title: Breaking news

text: Depending on the story being followed, the report may last only a few minutes, or continue for multiple hours – or with the longest uninterrupted news events, for days at a time –(events in which the latter instances has occurred include the assassination of John F. Kennedy and the September 11 attacks, which took place between November 22–26, 1963 and September 11–15, 2001, respectively). If coverage continues for an extended amount of time, the network may integrate analysis about the story through analysts in-studio, via phone, satellite, broadband (B-GAN) or through other means of communication. Depending on the severity of the event, regular commercial advertising may be suspended entirely for sustained coverage. Network affiliates will be required to insert their station identification in at the top of the hour overlaid during the report rather than through the usual means of a station imaging promo or program reminder.


title: Breaking news

text: If a story occurs during the early fringe timeslot and depending on the magnitude of the events at hand, local stations might be given the opportunity to break away from the network feed and begin their evening newscasts. This is set up by a cue from the network's talent that they will pause for a few seconds to reset coverage, at which point an opening graphic may be rolled again. Information is also disseminated from an internal alert service utilized by a station's master control. After the local newscast, stations will likely return to the network's feed as they normally would for the network newscast, but they may be joining in on an "extended edition." Whether or not a station will take over for local news is usually the choice of that station's news director.


title: Breaking news

text: When the coverage comes to a close, the network or station may either resume programming that was occurring before the event or begin new programming (if the breaking news happens during a newscast the network will switch back to the newscast upon completion if time permits), depending upon the amount of time spent on the coverage. The outro usually includes a promo directing viewers to the network's website (or that of the station, if coverage is provided locally) and other platforms (including television and streaming news channels) for continued coverage If the story breaks during daytime or late-night programming, the anchor will usually remind viewers that there will be or might be more details on their local news that day and a full wrap-up on the network's evening or morning news program if applicable. In most cases, regular daytime and late-night programming is re-joined in progress, and segments may be missed (although sister stations and digital subchannels can provide an alternate outlet for programming pre-empted due to a special report).


title: Breaking news

text: If the event occurs during prime time, the anchor will usually remind viewers that there will be more details on their late local newscast and on the network's overnight news program (if applicable) the next morning. Programming at this time is either joined in progress or started back up at the point of the interruption, depending on whether the program is new to air, highly rated, or has time left in its time slot to finish airing. For instance, ABC's breaking news report involving the April 2017 Shayrat missile strike took into account a new episode of the series "Scandal", where the show was resumed right at the point of interruption twice in the Eastern and Central time zones for those reports. NBC's coverage featured the low-rated "" in the Eastern and Central time zones joined in the middle of an episode in progress after their special report without any of that consideration. In either of the above instances, network (and in some cases, for local stations, syndicated) programs that have segments not aired or are pre-empted in their entirety by breaking news reports – particularly those that extend to or longer than 20 or 45 minutes, depending on the length of the previously scheduled program – may have to be rescheduled to air at a later time.


title: Breaking news

text: While most news events warrant interruption with little warning, certain anticipated events allow networks to schedule pre-emptions of regular programming days and sometimes weeks in advance—including scheduled speeches by political leaders, and elections (including candidates' debates, election night coverage, and the formal inaugurations of their winners).


title: Breaking news

text: Breaking news reports often face the same problems in reporting: no footage of the incident, no reporters at the scene, and little available information. To be able to report on current affairs despite this, many networks either employ full-time (typical in the United States) or contact freelance (typical in the United Kingdom) experts and pundits to be "talking heads". These people have either experience or expertise and are considered reliable by the general public. They have been common on television, and can also appear on radio.


title: Breaking news

text: In the United States, the competitive nature of commercial networks has allowed for pundits to develop their skills and dedicate themselves to respond to breaking news with analysis in a variety of fields, most often political. These talking heads can be paid millions to work exclusively for a network. In the United Kingdom, TV talking heads are sometimes considered filler who talk around the subject. They are not full-time employees of networks and are not always paid – when they are it is a flat fee for the slot – and will be urgently called in to discuss the relevant field (in which they will typically work full-time). Pundits in the UK have said that they do it because they deem it important to get expert coverage of breaking news, and because it can put their field (and themselves) in the spotlight. Research has suggested that talking heads in the United States are more likely to be partial than talking heads in the United Kingdom.


title: Breaking news

text: In 2015, the "Financial Times" suggested that with modern technological developments broadening news coverage, and with networks opting to show "livelier" non-expert comments from social media more, the need for talking heads may be shrinking.


title: Breaking news

text: On radio, the process of a breaking news story is somewhat the same, though some different considerations are made for the medium. For instance, a breaking news theme is required by default to have an urgent tenor and be used only for the purpose of true breaking news or bulletins. This is obvious on the local all-news radio stations owned by Audacy (formerly owned by CBS Radio), which very rarely use a breaking news theme for all but the most urgent and dire of breaking news, and is purposefully structured to give a sense of attention for the listener, almost sounding like an alarm. For local events, continuous coverage may be imposed, or else the station may wait until they have a reporter at the scene and will promise more details of the event as they become available.


title: Breaking news

text: National news that is broadcast over a radio network requires constant monitoring by station employees to allow the network coverage to air, although many stations will take the 'urgent' signal sent by the network (often sent within the digital stream of the network and inaudible to the listener, like ratings identifications) and break into programming immediately. Again, continuous coverage from a national radio network depends on the severity of the event, and often the network may just pass down the coverage by their local affiliate with spare commentary by the network's anchors. In the United Kingdom, Independent Radio News provides special alarm systems specifically to notify its affiliates of deaths in the British royal family, mandating their participation in heavily-coordinated mourning protocols that are practiced by the government and broadcasters.


title: Breaking news

text: Other considerations are made; FM music stations rarely relay breaking news unless it is an event of grave national concern, though local weather warnings are relayed when in effect (either in the form of updates provided by an on-staff anchor, a disc jockey, or the on-air staffer handing all station operations in an overnight period, an emergency alert system or through an audio simulcast of a television station which maintains a contractual partnership with a radio outlet). Less urgent events allow a network to feed updates to stations at :20, :30 and :50 minutes after the hour to give a summary of events. Stations are also careful about what stories are relayed during play-by-play broadcasts of professional and college sports, as those are the programs most listened to on the radio, so there, breaking news coverage is often limited to only commercial breaks or a promise of 'details later' after the event, within a station identification.


title: Breaking news

text: Instant news became possible with the invention of the telegraph in the 1840s. The completion of the Transcontinental Railroad in 1869 is an example of this.


title: Breaking news

text: News bulletins have been a fixture of radio broadcasting since at least the 1920s. Examples of early news bulletins in the Golden Age of Radio include fictionalized versions in the 1938 radio drama "The War of the Worlds" and coverage of the attack on Pearl Harbor, which was also the first television news bulletin, reported on stations in New York and Pennsylvania. KTLA in Los Angeles is credited with being the first television station to provide extended coverage of a breaking news event: for 27½ hours from April 8 to 9, 1949, the station carried live coverage of an attempt to rescue three-year-old Kathy Fiscus, who had fallen down an abandoned well in San Marino, California, where she ultimately perished due to asphyxia from a lack of oxygen.


title: Breaking news

text: In the decades before 24-hour news networks such as CNN began to exist, programming interruptions were restricted to extremely urgent news, such as the death of an important political figure. For example, one of the earliest such interruptions that modern viewers would recognize as "breaking news" coverage was for the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy in 1963, (with CBS News anchorman Walter Cronkite's coverage being especially noted), and as such reflected the relatively crude technology and procedures of that era. Such breaks are now common at 24-hour news channels, which may have an anchor available for live interruption at any time. Some networks, such as Sky News, largely emphasize this, even advertising the station/network as being "" first for breaking news"".


title: Breaking news

text: Another type of breaking news is that of severe weather events, which had such coverage evolve in a very similar manner. In North America until the 1990s, television and radio stations normally only provided long-form weather coverage during immediate, ongoing threats (such as a tornado that has been confirmed visually or by radar to be producing damage or a landfalling hurricane); cut-ins and, in the case of television stations, alert crawls during regular programming were used otherwise, even when higher-end alerts such as tornado warnings were issued. Advancements in newsgathering and weather technology (including the deployment of helicopters to provide aerial coverage and radar systems that can detect specific storm attributes), coupled with a few highly life-threatening events during the 1990s (such as Hurricane Andrew and the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak) and the resulting heightened urgency to advise those in the storm's path to take safety precautions in advance made extended (or "wall-to-wall") weather coverage once a high-end alert is issued more common in storm-prone areas, with cut-ins only being used in weather events of lesser severity.


title: Breaking news

text: In various countries and at various news outlets, terms such as "(late)breaking", "urgent", "flash", "bulletin", and "alert" may accompany breaking news reports. The term "breaking news" has come to replace the older use of "news bulletin", with the latter term relegated to only the most extraordinary of events. There has been widespread use of "breaking news" at the local level, particularly when one station in a market wants to emphasize the exclusivity of coverage. Not all viewers agree that stories assigned as "breaking news" rise to the significance or level of interest that warrant such a designation. CNN chairman and CEO Chris Licht wrote upon assuming the position in 2022, "It has become such a fixture on every channel and network that its impact has become lost on the audience." To address this, he began limiting CNN's use of the term only to stories of utmost importance.


title: Breaking news

text: American network news divisions still use the term "special report" for either a breaking news, a developing news story or both, but tend to use the term "breaking news" on their morning and evening news programs. Most local stations across the United States that interrupt regular programming for a news story use the "breaking news" and "special report" terms (though, local broadcast news outlets use the former most often), with a voice-over stating either "This is a breaking news special report" or "This is a special breaking news report" or "This is a(n) (network name) News Special Report" or "This is a(n) (station brand name) breaking news (special) report" or "(From [station brand name],) this is breaking news." The breaking news ending has a past-tense variation, followed by a disclaimer for viewers who would like more information to see the network's news division website. As of late 2019, ABC updated its breaking news lower third to include the words "breaking news" and the words "special report" together.


title: Breaking news

text: However, "special report" has also been de-emphasized by cable news channels in the United States, as both Fox News Channel and CNN now use that phrase for regular programming; Fox News carries "Special Report with Bret Baier", a daily political affairs program (it had launched in 1998 as a special hour summing up the day's events during the lead up to and coverage of the Clinton impeachment proceedings, eventually becoming a permanent title and misnomer), while CNN's "Special Report" is a catch-all banner for CNN's library documentary and true crime programming.


title: Breaking news

text: In early coverage of a breaking story, details are commonly sketchy, usually due to the limited information that is available at the time. For example, during the Sago Mine disaster, there were initial reports that all twelve miners were found alive, but news organizations later learned that only one actually survived.


title: Breaking news

text: Often it is considered important to be quick with news bulletins also for less important news. Such news might not be updated later, even if it was found that information was wrong or severely incomplete. If someone (e.g. when editing Wikipedia) later wants to research the event, only incomplete information might be found.


title: Breaking news

text: Another criticism has been the dilution of the sense of the term by the need of 24-hour news channels to fill time, applying the title to soft news stories of questionable importance and urgency (for example, car chases). They often fill time waiting for a story to 'break' with commentary. The term is often redundant, as all news is by definition breaking, and in some ways 'breaking news' means 'no news yet'.


title: Breaking news

text: Others question as to whether the use of the term is excessive, citing occasions when the term is used even though scheduled programming is not interrupted. For example, when an evening broadcast begins with "Breaking news as we come on the air" to cover a story that has been covered by other broadcasts repetitively within the last 24 hours. Some programs, such as HLN's defunct "Nancy Grace", used the term for recurring coverage of events which occurred months before, even when criminal trial coverage which may deserve the breaking news tag was not occurring and no new information has developed.


title: Breaking news

text: In June 2013, Fox affiliate WDRB in Louisville, Kentucky gained notice in the television industry for a promo that criticized the broad and constant use of the "breaking news" term, explaining that it has been overused as a "marketing ploy" by other news-producing stations, who tend to apply the term to stories that are low in urgency or relevance. To coincide with the promo, on its website, WDRB posted "Contracts" with its viewers and advertisers, with the former list promising to use "breaking news" judiciously (applying it to stories that are "both 'breaking' and 'news'").


title: Breaking news

text: In June 2022, CNN chief Chris Licht oversaw the addition of guidance regarding the use of "breaking news" to the network's style guide. Licht, who took over leadership after the recent merger of its parent company WarnerMedia with Discovery Inc., argued in an internal memo that overuse of the term by news channels had made it lose its impact among viewers, and that "We are truth-tellers, focused on informing, not alarming our viewers."


title: Old English literature

text: Old English literature refers to poetry and prose written in Old English in early medieval England, from the 7th century to the decades after the Norman Conquest of 1066, a period often termed Anglo-Saxon England. The 7th-century work "Cædmon's Hymn" is often considered as the oldest surviving poem in English, as it appears in an 8th-century copy of Bede's text, the "Ecclesiastical History of the English People". Poetry written in the mid 12th century represents some of the latest post-Norman examples of Old English. Adherence to the grammatical rules of Old English is largely inconsistent in 12th-century work, and by the 13th century the grammar and syntax of Old English had almost completely deteriorated, giving way to the much larger Middle English corpus of literature.


title: Old English literature

text: In descending order of quantity, Old English literature consists of: sermons and saints' lives; biblical translations; translated Latin works of the early Church Fathers; chronicles and narrative history works; laws, wills and other legal works; practical works on grammar, medicine, and geography; and poetry. In all, there are over 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, of which about 189 are considered major. In addition, some Old English text survives on stone structures and ornate objects.


title: Old English literature

text: The poem "Beowulf", which often begins the traditional canon of English literature, is the most famous work of Old English literature. The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" has also proven significant for historical study, preserving a chronology of early English history.


title: Old English literature

text: In addition to Old English literature, Anglo-Latin works comprise the largest volume of literature from the Early Middle Ages in England.


title: Old English literature

text: Over 400 manuscripts remain from the Anglo-Saxon period, with most written during the 9th to 11th centuries. There were considerable losses of manuscripts as a result of the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century.


title: Old English literature

text: Old English manuscripts have been highly prized by collectors since the 16th century, both for their historic value and for their aesthetic beauty with their uniformly spaced letters and decorative elements.


title: Old English literature

text: Manuscripts written in both Latin and the vernacular remain. It is believed that Irish missionaries are responsible for the scripts used in early Anglo-Saxon texts, which include the Insular half-uncial (important Latin texts) and Insular minuscule (both Latin and the vernacular). In the 10th century, the Caroline minuscule was adopted for Latin, however the Insular minuscule continued to be used for Old English texts. Thereafter, it was increasingly influenced by Caroline minuscule, while retaining certain distinctively Insular letter-forms.


title: Old English literature

text: Early English manuscripts often contain later annotations in the margins of the texts; it is a rarity to find a completely unannotated manuscript. These include corrections, alterations and expansions of the main text, as well as commentary upon it, and even unrelated texts. The majority of these annotations appear to date to the 13th century and later.


title: Old English literature

text: Seven major scriptoria produced a good deal of Old English manuscripts: Winchester; Exeter; Worcester; Abingdon; Durham; and two Canterbury houses, Christ Church and St. Augustine's Abbey.


title: Old English literature

text: Regional dialects include Northumbrian; Mercian; Kentish; and West Saxon, leading to the speculation that much of the poetry may have been translated into West Saxon at a later date. An example of the dominance of the West Saxon dialect is a pair of charters, from the Stowe and British Museum collections, which outline grants of land in Kent and Mercia, but are nonetheless written in the West Saxon dialect of the period.


title: Old English literature

text: The Anglo-Latin verse tradition in early medieval England was accompanied by discourses on Latin prosody, which were 'rules' or guidance for writers. The rules of Old English verse are understood only through modern analysis of the extant texts.


title: Old English literature

text: The first widely accepted theory was constructed by Eduard Sievers (1893), who distinguished five distinct alliterative patterns. His system of alliterative verse is based on accent, alliteration, the quantity of vowels, and patterns of syllabic accentuation. It consists of five permutations on a base verse scheme; any one of the five types can be used in any verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older Germanic languages.


title: Old English literature

text: Alternative theories have been proposed, such as the theory of John C. Pope (1942), which uses musical notation to track the verse patterns. J. R. R. Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay "On Translating "Beowulf"".


title: Old English literature

text: Old English poetry alliterates, meaning that a sound (usually the initial stressed consonant sound) is repeated throughout a line. For instance, in the first line of "Beowulf", "Hwaet! We Gar-Dena | in gear-dagum", (meaning "Listen! We of the Spear Danes in days of yore..."), the stressed sound in "Gar-Dena" and "gear-dagum" alliterate on the consonant "D".


title: Old English literature

text: Old English poetry, like other Old Germanic alliterative verse, is also commonly marked by the caesura or pause. In addition to setting pace for the line, the caesura also grouped each line into two hemistichs.


title: Old English literature

text: Kennings are a key feature of Old English poetry. A kenning is an often formulaic metaphorical phrase that describes one thing in terms of another: for instance, in "Beowulf", the sea is called the "whale road". Another example of a kenning in "The Wanderer" is a reference to battle as a "storm of spears".


title: Old English literature

text: Old English poetry is marked by the comparative rarity of similes. "Beowulf" contains at best five similes, and these are of the short variety.


title: Old English literature

text: The Old English poet was particularly fond of describing the same person or object with varied phrases (often appositives) that indicated different qualities of that person or object. For instance, the "Beowulf" poet refers in three and a half lines to a Danish king as "lord of the Danes" (referring to the people in general), "king of the Scyldings" (the name of the specific Danish tribe), "giver of rings" (one of the king's functions is to distribute treasure), and "famous chief". Such variation, which the modern reader (who likes verbal precision) is not used to, is frequently a difficulty in producing a readable translation.


title: Old English literature

text: Even though all extant Old English poetry is written and literate, many scholars propose that Old English poetry was an oral craft that was performed by a "scop" and accompanied by a harp.


title: Old English literature

text: The hypotheses of Milman Parry and Albert Lord on the Homeric Question came to be applied (by Parry and Lord, but also by Francis Magoun) to verse written in Old English. That is, the theory proposes that certain features of at least some of the poetry may be explained by positing oral-formulaic composition. While Old English epic poetry may bear some resemblance to Ancient Greek epics such as the "Iliad" and "Odyssey", the question of if and how Anglo-Saxon poetry was passed down through an oral tradition remains a subject of debate, and the question for any particular poem unlikely to be answered with perfect certainty.


title: Old English literature

text: Parry and Lord had already demonstrated the density of metrical formulas in Ancient Greek, and observed the same feature in the Old English alliterative line:


title: Old English literature

text: In addition to verbal formulas, many themes have been shown to appear among the various works of Anglo-Saxon literature. The theory suggests a reason for this: the poetry was composed of formulae and themes from a stock common to the poetic profession, as well as literary passages composed by individual artists in a more modern sense. Larry Benson introduced the concept of "written-formulaic" to describe the status of some Anglo-Saxon poetry which, while demonstrably written, contains evidence of oral influences, including heavy reliance on formulas and themes. Frequent oral-formulaic themes in Old English poetry include "Beasts of Battle" and the "Cliff of Death". The former, for example, is characterised by the mention of ravens, eagles, and wolves preceding particularly violent depictions of battle. Among the most thoroughly documented themes is "The Hero on the Beach". D. K. Crowne first proposed this theme, defined by four characteristics:


title: Old English literature

text: One example Crowne cites in his article is that which concludes Beowulf's fight with the monsters during his swimming match with Breca:


title: Old English literature

text: Crowne drew on examples of the theme's appearance in twelve Old English texts, including one occurrence in Beowulf. It was also observed in other works of Germanic origin, Middle English poetry, and even an Icelandic prose saga. John Richardson held that the schema was so general as to apply to virtually any character at some point in the narrative, and thought it an instance of the "threshold" feature of Joseph Campbell's Hero's Journey monomyth. J.A. Dane, in an article (characterised by Foley as "polemics without rigour") claimed that the appearance of the theme in Ancient Greek poetry, a tradition without known connection to the Germanic, invalidated the notion of "an autonomous theme in the baggage of an oral poet." Foley's response was that Dane misunderstood the nature of oral tradition, and that in fact the appearance of the theme in other cultures showed that it was a traditional form.


title: Old English literature

text: Most Old English poems are recorded without authors, and very few names are known with any certainty; the primary three are Cædmon, Aldhelm, and Cynewulf.


title: Old English literature

text: Bede is often thought to be the poet of a five-line poem entitled "Bede's Death Song", on account of its appearance in a letter on his death by Cuthbert. This poem exists in a Northumbrian and later version.


title: Old English literature

text: Cædmon is considered the first Old English poet whose work still survives. He is a legendary figure, as described in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People. According to Bede, Cædmon was first an illiterate herdsman. Following a vision of a messenger from God, Cædmon received the gift of poetry, and then lived as a monk under Abbess Hild at the abbey of Whitby in Northumbria in the 7th century. Bede's "History" claims to reproduce Cædmon's first poem, comprising nine lines. Referred to as "Cædmon's Hymn", the poem is extant in Northumbrian, West-Saxon and Latin versions that appear in 19 surviving manuscripts:


title: Old English literature

text: Cynewulf has proven to be a difficult figure to identify, but recent research suggests he was an Anglian poet from the early part of the 9th century. Four poems are attributed to him, signed with a runic acrostic at the end of each poem; these are "The Fates of the Apostles" and "Elene" (both found in the Vercelli Book), and "Christ II" and "Juliana" (both found in the Exeter Book).


title: Old English literature

text: Although William of Malmesbury claims that Aldhelm, bishop of Sherborne (d. 709), performed secular songs while accompanied by a harp, none of these Old English poems survives. Paul G. Remely has recently proposed that the Old English "Exodus" may have been the work of Aldhelm, or someone closely associated with him.


title: Old English literature

text: Alfred is said to be the author of some of the metrical prefaces to the Old English translations of Gregory's "Pastoral Care" and Boethius's "Consolation of Philosophy". Alfred is also thought to be the author of 50 metrical psalms, but whether the poems were written by him, under his direction or patronage, or as a general part in his reform efforts is unknown.


title: Old English literature

text: The Old English poetry which has received the most attention deals with what has been termed the Germanic heroic past. Scholars suggest that Old English heroic poetry was handed down orally from generation to generation. As Christianity began to appear, re-tellers often recast the tales of Christianity into the older heroic stories.


title: Old English literature

text: The longest at 3,182 lines, and the most important, is "Beowulf", which appears in the damaged Nowell Codex. Beowulf relates the exploits of the hero Beowulf, King of the Weder-Geats or Angles, around the middle of the 5th century. The author is unknown, and no mention of Britain occurs. Scholars are divided over the date of the present text, with hypotheses ranging from the 8th to the 11th centuries. It has achieved much acclaim as well as sustained academic and artistic interest.


title: Old English literature

text: Other heroic poems besides "Beowulf" exist. Two have survived in fragments: "The Fight at Finnsburh", controversially interpreted by many to be a retelling of one of the battle scenes in "Beowulf", and "Waldere", a version of the events of the life of Walter of Aquitaine. Two other poems mention heroic figures: "Widsith" is believed to be very old in parts, dating back to events in the 4th century concerning Eormanric and the Goths, and contains a catalogue of names and places associated with valiant deeds. "Deor" is a lyric, in the style of "Consolation of Philosophy", applying examples of famous heroes, including Weland and Eormanric, to the narrator's own case.


title: Old English literature

text: The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" contains various heroic poems inserted throughout. The earliest from 937 is called "The Battle of Brunanburh", which celebrates the victory of King Athelstan over the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture of the Five Boroughs (942); coronation of King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar (975); death of Alfred the son of King Æthelred (1036); and death of King Edward the Confessor (1065).


title: Old English literature

text: The 325 line poem "The Battle of Maldon" celebrates Earl Byrhtnoth and his men who fell in battle against the Vikings in 991. It is considered one of the finest, but both the beginning and end are missing and the only manuscript was destroyed in a fire in 1731. A well-known speech is near the end of the poem:


title: Old English literature

text: Related to the heroic tales are a number of short poems from the Exeter Book which have come to be described as "elegies" or "wisdom poetry". They are lyrical and Boethian in their description of the up and down fortunes of life. Gloomy in mood is "The Ruin", which tells of the decay of a once glorious city of Roman Britain (cities in Britain fell into decline after the Romans departed in the early 5th century, as the early Celtic Britons continued to live their rural life), and "The Wanderer", in which an older man talks about an attack that happened in his youth, when his close friends and kin were all killed; memories of the slaughter have remained with him all his life. He questions the wisdom of the impetuous decision to engage a possibly superior fighting force: the wise man engages in warfare to "preserve" civil society, and must not rush into battle but should seek out allies when the odds may be against him. This poet finds little glory in bravery for bravery's sake. "The Seafarer" is the story of a sombre exile from home on the sea, from which the only hope of redemption is the joy of heaven. Other wisdom poems include "Wulf and Eadwacer", "The Wife's Lament", and "The Husband's Message". Alfred the Great wrote a wisdom poem over the course of his reign based loosely on the neoplatonic philosophy of Boethius called the "Lays of Boethius".


title: Old English literature

text: Several Old English poems are adaptations of late classical philosophical texts. The longest is a 10th-century translation of Boethius' "Consolation of Philosophy" contained in the Cotton manuscript Otho A.vi. Another is "The Phoenix" in the Exeter Book, an allegorisation of the "De ave phoenice" by Lactantius.


title: Old English literature

text: Other short poems derive from the Latin bestiary tradition. These include "The Panther", "The Whale" and "The Partridge".


title: Old English literature

text: The most famous Old English riddles are found in the Exeter Book. They are part of a wider Anglo-Saxon literary tradition of riddling, which includes riddles written in Latin. Riddles are both comical and obscene.


title: Old English literature

text: The riddles of the Exeter Book are unnumbered and without titles in the manuscript. For this reason, scholars propose different interpretations of how many riddles there are, with some agreeing 94 riddles, and others proposing closer to 100 riddles in the book. Most scholars believe that the Exeter Book was compiled by a single scribe; however, the works were almost certainly originally composed by poets.


title: Old English literature

text: A riddle in Old English, written using runic script, features on the Franks Casket. The riddle's solution is 'whale', evoking the whale-bone from which the casket made.


title: Old English literature

text: The Vercelli Book and Exeter Book contain four long narrative poems of saints' lives, or hagiographies. In Vercelli are "Andreas" and "Elene" and in Exeter are "Guthlac" and "Juliana".


title: Old English literature

text: "Andreas" is 1,722 lines long and is the closest of the surviving Old English poems to "Beowulf" in style and tone. It is the story of Saint Andrew and his journey to rescue Saint Matthew from the Mermedonians. "Elene" is the story of Saint Helena (mother of Constantine) and her discovery of the True Cross. The cult of the True Cross was popular in Anglo-Saxon England and this poem was instrumental in promoting it.


title: Old English literature

text: "Guthlac" consists of two poems about the English 7th century Saint Guthlac. "Juliana" describes the life of Saint Juliana, including a discussion with the devil during her imprisonment.


title: Old English literature

text: There are a number of partial Old English Bible translations and paraphrases surviving. The Junius manuscript contains three paraphrases of Old Testament texts. These were re-wordings of Biblical passages in Old English, not exact translations, but paraphrasing, sometimes into beautiful poetry in its own right. The first and longest is of "Genesis" (originally presented as one work in the Junius manuscript but now thought to consist of two separate poems, A and B), the second is of "Exodus" and the third is "Daniel". Contained in Daniel are two lyrics, "Song of the Three Children" and "Song of Azarias", the latter also appearing in the Exeter Book after "Guthlac". The fourth and last poem, "Christ and Satan", which is contained in the second part of the Junius manuscript, does not paraphrase any particular biblical book, but retells a number of episodes from both the Old and New Testament.


title: Old English literature

text: The Nowell Codex contains a Biblical poetic paraphrase, which appears right after "Beowulf", called "Judith", a retelling of the story of Judith. This is not to be confused with Ælfric's homily "Judith", which retells the same Biblical story in alliterative prose.


title: Old English literature

text: Old English translations of Psalms 51-150 have been preserved, following a prose version of the first 50 Psalms. There are verse translations of the Gloria in Excelsis, the Lord's Prayer, and the Apostles' Creed, as well as some hymns and proverbs.


title: Old English literature

text: In addition to Biblical paraphrases are a number of original religious poems, mostly lyrical (non-narrative).


title: Old English literature

text: The Exeter Book contains a series of poems entitled "Christ", sectioned into "Christ I", "Christ II" and "Christ III".


title: Old English literature

text: Considered one of the most beautiful of all Old English poems is "Dream of the Rood", contained in the Vercelli Book. The presence of a portion of the poem (in Northumbrian dialect) carved in runes on an 8th century stone cross found in Ruthwell, Dumfriesshire, verifies the age of at least this portion of the poem. The Dream of the Rood is a dream vision in which the personified cross tells the story of the crucifixion. Christ appears as a young hero-king, confident of victory, while the cross itself feels all the physical pain of the crucifixion, as well as the pain of being forced to kill the young lord.


title: Old English literature

text: There are a number of religious debate poems. The longest is "Christ and Satan" in the Junius manuscript, which deals with the conflict between Christ and Satan during the forty days in the desert. Another debate poem is "Solomon and Saturn", surviving in a number of textual fragments, Saturn is portrayed as a magician debating with the wise king Solomon.


title: Old English literature

text: Other poetic forms exist in Old English including short verses, gnomes, and mnemonic poems for remembering long lists of names.


title: Old English literature

text: There are short verses found in the margins of manuscripts which offer practical advice, such as remedies against the loss of cattle or how to deal with a delayed birth, often grouped as charms. The longest is called "Nine Herbs Charm" and is probably of pagan origin. Other similar short verses, or charms, include "For a Swarm of Bees", "Against a Dwarf", "Against a Stabbing Pain", and "Against a Wen".


title: Old English literature

text: There are a group of mnemonic poems designed to help memorise lists and sequences of names and to keep objects in order. These poems are named "Menologium", "The Fates of the Apostles", "The Rune Poem", "The Seasons for Fasting", and the "Instructions for Christians".


title: Old English literature

text: The amount of surviving Old English prose is much greater than the amount of poetry. Of the surviving prose, the majority consists of the homilies, saints' lives and biblical translations from Latin. The division of early medieval written prose works into categories of "Christian" and "secular", as below, is for convenience's sake only, for literacy in Anglo-Saxon England was largely the province of monks, nuns, and ecclesiastics (or of those laypeople to whom they had taught the skills of reading and writing Latin and/or Old English). Old English prose first appears in the 9th century, and continues to be recorded through the 12th century as the last generation of scribes, trained as boys in the standardised West Saxon before the Conquest, died as old men.


title: Old English literature

text: The most widely known secular author of Old English was King Alfred the Great (849–899), who translated several books, many of them religious, from Latin into Old English. Alfred, wanting to restore English culture, lamented the poor state of Latin education: Alfred proposed that students be educated in Old English, and those who excelled should go on to learn Latin. Alfred's cultural program aimed to translate "certain books [...] necessary for all men to know" from Latin to Old English. These included: Gregory the Great's "Cura Pastoralis", a manual for priests on how to conduct their duties, which became the "Hierdeboc" ('Shepherd-book') in Old English; Boethius' "De Consolatione philosophiae" (the "Froforboc" or 'book of consolation'); and the "Soliloquia" of Saint Augustine (known in Old English as the "Blostman" or 'blooms'). In the process, some original content was interweaved through the translations.


title: Old English literature

text: Other important Old English translations include: Orosius' "Historiae Adversus Paganos", a companion piece for St. Augustine's "The City of God"; the "Dialogues" of Gregory the Great; and Bede's "Ecclesiastical History of the English People".


title: Old English literature

text: Ælfric of Eynsham, who wrote in the late 10th and early 11th centuries, is believed to have been a pupil of Æthelwold. He was the greatest and most prolific writer of sermons, which were copied and adapted for use well into the 13th century. In the translation of the first six books of the Bible ("Old English Hexateuch"), portions have been assigned to Ælfric on stylistic grounds. He included some lives of the saints in the "Catholic Homilies", as well as a cycle of saints' lives to be used in sermons. Ælfric also wrote an Old English work on time-reckoning, and pastoral letters.


title: Old English literature

text: In the same category as Ælfric, and a contemporary, was Wulfstan II, archbishop of York. His sermons were highly stylistic. His best known work is "Sermo Lupi ad Anglos" in which he blames the sins of the English for the Viking invasions. He wrote a number of clerical legal texts: "Institutes of Polity" and "Canons of Edgar".


title: Old English literature

text: One of the earliest Old English texts in prose is the "Martyrology", information about saints and martyrs according to their anniversaries and feasts in the church calendar. It has survived in six fragments. It is believed to have been written in the 9th century by an anonymous Mercian author.


title: Old English literature

text: The oldest collections of church sermons is the "Blickling homilies", found in a 10th-century manuscript.


title: Old English literature

text: There are a number of saint's lives prose works: beyond those written by Ælfric are the prose life of Saint Guthlac (Vercelli Book), the life of Saint Margaret and the life of Saint Chad. There are four additional lives in the earliest manuscript of the "Lives of Saints", the Julius manuscript: Seven Sleepers of Ephesus, Saint Mary of Egypt, Saint Eustace and Saint Euphrosyne.


title: Old English literature

text: There are six major manuscripts of the Wessex Gospels, dating from the 11th and 12th centuries. The most popular, "Old English Gospel of Nicodemus", is treated in one manuscript as though it were a 5th gospel; other apocryphal gospels in translation include the "Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew", "Vindicta salvatoris", "Vision of Saint Paul" and the "Apocalypse of Thomas".


title: Old English literature

text: The "Anglo-Saxon Chronicle" was probably started in the time of King Alfred the Great and continued for over 300 years as a historical record of Anglo-Saxon history.


title: Old English literature

text: A single example of a Classical romance has survived: a fragment of the story of "Apollonius of Tyre" was translated in the 11th century from the "Gesta Romanorum".


title: Old English literature

text: A monk who was writing in Old English at the same time as Ælfric and Wulfstan was Byrhtferth of Ramsey, whose book "Handboc" was a study of mathematics and rhetoric. He also produced a work entitled "Computus", which outlined the practical application of arithmetic to the calculation of calendar days and movable feasts, as well as tide tables.


title: Old English literature

text: Ælfric wrote two proto-scientific works, "Hexameron" and "Interrogationes Sigewulfi", dealing with the stories of Creation. He also wrote a grammar and glossary of Latin in Old English, later used by students interested in learning Old French, as inferred from glosses in that language.


title: Old English literature

text: In the Nowell Codex is the text of "The Wonders of the East" which includes a remarkable map of the world, and other illustrations. Also contained in Nowell is "Alexander's Letter to Aristotle". Because this is the same manuscript that contains "Beowulf", some scholars speculate it may have been a collection of materials on exotic places and creatures.


title: Old English literature

text: There are a number of interesting medical works. There is a translation of "Apuleius's Herbarium" with striking illustrations, found together with "Medicina de Quadrupedibus". A second collection of texts is "Bald's Leechbook", a 10th-century book containing herbal and even some surgical cures. A third collection, known as the "Lacnunga", includes many charms and incantations.


title: Old English literature

text: Legal texts are a large and important part of the overall Old English corpus. The Laws of Aethelberht I of Kent, written at the turn of the 7th century, are the earliest surviving English prose work. Other laws wills and charters were written over the following centuries. Towards the end of the 9th, Alfred had compiled the law codes of Aethelberht, Ine, and Offa in a text setting out his own laws, the "Domboc". By the 12th century they had been arranged into two large collections (see "Textus Roffensis"). They include laws of the kings, beginning with those of Aethelbert of Kent and ending with those of Cnut, and texts dealing with specific cases and places in the country. An interesting example is "Gerefa", which outlines the duties of a reeve on a large manor estate. There is also a large volume of legal documents related to religious houses. These include many kinds of texts: records of donations by nobles; wills; documents of emancipation; lists of books and relics; court cases; guild rules. All of these texts provide valuable insights into the social history of Anglo-Saxon times, but are also of literary value. For example, some of the court case narratives are interesting for their use of rhetoric.


title: Old English literature

text: James Paz proposes reading objects which feature Old English poems or phrases as part of the literary output of the time, and as "speaking objects". These objects include the Ruthwell monument (which includes a poem similar to the Dream of the Rood preserved in the Vercelli Book), the Frank's Casket, the Alfred Jewel.


title: Old English literature

text: "The Soul's Address to the Body" (c. 1150–1175) found in Worcester Cathedral Library MS F. 174 contains only one word of possible Latinate origin, while also maintaining a corrupt alliterative meter and Old English grammar and syntax, albeit in a degenerative state (hence, early scholars of Old English termed this late form as "Semi-Saxon"). The "Peterborough Chronicle" can also be considered a late-period text, continuing into the 12th century.


title: Old English literature

text: Old English literature did not disappear in 1066 with the Norman Conquest. Many sermons and works continued to be read and used in part or whole up through the 14th century, and were further catalogued and organised. What might be termed the earliest scholarship on Old English literature was done by a 12th or early 13th-century scribe from Worcester known only as The Tremulous Hand – a sobriquet earned for a hand tremor causing characteristically messy handwriting. The Tremulous Hand is known for many Latin glosses of Old English texts, which represent the earliest attempt to translate the language in the post-Norman period. Perhaps his most well known scribal work is that of the Worcester Cathedral Library MS F. 174, which contains part of Ælfric's "Grammar" and "Glossary" and a short fragmentary poem often called "St. Bede's Lament", in addition to the Body and Soul poem.


title: Old English literature

text: During the Reformation, when monastic libraries were dispersed, the manuscripts began to be collected by antiquarians and scholars. Some of the earliest collectors and scholars included Laurence Nowell, Matthew Parker, Robert Bruce Cotton and Humfrey Wanley.


title: Old English literature

text: Old English dictionaries and references were created from the 17th century. The first was William Somner's "Dictionarium Saxonico-Latino-Anglicum" (1659). Lexicographer Joseph Bosworth began a dictionary in the 19th century called "An Anglo-Saxon Dictionary", which was completed by Thomas Northcote Toller in 1898 and updated by Alistair Campbell in 1972.


title: Old English literature

text: In the 19th and early 20th centuries the focus was on the Germanic and pagan roots that scholars thought they could detect in Old English literature. Because Old English was one of the first vernacular languages to be written down, 19th-century scholars searching for the roots of European "national culture" (see Romantic Nationalism) took special interest in studying what was then commonly referred to as 'Anglo-Saxon literature', and Old English became a regular part of university curriculum.


title: Old English literature

text: After World War II there was increasing interest in the manuscripts themselves, developing new palaeographic approaches from antiquarian approaches. Neil Ker, a paleographer, published the groundbreaking "Catalogue of Manuscripts Containing Anglo-Saxon" in 1957, and by 1980 nearly all Anglo-Saxon manuscript texts were available as facsimiles or editions.


title: Old English literature

text: On account of the work of Bernard F. Huppé, attention to the influence of Augustinian exegesis increased in scholarship.


title: Old English literature

text: J.R.R. Tolkien is often credited with creating a movement to look at Old English as a subject of literary theory in his seminal lecture "" (1936).


title: Old English literature

text: Since the 1970s, along with a focus upon paleography and the physical manuscripts themselves more generally, scholars continue to debate such issues as dating, place of origin, authorship, connections between Old English literary culture and global medieval literatures, and the valences of Old English poetry that may be revealed by contemporary theory: for instance, feminist, queer, critical race, and eco-critical theories.


title: Old English literature

text: Tolkien adapted the subject matter and terminology of heroic poetry for works like "The Hobbit" and "The Lord of the Rings", and John Gardner wrote "Grendel", which tells the story of Beowulf's opponent from his own perspective.


title: Old English literature

text: Old English literature has had some influence on modern literature, and notable poets have translated and incorporated Old English poetry. Well-known early translations include Alfred, Lord Tennyson's translation of "The Battle of Brunanburh", William Morris's translation of "Beowulf", and Ezra Pound's translation of "The Seafarer". The influence of the poetry can be seen in modern poets T. S. Eliot, Ezra Pound and W. H. Auden.


title: Old English literature

text: More recently other notable poets such as Paul Muldoon, Seamus Heaney, Denise Levertov and U. A. Fanthorpe have all shown an interest in Old English poetry. In 1987 Denise Levertov published a translation of Cædmon's Hymn under her title "Caedmon" in the collection "Breathing the Water". This was followed by Seamus Heaney's version of the poem "Whitby-sur-Moyola" in his "The Spirit Level" (1996), Paul Muldoon's "Caedmona's Hymn" in his "Moy Sand and Gravel" (2002) and U. A. Fanthorpe's "Caedmon's Song" in her "Queuing for the Sun" (2003).


title: Old English literature

text: In 2000, Seamus Heaney published his translation of "Beowulf". Heaney uses Irish diction across "Beowulf" to bring what he calls a "special body and force" to the poem, putting forward his own Ulster heritage, "in order to render [the poem] ever more 'willable forward/again and again and again.'"


title: Old English literature

text: The entire corpus of Old English poetry is being edited and annotated to available digital images of manuscript pages and objects, with Modern English translations, in the "Old English Poetry in Facsimile Project".


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: Alastair Preston Reynolds (born 13 March 1966) is a Welsh science fiction author. He specialises in hard science fiction and space opera. He spent his early years in Cornwall, moved back to Wales before going to Newcastle University, where he studied physics and astronomy. Afterwards, he earned a PhD in astrophysics from the University of St Andrews. In 1991, he moved to Noordwijk in the Netherlands where he met his wife Josette (who is from France). There, he worked for the European Space Research and Technology Centre (part of the European Space Agency) until 2004 when he left to pursue writing full-time. He returned to Wales in 2008 and lives near Cardiff.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: Reynolds wrote his first four published science fiction short stories while still a graduate student, in 1989–1991; they appeared in 1990–1992, his first sale being to "Interzone". In 1991 Reynolds graduated and moved from Scotland to the Netherlands to work at ESA. He then started spending much of his writing time on a first novel, which eventually turned into "Revelation Space", while the few short stories he submitted from 1991–1995 were rejected. This ended in 1995 when his story "Byrd Land Six" was published, which he says marked the beginning of a more serious phase of writing. he has published over forty shorter works and nine novels. His works are hard science fiction, typically in the sub-genres of space opera and noir, and reflect his professional expertise with physics and astronomy, included by extrapolating future technologies in terms that are consistent, for the most part, with current science. Reynolds has said he prefers to keep the science in his books to what he personally believes will be possible, and he does not believe faster-than-light travel will ever be possible, but that he adopts science he believes will be impossible when it is necessary for the story. Most of Reynolds's novels contain multiple storylines that originally appear to be completely unrelated, but merge later in the story.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: Five of his novels and several of his short stories take place within one consistent future universe, usually now called the Revelation Space universe after the first novel published in it, although it was originally developed in short stories for several years before the first novel. Although most characters appear in more than one novel, the works set within this future timeline rarely have the same protagonists twice. Often the protagonists from one work belong to a group that is regarded with suspicion or enmity by the protagonists of another work. While a great deal of science fiction reflects either very optimistic or dystopian visions of the human future, Reynolds's future worlds are notable in that human societies have not departed to either positive or negative extremes, but instead are similar to those of today in terms of moral ambiguity and a mixture of cruelty and decency, corruption and opportunity, despite their technology being dramatically advanced.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: The "Revelation Space" series includes six novels, seven novellas, and six short stories set over a span of several centuries, spanning approximately AD 2205 to 40 000, although the novels are all set in a 300-year period spanning from 2427 to 2727. In this universe, extraterrestrial sentience exists but is elusive, and interstellar travel is primarily undertaken by a class of vessel called a lighthugger which only approaches the speed of light (faster than light travel is possible, but it is so dangerous that no race uses it). Fermi's paradox is explained as resulting from the activities of an inorganic alien race referred to by its victims as the Inhibitors, which exterminates sentient races if they proceed above a certain level of technology. The trilogy consisting of "Revelation Space", "Redemption Ark" and "Absolution Gap" (the Inhibitor trilogy) deals with humanity coming to the attention of the Inhibitors and the resultant war between them.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: "Century Rain" takes place in a future universe independent of the "Revelation Space" universe and has different rules, such as faster-than-light travel being possible through a system of portals similar to wormholes. "Century Rain" also departs substantially from Reynolds's previous works, both in having a protagonist who is much closer to the perspective of our real world (in fact he is from a version of our past), serving as a proxy for the reader in confronting the unfamiliarity of the advanced science fiction aspects and in having a much more linear storytelling process. Reynolds's previous protagonists started out fully absorbed in the exoticisms of the future setting and his previous "Revelation Space" works have several interlinked story threads, not necessarily contemporaneous. According to Alastair himself, no sequel will ever be made on Century Rain.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: "Pushing Ice" is also a standalone story, with characters from much less distant in the future than in any of his other novels, set into a framework storyline that extends much further into the future of humanity than any of his previous novels. It contains an alternative interpretation of the Fermi paradox: intelligent sentient life in this universe is extremely scarce. Reynolds states that he is "firmly intending" to return to the "Pushing Ice" setting to write a sequel.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: "The Prefect" marked a return to the "Revelation Space" universe. Like "Chasm City", it is a stand-alone novel within that setting. It is set prior to any of the other "Revelation Space" novels, though still 200 years after the original human settlement is established on the planet Yellowstone in the Epsilon Eridani system. It was published in the United Kingdom on 2 April 2007. Since its publication, the title of "The Prefect" has been changed to "Aurora Rising" to more align with the name of the sequel, "Elysium Fire", which was published in 2018, marking the first novel length return to the "Revelation Space" universe since 2007. This sub-series within the "Revelation Space" universe is now called "The Prefect Dreyfus Emergencies". Reynolds states that he has "tentative plans for three more Dreyfus titles, with an arc that would eventually take him beyond Yellowstone, and then back again."


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: "House of Suns" is a standalone novel set in the same universe as his novella "Thousandth Night" from the "One Million A.D." anthology. It was released in the UK on 17 April 2008 and in the US on 2 June 2009. Reynolds described it as "Six million years in the future, starfaring clones, tensions between human and robot metacivilisations, King Crimson jokes." As with "Pushing Ice", Reynolds also states that he is "firmly intending" to return to the "House of Suns" setting to write a sequel.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: "Terminal World", published in March 2010 was described by Reynolds as "a kind of steampunk-tinged planetary romance, set in the distant future". As with "Century Rain", Reynolds has said that he does not plan any further work in the universe of "Terminal World".


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: In June 2009 Reynolds signed a new deal, worth £1 million, with his British publishers for ten books to be published over the next ten years.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: Between 2012 and 2015 Reynolds released three novels set in a new universe called "Poseidon's Children": Blue Remembered Earth (2012), On the Steel Breeze (2014), and Poseidon's Wake (2015). The novels comprise a hard science fiction trilogy dealing with the expansion of the human species into the solar system and beyond, and the emergence of Africa as a spacefaring, technological super-state.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: Reynolds's fiction has received three awards and several other nominations. His second novel "Chasm City" won the 2001 British Science Fiction Award for Best Novel. His short story "Weather" won the Japanese National Science Fiction Convention's Seiun Award for Best Translated Short Fiction. His novels "Absolution Gap" and "The Prefect" have also been nominated for previous BSFA awards. Reynolds has been nominated for the Arthur C. Clarke Award three times, for his novels "Revelation Space", "Pushing Ice" and "House of Suns". In 2010, he won the Sidewise Award for Alternate History for his short story "The Fixation". His novella "Troika" made the shortlist for the 2011 Hugo Awards. His Novel "Revenger" received the 2017 Locus Award for Best Young Adult Book.


title: Alastair Reynolds

text: On 10 March 2019 Alastair Reynolds announced that his short stories "Zima Blue" and "Beyond the Aquila Rift" had been adapted as part of Netflix's animated anthology "Love, Death & Robots". These stories are the first of Reynolds's works to be adapted for TV or film.


title: Super-Earth

text: A super-Earth is an extrasolar planet with a mass higher than Earth's, but substantially below those of the Solar System's ice giants, Uranus and Neptune, which are 14.5 and 17 times Earth's, respectively. The term "super-Earth" refers only to the mass of the planet, and so does not imply anything about the surface conditions or habitability. The alternative term "gas dwarfs" may be more accurate for those at the higher end of the mass scale, although "mini-Neptunes" is a more common term.


title: Super-Earth

text: In general, super-Earths are defined by their masses, and the term does not imply temperatures, compositions, orbital properties, habitability, or environments. While sources generally agree on an upper bound of 10 Earth masses (~69% of the mass of Uranus, which is the Solar System's giant planet with the least mass), the lower bound varies from 1 or 1.9 to 5, with various other definitions appearing in the popular media. The term "super-Earth" is also used by astronomers to refer to planets bigger than Earth-like planets (from 0.8 to 1.2 Earth-radius), but smaller than mini-Neptunes (from 2 to 4 Earth-radii).


title: Super-Earth

text: Some authors further suggest that the term Super-Earth might be limited to rocky planets without a significant atmosphere, or planets that have not just atmospheres but also solid surfaces or oceans with a sharp boundary between liquid and atmosphere, which the four giant planets in the Solar System do not have.


title: Super-Earth

text: Planets above 10 Earth masses are termed massive solid planets,<ref name="mass/radius sold"></ref> mega-Earths, or gas giant planets, depending on whether they are mostly rock and ice or mostly gas.


title: Super-Earth

text: The first super-Earths were discovered by Aleksander Wolszczan and Dale Frail around the pulsar PSR B1257+12 in 1992. The two outer planets (Poltergeist and Phobetor) of the system have masses approximately four times Earth—too small to be gas giants.


title: Super-Earth

text: The first super-Earth around a main-sequence star was discovered by a team under Eugenio Rivera in 2005. It orbits Gliese 876 and received the designation Gliese 876 d (two Jupiter-sized gas giants had previously been discovered in that system). It has an estimated mass of 7.5 Earth masses and a very short orbital period of about 2 days. Due to the proximity of Gliese 876 d to its host star (a red dwarf), it may have a surface temperature of 430–650 kelvin and be too hot to support liquid water.


title: Super-Earth

text: In April 2007, a team headed by Stéphane Udry based in Switzerland announced the discovery of two new super-Earths within the Gliese 581 planetary system, both on the edge of the habitable zone around the star where liquid water may be possible on the surface. With Gliese 581c having a mass of at least 5 Earth masses and a distance from Gliese 581 of 0.073 astronomical units (6.8 million mi, 11 million km), it is on the "warm" edge of the habitable zone around Gliese 581 with an estimated mean temperature (without taking into consideration effects from an atmosphere) of −3 degrees Celsius with an albedo comparable to Venus and 40 degrees Celsius with an albedo comparable to Earth. Subsequent research suggested Gliese 581c had likely suffered a runaway greenhouse effect like Venus.


title: Super-Earth

text: Two further super-Earths were discovered in 2006: OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb with a mass of 5.5 Earth masses, which was found by gravitational microlensing, and HD 69830 b with a mass of 10 Earth masses.


title: Super-Earth

text: The smallest super-Earth found as of 2008 was MOA-2007-BLG-192Lb. The planet was announced by astrophysicist David P. Bennett for the international MOA collaboration on June 2, 2008. This planet has approximately 3.3 Earth masses and orbits a brown dwarf. It was detected by gravitational microlensing.


title: Super-Earth

text: In June 2008, European researchers announced the discovery of three super-Earths around the star HD 40307, a star that is only slightly less massive than our Sun. The planets have at least the following minimum masses: 4.2, 6.7, and 9.4 times Earth's. The planets were detected by the radial velocity method by the HARPS (High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher) in Chile.


title: Super-Earth

text: In addition, the same European research team announced a planet 7.5 times the mass of Earth orbiting the star HD 181433. This star also has a Jupiter-like planet that orbits every three years.


title: Super-Earth

text: Planet COROT-7b, with a mass estimated at 4.8 Earth masses and an orbital period of only 0.853 days, was announced on 3 February 2009. The density estimate obtained for COROT-7b points to a composition including rocky silicate minerals similar to that of the Solar System's four inner planets, a new and significant discovery. COROT-7b, discovered right after HD 7924 b, is the first super-Earth discovered that orbits a main sequence star that is G class or larger.


title: Super-Earth

text: The discovery of Gliese 581e with a minimum mass of 1.9 Earth masses was announced on 21 April 2009. It was at the time the smallest extrasolar planet discovered around a normal star and the closest in mass to Earth. Being at an orbital distance of just 0.03 AU and orbiting its star in just 3.15 days, it is not in the habitable zone, and may have 100 times more tidal heating than Jupiter's volcanic satellite Io.


title: Super-Earth

text: A planet found in December 2009, GJ 1214 b, is 2.7 times as large as Earth and orbits a star much smaller and less luminous than our Sun. "This planet probably does have liquid water," said David Charbonneau, a Harvard professor of astronomy and lead author of an article on the discovery. However, interior models of this planet suggest that under most conditions it does not have liquid water.


title: Super-Earth

text: By November 2009, a total of 30 super-Earths had been discovered, 24 of which were first observed by HARPS.


title: Super-Earth

text: Discovered on 5 January 2010, a planet HD 156668 b with a minimum mass of 4.15 Earth masses, is the least massive planet detected by the radial velocity method. The only confirmed radial velocity planet smaller than this planet is Gliese 581e at 1.9 Earth masses (see above). On 24 August, astronomers using ESO's HARPS instrument announced the discovery of a planetary system with up to seven planets orbiting a Sun-like star, HD 10180, one of which, although not yet confirmed, has an estimated minimum mass of 1.35 ± 0.23 times that of Earth, which would be the lowest mass of any exoplanet found to date orbiting a main-sequence star. Although unconfirmed, there is 98.6% probability that this planet does exist.


title: Super-Earth

text: The National Science Foundation announced on 29 September the discovery of a fourth super-Earth (Gliese 581g) orbiting within the Gliese 581 planetary system. The planet has a minimum mass 3.1 times that of Earth and a nearly circular orbit at 0.146 AU with a period of 36.6 days, placing it in the middle of the habitable zone where liquid water could exist and midway between the planets c and d. It was discovered using the radial velocity method by scientists at the University of California at Santa Cruz and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. However, the existence of Gliese 581 g has been questioned by another team of astronomers, and it is currently listed as unconfirmed at The Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 2 February, the Kepler Space Observatory mission team released a list of 1235 extrasolar planet candidates, including 68 candidates of approximately "Earth-size" (Rp < 1.25 Re) and 288 candidates of "super-Earth-size" (1.25 Re < Rp < 2 Re). In addition, 54 planet candidates were detected in the "habitable zone." Six candidates in this zone were less than twice the size of the Earth [namely: KOI 326.01 (Rp=0.85), KOI 701.03 (Rp=1.73), KOI 268.01 (Rp=1.75), KOI 1026.01 (Rp=1.77), KOI 854.01 (Rp=1.91), KOI 70.03 (Rp=1.96) – Table 6] A more recent study found that one of these candidates (KOI 326.01) is in fact much larger and hotter than first reported. Based on the latest Kepler findings, astronomer Seth Shostak estimates "within a thousand light-years of Earth" there are "at least 30,000 of these habitable worlds." Also based on the findings, the Kepler Team has estimated "at least 50 billion planets in the Milky Way" of which "at least 500 million" are in the habitable zone.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 17 August, a potentially habitable super-Earth HD 85512 b was found using the HARPS as well as a three super-Earth system 82 G. Eridani. On HD 85512 b, it would be habitable if it exhibits more than 50% cloud cover. Then less than a month later, a flood of 41 new exoplanets including 10 super-Earths were announced.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 5 December 2011, the Kepler space telescope discovered its first planet within the habitable zone or "Goldilocks region" of its Sun-like star. Kepler-22b is 2.4 times the radius of the earth and occupies an orbit 15% closer to its star than the Earth to the Sun. This is compensated for however, as the star, with a spectral type G5V is slightly dimmer than the Sun (G2V), and thus the surface temperatures would still allow liquid water on its surface.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 5 December 2011, the Kepler team announced that they had discovered 2,326 planetary candidates, of which 207 are similar in size to Earth, 680 are super-Earth-size, 1,181 are Neptune-size, 203 are Jupiter-size and 55 are larger than Jupiter. Compared to the February 2011 figures, the number of Earth-size and super-Earth-size planets increased by 200% and 140% respectively. Moreover, 48 planet candidates were found in the habitable zones of surveyed stars, marking a decrease from the February figure; this was due to the more stringent criteria in use in the December data.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 2011, a density of 55 Cancri e was calculated which turned out to be similar to Earth's. At the size of about 2 Earth radii, it was the largest planet until 2014 which was determined to lack a significant hydrogen atmosphere.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 20 December 2011, the Kepler team announced the discovery of the first Earth-size exoplanets, Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f, orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20.


title: Super-Earth

text: Planet Gliese 667 Cb (GJ 667 Cb) was announced by HARPS on 19 October 2009, together with 29 other planets, while Gliese 667 Cc (GJ 667 Cc) was included in a paper published on 21 November 2011. More detailed data on Gliese 667 Cc were published in early February 2012.


title: Super-Earth

text: In September 2012, the discovery of two planets orbiting Gliese 163 was announced. One of the planets, Gliese 163 c, about 6.9 times the mass of Earth and somewhat hotter, was considered to be within the habitable zone.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 7 January 2013, astronomers from the Kepler space observatory announced the discovery of Kepler-69c (formerly "KOI-172.02"), an Earth-like exoplanet candidate (1.5 times the radius of Earth) orbiting a star similar to our Sun in the habitable zone and possibly a "prime candidate to host alien life".


title: Super-Earth

text: In April 2013, using observations by NASA's Kepler mission team led by William Borucki, of the agency's Ames Research Center, found five planets orbiting in the habitable zone of a Sun-like star, Kepler-62, 1,200 light years from Earth. These new super-Earths have radii of 1.3, 1.4, 1.6, and 1.9 times that of Earth. Theoretical modelling of two of these super-Earths, Kepler-62e and Kepler-62f, suggests both could be solid, either rocky or rocky with frozen water.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 25 June 2013, three "super Earth" planets have been found orbiting a nearby star at a distance where life in theory could exist, according to a record-breaking tally announced on Tuesday by the European Southern Observatory. They are part of a cluster of as many as seven planets that circle Gliese 667C, one of three stars located a relatively close 22 light years from Earth in the constellation of Scorpio, it said. The planets orbit Gliese 667C in the so-called Goldilocks Zone — a distance from the star at which the temperature is just right for water to exist in liquid form rather than being stripped away by stellar radiation or locked permanently in ice.


title: Super-Earth

text: In May 2014, previously discovered Kepler-10c was determined to have the mass comparable to Neptune (17 Earth masses). With the radius of 2.35 , it is currently the largest known planet likely to have a predominantly rocky composition. At 17 Earth masses it is well above the 10 Earth mass upper limit that is commonly used for the term 'super-Earth' so the term mega-Earth has been proposed. However, in July 2017, more careful analysis of HARPS-N and HIRES data showed that Kepler-10c was much less massive than originally thought, instead around 7.37 (6.18 to 8.69) with a mean density of 3.14 g/cm. Instead of a primarily rocky composition, the more accurately determined mass of Kepler-10c suggests a world made almost entirely of volatiles, mainly water.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 6 January 2015, NASA announced the 1000th confirmed exoplanet discovered by the Kepler space telescope. Three of the newly confirmed exoplanets were found to orbit within habitable zones of their related stars: two of the three, Kepler-438b and Kepler-442b, are near-Earth-size and likely rocky; the third, Kepler-440b, is a super-Earth.


title: Super-Earth

text: On 30 July 2015, Astronomy & Astrophysics said they found a planetary system with three super-Earths orbiting a bright, dwarf star. The four-planet system, dubbed HD 219134, had been found 21 light years from Earth in the M-shaped northern hemisphere of constellation Cassiopeia, but it is not in the habitable zone of its star. The planet with the shortest orbit is HD 219134 b, and is Earth's closest known rocky, and transiting, exoplanet.


title: Super-Earth

text: In February 2016, it was announced that NASA Hubble Space Telescope had detected hydrogen and helium (and suggestions of hydrogen cyanide), but no water vapor, in the atmosphere of 55 Cancri e, the first time the atmosphere of a super-Earth exoplanet was analyzed successfully.


title: Super-Earth

text: In August 2016, astronomers announce the detection of "Proxima b", an Earth-sized exoplanet that is in the habitable zone of the red dwarf star Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun. Due to its closeness to Earth, "Proxima b" may be a flyby destination for a fleet of interstellar "StarChip" spacecraft currently being developed by the Breakthrough Starshot project.


title: Super-Earth

text: In February 2018, K2-141b, a rocky ultra-short period planet (USP) Super-Earth, with a period of 0.28 days orbiting the host star K2-141 (EPIC 246393474) was reported. Another Super-Earth, K2-155d, is discovered.


title: Super-Earth

text: In July 2018, the discovery of 40 Eridani b was announced. At 16 light-years it is the closest super-Earth known, and its star is the second-brightest hosting a super-Earth.


title: Super-Earth

text: In July 2019, the discovery of GJ 357 d was announced. 31 light years from the Solar System, the planet is at least 6.1 .


title: Super-Earth

text: In 2022, the discovery of a super-Earth around the red dwarf star Ross 508 was reported. Part of the planet's elliptical orbit takes it within the habitable zone.


title: Super-Earth

text: The Solar System contains no known super-Earths, because Earth is the largest terrestrial planet in the Solar System, and all larger planets have both at least 14 times the mass of Earth and thick gaseous atmospheres without well-defined rocky or watery surfaces; that is, they are either gas giants or ice giants, not terrestrial planets. In January 2016, the existence of a hypothetical super-Earth ninth planet in the Solar System, referred to as Planet Nine, was proposed as an explanation for the orbital behavior of six trans-Neptunian objects, but it is speculated to also be an ice giant like Uranus or Neptune. A refined model in 2019 constrains it to around 5 Earth masses; planets of this mass are probably mini-Neptunes.


title: Super-Earth

text: Due to the larger mass of super-Earths, their physical characteristics may differ from Earth's; theoretical models for super-Earths provide four possible main compositions according to their density: low-density super-Earths are inferred to be composed mainly of hydrogen and helium (mini-Neptunes); super-Earths of intermediate density are inferred to either have water as a major constituent (ocean planets), or have a denser core enshrouded with an extended gaseous envelope (gas dwarf or sub-Neptune). A super-Earth of high density is believed to be rocky and/or metallic, like Earth and the other terrestrial planets of the Solar System. A super-Earth's interior could be undifferentiated, partially differentiated, or completely differentiated into layers of different composition. Researchers at Harvard Astronomy Department have developed user-friendly online tools to characterize the bulk composition of the super-Earths. A study on Gliese 876 d by a team around Diana Valencia revealed that it would be possible to infer from a radius measured by the transit method of detecting planets and the mass of the relevant planet what the structural composition is. For Gliese 876 d, calculations range from 9,200 km (1.4 Earth radii) for a rocky planet and very large iron core to 12,500 km (2.0 Earth radii) for a watery and icy planet. Within this range of radii the super-Earth Gliese 876 d would have a surface gravity between 1.9g and 3.3g (19 and 32 m/s). However, this planet is not known to transit its host star.


title: Super-Earth

text: The limit between rocky planets and planets with a thick gaseous envelope is calculated with theoretical models. Calculating the effect of the active XUV saturation phase of G-type stars over the loss of the primitive nebula-captured hydrogen envelopes in extrasolar planets, it's obtained that planets with a core mass of more than 1.5 Earth-mass (1.15 Earth-radius max.), most likely cannot get rid of their nebula captured hydrogen envelopes during their whole lifetime. Other calculations point out that the limit between envelope-free rocky super-Earths and sub-Neptunes is around 1.75 Earth-radii, as 2 Earth-radii would be the upper limit to be rocky (a planet with 2 Earth-radii and 5 Earth-masses with a mean Earth-like core composition would imply that 1/200 of its mass would be in a H/He envelope, with an atmospheric pressure near to ). Whether or not the primitive nebula-captured H/He envelope of a super-Earth is entirely lost after formation also depends on the orbital distance. For example, formation and evolution calculations of the Kepler-11 planetary system show that the two innermost planets Kepler-11b and c, whose calculated mass is ≈2 M and between ≈5 and 6 M respectively (which are within measurement errors), are extremely vulnerable to envelope loss. In particular, the complete removal of the primordial H/He envelope by energetic stellar photons appears almost inevitable in the case of Kepler-11b, regardless of its formation hypothesis.


title: Super-Earth

text: If a super-Earth is detectable by both the radial-velocity and the transit methods, then both its mass and its radius can be determined; thus its average bulk density can be calculated. The actual empirical observations are giving similar results as theoretical models, as it's found that planets larger than approximately 1.6 Earth-radius (more massive than approximately 6 Earth-masses) contain significant fractions of volatiles or H/He gas (such planets appear to have a diversity of compositions that is not well-explained by a single mass-radius relation as that found in rocky planets). After measuring 65 super-Earths smaller than 4 Earth-radii, the empirical data points out that Gas Dwarves would be the most usual composition: there is a trend where planets with radii up to 1.5 Earth-radii increase in density with increasing radius, but above 1.5 radii the average planet density rapidly decreases with increasing radius, indicating that these planets have a large fraction of volatiles by volume overlying a rocky core. Another discovery about exoplanets' composition is that about the gap or rarity observed for planets between 1.5 and 2.0 Earth-radii, which is explained by a bimodal formation of planets (rocky Super-Earths below 1.75 and sub-Neptunes with thick gas envelopes being above such radii).


title: Super-Earth

text: Additional studies, conducted with lasers at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and at the OMEGA laboratory at the University of Rochester show that the magnesium-silicate internal regions of the planet would undergo phase changes under the immense pressures and temperatures of a super-Earth planet, and that the different phases of this liquid magnesium silicate would separate into layers.


title: Super-Earth

text: Further theoretical work by Valencia and others suggests that super-Earths would be more geologically active than Earth, with more vigorous plate tectonics due to thinner plates under more stress. In fact, their models suggested that Earth was itself a "borderline" case, just barely large enough to sustain plate tectonics. However, other studies determine that strong convection currents in the mantle acting on strong gravity would make the crust stronger and thus inhibit plate tectonics. The planet's surface would be too strong for the forces of magma to break the crust into plates.


title: Super-Earth

text: New research suggests that the rocky centres of super-Earths are unlikely to evolve into terrestrial rocky planets like the inner planets of the Solar System because they appear to hold on to their large atmospheres. Rather than evolving to a planet composed mainly of rock with a thin atmosphere, the small rocky core remains engulfed by its large hydrogen-rich envelope.


title: Super-Earth

text: Theoretical models show that Hot Jupiters and Hot Neptunes can evolve by hydrodynamic loss of their atmospheres to Mini-Neptunes (as it could be the Super-Earth GJ 1214 b), or even to rocky planets known as chthonian planets (after migrating towards the proximity of their parent star). The amount of the outermost layers that is lost depends on the size and the material of the planet and the distance from the star. In a typical system a gas giant orbiting 0.02 AU around its parent star loses 5–7% of its mass during its lifetime, but orbiting closer than 0.015 AU can mean evaporation of the whole planet except for its core.


title: Super-Earth

text: The low densities inferred from observations imply that a fraction of the super-Earth population has substantial H/He envelopes, which may have been even more massive soon after formation. Therefore, contrary to the terrestrial planets of the solar system, these super-Earths must have formed during the gas-phase of their progenitor protoplanetary disk.


title: Super-Earth

text: Since the atmospheres, albedo and greenhouse effects of super-Earths are unknown, the surface temperatures are unknown and generally only an equilibrium temperature is given. For example, the black-body temperature of the Earth is 255.3 K (−18 °C or 0 °F ). It is the greenhouse gases that keep the Earth warmer. Venus has a black-body temperature of only 184.2 K (−89 °C or −128 °F ) even though Venus has a true temperature of 737 K (464 °C or 867 °F ). Though the atmosphere of Venus traps more heat than Earth's, NASA lists the black-body temperature of Venus based on the fact that Venus has an extremely high albedo (Bond albedo 0.90, Visual geometric albedo 0.67), giving it a lower black body temperature than the more absorbent (lower albedo) Earth.


title: Super-Earth

text: Earth's magnetic field results from its flowing liquid metallic core, but in super-Earths the mass can produce high pressures with large viscosities and high melting temperatures which could prevent the interiors from separating into different layers and so result in undifferentiated coreless mantles. Magnesium oxide, which is rocky on Earth, can be a liquid metal at the pressures and temperatures found in super-Earths and could generate a magnetic field in the mantles of super-Earths. That said, super-Earth magnetic fields are yet to be detected observationally.


title: Super-Earth

text: According to one hypothesis, super-Earths of about two Earth masses may be conducive to life. The higher surface gravity would lead to a thicker atmosphere, increased surface erosion and hence a flatter topography. The result could be an "archipelago planet" of shallow oceans dotted with island chains ideally suited for biodiversity. A more massive planet of two Earth masses would also retain more heat within its interior from its initial formation much longer, sustaining plate tectonics (which is vital for regulating the carbon cycle and hence the climate) for longer. The thicker atmosphere and stronger magnetic field would also shield life on the surface against harmful cosmic rays.


title: Lucas Neff

text: Lucas Neff (born November 7, 1985) is an American actor best known for his lead role in the Fox sitcom "Raising Hope" (2010-2014). Most recently, he starred in the CBS sitcom "Carol's Second Act" (2019) and co-starred as Duncan on "Monsters at Work" (2021) for Disney+.


title: Lucas Neff

text: Neff was born and raised in the Andersonville area of Chicago, Illinois. His mother, Meade Palidofsky, is the founder of Storycatchers Theatre and his father, Alan, is a lawyer and novelist. He is of Irish and Jewish descent. He graduated from Whitney M. Young Magnet High School in 2004 and with a Bachelor of Fine Arts in Theater at the University of Illinois at Chicago in 2008. He started acting when he was mistakenly assigned to the performing arts department at UIC. After college, he took classes at the Steppenwolf Theatre Company in Chicago. Neff has a younger brother. He lives in Los Angeles, California. He and Australian actress Caitlin Stasey were married in 2016, and divorced in late 2020.


title: Lucas Neff

text: His local theater debut was in the Chicago-based theater company Collaboraction's production of "Jon". While trying to start his career by appearing in storefront theater and commercials, Neff financed himself by cleaning houses, which he only began a week before being cast in his first major role. His first television role came when he was cast in a minor role in the series finale of A&E Network's "The Beast".


title: Lucas Neff

text: When a nationwide casting call was put out for "Raising Hope", Neff taped his ten-page audition and sent it in to Greg Garcia. From the first tape, Neff became Garcia's first choice for the role of Jimmy Chance. However, he was still required to go through multiple auditions, before he could be confirmed in his first major role. Neff said of the series at the time of the pilot, "It's a very sweet-hearted, kind show, and it places family first and doing the right thing first. You don't see a lot of that in TV or movies. We celebrate a lot of fancy heroes and fancy criminals and infidelity and, generally, just a lot of bad behavior. It's nice to be part of a show that celebrates decency and being good to one another."


title: Lucas Neff

text: Neff maintained his links with the theater, writing plays, such as "The Last Duck", which was performed at the Jackalope Theatre in Chicago as the final play of the 2011–2012 season. It was nominated for a Joseph Jefferson Award for Best New Work.


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: Law of the Jungle () is a South Korean reality-documentary show that airs on SBS. Each episode features celebrities sent to survive in remote locations around the world. The show was first aired on October 21, 2011. The show's 300th episode aired in 2018.


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: South Korean comedian Kim Byung-man created the "Kim Byung-man's Law of the Jungle ()" in 2011. On the show, celebrities, including actors and K-pop artists, join him in remote locations around the world to experience living in the wild. In each location, the guests are tasked to hunt, prepare meals, and create shelter for the group. Kim is the show's only regular cast member.


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: Kim did not appear on the show's 2017 episodes in Fiji after he suffered a spinal fracture while skydiving in the United States. He returned to the show for the following season in the Cook Islands.


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: The show first aired on Fridays at 11:05 pm KST on broadcast network SBS. On May 6, 2012, the show moved to Sundays at 5:00 pm. The show returned to Fridays on November 16, 2012, airing at 10:00 pm. The show moved to Saturday at 9:00 pm and shrank to 60 minutes starting from February 16, 2019.


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: Special editions of the show air occasionally. "Law of the Jungle W" features an all-female cast and generally airs during the Seollal and Chuseok holidays. "Law of the Jungle K" featured celebrities with their children, and aired as a Korean New Year special in 2013.


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: On May 26, 2020, SBS confirmed that the show would go on a hiatus due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which made travelling to foreign countries for filming of the show impossible.


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: The program rebooted on August 29, 2020 with the first domestic filming in the history, called ""Law of the Jungle" in Wild Korea".


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: "Law of the Jungle" special editions generally aired during the Seollal and Chuseok holidays. It may be "Law of the Jungle W" (W for Women, features an all-female cast, except in the 4-Part Special), or "Law of the Jungle K" (K for Kids, features celebrities with their children), or another theme.


title: Law of the Jungle (TV series)

text: In the ratings below, the highest rating for each year will be in red, and the lowest rating for each year will be in blue.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: Mark Steven Fidrych ( ; August 14, 1954 – April 13, 2009), nicknamed "The Bird", was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) baseball pitcher. He pitched his entire career for the Detroit Tigers (1976–1980).


title: Mark Fidrych

text: Known for his quirky antics on the mound, Fidrych led the major leagues with a 2.34 ERA in 1976, won the American League (AL) Rookie of the Year award, and finished with a 19–9 record. Shortly thereafter, however, injuries derailed his career, which ended after just five seasons in the major leagues.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: The son of an assistant school principal, Fidrych played baseball at Algonquin Regional High School in Northborough, Massachusetts, and at Worcester Academy, a day and boarding school in central Massachusetts. In the 1974 amateur draft he was selected in the 10th round by the Detroit Tigers. He later joked that when he received a call saying he had been drafted, he thought he was drafted into the military, not thinking there were any teams looking at him. In the minor leagues one of his coaches with the Lakeland Tigers dubbed the lanky 6-foot-3 right-handed pitcher "The Bird" because of his resemblance to the "Big Bird" character on the popular "Sesame Street" television program.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: Fidrych made the Tigers as a non-roster invitee out of the 1976 spring training, not making his MLB debut until April 20, and pitched only one inning through mid-May.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: In his third appearance, on May 15, Fidrych made his first major league start, caught by Bruce Kimm, his batterymate in 1975 at Triple A Evansville. He held the Cleveland Indians hitless through six innings and ended up with a two-hit, 2–1 complete game victory, with one walk and five strikeouts. In addition to his pitching, Fidrych attracted attention in his debut for talking to the ball while on the pitcher's mound, strutting in a circle around the mound after every out, patting down the mound, and refusing to allow groundskeepers to fix the mound in the sixth inning. After the game, sports writer Jim Hawkins wrote in the "Detroit Free Press": "He really is something to behold." Rico Carty of the Indians said he thought Fidrych "was trying to hypnotize them."


title: Mark Fidrych

text: On May 25 at Fenway Park in Boston, Fidrych started his second game in front of two busloads of fans who traveled from Fidrych's hometown of Northborough. Fidrych pitched well, allowing two earned runs (a two-run home run by Carl Yastrzemski) in eight innings, but Luis Tiant shut out the Tigers, and Fidrych received his first major league loss.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: On May 31, Fidrych pitched an 11-inning, complete-game victory over the Milwaukee Brewers. On June 5, he pitched another 11-inning, complete-game victory over the Texas Rangers in Arlington. Fidrych continued to pitch well heading into the All-Star break:


title: Mark Fidrych

text: Fidrych was named to the 1976 AL All-Star team; the game was played on July 13 at Veterans Stadium in Philadelphia. He was named the starter, at the time becoming just the second rookie to start an All-Star game following Dave Stenhouse in 1962. Fidrych gave up two earned runs in the first inning, none in the second, and took the loss.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: Just three days later, on July 16, Fidrych won his tenth game, a 1–0 victory over the A's. Four days later in Minneapolis, before Fidrych's thirteenth start, the Twins released thirteen homing pigeons on the mound before the game. According to Fidrych, "they tried to do that to blow my concentration." Fidrych pitched another complete game, an 8–3 win, and improved his record to 11–2. On Saturday, July 24, Fidrych surrendered four earned runs on nine hits and lasted only 4 innings; John Hiller got the win for the Tigers in long relief on the "Game of the Week".


title: Mark Fidrych

text: After the game, Fidrych was interviewed on live television, and a small controversy arose when Fidrych said "bullshit" on the air. Fidrych recalled: "He (NBC commentator Tony Kubek) said, it looked like you were gonna cry. I just said, No, I wasn't about to cry. I was just bullshit... And then I said, excuse me. I said, I didn't mean to swear on the air but I just showed you my feelings." The next day, Fidrych received a telegram informing him he had been fined $250 by baseball commissioner Bowie Kuhn; however, it was a prank sent by his own teammates.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: On July 29 and August 7, Fidrych threw consecutive six-hit complete games. He won one of the games and lost the other. The Tigers edged the Rangers, 4–3, on August 11 as Fidrych notched his 13th win over Gaylord Perry. Six days later, the Tigers drew a season-high 51,822 fans as Fidrych went to 14–4, beating opposing pitcher Frank Tanana 3–2. On August 25, the Tigers downed the White Sox, 3–1, in front of 40,000 fans on a Wednesday night in Detroit. Fidrych held the White Sox to five hits in a game which lasted only 108 minutes. Between August 29 and September 17, Fidrych lost three consecutive decisions, bringing his record to 16–9.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: Fidrych beat the Indians two starts in a row, on September 21 and 28. In his last start of the 1976 season, Fidrych picked up his 19th win, defeating the Brewers, 4–1, giving up five hits. A month later, Fidrych was announced as the runner-up for the Cy Young Award, with Jim Palmer taking the award.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: Fidrych won the AL Rookie of the Year Award and was named Tiger of the Year by the Detroit baseball writers. He led all of MLB in ERA (2.34) and Adjusted ERA+ (158), while leading the AL in complete games (24). He finished in the top five in several other statistical categories, including wins, win percentage, shutouts, walks plus hits per innings pitched (WHIP), and bases on balls per nine innings pitched. He received the 11th-highest vote total in the year's AL MVP voting.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: In Fidrych's 18 home starts in 1976, he compiled a 12–6 record while the Tigers averaged 33,649 fans; the team drew an average of only 13,843 in his non-starts.


title: Mark Fidrych

text: During the offseason between the 1976 and 1977 seasons, Fidrych published an autobiography with Tom Clark titled "No Big Deal."