. Nineteen out of the 33 countries that have legalised same-sex marriage worldwide are situated in Europe. A further eleven European countries have legalised civil unions or other forms of more limited recognition for same-sex couples.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Several European countries do not recognise any form of same-sex unions. Marriage is defined as a union solely between a man and a woman in the constitutions of Armenia, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia, Georgia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Montenegro, Poland, Russia, Serbia, Slovakia and Ukraine. Of these, however, Croatia, Latvia, Hungary, and Montenegro recognise same-sex partnerships, while Armenia recognises same-sex marriages performed abroad. Same-sex marriage is unrecognized but not constitutionally banned in the constitutions of Albania, Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kazakhstan, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Turkey, and Vatican City. Eastern Europe is seen as having fewer legal rights and protections, worse living conditions, and less supportive public opinion for LGBT people than that in Western Europe.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: All European countries that allow marriage also allow joint adoption by same-sex couples. Of the countries that have civil unions only, none but Andorra allow joint adoption, and only half allow step-parent adoption.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In the 2011 UN General Assembly declaration for LGBT rights, state parties were given a chance to express their support, opposition or abstention on the topic. A majority of the European countries expressed their support, and only Kazakhstan expressed its opposition. State parties that expressed abstention were Azerbaijan, Belarus, Russia, and Turkey.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In December 2020, Hungary explicitly legally banned adoption for same-sex couples within its constitution, and in June 2021 the Hungarian parliament approved a law prohibiting the showing of "any content portraying or promoting sex reassignment or homosexuality" to minors, similar to the Russian "anti-gay propaganda" law. Thirteen EU member states condemned the law, calling it a breach of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: The top three European countries in terms of LGBT equality according to ILGA-Europe are Malta, Belgium and Luxembourg. Western Europe is often regarded as being one of the most progressive regions in the world for LGBT people to live in.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Although same-sex relationships were quite common in ancient Greece, Rome and pagan Celtic societies, after Christianity became the official religion of the Roman Empire, severe laws against homosexual behaviour appeared. An edict by the Emperor Theodosius I in 390 condemned all "passive" homosexual men to death by public burning. This was followed by the "Corpus Juris Civilis" of Justinian I in 529, which prescribed public castration and execution for all who committed homosexual acts, both active and passive partners. In 670, Archbishop of Canterbury Theodore of Tarsus published a Penetential prescribing penances for homosexual activity comparable to those prescribed for murder and infanticide. Homosexual behaviour, called sodomy, was considered a capital crime in most European countries, and thousands of homosexual men were executed across Europe during waves of persecution in these centuries. Lesbians were less often singled out for punishment, but they also suffered persecution and execution from time to time.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Since the foundation of Poland in 966, Polish law has never defined homosexuality as a crime. Forty years after Poland lost its independence in 1795, the sodomy laws of Russia, Prussia, and Austria came into force in the partitioned Polish territory. Poland regained its independence in 1918 and abandoned the laws of the occupying powers. In 1932, Poland codified the equal age of consent for homosexuals and heterosexuals at 15.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: During the French Revolution, the French National Assembly rewrote the criminal code in 1791, omitting all reference to homosexuality. During the Napoleonic wars, homosexuality was decriminalised in territories coming under French control, such as the Netherlands and many of the pre-unification German states; however, in Germany this ended with the unification of the country under the Prussian Kaiser, as Prussia had long punished homosexuality harshly. On 6 August 1942, the Vichy government made homosexual relations with anyone under twenty-one illegal as part of its conservative agenda. Most Vichy legislation was repealed after the war—but the anti-gay Vichy law remained on the books for four decades until it was finally repealed in August 1982 when the age of consent (15) was again made the same for heterosexual as well as homosexual partners.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Nevertheless, gay men and lesbians continued to live closeted lives, since moral and social disapproval by heterosexual society remained strong across Europe for another two decades, until the modern gay rights movement began in 1969.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Various countries under dictatorships in the 20th century were very anti-homosexual, such as in the Soviet Union, in Nazi Germany and in Spain under Francisco Franco's regime. In contrast, after Poland regained independence after World War I, it went on in 1932 to become the second country in 20th-century Europe to decriminalise homosexual activity (after the Soviet Union, which had decriminalized it in 1917 under the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, but re-criminalized it in 1933 under Stalin), followed by Denmark in 1933, Iceland in 1940, Switzerland in 1942 and Sweden in 1944.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In 1956, the German Democratic Republic abolished paragraph 175 of the German penal code which outlawed homosexuality.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In 1962, homosexual behaviour was decriminalized in Czechoslovakia, following the scientific research of Kurt Freund that included phallometry of gay men who appeared to have given up sexual relations with other men and established heterosexual marriages. Freund came to the conclusion that a homosexual orientation cannot be changed. However, the claim that phallometry on men was the only reason for the decriminalization of homosexual behaviour in Czechoslovakia is contradicted by the fact that it applied to women as well, as the notion of a male-specific fixity of sexual orientation as an argument for gay rights combined with the notion of female sexual plasticity is adverse to lesbian rights.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In 1972, Sweden became the first country in the world to allow people who were transgender by legislation to surgically change their sex and provide free hormone replacement therapy.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In 1979, a number of people in Sweden called in sick with a case of "being homosexual," in protest of homosexuality being classified as an illness. This was followed by an activist occupation of the main office of the "National Board of Health and Welfare". Within a few months, Sweden became the first country in Europe from those that had previously defined homosexuality as an illness to remove it as such.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In 1989, Denmark was the first country in Europe, and the world, to introduce registered partnerships for same-sex couples.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In 1991, Bulgaria was the first country in Europe to ban same-sex marriage. Since then, thirteen countries have followed (Lithuania in 1992, Belarus and Moldova in 1994, Ukraine in 1996, Poland in 1997, Latvia and Serbia in 2006, Montenegro in 2007, Hungary in 2012, Croatia in 2013, Slovakia in 2014, Armenia in 2015 and Georgia in 2018).


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In 2001, a next step was made, when the Netherlands opened civil marriage for same-sex couples, which made it the first country in the world to do so. Since then, eighteen other European states have followed (Belgium in 2003, Spain in 2005, Norway and Sweden in 2009, Portugal and Iceland in 2010, Denmark in 2012, France in 2013, England and Wales in 2013, Scotland in 2014, Luxembourg and Ireland in 2015, Finland, Malta, and Germany in 2017, Austria in 2019 and Northern Ireland in 2020, and Switzerland approved a referendum in 2021, which will take effect 1 July 2022).


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 22 October 2009, the assembly of the Church of Sweden, voted strongly in favour of giving its blessing to homosexual couples, including the use of the term marriage, ("matrimony"). The new law was introduced on 1 November 2009. Under the Danish marriage law, ministers can refuse to carry out a same-sex ceremony, but the local bishop must arrange a replacement for their church building. In October 2015, the Church of Iceland voted to allow same-sex couples to marry in its churches. In 2015, the Church of Norway voted to allow same-sex marriages to take place in its churches. The decision was ratified at the annual conference on 11 April 2016. The church formally amended its marriage liturgy on 30 January 2017, replacing references to "bride and groom" with gender-neutral text. A male same-sex couple was immediately married in the church the moment the changes came into effect, on 1 February 2017.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Civil partnerships have been legal in Ireland since 2011. In 2013, the government held a constitutional convention which voted overwhelmingly in favour of amending the constitution in order to extend marriage rights to same-sex couples. On 22 May 2015, Irish citizens voted on whether to add the following amendment to the constitution: "Marriage may be contracted in accordance with law by two persons without distinction as to their sex". 62.1% of the electorate voted in favour of the amendment, making Ireland the first country worldwide to introduce same-sex marriage through a national referendum. Ireland's first same-sex marriage ceremonies took place in November 2015.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: The Isle of Man has allowed civil partnerships since 2011, as well as Jersey in 2012. Both Crown Dependencies legalised same-sex marriage later since 22 July 2016 and since 1 July 2018, respectively.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 1 January 2012, a new constitution of Hungary enacted by the government of Viktor Orbán, leader of the ruling Fidesz party, came into effect, restricting marriage to opposite-sex couples and containing no guarantees of protection from discrimination on account of sexual orientation.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In 2012, the United Kingdom government launched a public same-sex marriage consultation, intending to change the laws applying to England and Wales. Its Marriage Bill was signed into law on 17 July 2013. The Scottish government launched a similar consultation, aiming to legalise same-sex marriage by 2015. On 4 February 2014, the Scottish Parliament passed a bill to legalise same-sex marriages in Scotland as well as ending the "spousal veto" that would allow spouses to deny transgender partners the ability to change their legal gender. Same-sex marriage was extended to Northern Ireland on 21 October 2019 and the law came into effect on 13 January 2020.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In May 2013, France legalised same-sex marriage, with French president François Hollande signing a law authorising marriage and adoption by gay couples.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 30 June 2013, Vladimir Putin, President of Russia, signed the Russian LGBT propaganda law into force, which was approved by the State Duma. The law makes distributing propaganda among minors in support of "non-traditional" sexual relationships a criminal offence.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 1 December 2013, a referendum was held in Croatia to constitutionally define marriage as a union between a woman and a man. The vote passed, with 65.87% supporting the measure, and a turnout of 37.9%.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 27 January 2014 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, Turkish Cypriot deputies passed an amendment repealing a colonial-era law that punished homosexual acts with up to five years in prison by a new Criminal Code.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 14 April 2014, the Parliament of Malta voted in favour of the Civil Union Act which recognises same-sex couples and permits them to adopt children. On the same day the Maltese parliament also voted in favour of a constitutional amendment to ban discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 4 June 2014, the Slovak parliament overwhelmingly approved a sitting social-democratic government sponsored Constitutional amendment to ban same-sex marriage, with 102 deputies for and 18 deputies against the legislation, fulfilling a 2/3 constitutional change requirement (minimum of 100 deputies out of 150 sitting MPs) for enacting this Constitutional amendment.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 18 June 2014, the Parliament of Luxembourg approved a bill to legalise same-sex marriage and adoption. The law was published in the official gazette on 17 July and took effect 1 January 2015.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 15 July 2014, Croatian Parliament passed the Life Partnership Act giving same-sex couples all rights that married couples have, except for adoption. However, the Act allows a parent's life partner to become the child's partner-guardian. Partner-guardianship as an institution is equal to step-child adoption in rights and responsibilities, but it does not give parental status to the parent's life partner. Criteria for partner-guardianship and step-parent adoption for opposite-sex couples are the same. Also, regardless of partner-guardianship, a parent's life partner may attain partial parental responsibility over the child either via court or consensus among the parents and life partner, even full in some cases when the court decides that it is in the child's best interest.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In September 2014, a law went into effect in Denmark effectively dropping the former practice of requiring transgender persons to undergo arduous psychiatric evaluation and castration before being allowed legal gender change. By requiring nothing more than a statement of gender identity and subsequent confirmation of the request for gender change after a waiting period of 6 months, this means that anyone wishing their legal gender marker changed can do so with no expert-evaluation and few other formal restrictions. Meanwhile, Norwegian Health Minister Bent Høie has made promises that a similar law for Norway will be drafted soon. And on 18 March 2016, the Government introduced a bill to allow legal gender change without any form of psychiatric or psychological evaluation, diagnosis or any kind of medical intervention, by people aged at least 16. Minors aged between 6 and 16 also could have that possibility with parental consent. The bill was approved by a vote of 79-13 by Parliament on 6 June. It was promulgated on 17 June and took effect on 1 July 2016.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 9 October 2014, the Parliament of Estonia passed the Cohabitation bill by a 40–38 vote. It was signed by President Toomas Hendrik Ilves that same day and took effect on 1 January 2016.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 27 November 2014 the Parliament of Andorra passed a Civil Union bill, legalising also joint adoption for same-sex partners. On 24 December 2014, the bill was published in the official journal, following promulgation by co-prince François Hollande as signature of one of the two co-princes was needed. It took effect on 25 December 2014.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 12 December 2014 the Parliament of Finland passed a same-sex marriage bill by a 101–90 vote. The law was signed by President Sauli Niinistö on 20 February 2015. In order that the provisions of the framework law would be fully implementable further legislation has to be passed. The law took effect on 1 March 2017.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In January 2015, the Parliament of North Macedonia voted to constitutionally define marriage as a union solely between a man and a woman. On 9 January, the parliamentary committee on constitutional issues approved a series of amendments, including the aforementioned limitation of marriage and the additional requirement of a two-thirds majority for any future regulation of marriage, family and civil unions (a requirement previously reserved only for issues such as sovereignty and territorial questions). On 20 January, the amendments were approved in parliament by 72 votes to 4. However, in order for these amendments to be added to the constitution, a final vote was required. This final parliamentary session was commenced on 26 January but never concluded, as the ruling coalition did not obtain the two-thirds majority required. The parliamentary session on the constitutional amendments was in recess until the end of 2015, thus the amendement failed.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 7 February 2015, Slovaks voted in a referendum to ban same-sex marriage and same-sex parental adoption. The result of the referendum was for enacting the ban proposals, with 95% and 92% votes for, respectively. However, the referendum was deemed invalid under referendum law because of a low turnout (below 50% requirement).


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 3 March 2015 the Parliament of Slovenia passed a same-sex marriage bill by a 51–28 vote. On 20 December 2015, Slovenians rejected the new same-sex marriage bill by a margin of 63% to 37%.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In November 2015, the Parliament of Cyprus approved a bill which legalised civil unions for same-sex couples in a 39–12 vote. It took effect on 9 December 2015.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: A bill to legalise civil unions for same-sex couples in Greece was approved in December 2015 by its Parliament in a 194–55 vote. The law was signed by the President and took effect on 24 December 2015.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 29 April 2016, the Parliament of the Faroe Islands, a Danish dependency, voted to extend Danish same-sex marriage legislation to the territory, excluding the possibility to be legally wed in a religious ceremony. The Danish Parliament still had to approve the exclusion of religious marriages for the Faroe Islands, unlike in Denmark where churches can perform marriages between persons of the same sex. The law within the Faroe Islands went into effect on 1 July 2017, after the ratification formality by both the Danish Parliament and royal assent.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: A bill to legalise civil unions for same-sex couples in Italy was approved on 13 May 2016 by the Parliament of Italy. The law was signed by the President on 20 May 2016. It was published in the Official Gazette on 21 May and therefore entered into force on 5 June 2016.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 21 September 2016, the States of Guernsey approved the bill to legalize same-sex marriage, in a 33–5 vote. It received Royal Assent on 14 December 2016. The law went into effect on 1 July 2017.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 26 October 2016, the Gibraltar Parliament unanimously approved a bill to allow same-sex marriage by a vote of 15–0. It received Royal Assent 1 November 2016. The law went into effect on 15 December 2016.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 31 January 2017, the Supreme Court of Cassation (Italy) refused, on procedural grounds, to rescind a lower judgment recognising a marriage between two French women (one of these had the right to claim Italian citizenship "iure sanguinis"), officiated in the French region of Nord-Pas-de-Calais. This is the first time a same-sex marriage is admitted in Italy, but the judgment does not imply that this will necessarily be the case in general terms.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Within July 2017, both the Parliaments of Germany and Malta approved bills to allow same-sex marriage. The Presidents of both countries signed the bills into law. The same-sex marriage laws within Malta went into effect on 1 September 2017 and the same-sex marriage laws within Germany went into effect on 1 October 2017.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In October 2017, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe adopted the first intersex-specific resolution of its kind from a European intergovernmental institution, after 33 members voted in favour. The resolution called for intersex peoples right to bodily autonomy and physical integrity by calling for prohibition of "medically unnecessary sex-"normalising" surgery, sterilisation and other treatments practised on intersex children without their informed consent" It recommends the committee of ministers to bring the resolution to the attention of their governments, the need for increased psychosocial support, and calls for policymakers to "ensure that anti-discrimination legislation effectively applies to and protects intersex people."


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 5 December 2017, the Constitutional Court of Austria struck down the ban on same-sex marriage as unconstitutional. Same-sex marriage became legal on 1 January 2019.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In late 2018 San Marino parliament voted to legalise civil unions with stepchild adoption rights. The law to permit civil unions became fully operational on 11 February 2019, following a number of further legal and administrative changes.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 18 December 2019, the European Parliament voted, 463 to 107, to condemn the more than 80 LGBT-free zones in Poland.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: On 26 September 2021, nearly two thirds of Swiss voters agreed to legalise civil marriage and the right to adopt children for same-sex couples in an optional referendum, after the National Council and the Council of States had both approved the aforementioned legalisations on 18 December 2020. The new law has taken effect on 1 July 2022.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In a 2002 Pew Global Attitudes Project surveyed by the Pew Research Center, showed majorities in every Western European nation said homosexuality should be accepted by society, while most Russians, Poles and Ukrainians disagreed.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: According to pollster Gallup Europe in 2003, women, younger generations, and the highly educated are more likely to support same-sex marriage and adoption rights for gay people than other demographics.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: A Eurobarometer in 2006 surveying up to 30,000 people from each European Union country, showed split opinion around the then 27 member states on the issue of same-sex marriage. The majority of support came from the Netherlands (82%), Sweden (71%), Denmark (69%), Belgium (62%), Luxembourg (58%), Spain (56%), Finland (54%), Germany (52%) and the Czech Republic (52%). All other countries within the EU had below 50% support; with Romania (11%), Latvia (12%), Cyprus (14%), Bulgaria (15%), Greece (15%), Lithuania (17%), Poland (17%), Hungary (18%) and Malta (18%) at the other end of the list. Same-sex adoption had majority support from only two countries: Netherlands at 69% and Sweden at 51% and the least support from Poland and Malta on 7%, respectively.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: A more recent survey carried out in October 2008 by "The Observer" affirmed that a small majority of Britons—55%—support same-sex marriage. A 2013 poll shows that the majority of the Irish public support same-sex marriage and adoption, 73% and 60%, respectively. France has support for same-sex marriage at 62%, and Russian at 14%. Italy has support for the 'Civil Partnership Law' between people of the same gender at 45% with 47% opposed. In 2009 58.9% of Italians supported civil unions, while a 40.4% minority supported same-sex marriage. In 2010, 63.9% of Greeks supported same-sex partnerships, while a 38.5% minority supported same-sex marriage. In 2012 a poll by MaltaToday showed that 41% of Maltese supported same-sex marriage, with support increasing to 60% amongst the 18–35 age group. In a 2013 opinion poll conducted by CBOS, 65% of Poles were against same-sex civil unions, 72% of Poles were against same-sex marriage, 88% were against adoption by same-sex couples, and 68% were against lesbian, gay, or bisexual people publicly showing their way of life. In Croatia, a poll from November 2013 revealed that 59% of Croats think that marriage should be constitutionally defined as a union between a man and a woman, while 31% do not agree with the idea. A CBOS opinion poll from February 2014 found that 70% of Poles believe same-sex sexual activity is morally unacceptable, while only 22% believed it is morally acceptable.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: Public support for same-sex marriage from EU member states as measured from a 2015 poll is the greatest in the Netherlands (91%), Sweden (90%), Denmark (87%), Spain (84%), Ireland (80%), Belgium (77%), Luxembourg (75%), the United Kingdom (71%) and France (71%). In recent years, support has risen most significantly in Malta, from 18% in 2006 to 65% in 2015 and in Ireland from 41% in 2006 to 80% in 2015.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: After the approval of same-sex marriage in Portugal in January 2010, 52% of the Portuguese population stated that they were in favor of the legislation. In 2008, 58% of the Norwegian voters supported same-sex marriage, which was introduced in the same year, and 31 percent were against it. In January 2013, 54.1% of Italians respondents supported same-sex marriage. In a late January 2013 survey, 77.2% of Italians respondents supported the recognition of same-sex unions.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In Greece support more than tripled between 2006 and 2017. In 2006 15% responded that they agreed with same-sex marriages being allowed throughout Europe. In 2017 according to a survey 50.04% of Greeks agreed with gay marriage. A more recent survey in 2020 showed that 56% of the Greek population accept gay marriage.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In Ireland, a 2008 survey revealed 84% of people supported civil unions for same-sex couples (and 58% for same-sex marriage), while a 2010 survey showed 67% supported same-sex marriage by 2012 this figure had risen to 73% in support. On 22 May 2015, 62.1% of the electorate voted to enshrine same-sex marriage in the Irish constitution as equal to heterosexual marriage.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In Croatia, a poll conducted in November 2013 revealed that 59% of Croats think that marriage should be constitutionally defined as a union between a man and a woman, while 31% do not agree with the idea.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In Poland a 2013 public poll revealed that 70% of Poles reject the idea of registered partnerships. Another survey in February 2013 revealed that 55% were against and 38% of Poles support the idea of registered partnerships for same-sex couples.


title: LGBT rights in Europe

text: In the European Union, support tends to be the lowest in Bulgaria, Latvia, Hungary, Romania, Slovakia, and Lithuania. The average percentage of support for same-sex marriage in the European Union as of 2006 when it had 25 members was 44%, which had descended from a previous percentage of 53%. The change was caused by more socially conservative nations joining the EU. In 2015, with 28 members, average support was at 61%.