title: Mylo Xyloto

text: Martin hinted at the album's title prior to release, saying "it will probably begin with an M." During interviews the band has already given many different reasons and meanings to the album's name. Martin also said it was reference to the album's characters, the boy (Mylo) and the girl (Xyloto) respectively. Another meaning suggested by the frontman was that the name was supposed to be a graffiti tag for the band, relating "xylophone" to the word "xyloto". Much of the art was done by Paris 1974.


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: The album was originally set to be released in December 2010 as a "decade-ender", but was postponed to 2011 since the album was far from finished as Coldplay concluded their Viva la Vida Tour. Chris Martin and Jonny Buckland mentioned that the album would be released in the latter year. The iTunes Store let users hear one new song from the album every day the week before until the album was released. The album was released on 24 October 2011 on CD and on vinyl. A special edition that includes the CD, digital copy and LP disc along with copies of the band's studio notes, stencils, a poster, a pop up book and stickers was made available on 19 December 2011.


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: On 31 May, Coldplay announced that "Every Teardrop Is a Waterfall" would be released on 3 June at 12 pm BST via download. The single sampled "I Go to Rio", written by Peter Allen and Adrienne Anderson. On 21 June 2011, Coldplay's website announced the band would release an iTunes exclusive digital EP which additionally contained "Major Minus" and "Moving to Mars" on 26 June.


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: The album's second single, "Paradise", was released on 12 September 2011. That same day, Chris Martin announced that Rihanna would be featured on "Princess of China". "Paradise" has so far reached #15 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and the top 10 in 15 charts around the world. On 1 January 2012, it became the year's first number-one single in the UK and Coldplay's second chart-topper in the country. The song was also the best-selling rock single of 2011 in the United Kingdom.


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: "Charlie Brown" was later confirmed to be the third single from the album, and the group performed the song on 23 January 2012 on the British TV series "The X Factor". On that date, it was solicited to US Triple A radio, and was solicited to US adult contemporary radio the following day. The single received a release date of 3 February in most other territories except for the United Kingdom, where the single was released 12 March 2012. "Princess of China", a collaboration with singer Rihanna, was solicited to US mainstream radio on 14 February 2012 as the album's fourth single. A digital release followed on 13 April in the United States and on 4 June in the United Kingdom. "Up with the Birds" was released as a limited edition 7" vinyl single for Record Store Day on 21 April 2012, backed by "U.F.O." as its B-side. It was limited to 500 copies in the United Kingdom and 1,000 copies in the United States. "Hurts Like Heaven" was made available as the fifth and final single on 8 October 2012 and served to promote the "Mylo Xyloto" comics, the band later released a limited 7" vinyl for Record Store Day UK in 2013, it included a live version of "Us Against the World" as its B-side. "Up in Flames" was later launched as a promotional single in Italian radio stations on 16 November 2012 to promote "Live 2012".


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: The promotion for "Mylo Xyloto" began in June with the release of the first single and the beginning of a series of performances on some of the most important festivals around the world, including Glastonbury, Lollapalooza, Fuji Rock Festival and Rock In Rio. The first time the band played live some songs from the album for a big audience was on Rock Im Park festival in Nuremberg, Germany, playing six new songs. Manager Dave Holmes said that the reason to play new songs on the festivals was to "invite people to the party" also on this he said: ""...let the music do the talking, play new songs and get people talking about the fact you're playing new music.""


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: After the "festival tour", Coldplay began the proper Mylo Xyloto Tour in October 2011 with a series of rehearsal concerts in Europe, as well as a special concert in Johannesburg, South Africa, footage of which was used in the music video for "Paradise". A full-production show began in December 2011 in the United Kingdom. For this first leg, on the end of the 2011, the stage design incorporated graffiti made by the band and the band's artist Paris, it also had a catwalk linking the main stage to a smaller stage with an "X" shape. The tour continued into 2012 with shows in Europe, North America and Australia.


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: On 10 July 2012 the Coldplay website announced a six-part "Mylo Xyloto" comic, with the first issue to be released at that week's San Diego Comic-Con International. Published by Bongo Comics, the story followed the tale of Mylo, a "silencer", who, in the words of co-writer Mark Osbourne, is a part of a "war against sound and colour". Together with Osbourne, Dylan Haggerty writes the comic (starting in the second issue) with art by Alejandro Fuentes.


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: "Mylo Xyloto" received generally positive reviews from critics. On the review aggregator website Metacritic, the album has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100 based on 39 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". In a five-star review, Simon Goddard of "Q" wrote that "Mylo Xyloto" "will, at the bare minimum, safely sustain their imperial position for a long time to come", singling out Martin and Buckland's musical contributions and Eno and Dravs' production for praise. Mikael Wood of "Spin" wrote that like "Viva la Vida or Death and All His Friends", "Mylo Xyloto" "draws from an expansive palette that makes Coldplay's first three albums sound even quainter" and that "where "Viva La Vida" showcased Coldplay's sense of adventure, this [album] feels more eager to please". Citing the album the band's most ambitious effort, Josh Eells of "Rolling Stone" noted that "the choruses are bigger, the textures grander, the optimism more optimistic" and described it as a "bear-hug record for a bear-market world". "The Daily Telegraph"s Neil McCormick called the record "irresistible", noting its "adventurous" mood and "luxuriously colourful" sound. Ian Cohen of "Pitchfork" wrote that the album sees the band "successfully continuing to explore the tension of wanting to be one of the best bands in the world and having to settle for being one of the biggest."


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: In a mixed review, Alexis Petridis of "The Guardian" judged "Mylo Xyloto"s storyline as incoherent and expressed skepticism toward the album's purported pop influences, feeling that much of the album "just sounds like standard-issue Coldplay, replete with echoing guitars, woah-oh choruses and vocals that signify high drama by slipping into falsetto", apart from electronic music flourishes that "genuinely [add] a bit of freshness to a formulaic sound". In a review for "Entertainment Weekly", Melissa Maerz interpreted the album as an attempt by the group to sound less like themselves in order to reconcile their commercial success with the supposed stigma of being "as hated as a band can be". Randall Roberts of the "Los Angeles Times" was critical of Martin's lyrics, stating that "every touch of lyrical bitterness is followed by enough sugar to mask the taste, which might be good in the short term but isn't a recipe for long-term health."


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that "Mylo Xyloto" "has a leg up other Coldplay records for this simple reason: they're no longer attempting to mimic U2's portentous piety. They've embraced their schoolboy selves and are simply singing songs of love and good cheer, albeit on a grand scale that somehow seems smaller due to the group's insuppressible niceness." "Melodic" magazine's critic Johan Wippsson cited "Paradise" and "Charlie Brown" as examples of the band sounding "really on their 'own'", compared to past efforts where the band has "taken ideas from others and sometimes a little too clearly".


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: On 24 October 2021, the tenth anniversary of the album's release, Coldplay announced on Twitter that Paris, the album's art director, had created a "special piece" to celebrate the occasion: a wall adorned with artwork reminiscent of the "Mylo Xyloto" era, along with a vinyl copy of the album and a programme from the Mylo Xyloto Tour. The fictional universe created for the record has gone on to inspire Coldplay's own "Music of the Spheres" (2021), with creative director Phil Harvey calling it "a development from the "Mylo Xyloto" universe, and there's even a couple of specific references to it". One of these references was the appearance of the "silencers" from Silencia in music video for "My Universe".


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: In the United Kingdom, the album sold over 122,000 copies in its first three days of sale according to the Official Charts Company. It debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with first-week sales of 208,343 copies, giving the band their fifth number-one album and the second-biggest first-week sales of 2011, behind Lady Gaga's "Born This Way". Coldplay is the third group to debut at number one with their first five albums, behind The Beatles (11) and Oasis (7). The downloads accounted for 83,000 units to become the first album to sell more than 80,000 digital copies in one week, a record previously held by Take That's "Progress" (79,800 units). In its second week on the chart, the album fell to number two selling 67,132 copies. It was the best-selling rock album in the United Kingdom, selling 908,000 copies. The album's second single, "Paradise", was also the best-selling rock single in the UK, selling 410,000 copies.


title: Mylo Xyloto

text: "Mylo Xyloto" debuted at number one on the "Billboard" 200 in the US, with first-week sales of 447,000 copies, making Coldplay the fifth rock band in Nielsen SoundScan history to open with 400,000 copies on three or more albums, the other acts to do so are U2, The Beatles, Dave Matthews Band and Metallica. In Canada, the album debuted at number one on the Canadian Albums Chart, selling 65,000 copies in its first week. The album debuted at number one in Australia on the issue dated 31 October 2011. In its second week on the chart, the album was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for shipments of 70,000 copies. In Denmark, the album debuted at number two with first-week sales of 7,807 copies. The album was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI) for shipments of 20,000 copies in its first week. As of April 2014, the album has sold 1,581,000 copies in the US.


title: Maddie Hasson

text: Madelaine Hasson (born January 4, 1995) is an American actress. She is known for her role as Willa Monday on Fox's television series "The Finder". She also co-starred in the ABC Family series "Twisted". She starred in the YouTube Premium series "Impulse" as Henrietta "Henry" Coles.


title: Maddie Hasson

text: Hasson was born in New Bern, North Carolina, the daughter of Catherine and Michael. Hasson grew up in Wilmington, where she attended Cape Fear Academy. She was a competitive dancer in Wilmington's Fox Troupe Dancers for eight years. As a child and young teen, Hasson performed in a variety of stage productions, including "Grey Gardens" and "The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas". She began auditioning for films under a local casting director, Jackie Burch.


title: Maddie Hasson

text: Hasson's first callback was for the CW's "The Secret Circle". She was not cast, however, and went on to win the role of Willa Monday in Fox's "The Finder". In 2012, Hasson traveled to Canton, Ohio to film "Underdogs". Hasson co-starred in ABC Family's "Twisted" as Jo Masterson. In 2015 she appeared as Billie Jean, the second wife and widow of Hank Williams, in the Williams biopic "I Saw the Light". That same year she also starred in the indie feature "Good After Bad". In 2016 she starred in the indie feature "Novitiate". Since 2018, she has starred in YouTube's series "Impulse" as Henrietta "Henry" Coles.


title: Maddie Hasson

text: Hasson relocated to Los Angeles, California with her mother for her job, and finished high school through online coursework. She lives in Los Angeles.


title: David Bohm

text: David Joseph Bohm (; 20 December 1917 – 27 October 1992) was an American-Brazilian-British scientist who has been described as one of the most significant theoretical physicists of the 20th century and who contributed unorthodox ideas to quantum theory, neuropsychology and the philosophy of mind.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm advanced the view that quantum physics meant that the old Cartesian model of reality – that there are two kinds of substance, the mental and the physical, that somehow interact – was too limited. To complement it, he developed a mathematical and physical theory of "implicate" and "explicate" order. He also believed that the brain, at the cellular level, works according to the mathematics of some quantum effects, and postulated that thought is distributed and non-localised just as quantum entities are.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm warned of the dangers of rampant reason and technology, advocating instead the need for genuine supportive dialogue, which he claimed could broaden and unify conflicting and troublesome divisions in the social world. In this, his epistemology mirrored his ontology. Due to his Communist affiliations, Bohm was the subject of a federal government investigation in 1949, prompting him to leave the United States. He pursued his scientific career in several countries, becoming first a Brazilian and then a British citizen. He abandoned Marxism in the wake of the Hungarian Uprising in 1956.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm's main concern was with understanding the nature of reality in general and of consciousness in particular as a coherent whole, which according to Bohm is never static or complete.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm was born in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, to a Hungarian Jewish immigrant father, Samuel Bohm, and a Lithuanian Jewish mother. He was raised mainly by his father, a furniture-store owner and assistant of the local rabbi. Despite being raised in a Jewish family, he became an agnostic in his teenage years. Bohm attended Pennsylvania State College (now Pennsylvania State University), graduating in 1939, and then the California Institute of Technology, for one year. He then transferred to the theoretical physics group directed by Robert Oppenheimer at the University of California, Berkeley Radiation Laboratory, where he obtained his doctorate.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm lived in the same neighborhood as some of Oppenheimer's other graduate students (Giovanni Rossi Lomanitz, Joseph Weinberg, and Max Friedman) and with them became increasingly involved in radical politics. He was active in communist and communist-backed organizations, including the Young Communist League, the Campus Committee to Fight Conscription, and the Committee for Peace Mobilization. During his time at the Radiation Laboratory, Bohm was in a relationship with the future Betty Friedan and also helped to organize a local chapter of the Federation of Architects, Engineers, Chemists and Technicians, a small labor union affiliated to the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO).


title: David Bohm

text: During World War II, the Manhattan Project mobilized much of Berkeley's physics research in the effort to produce the first atomic bomb. Though Oppenheimer had asked Bohm to work with him at Los Alamos (the top-secret laboratory established in 1942 to design the atom bomb), the project's director, Brigadier General Leslie Groves, would not approve Bohm's security clearance after seeing evidence of his politics and his close friendship with Weinberg, who had been suspected of espionage.


title: David Bohm

text: During the war, Bohm remained at Berkeley, where he taught physics and conducted research in plasma, the synchrotron and the synchrocyclotron. He completed his PhD in 1943 by an unusual circumstance. According to biographer F. David Peat (see reference below, p. 64), "The scattering calculations (of collisions of protons and deuterons) that he had completed proved useful to the Manhattan Project and were immediately classified. Without security clearance, Bohm was denied access to his own work; not only would he be barred from defending his thesis, he was not even allowed to write his own thesis in the first place!" To satisfy the University, Oppenheimer certified that Bohm had successfully completed the research. Bohm later performed theoretical calculations for the Calutrons at the Y-12 facility in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, which was used for the electromagnetic enrichment of uranium for the bomb dropped on Hiroshima in 1945.


title: David Bohm

text: After the war, Bohm became an assistant professor at Princeton University. He also worked closely with Albert Einstein at the nearby Institute for Advanced Study. In May 1949, the House Un-American Activities Committee called upon Bohm to testify because of his previous ties to unionism and suspected communists. Bohm invoked his Fifth Amendment right to refuse to testify, and he refused to give evidence against his colleagues.


title: David Bohm

text: In 1950, Bohm was arrested for refusing to answer the committee's questions. He was acquitted in May 1951, but Princeton had already suspended him. After his acquittal, Bohm's colleagues sought to have him reinstated at Princeton, but Princeton President Harold W. Dodds decided not to renew Bohm's contract. Although Einstein considered appointing him as his research assistant at the Institute, Oppenheimer (who had served as the Institute's president since 1947) "opposed the idea and [...] advised his former student to leave the country". His request to go to the University of Manchester received Einstein's support but was unsuccessful. Bohm then left for Brazil to assume a professorship of physics at the University of São Paulo, at Jayme Tiomno's invitation and on the recommendation of both Einstein and Oppenheimer.


title: David Bohm

text: During his early period, Bohm made a number of significant contributions to physics, particularly quantum mechanics and relativity theory. As a postgraduate at Berkeley, he developed a theory of plasmas, discovering the electron phenomenon now known as Bohm diffusion. His first book, "Quantum Theory", published in 1951, was well received by Einstein, among others. But Bohm became dissatisfied with the orthodox interpretation of quantum theory he wrote about in that book. Starting from the realization that the WKB approximation of quantum mechanics leads to deterministic equations and convinced that a mere approximation could not turn a probabilistic theory into a deterministic theory, he doubted the inevitability of the conventional approach to quantum mechanics.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm's aim was not to set out a deterministic, mechanical viewpoint but to show that it was possible to attribute properties to an underlying reality, in contrast to the conventional approach. He began to develop his own interpretation (the De Broglie–Bohm theory, also called the pilot wave theory), the predictions of which agreed perfectly with the non-deterministic quantum theory. He initially called his approach a hidden variable theory, but he later called it "ontological theory", reflecting his view that a stochastic process underlying the phenomena described by his theory might one day be found. Bohm and his colleague Basil Hiley later stated that they had found their own choice of terms of an "interpretation in terms of hidden variables" to be too restrictive, especially since their variables, position, and momentum "are not actually hidden".


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm's work and the EPR argument became the major factor motivating John Stewart Bell's inequality, which rules out local hidden variable theories; the full consequences of Bell's work are still being investigated.


title: David Bohm

text: After Bohm's arrival in Brazil on 10 October 1951, the US Consul in São Paulo confiscated his passport, informing him he could retrieve it only to return to his country, which reportedly frightened Bohm and significantly lowered his spirits, as he had hoped to travel to Europe. He applied for and received Brazilian citizenship, but by law, had to give up his US citizenship; he was able to reclaim it only decades later, in 1986, after pursuing a lawsuit.


title: David Bohm

text: At the University of São Paulo, Bohm worked on the causal theory that became the subject of his publications in 1952. Jean-Pierre Vigier traveled to São Paulo, where he worked with Bohm for three months; Ralph Schiller, student of cosmologist Peter Bergmann, was his assistant for two years; he worked with Tiomno and Walther Schützer; and Mario Bunge stayed to work with him for one year. He was in contact with Brazilian physicists Mário Schenberg, Jean Meyer, Leite Lopes, and had discussions on occasion with visitors to Brazil, including Richard Feynman, Isidor Rabi, Léon Rosenfeld, Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, Herbert L. Anderson, Donald Kerst, Marcos Moshinsky, Alejandro Medina, and the former assistant to Heisenberg, Guido Beck, who encouraged him in his work and helped him to obtain funding. The Brazilian CNPq explicitly supported his work on the causal theory and funded several researchers around Bohm. His work with Vigier was the beginning of a long-standing cooperation between the two and Louis De Broglie, in particular, on connections to the hydrodynamics model proposed by Madelung. Yet the causal theory met much resistance and skepticism, with many physicists holding the Copenhagen interpretation to be the only viable approach to quantum mechanics.


title: David Bohm

text: From 1951 to 1953, Bohm and David Pines published the articles in which they introduced the random phase approximation and proposed the plasmon.


title: David Bohm

text: In 1955 Bohm relocated to Israel, where he spent two years working at the Technion, at Haifa. There, he met Sarah ("Saral") Woolfson, whom he married in 1956.


title: David Bohm

text: In 1957, Bohm and his student Yakir Aharonov published a new version of the Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen (EPR) paradox, reformulating the original argument in terms of spin. It was that form of the EPR paradox that was discussed by John Stewart Bell in his famous paper of 1964.


title: David Bohm

text: In 1957, Bohm relocated to the United Kingdom as a research fellow at the University of Bristol. In 1959, Bohm and Aharonov discovered the Aharonov–Bohm effect, showing how a magnetic field could affect a region of space in which the field had been shielded, but its vector potential did not vanish there. That showed for the first time that the magnetic vector potential, hitherto a mathematical convenience, could have real physical (quantum) effects.


title: David Bohm

text: In 1961, Bohm was made professor of theoretical physics at the University of London's Birkbeck College, becoming emeritus in 1987. His collected papers are stored there.


title: David Bohm

text: At Birkbeck College, much of the work of Bohm and Basil Hiley expanded on the notion of implicate, explicate, and generative orders proposed by Bohm. In the view of Bohm and Hiley, "things, such as particles, objects, and indeed subjects" exist as "semi-autonomous quasi-local features" of an underlying activity. Such features can be considered to be independent only up to a certain level of approximation in which certain criteria are fulfilled. In that picture, the classical limit for quantum phenomena, in terms of a condition that the action function is not much greater than Planck's constant, indicates one such criterion. They used the word "holomovement" for the activity in such orders.


title: David Bohm

text: In collaboration with Stanford University neuroscientist Karl H. Pribram, Bohm was involved in the early development of the holonomic model of the functioning of the brain, a model for human cognition that is drastically different from conventionally-accepted ideas. Bohm worked with Pribram on the theory that the brain operates in a manner that is similar to a hologram, in accordance with quantum mathematical principles and the characteristics of wave patterns.


title: David Bohm

text: In addition to his scientific work, Bohm was deeply interested in exploring the nature of consciousness, with particular attention to the role of thought as it relates to attention, motivation, and conflict in the individual and in society. Those concerns were a natural extension of his earlier interest in Marxist ideology and Hegelian philosophy. His views were brought into sharper focus through extensive interactions with the philosopher, speaker, and writer Jiddu Krishnamurti, beginning in 1961. Their collaboration lasted a quarter of a century, and their recorded dialogues were published in several volumes.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm's prolonged involvement with the philosophy of Krishnamurti was regarded somewhat skeptically by some of his scientific peers. A more recent and extensive examination of the relationship between the two men presents it in a more positive light and shows that Bohm's work in the psychological field was complementary to and compatible with his contributions to theoretical physics.


title: David Bohm

text: The mature expression of Bohm's views in the psychological field was presented in a seminar conducted in 1990 at the Oak Grove School, founded by Krishnamurti in Ojai, California. It was one of a series of seminars held by Bohm at Oak Grove School, and it was published as "Thought as a System". In the seminar, Bohm described the pervasive influence of thought throughout society, including the many erroneous assumptions about the nature of thought and its effects in daily life.


title: David Bohm

text: In the seminar, Bohm develops several interrelated themes. He points out that thought is the ubiquitous tool that is used to solve every kind of problem: personal, social, scientific, and so on. Yet thought, he maintains, is also inadvertently the source of many of those problems. He recognizes and acknowledges the irony of the situation: it is as if one gets sick by going to the doctor.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm maintains that thought is a system, in the sense that it is an interconnected network of concepts, ideas and assumptions that pass seamlessly between individuals and throughout society. If there is a fault in the functioning of thought, therefore, it must be a systemic fault, which infects the entire network. The thought that is brought to bear to resolve any given problem, therefore, is susceptible to the same flaw that created the problem it is trying to solve.


title: David Bohm

text: Thought proceeds as if it is merely reporting objectively, but in fact, it is often coloring and distorting perception in unexpected ways. What is required in order to correct the distortions introduced by thought, according to Bohm, is a form of proprioception, or self-awareness. Neural receptors throughout the body inform us directly of our physical position and movement, but there is no corresponding awareness of the activity of thought. Such an awareness would represent psychological proprioception and would enable the possibility of perceiving and correcting the unintended consequences of the thinking process.


title: David Bohm

text: In his book "On Creativity", quoting Alfred Korzybski, the Polish-American who developed the field of General Semantics, Bohm expressed the view that "metaphysics is an expression of a world view" and is "thus to be regarded as an art form, resembling poetry in some ways and mathematics in others, rather than as an attempt to say something true about reality as a whole".


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm was keenly aware of various ideas outside the scientific mainstream. In his book "Science, Order and Creativity", Bohm referred to the views of various biologists on the evolution of the species, including Rupert Sheldrake. He also knew the ideas of Wilhelm Reich.


title: David Bohm

text: Contrary to many other scientists, Bohm did not exclude the paranormal out of hand. Bohm temporarily even held Uri Geller's bending of keys and spoons to be possible, prompting warning remarks by his colleague Basil Hiley that it might undermine the scientific credibility of their work in physics. Martin Gardner reported this in a "Skeptical Inquirer" article and also critiqued the views of Jiddu Krishnamurti, with whom Bohm had met in 1959 and had had many subsequent exchanges. Gardner said that Bohm's view of the interconnectedness of mind and matter (on one occasion, he summarized: "Even the electron is informed with a certain level of mind.") "flirted with panpsychism".


title: David Bohm

text: To address societal problems during his later years, Bohm wrote a proposal for a solution that has become known as "Bohm Dialogue", in which equal status and "free space" form the most important prerequisites of communication and the appreciation of differing personal beliefs. An essential ingredient in this form of dialogue is that participants "suspend" immediate action or judgment and give themselves and each other the opportunity to become aware of the thought process itself. Bohm suggested that if the "dialogue groups" were experienced on a sufficiently-wide scale, they could help overcome the isolation and fragmentation that Bohm observed in society.


title: David Bohm

text: Bohm continued his work in quantum physics after his retirement, in 1987. His final work, the posthumously published "The Undivided Universe: An Ontological Interpretation of Quantum Theory" (1993), resulted from a decades-long collaboration with Basil Hiley. He also spoke to audiences across Europe and North America on the importance of dialogue as a form of sociotherapy, a concept he borrowed from London psychiatrist and practitioner of Group Analysis Patrick de Maré, and he had a series of meetings with the Dalai Lama. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1990.


title: David Bohm

text: Near the end of his life, Bohm began to experience a recurrence of the depression that he had suffered earlier in life. He was admitted to the Maudsley Hospital in South London on 10 May 1991. His condition worsened and it was decided that the only treatment that might help him was electroconvulsive therapy. Bohm's wife consulted psychiatrist David Shainberg, Bohm's longtime friend and collaborator, who agreed that electroconvulsive treatments were probably his only option. Bohm showed improvement from the treatments and was released on 29 August, but his depression returned and was treated with medication.


title: David Bohm

text: The film "Infinite Potential" is based on Bohm's life and studies; it adopts the same name as the biography by F. David Peat.


title: David Bohm

text: In the early 1950s, Bohm's causal quantum theory of hidden variables was mostly negatively received, with a widespread tendency among physicists to systematically ignore both Bohm personally and his ideas. There was a significant revival of interest in Bohm's ideas in the late 1950s and the early 1960s; the Ninth Symposium of the Colston Research Society in Bristol in 1957 was a key turning point toward greater tolerance of his ideas.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Peter Barton Wilson (born August 23, 1933) is an American attorney and politician who served as the 36th governor of California from 1991 to 1999. A member of the Republican Party, he also served as a United States senator from California between 1983 and 1991, and as the 29th mayor of San Diego from 1971 to 1983.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Born in Lake Forest, Illinois, Wilson graduated from the UC Berkeley School of Law after serving in the United States Marine Corps. He established a legal practice in San Diego and campaigned for Republicans such as Richard Nixon and Barry Goldwater. Wilson won election to the California State Assembly in 1966 and became the Mayor of San Diego in 1971. He held that office until 1983, when he became a member of the United States Senate.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In the Senate, Wilson supported the Strategic Defense Initiative and the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, while he opposed the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990. He resigned from the Senate after winning the 1990 California gubernatorial election.


title: Pete Wilson

text: As governor, Wilson signed a three-strikes law and supported energy deregulation and term limits. He was also an advocate for California Proposition 187, which established a state-run citizenship screening system with the intention of preventing illegal immigrants from using social services. He sought the presidential nomination in the 1996 Republican primaries but quickly dropped out of the race.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson retired from public office after serving two terms as governor. Since leaving office, he has worked for several businesses and has been affiliated with several other organizations. He is a distinguished visiting fellow at the conservative Hoover Institution. Wilson also co-chaired Arnold Schwarzenegger's successful 2003 gubernatorial campaign and served as a campaign advisor for Larry Elder's unsuccessful 2021 gubernatorial campaign.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Peter Barton Wilson was born on August 23, 1933, in Lake Forest, Illinois, a suburb north of Chicago. His parents were James Boone Wilson and Margaret (Callaghan) Wilson. His father sold college fraternity jewelry to work his way through University of Illinois, and later became a successful advertising executive. The Wilson family settled in St. Louis, Missouri when Pete was in elementary school. He then attended the private, non-sectarian preparatory middle school John Burroughs (grades 7–9) in Ladue, and then St. Louis Country Day School, an exclusive private high school, where he won an award in his senior year for combined scholarship, athletics, and citizenship. In the fall of 1951, Pete Wilson enrolled at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, where he received a United States Navy Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) scholarship, majored in English, and earned his Bachelor of Arts degree. In his junior year he elected to join the Marine Corps upon his graduation.


title: Pete Wilson

text: After graduating from Yale, Wilson served for three years in the United States Marine Corps as an infantry officer, eventually becoming a platoon commander. Upon completion of his Marine Corps service, Wilson earned a Juris Doctor degree from the University of California, Berkeley School of Law in June 1962.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In 1962, while working as an Advance Man for the Republican gubernatorial candidate Richard M. Nixon, Wilson got to know Herb Klein, one of Nixon's top aides. Klein suggested that Wilson might do well in Southern California politics, so in 1963, Wilson moved to San Diego.


title: Pete Wilson

text: After passing the bar exam on his fourth attempt, Wilson began his practice as a criminal defense attorney in San Diego, but he found such work to be low-paying and personally repugnant. He later commented to the "Los Angeles Times", "I realized I couldn't be a criminal defense lawyer – because most of the people who do come to you are guilty." Wilson switched to a more conventional law practice and continued his activity in local politics, working for Barry Goldwater's unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1964. Wilson's liking for politics and managing the day-to-day details of the political process was growing. He put in long hours for the Goldwater campaign, earning the friendship of local Republican boosters so necessary for a political career, and in 1966, at the age of thirty-three, he ran for, and won a seat in the California State Assembly, succeeding Clair Burgener.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson served three terms as Mayor of San Diego, from 1971 to 1983, winning election by a 2:1 margin each time. During his three terms he restructured San Diego City Council, reorganized the planning and civil service commissions, instituted campaign finance reform, and promoted the redevelopment of Downtown San Diego. He also helped to keep Major League Baseball's Padres in San Diego, helping to persuade local millionaire Ray Kroc to buy the team.


title: Pete Wilson

text: The 1972 Republican National Convention had been scheduled to take place in San Diego in August 1972. However, in May 1972 the Republican National Committee voted to move the convention to Miami because of a scandal involving a donation to the event by ITT Corporation, as well as concerns about the proposed venue (the San Diego Sports Arena) and the adequacy of hotel space. Wilson proclaimed the week of the convention to be America's Finest City Week, which became an annual event and gave rise to San Diego's unofficial nickname.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In 1972, Wilson recruited Clarence M. Pendleton Jr. to head the Model Cities Program in San Diego. In 1981, US President Ronald Reagan appointed Pendleton to chair the United States Commission on Civil Rights, a position that he held from 1981 until his death in San Diego in 1988.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In 1982, Wilson won the Republican primary in California to replace the retiring U.S. Senator S. I. Hayakawa. Wilson's Democratic opponent was the outgoing two-term Governor Jerry Brown. Wilson was known as a fiscal conservative who supported Proposition 13, although Wilson had opposed the measure while mayor of San Diego. However, Brown ran on his gubernatorial record of building the largest state budget surpluses in California history. Both Wilson and Brown were moderate-to-liberal on social issues, including support for abortion rights and environmentalism. The election was expected to be close, with Brown holding a slim lead in most of the polls leading up to Election Day. Wilson hammered away at Brown's appointment of California Chief Justice Rose Bird, using this to portray himself as tougher on crime than Brown was. Brown's late entry into the 1980 Democratic presidential primary, after promising not to run, was also an issue. President Ronald Reagan made a number of visits to California late in the race to campaign for Wilson. Reagan quipped that the last thing he wanted to see was both of his home state's U.S. Senate seats falling into Democrats' hands, especially to be occupied by the man who succeeded him as governor. Despite exit polls indicating a narrow Brown victory, Wilson edged him out to win the election. A major contributing factor may also have been a late influx of the Armenian vote in the California Governor's race between George Deukmejian and Tom Bradley. Many of these votes came from heavily Republican areas. The Deukmejian voters likely also voted for Wilson for United States Senator.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On October 19, 1983, Wilson voted in favor of a bill establishing Martin Luther King Jr. Day. The legislation was signed into law by President Reagan the following month. In January 1988, Wilson voted in favor of the Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 (as well as to override President Reagan's veto in March).


title: Pete Wilson

text: In June 1984, Wilson voted in favor of legislation restricting federal highway funds for states that did not raise the minimum age for drinking to 21.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In May 1985, Wilson underwent surgery for a ruptured appendix at Bethesda Naval Hospital, concurrently as fellow Republican Senator Bob Dole hoped to gather enough votes for the Reagan administration's 1986 budget. The surgery was expected to keep Wilson hospitalized for days, but Wilson returned to Capitol Hill via an ambulance to cast a vote in favor of the budget on May 10. After voting, Wilson stated he made the decision to forgo further bed rest as he believed the vote was possibly the most important of his career.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Convinced by Japanese-American farmers in Central Valley to support redress, Wilson co-sponsored the Civil Liberties Act of 1988. The bill was signed into law by President Reagan.


title: Pete Wilson

text: As a member of the Senate Armed Services Committee, he called for early implementation of President Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative, a national ballistic missile defense system.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson also co-sponsored the Federal Intergovernmental Regulatory Relief Act requiring the federal government to reimburse states for the cost of new federal mandates. A fiscal conservative, he was named the Senate's "Watchdog of the Treasury" for each of his eight years in the nation's capital.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In 1988, Wilson won the race for the United States Senate against his Democratic opponent, Leo T. McCarthy. In that election, he became the first person to get more than 5 million votes in a single Senate race, and his 5.1 million votes was a record for the most won by a Republican candidate for Senator that wasn't broken until 2020, when John Cornyn of Texas topped it.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On January 20, 1989, he presided over the inauguration of George H. W. Bush as President of the United States. He voted against Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990, Bush's tax increase, thus remaining a fiscal conservative.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In the weeks following incumbent Governor of California George Deukmejian announcing that he was not running for a third term, Wilson considered a gubernatorial bid; by late January 1989, Wilson admitted to the decision being agonizing for him amid his consulting with others on a possible run. At the beginning of his second six-year term in the Senate, Wilson announced plans to run for Governor of California.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On October 2, 1990, Wilson, away from Washington to campaign for California governor, became the only sitting senator from either party to not vote on the nomination of David Souter for Associate Justice on the United States Supreme Court. He had previously endorsed Souter for confirmation. Wilson voted in favor of the Robert Bork Supreme Court nomination.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On January 7, 1991, he resigned from the Senate upon his inauguration as California's governor and appointed John Seymour as his successor.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson won the Republican nomination for Governor of California to succeed two-term Republican governor George Deukmejian, who chose not to seek a third term in 1990. In the general election, he defeated Democratic former San Francisco Mayor Dianne Feinstein, who would go on to be elected to Wilson's former U.S. Senate seat two years later. Wilson was sworn in as governor on January 7, 1991.


title: Pete Wilson

text: As governor, Wilson oversaw economic recovery in California, just as the rest of the country was recovering from an economic slump. Inheriting the state's worst economy since the Great Depression, Wilson insisted on strict budget discipline and sought to rehabilitate the state's environment for investment and new job creation. During his term, market-based, unsubsidized health coverage was made available for employees of small businesses.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Despite his belief in fiscal conservatism, Wilson raised the sales tax to reduce the state deficit, including imposing a new sales tax on newspapers and a sales tax on "snack" foods. He also raised car license fees and college tuition; by 1991, tuition fees at the University of California rose by 40%, while they rose by 24% at California State University. Additionally, he raised the income tax in the top bracket temporarily. However, by 1993, the snack tax was repealed by the Democratic state legislature and the sales tax increase expired. On April 26, 1991, Wilson proposed an increase in sales tax by 1 1/4 cents and state taxes by $6.7 billion (equivalent to $ in ) as part of plan to reduce the state's budget deficit. The revenue gap had increased by $5 billion (equivalent to $ in ) in the four months of his governorship. In response to the April 1991 proposal, the "Los Angeles Times" wrote of Wilson,


title: Pete Wilson

text: In July, the Senate voted 28 to 9 in favor of a bipartisan tax plan that would have increased taxes on the wealthiest Californians, boosted the corporate tax rate, and imposed a tax increase on telecommunication services by two percent. Wilson returned the budget bill to the legislature without his signature, revoking a prior commitment to vetoing the measure.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On July 12, 1991, Wilson signed a bill mandating that parents neglecting paying for child support could warrant stiff fines and potential suspensions of business and professional licenses. The legislation was intended to address a rising cause of poverty among children and women in the state at a time when Californians collectively owed $2 billion (equivalent to $ in ) per year in unpaid child support.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On July 24, 1991, Wilson signed a bill requiring mass transit rail lines to be built underground in the event construction take place in the residential neighborhoods of North Hollywood and Van Nuys. The bill, requested by the residents of those neighborhoods, was aimed at easing "homeowners' fear of noise from ground-level trains running along a proposed rail route that parallels Chandler and Victory boulevards".


title: Pete Wilson

text: Less than a year into his first term as governor, Wilson vetoed AB 101, a bill written to prohibit employment discrimination based on sexual orientation in the state. Wilson feared that the bill would increase lawsuits and make California less competitive economically. The veto was met with protests that included demonstrations during Wilson's subsequent public appearances and speeches.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson was the driving force behind the 1996 legislation that deregulated the state's energy market, which was the first energy utilities deregulation in the U.S. and aggressively pushed by companies such as Enron.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson also enacted education reforms aimed at creating statewide curriculum standards, reducing class size and replacing social promotion with early remedial education. Wilson promoted standardized testing of all students, increased teacher training, and a longer school year. However, it was Wilson's uncompromising stance on reducing education spending that led to the budget impasse of 1992, leaving state workers without paychecks from July until September, when the California Supreme Court forced the Governor and the legislature to agree to terms that ended the sixty-three-day stand-off.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On February 22, 1993, Wilson issued an executive order banning smoke in a majority of state buildings barring "buildings controlled by the courts, the Legislature or the state's two university systems". The order was set to take effect December 31. Wilson said secondhand smoke "threatens the health of non-smoking state employees" and charged workplace smoking with increasing the cost of cleaning, damaged furniture and carpets, and heightens the chances of starting fires.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In late 1993, Wilson traveled to Asia to endorse Californian goods and investment opportunities abroad. Wilson's six-day tour was also marked by his insistence of composing export-oriented jobs.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson was re-elected to a second gubernatorial term in 1994, gaining 55 percent of the vote in his race against Democratic State Treasurer Kathleen Brown, daughter of former California Governor Pat Brown. According to one study, Wilson exploited anti-immigrant sentiment to win re-election.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson spoke at the funeral services for former First Lady Pat Nixon in 1993 and former President Richard M. Nixon in 1994 at the Nixon Library in Yorba Linda, California. Two years later, Wilson became, to date, the most recent governor to speak at a California gubernatorial funeral, that of former Governor Pat Brown.


title: Pete Wilson

text: For most of his time as governor, Wilson reduced per-capita infrastructure spending for California, much as he had done as the Mayor of San Diego. Many construction projects – most notably highway expansion/improvement projects – were severely hindered or delayed, while other maintenance and construction projects were abandoned completely.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Term limit laws passed by voters as Proposition 140, and championed by Wilson in 1990, prohibited Wilson from running for re-election to a third term. At the end of his time in office, Wilson left California with a $16 billion budget surplus (equivalent to $ in ). He was succeeded by then-lieutenant governor Gray Davis as governor.


title: Pete Wilson

text: A September 1998 "Los Angeles Times" poll found 55% of registered voters in California favored Wilson's job performance.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On December 14, 1991, in an address to Howard Jarvis Taxpayers Association, Wilson criticized the Democratic leaders of the state legislature for their opposition to his budget-balancing plan and "spent most of his hour at the Biltmore Hotel in downtown Los Angeles railing against the state's entitlement programs – including education and Medi-Cal, but especially Aid to Families with Dependent Children and other welfare programs".


title: Pete Wilson

text: On January 8, 1993, Wilson submitted the 1993 spending plan, advocating an immediate cut in welfare grants by 4.2 percent that would be followed six months later by a larger reduction of 15 percent that would be directed at recipient families with an able-bodied adult. The twin cuts would reduce California's standing as the fifth highest benefit granting state to the twelfth.


title: Pete Wilson

text: By the end of his first term, Wilson allied with members of the state legislature that supported the continuation of recession-inspired cuts to welfare benefits. A bill imposing the continued reduction of benefits was passed by two committees of the Republican-majority assembly. H. D. Palmer maintained Wilson's priorities rested in other issues and though admitting to an improving in revenues, disclosed that "the governor does not believe that the first call on those revenues should go to double-digit cost-of-living increases for welfare recipients."


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson's second inaugural address featured a proclamation that the administration would usher in welfare reform:


title: Pete Wilson

text: In his 1997 State of the State address, Wilson criticized welfare recipients and charged the program with creating conditions producing out-of-wedlock births, the lack of paternal involvement in the lives of children, and the lifelong ramifications to children caused by the father not being of presence. Under Wilson's welfare overhaul package, mothers would have to go to work after two years and a year would pass before they could return to welfare, which would only have a five-year lifetime. Paternity for each child would also have to be established for the mother to begin receiving benefits.


title: Pete Wilson

text: As governor, Wilson was closely associated with California Proposition 187, a 1994 ballot initiative to establish a state-run citizenship screening system and prohibit illegal immigrants from using health care, public education, and other social services in the U.S. State of California. Voters passed the proposed law as a referendum in November 1994; it was the first time that a state had passed legislation related to immigration, customarily an issue for federal policies and programs. The law was challenged in a legal suit and found unconstitutional by a federal court in 1998 and never went into effect.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Passage of Proposition 187 reflected state residents' concerns about illegal immigration into the United States and the large Hispanic population in California. Opponents believed the law was discriminatory against immigrants of Hispanic origin; supporters generally insisted that their concerns were economic: that the state could not afford to provide social services for so many who entered the state illegally or overstayed their visas. Wilson himself would state that the policy was "about supporting the people who came here the right way".


title: Pete Wilson

text: Opponents of Proposition 187 cited its passage as the cause of long-term negative effects for the California Republican Party statewide. Noting a rapid increase in the Latino participation in California elections, some analysts cite Wilson and the Republican Party's embrace of Proposition 187 as a cause of the failure of the party to win statewide elections. Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger is the only Republican to win a California gubernatorial, senatorial, or presidential election since 1994, in a unique 2003 recall election. Schwarzenegger was also re-elected in 2006.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Since 1995 the following states have had similar ballot initiatives or laws passed: Arizona, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, Oklahoma and Texas.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson led efforts to enact "tough on crime" measures and signed into law the "Three Strikes" (25 years to life for repeat offenders) As a result of the Three Strikes Law, 4,431 offenders have been sentenced to 25 years to life for strings of crime. The law required the construction of new prisons, leading some to question the role in his stance of the California Correctional Peace Officers Association, a lobbying group of prison guards that gave $1.47 million (equivalent to $ in ) to Wilson's gubernatorial campaigns.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On September 26, 1995, Wilson signed a bill authorizing the possible use of the death penalty toward any individual who committed a murder amid a carjacking or killed a juror. Wilson said the law was the result of four years worth of attempts on his part to toughen the laws against carjacking: "This bill sends an unmistakable message to gang bangers: If you take someone's life while committing a cowardly carjacking, you can expect to pay for your crime with your own life."


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson also supported resuming the death penalty in California, after a 25-year moratorium, and he signed the death warrant for the execution of child-murderer Robert Alton Harris. Harris was executed in 1992. A total of five people were executed during his administration (the first two in the gas chamber, the latter three by lethal injection).


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson supported deregulation of the energy industry in California during his administration due to heavy lobbying efforts by Enron. Nevertheless, during the California energy crisis caused by companies such as Enron, Wilson authored an article titled "What California Must Do" that blamed Gray Davis for not building enough power plants. Wilson defended his record of power plant construction and claimed that between 1985 and 1998, 23 plants were certified and 18 were built in California.


title: Pete Wilson

text: Despite a campaign promise to the people of California not to do so, Wilson also unsuccessfully ran for the Republican nomination for President in the 1996 election, making formal announcements on both coasts. Wilson announced first in New York City, at Battery Park, with the Statue of Liberty as a backdrop. He completed a cross-country tour.


title: Pete Wilson

text: The Wilson campaign had problems from the start. After deciding to run, he almost immediately had throat surgery that kept him from announcing – or even talking – for months. His campaign lasted a month and a day and left him with a million dollars in campaign debt. This debt was paid off in full in a matter of weeks.


title: Pete Wilson

text: A September 6, 1995, UC Irvine poll showed equal support for Wilson and incumbent President Bill Clinton among Orange County voters. The same poll indicated Wilson as trailing Bob Dole by a 20-point margin. Dole would become the Republican nominee in the general election. Later that month, a "Los Angeles Times" poll found 23% of Californians believed Wilson should seek the presidency, including 30% of state voters identifying as Republican.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On September 29, 1995, Wilson told supporters in Sacramento that he was dropping out of the Republican primary, citing he lacked the "necessary campaign funds to take this message to the people who need to hear it". He became the first candidate to exit the Republican primary.


title: Pete Wilson

text: After leaving office, Wilson spent two years as a managing director of Pacific Capital Group, a merchant bank based in Los Angeles. He has served as a director of the Irvine Company, TelePacific Communications, Inc., National Information Consortium Inc., an advisor to Crossflo Systems, and IDT Entertainment. He has been a member of the Board of Advisors of Thomas Weisel Partners, a San Francisco merchant bank. He also served as chairman of the Japan Task Force of the Pacific Council on International Policy, which produced an analysis of Japanese economic and national security prospects over the next decade entitled "Can Japan Come Back?"


title: Pete Wilson

text: Wilson is currently a distinguished visiting fellow at the Hoover Institution, a conservative think tank located on the campus of Stanford University, the Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation, the Richard Nixon Foundation, the Donald Bren Foundation, is the founding director of the California Mentor Foundation and is the chairman of the board of trustees of the National World War II Museum. Wilson sits on two prestigious Federal advisory committees, the President's Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board and the Defense Policy Board Advisory Committee. He previously worked as a consultant at the Los Angeles office of Bingham McCutchen LLP, a large, national law firm. He is currently Of Counsel with Ellis George Cipollone O'Brien Annaguey LLP d/b/a Ellis George Cipollone, a bicoastal trial boutique law firm. He is also a Principal at Wilson Walsh Consulting.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In 2003, Wilson was co-chair of the campaign of Arnold Schwarzenegger to replace Gray Davis as governor of California.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On September 27, 2007, Wilson endorsed Rudolph Giuliani for U.S. President, but Giuliani later dropped out of the primary. On February 4, 2008, Wilson endorsed John McCain as a candidate for U.S. president.


title: Pete Wilson

text: In 2007, a statue of Wilson joined Ernest Hahn and Alonzo Horton on the San Diego Walk of Fame. Two hundred sponsors donated $200,000 to build the statue. Leftist Hispanic and LGBT groups protested the unveiling.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On May 23, 2009, Wilson gave the commencement speech and received an honorary degree from the San Diego State University of Professional Studies and Fine Arts.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On April 30, 2016, Wilson endorsed U.S. Senator Ted Cruz for the Republican nomination in the 2016 presidential election.


title: Pete Wilson

text: On April 4, 2019, Wilson donated $5,000 to the reelection campaign of President Donald Trump. Wilson was among the signatories of a letter released on October 1, 2020, endorsing President Trump for reelection in the 2020 presidential election and argued in an interview that the president "has very good judgment, and very good people around him making honest calls."


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: The "Cyclone"-class patrol ships are a class of United States Navy coastal patrol boats. Most of these ships were launched between 1992 and 1994. The primary mission of these ships is coastal patrol and interdiction surveillance, an important aspect of littoral operations outlined in the Navy's strategy, "Forward...From the Sea." These ships also provide full mission support for U.S. Navy SEALs and other special operations forces.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: The "Cyclone"-class ships are assigned to Naval Special Warfare. Of the 14 ships, nine originally operated out of the Naval Amphibious Base Little Creek, Norfolk, Virginia, and four originally operated from the Naval Amphibious Base Coronado. These ships provide the United States Naval Special Warfare Command with a fast, reliable platform that can respond to emergent requirements in a low intensity conflict environment. Three ships were decommissioned and loaned to the United States Coast Guard to be returned to the Navy in 2011, while lead ship "Cyclone" was transferred to the Philippine Navy. "Shamal", "Tornado", and "Zephyr" were returned to the U.S. Navy in 2011 and placed back in commission.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: The ships that were on loan to the U.S. Coast Guard were used in a variety of roles, including search and rescue, interception, boarding, and inspection of foreign freighters arriving at United States ports.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: In September 2010, the decision was made to recall all of the remaining ships of the class due to fatigue damage to their hulls. The class was designed for a lifespan of roughly 15 years. All but the newest member of the class, , have been in service longer. The vessels will be inspected and a decision will be made whether to refit them or to decommission the ships.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: As of 2015, ten of the U.S. Navy's 13 "Cyclone"-class patrol ships were deployed to Naval Support Activity Bahrain in the Persian Gulf, to deal with a potential conflict with Iran. The remaining three ships of the class are slated to be transferred to Naval Station Mayport in Florida to primarily perform drug interdiction duties with U.S. Naval Forces Southern Command (USNAVSO) / U.S. Fourth Fleet.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: In the 1980s, the U.S. Navy developed a requirement for a replacement for the Vietnam War-era PB Mk III small () patrol boats used to transport SEAL teams. The first attempt to replace the PB Mk IIIs led to an order being placed in 1984 for a stealthy surface effect ship, the Special Warfare Craft, Medium, or SWCM, with a length of about and a displacement of . The SWCM, nicknamed "Sea Viking", was a failure, however, and construction of the prototype was abandoned in 1987.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: After the failure of the innovative SWCM, it was decided to replace the PB Mk IIIs with a simple development of an existing design rather than wait for an entirely new design to be produced and developed. Bollinger Shipyards proposed a development of the Vosper Thornycroft built for Oman and Kenya, and this was selected by the U.S. Navy.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: At , the new design, at first designated PBC (Patrol Boat Coastal), and later PC, was much larger than the boats that they were to replace. It was planned to build 16 PBCs to replace the 17 PB Mk IIIs, with first deliveries expected in 1991. The program was stopped at 14 boats, however, as it was realised that the PC was too large for the SEAL delivery role.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: Following the 2003 occupation of Iraq, the "Cyclone"-class boats were deployed to guard Iraq's offshore oil terminal. When Iraq took over responsibility for the terminal's defense, in 2005, ten of the "Cyclone"-class boats remained in the Persian Gulf, performing other patrol duties.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: On 30 March 2022, the Royal Bahrain Naval Forces commissioned five "Cyclone"-class patrol vessels that were decommissioned by the USN at Manama.


title: Cyclone-class patrol ship

text: "Zephyr", "Shamal", and "Tornado" were homeported at Joint Expeditionary Base Little Creek (Virginia) but shifted homeport to Naval Station Mayport (Florida). All three were decommissioned in February 2021. "Zephyr" and "Shamal" are set to be scrapped while "Tornado" will be made available for sale to a foreign military.


title: Alan Wake II

text: Alan Wake II is an upcoming survival horror game developed by Remedy Entertainment and published by Epic Games Publishing. A sequel to "Alan Wake" (2010), the game is set to be released for PlayStation 5, Microsoft Windows, and Xbox Series X/S in 2023.


title: Alan Wake II

text: Remedy Entertainment released "Alan Wake" in 2010. Remedy learnt from their lessons working on "Max Payne" and wrote "Alan Wake" in a way that allows additional story to be told through sequels and additional installments. The team quickly began to discuss sequel ideas after "Alan Wake" was shipped. The sequel would continue to star Alan Wake as the protagonist, but it would also explore the stories of the supporting characters including Wake's friend Barry Wheeler and Sheriff Sarah Breaker. A prototype was created to show off the gameplay of "Alan Wake 2" when the studio was showing the game to potential publishers. New enemies and new gameplay mechanics, such as being able to rewrite reality, was showcased in the prototype. Narratively, it will be a direct continuation of "Alan Wake". Ultimately, Remedy pitched the project to "Alan Wake" publisher Microsoft Studios. Microsoft, however, at the time was not interested in a sequel and instead, tasked Remedy to create something new. This ultimately became "Quantum Break", which was released in 2016. Most of the ideas for "Alan Wake 2" were implemented in "American Nightmare", a downloadable follow-up for the original "Alan Wake" game.


title: Alan Wake II

text: When "Quantum Break" was announced, Sam Lake explained that a sequel to "Alan Wake" had been postponed, and that "Alan Wake" was not financially successful enough to receive the funding they needed to continue developing the sequel at the time. Director of communications Thomas Puha stated in April 2019 that Remedy had briefly returned to work on an "Alan Wake" property about two years prior, but the effort did not work out, and the company is presently booked for the next few years, between their own new game "Control", supporting Smilegate on its game "Crossfire", and another new project. Puha said that the only limited factor for them to work on an "Alan Wake" sequel was "time, money, and resources". Despite that, Lake continued to be part of a team in Remedy to brainstorm ideas and work on different incarnations for "Alan Wake II". Internally, the project was codenamed "Project Big Fish", which represented its importance and significance to Remedy. In the second downloadable content pack for "Control", Remedy's next game following "Quantum Break", Alan Wake was featured as a character. According to Remedy, "Control" established the "Remedy Connected Universe" which is shared by both "Control" and "Alan Wake", and that the next game released by the studio will also be set on this universe.


title: Alan Wake II

text: In July 2018, Remedy CEO Tero Virtala stated that any further sequels to "Alan Wake" would require Microsoft Studios' approval as the publishing rights holder, though Remedy otherwise owns all other IP rights to the series. In July 2019, Remedy fully acquired the rights to "Alan Wake" from Microsoft, including a one-time royalty payment of about for the game series' past sales, which helped pave the way for a sequel. In 2021, it was announced that Remedy had signed with Epic Games Publishing for the release of two games. Remedy released "Alan Wake Remastered" in October 2021 as the first game of this partnership, while the triple-A game was revealed to be "Alan Wake II" when the game was officially announced at The Game Awards 2021.


title: Alan Wake II

text: According to Sam Lake, the game will be powered by Remedy's own Northlight Engine, which previously powered "Quantum Break", "Control", and "Alan Wake Remastered". Lake also stated that "Alan Wake II" will be a survival horror game, as opposed to "Alan Wake", which Lake alleged was "an action game with horror elements", though he did not explain the difference between the two. Lake further added that players will not need to play the previous games in order to understand "Alan Wake II". Remedy confirmed the game will remain in the third-person perspective despite the switch to survival horror, and that both Ilkka Villi and Matthew Porretta will return to provide the appearance and the voice of Alan, respectively.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Pete's Dragon is a 1977 American live-action/animated musical fantasy film directed by Don Chaffey, produced by Jerome Courtland and Ron Miller, and written by Malcolm Marmorstein. Based on the unpublished short story "Pete's Dragon and the USA (Forever After)" by Seton I. Miller and S. S. Field, the film stars Sean Marshall, Helen Reddy, Jim Dale, Mickey Rooney, Red Buttons, Jeff Conaway, Shelley Winters, and the voice of Charlie Callas as Elliott.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: The project was initially conceived in 1957 as a two-part episode of the "Disneyland" television series, but it was shelved until it was revived as a musical film in 1975. The film was released on November 3, 1977 to mixed reviews from critics, though some praised the animation. It was a moderate financial success, grossing $18 million over a $10 million budget.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: The film received two nominations at the 50th Academy Awards, for musical scoring and original song. Capitol Records released a single of Reddy performing "Candle on the Water" (with a different arrangement from that in the film) that reached #27 on the Adult Contemporary charts.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: In New England in the early 1900s, an orphan named Pete flees the Gogans, his abusive foster family, with the assistance of an unseen force he calls Elliott. The family calls for Pete to come back and promises that they will treat him better, while contrastingly expressing their true intentions to punish him severely ("The Happiest Home in These Hills"). After they abandon their search, Pete falls asleep. The next morning, Pete awakens and Elliott is revealed to be a large cartoonish green dragon that can turn invisible ("I Love You, Too").


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Pete and Elliott visit Passamaquoddy, where the unseen Elliott's clumsiness causes Pete to be labeled a source of bad luck. Lampie, the lighthouse keeper, stumbles out of a tavern and encounters Pete. Elliott makes himself visible and Lampie, terrified, runs to the townsfolk ("I Saw a Dragon"). They dismiss Lampie's claims as another drunken rant. In a seaside cave, Pete reprimands Elliott for causing trouble. As they reconcile, Lampie's daughter Nora appears, warning that Pete is not safe staying there because of the incoming tide. When she realizes he is orphaned and not from the area, she offers him food and shelter at the lighthouse, and the two bond (“It’s Not Easy”). He learns the story of her fiancé Paul, whose ship was reported lost at sea the year before, and promises to ask Elliott to try to locate Paul.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Itinerant quack Dr. Terminus and his assistant Hoagy win over the gullible townspeople, who are angered by their return (“Passamaquoddy”). Lampie and Hoagy attempt to prove that Elliott is real, but cannot get anyone to believe he exists. The next day, the local fishermen complain about the scarcity of fish, believing it is Pete's fault. Nora tells them the fishing grounds shift from time to time and Pete should be welcomed into town ("There's Room for Everyone"). That night, Nora and Lampie argue over Lampie's claims of seeing a dragon and Nora's beliefs of believing Paul will return, though Nora retains her faith in Paul ("Candle on the Water").


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Later, Nora takes Pete to start school, where the teacher, Miss Taylor, punishes him for Elliott's antics. An enraged Elliott smashes into the schoolhouse, leaving his shape in the wall and frightening the townspeople. The incident at the school convinces Terminus that the dragon is real and he and Hoagy conspire to exploit Elliott for medicinal profit ("Every Little Piece"). Pete accepts Nora and Lampie's invitation to live with them ("Brazzle Dazzle Day"). When the Gogans arrive in town and demand Pete be returned, Nora refuses to surrender him. As the Gogans chase them in a small boat, Elliott sinks it, saving Pete ("Bill of Sale"). Dr. Terminus teams up with the Gogans to capture Pete and Elliott, convincing the locals that capturing Elliott will solve their problems.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: That evening, a storm blows in, while at sea, a ship approaches Passamaquoddy with Paul on board. Dr. Terminus lures Pete to the boathouse while Hoagy does the same to Elliott. Elliott is caught in a net, but frees himself. He retrieves Pete in a final confrontation with the Gogans, who flee after Elliott destroys their bill of sale. Dr. Terminus attempts to harpoon Elliott, but his leg is caught in the rope and he is sent catapulting through the ceiling, ending up dangling upside down near a utility pole. Elliott saves the Mayor, Miss Taylor, and the members of the Town Board from a falling utility pole, revealing himself to them. At the lighthouse, the lamp has been extinguished by a rogue wave. Elliott returns and lights it with his fire, revealing himself to Nora. The light is ignited and the ship is saved.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: The next morning, the Mayor and the townsfolk praise Elliott for his help, and Nora is reunited with Paul. Paul explains he was the sole survivor of a shipwreck at Cape Hatteras and suffered amnesia, but something knocked him out of bed and restored his memory. Elliott tells Pete that since he has a family now, he must move on to help another child in trouble. Elliott flies away as Pete and his new family wave goodbye, with Pete reminding Elliott that he is supposed to be invisible.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: The film's songs were written by Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn. Irwin Kostal composed the score. "Candle on the Water" was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: In December 1957, Walt Disney Productions optioned the film rights to the short story "Pete's Dragon and the U.S.A. (Forever After)" that was written by Seton I. Miller and S.S. Field, in which Miller was hired to write the script. Impressed with his performance in "Old Yeller", Walt Disney had child actor Kevin Corcoran in mind to star in the project as a feature-length film. However, Disney considered the project to be more appropriate for his "Disneyland" anthology program, by which it was slated to be filmed as a two-part episode in the following year. In February 1958, "Variety" reported that filming was scheduled to begin in October. By the following spring, veteran screenwriter Noel Langley had completed his draft of the script. However, Disney was still unsure of how to approach the project, and the project was placed in turnaround.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: In 1968, writers Bill Raynor and Myles Wilder were hired to write the script, and completed their outline in October. They submitted their outline to the studio for review, but the project continued to languish in development. In 1975, producer Jerome Courtland re-discovered the project and hired writer Malcolm Marmorstein to write the script. For his script, Marmorstein revised the story from being in contemporary time into a period setting, and had the dragon changed from being wholly imaginary into a real one. In earlier drafts, Elliott was mostly invisible aside from one animated sequence, in which Dr. Terminus would chop up the dragon for his get-rich scheme. However, veteran Disney artist Ken Anderson felt the audience would "lose patience" with the idea and lobbied for Elliott to be seen more in his visible form during the film. In retrospect, Marmorstein conceded that "We tried a completely invisible dragon, but it was no fun. It was lacking. It's a visual medium, and you're making a film for kids." He also named the dragon "Elliott" after actor Elliott Gould (who was a friend from his theater days), and named the town "Passamaquoddy" after the real Native American tribe in Maine.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: In October 1975, the songwriting duo of Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn were assigned to compose the musical score. The production was directed by British filmmaker Don Chaffey, who had made two smaller films for Disney in the early 1960s between directing larger fantasy adventures ("Jason and the Argonauts", "One Million Years B.C.") for others.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: The lighthouse for the film was built on Point Buchon Trail in Montana De Oro State Park located south of Los Osos, California, substituting for Maine. It was equipped with such a large beacon that Disney had to get special permission from the Coast Guard to operate it, since doing so during filming would have confused passing ships. Pacific Gas and Electric opened the Point Buchon Trail and allows hikers access to where filming took place ().


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: The film's animators opted to make Elliott look more like an oriental, rather than occidental, dragon because oriental dragons are usually associated with good. The film is the first involving animation in which none of the Nine Old Men—Disney's original team of animators—were involved. One technique used in the movie involved compositing with a yellowscreen that was originally used in "Mary Poppins" and similar to today's greenscreen compositing, whereby up to three scenes might be overlaid together – for example, a live foreground, a live background, and an animated middle ground containing Elliott. Ken Anderson, who created Elliott, explained that he thought it would be appropriate to make him "a little paunchy" and not always particularly graceful at flying. Don Hahn, who was an assistant director to Don Bluth on "Pete's Dragon", gained some experience working with a combination of live-action and animation before later going on to work on "Who Framed Roger Rabbit".


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: "Pete's Dragon" premiered on November 3, 1977 at the Radio City Music Hall, in which the film ran 134 minutes. For its general release, it was edited down to 121 minutes. It was later re-released on March 9, 1984, shortened from 121 minutes to 104 minutes. The film's movie poster was painted by artist Paul Wenzel.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: A soundtrack recording (Disneyland 3138) was released that told much of the story and added a narrator, but unlike many other Disney book and records, used the actual dialogue recorded for the film, which the book presented in script format. The inclusion of story led to the omission of several songs, including "The Happiest Home in These Hills," "There's Room for Everyone," and "Bill of Sale," while "Brazzle Dazzle Day" is included only in instrumental.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: The film was released on VHS in early 1980. It was re-released on VHS on October 28, 1994 as a part of Masterpiece Collection. It was originally slated to be released in the Walt Disney Gold Classic Collection line-up on December 5, 2000, but it was pushed back to January 16, 2001. The DVD includes bonus features such as two animated shorts "Lighthouse Keeping" and "Man, Monsters and Mysteries", two vintage excerpts from the "Disney Family Album" episode on Ken Anderson and "The Plausible Impossible" from "Disneyland", and both theatrical trailers for the film.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: The film was re-released in a "High-Flying Edition" DVD on August 18, 2009. The DVD includes a half-hour documentary feature, a deleted storyboard sequence, original demo recordings of the songs, and several bonus features transferred from the Gold Classic Collection release. It was released on the 35th-anniversary edition Blu-ray on October 16, 2012.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" praised the film declaring it "the most energetic and enjoyable Disney movie in a long while." She noted, "Sean Marshall doesn't sing well, but Helen Reddy does, so she often accompanies his vocals. Miss Reddy is serviceable but undistinguished as an actress—she has a tendency to behave as if she were a very bright light bulb in a very small lamp—but she so often finds herself in the company of Messrs. Rooney, Dale or Buttons that her scenes work well." However, she was critical of the film's length and the excessive alcohol consumption.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Kathleen Carroll of the "New York Daily News" gave the film three stars out of four, criticizing the score and the live-action footage, but praising the animation of the dragon and the performances, writing "Sean Marshall, as Pete, looks and acts natural on camera which makes him a refreshing change from those sweet little cherubs usually cast in Disney movies. Miss Reddy plays her role with crisp efficiency and fortunately receives strong support for the rest of the cast, particularly Dale, so slick and funny as the conniving medicine man he nearly upstages the cuddly dragon."


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: "Variety" wrote the film was "an enchanting and humane fable which introduces a most lovable animal star (albeit an animated one)." They praised the combination of live-action and animation as "never before more effectively realized" and commented that the film suffered "whenever Elliott is off screen."


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: John Skow of "Time" wrote the film was "likeable fantasy", but dismissed the musical numbers as "a good opportunity to line up for more popcorn."


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Charles Champlin of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "At 2 hours 7 minutes it is a trying span for small sitters. The animated excitements keep stopping for songs by Al Kasha and Joel Hirschhorn, but they are not showstoppers in the grand sense. Bland, perfunctory and too numerous is more like it."


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film two stars out of four and wrote that "we get the same tired Disney formula: a gooey-faced kid in a phony sound-stage world populated by old actors required to perform ancient vaudeville routines ... Compared to the great Disney animation classics, 'Pete's Dragon' is just TV fare on the wide screen."


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Gary Arnold of "The Washington Post" wrote that the film "was apparently meant to be a big, rousing musical comedy-fantasy, but it's staged and photographed without musical-comedy energy, flair or coordination ... Perhaps children can be counted on to enjoy Elliott's mugging and the slapstick interludes that occasionally interrupt the tedium, but parents will see this one more as a chore."


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Critic Leonard Maltin observed that Disney made several attempts to recreate the appeal and success of "Mary Poppins" (1964), and that "Pete's Dragon" did not come close on that score. However, he added that it might please children, and that "the animated title character is so endearing that it almost compensates for the live actors' tiresome mugging."


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: Thomas J. Harris, in his book "Children’s Live-Action Musical Films: A Critical Survey and Filmography", heavily criticized the story as well as the compositing of the animated Elliott; he also found the "Mary Poppinsish ending" to be "thoroughly unmotivated", because Pete's life before meeting Elliott is never fleshed out.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: In 2006, Elliott was ranked fifth on a top 10 list of movie dragons by Karl Heitmueller for MTV Movie News.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 56% based on 27 reviews, with an average rating of 5/10. The site's consensus states: "Boring and slow, this is a lesser Disney work, though the animation isn't without its charms." Metacritic gave film a score of 46 based on 5 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: During its initial release, the film grossed $16.1 million in distributor rentals from the United States and Canada, which was ranked sixteenth on "Variety"s box office hits list of 1978. However, the returns were considered disappointing for Disney who were hoping for a "Mary Poppins"-sized blockbuster. The film has a lifetime domestic gross ranging from $36 to 39.6 million.


title: Pete's Dragon (1977 film)

text: In March 2013, Disney announced a remake of the film, written by David Lowery and Toby Halbrooks, the director/writer and co-producer (respectively) of the Sundance hit "Ain't Them Bodies Saints" (2013). It re-imagines a venerable Disney family and is presented as a straightforward drama as opposed to a musical. Principal photography commenced in January 2015 in New Zealand, with Lowery directing, and subsequently released on August 12, 2016.


title: Granada War

text: The Granada War () was a series of military campaigns between 1482 and 1491 during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, against the Nasrid dynasty's Emirate of Granada. It ended with the defeat of Granada and its annexation by Castile, ending the last remnant of Islamic rule on the Iberian peninsula.


title: Granada War

text: The ten-year war was not a continuous effort but a series of seasonal campaigns launched in spring and broken off in winter. The Granadans were crippled by internal conflict and civil war, while the Christians were generally unified. The Granadans were also bled economically by the tribute () they had to pay Castile to avoid being attacked and conquered. The war saw the effective use of artillery by the Christians to rapidly conquer towns that would otherwise have required long sieges. On January 2, 1492, Muhammad XII of Granada (King Boabdil) surrendered the Emirate of Granada, the city of Granada, and the Alhambra palace to the Castilian forces.


title: Granada War

text: The war was a joint project between Isabella's Crown of Castile and Ferdinand's Crown of Aragon. The bulk of the troops and funds for the war came from Castile, and Granada was annexed into Castile's territory. The Crown of Aragon was less important: apart from the presence of King Ferdinand himself, Aragon provided naval collaboration, guns, and some financial loans. Aristocrats were offered the allure of new lands, while Ferdinand and Isabella centralized and consolidated their power.


title: Granada War

text: The aftermath of war brought to an end coexistence between religions in the Iberian peninsula: Jews were forced to convert to Christianity or be exiled in 1492, and by 1501, all of Granada's Muslims were obliged to convert to Christianity, become slaves, or be exiled; by 1526 this prohibition spread to the rest of Spain. "New Christians" ("conversos") came to be accused of crypto-Islam and crypto-Judaism. Spain would go on to model its national aspirations as the guardian of Christianity and Catholicism. The fall of the Alhambra is still celebrated every year by the City Council of Granada, and the Granada War is considered in traditional Spanish historiography as the final war of the Reconquista.


title: Granada War

text: The Emirate of Granada had been the last Muslim state in Iberia for more than two centuries by the time of the Granada War. The other remnant al-Andalus states (the "taifas") of the once powerful Caliphate of Córdoba had long since been conquered by the Christians. Pessimism for Granada's future existed before its ultimate fall; in 1400, Ibn Hudayl wrote "Is Granada not enclosed between a violent sea and an enemy terrible in arms, both of which press on its people day and night?" Still, Granada was wealthy and powerful, and the Christian kingdoms were divided and fought amongst themselves. Granada's problems began to worsen after Emir Yusuf III's death in 1417. Succession struggles ensured that Granada was in an almost constant low-level civil war. Clan loyalties were stronger than allegiance to the emir, making consolidation of power difficult. Often, the only territory the emir really controlled was the city of Granada. At times, the emir did not even control all the city, but rather one rival emir would control the Alhambra, and another the Albayzín, the most important district of Granada.


title: Granada War

text: This internal fighting greatly weakened the state. The economy declined, with Granada's once preeminent porcelain manufacture disrupted and challenged by the Christian town of Manises near Valencia, in the Crown of Aragon. Despite the weakening economy, taxes were still imposed at their earlier high rates to support Granada's extensive defenses and large army. Ordinary Granadans paid triple the taxes of (non-tax-exempt) Castilians. The heavy taxes that Emir Abu-l-Hasan Ali imposed contributed greatly to his unpopularity. These taxes did at least support a respected army; Hasan was successful in putting down Christian revolts in his lands, and some observers estimated he could muster as many as 7,000 horsemen.


title: Granada War

text: The frontier between Granada and the Castilian lands of Andalusia was in a constant state of flux, "neither in peace nor in war." Raids across the border were common, as were intermixing alliances between local nobles on both sides of the frontier. Relations were governed by occasional truces and demands for tribute should those on one side have been seen to overstep their bounds. Neither country's central government intervened or controlled the warfare much.


title: Granada War

text: King Henry IV of Castile died in December 1474, setting off the War of the Castilian Succession between Henry's daughter Joanna la Beltraneja and Henry's half-sister Isabella. The war raged from 1475–1479, pitting Isabella's supporters and the Crown of Aragon against Joanna's supporters, Portugal, and France. During this time, the frontier with Granada was practically ignored; the Castilians did not even bother to ask for or obtain reparation for a raid in 1477. Truces were agreed upon in 1475, 1476, and 1478. In 1479, the Succession War concluded with Isabella victorious. As Isabella had married Ferdinand of Aragon in 1469, this meant that the two powerful kingdoms of Castile and Aragon would stand united, free from the inter-Christian strife which had allowed the Emirate of Granada to survive.


title: Granada War

text: The truce of 1478 was still theoretically in effect when Granada launched a surprise attack against Zahara in December 1481, as part of a reprisal for a Christian raid. The town fell, and the population was enslaved. This attack proved to be a great provocation, and factions in favor of war in Andalusia used it to rally support for a counterstrike, quickly moving to take credit for it, and backed a wider war. The seizure of Alhama and its subsequent royal endorsement is usually said to be the formal beginning of the Granada War. Abu Hasan attempted to retake Alhama by siege in March but was unsuccessful. Reinforcements from the rest of Castile and Aragon averted the possibility of retaking Alhama in April 1482; King Ferdinand formally took command at Alhama on May 14, 1482.


title: Granada War

text: The Christians next tried to besiege Loja but failed to take the town. This setback was balanced by a twist that would prove to aid them greatly: on the same day that Loja was relieved, Abu Hasan's son, Abu Abdallah (also known as Boabdil), rebelled and styled himself Emir Muhammad XII. The war continued into 1483. Abu Hasan's brother, al-Zagal, defeated a large Christian raiding force in the hills of the Axarquia east of Málaga. However, at Lucena the Christians were able to defeat and capture King Boabdil. Ferdinand and Isabella had previously not been intent on conquering all of Granada. With the capture of King Boabdil, however, Ferdinand decided to use him to conquer Granada entirely. In a letter written in August 1483, Ferdinand wrote "To put Granada in division and destroy it We have decided to free him... He [Boabdil] has to make war on his father." With Boabdil's release as a pseudo-Christian ally, the Granadan civil war continued. A Granadan chronicler commented that Boabdil's capture was "the cause of the fatherland's destruction."


title: Granada War

text: In 1485, the fortunes of the Granadan internal conflict shifted yet again. Boabdil was expelled from the Albayzín, his base of power, by Hasan's brother al-Zagal. Al-Zagal also took command of the nation, dethroning his aging brother, who died shortly thereafter. Boabdil was obliged to flee to Ferdinand and Isabella's protection. The continuing division within the Muslim ranks and the cunning of the Marquis of Cádiz allowed the western reaches of Granada to be seized with unusual speed in 1485. Ronda fell to him after fifteen days, thanks to his negotiations with the city's leaders. Ronda's fall allowed Marbella, a base of the Granadan fleet, to come into Christian hands next.


title: Granada War

text: Boabdil was soon released from Christian protection to resume his bid for control of Granada. For the next three years, he acted as one of Ferdinand and Isabella's vassals. He offered the promise of limited independence for Granada and peace with the Christians to the citizenry; from the Catholic Monarchs, he extracted the title of Duke for whatever cities he could control.


title: Granada War

text: Málaga, the chief seaport of Granada, was the main objective of the Castilian forces in 1487. Emir al-Zagal was slow to march to attempt to relieve the siege and was unable to harass the Christian armies safely because of the ongoing civil war; even after he left the city to come to the aid of Málaga, he was forced to leave troops in the Alhambra to defend against Boabdil and his followers.


title: Granada War

text: The first main city to be attacked, Vélez-Málaga, capitulated on 27 April 1487, with local supporters of Boabdil directly aiding the Christian besiegers. Málaga held out during an extended siege that lasted from 7 May 1487 until 18 August 1487; its commander preferred death to surrender, and the African garrison and Christian renegades (converts to Islam) fought tenaciously, fearing the consequences of defeat. Near the end, the notables of Málaga finally offered a surrender, but Ferdinand refused, as generous terms had already been offered twice. When the city finally fell, Ferdinand punished almost all the inhabitants for their stubborn resistance with slavery, while renegades were burned alive or pierced by reeds. The Jews of Malaga, however, were spared, as Castilian Jews ransomed them from slavery.


title: Granada War

text: Historian William Prescott considered the fall of Málaga the most important part of the war; Granada could not reasonably continue on as an independent state without Málaga, its chief port.


title: Granada War

text: Al-Zagal lost prestige from the fall of Málaga, and Boabdil took over all of the city of Granada in 1487; he additionally controlled the northeast of the country with Vélez-Rubio, Vélez-Blanco, and Vera. Al-Zagal still controlled Baza, Guadix, and Almería. Boabdil took no action as the Christian forces took some of his land, perhaps assuming it would shortly be returned to him.


title: Granada War

text: In 1489, the Christian forces began a painfully long siege of Baza, the most important stronghold remaining to al-Zagal. Baza was highly defensible as it required the Christians to split their armies, and artillery was of little use against it. Supplying the army caused a huge budget shortfall for the Castilians. Occasional threats of deprivation of office were necessary to keep the army in the field, and Isabella came personally to the siege to help maintain the morale of both the nobles and the soldiers. After six months, al-Zagal surrendered, despite his garrison still being largely unharmed; he had become convinced that the Christians were serious about maintaining the siege as long as it would take, and further resistance was useless without the hope of relief, of which there was no sign. Baza was granted generous surrender terms, unlike Málaga.


title: Granada War

text: With the fall of Baza and the capture of al-Zagal in 1490, it seemed as if the war was over; Ferdinand and Isabella believed this was the case. However, Boabdil was unhappy with the rewards for his alliance with Ferdinand and Isabella, possibly because lands that had been promised to him were being administered by Castile. He broke off his vassalage and rebelled against the Catholic Monarchs, despite holding only the city of Granada and the Alpujarras Mountains. It was clear that such a position was untenable in the long term, so Boabdil sent out desperate requests for external aid. Qaitbay, the Sultan of Egypt mildly rebuked Ferdinand for the Granada War, but the Mamluks that ruled Egypt were in a near constant war with the Ottoman Turks. As Castile and Aragon were fellow enemies of the Turks, the Sultan had no desire to break their alliance against the Turks. Boabdil also requested aid from the Sultanate of Fes in crisis, but no reply is recorded by history. North Africa continued to sell Castile wheat throughout the war and valued maintaining good trade relations. In any case, the Granadans no longer controlled any coastline from where to receive overseas aid. No help would be forthcoming for Granada.


title: Granada War

text: An eight-month siege of Granada was to begin in April 1491. The situation for the defenders grew progressively dire, as their forces for interfering with the siege dwindled and advisers schemed against each other. Bribery of important officials was rampant, and at least one of the chief advisers to Boabdil seems to have been working for Castile the entire time. After the Battle of Granada a provisional surrender, the Treaty of Granada, was signed on November 25, 1491, which granted two months to the city. The reason for the long delay was not so much intransigence on either side, but rather the inability of the Granadan government to coordinate amongst itself in the midst of the disorder and tumult that gripped the city. After the terms, which proved rather generous to the Muslims, were negotiated, the city capitulated on January 2, 1492. The besieging Christians sneaked troops into the Alhambra that day in case resistance materialized, which it did not. Granada's resistance had come to its end.