title: Endospore

text: While significantly resistant to heat and radiation, endospores can be destroyed by burning or by autoclaving at a temperature exceeding the boiling point of water, 100 °C. Endospores are able to survive at 100 °C for hours, although the larger the number of hours the fewer that will survive. An indirect way to destroy them is to place them in an environment that reactivates them to their vegetative state. They will germinate within a day or two with the right environmental conditions, and then the vegetative cells, not as hardy as endospores, can be straightforwardly destroyed. This indirect method is called tyndallization. It was the usual method for a while in the late 19th century before the introduction of inexpensive autoclaves. Prolonged exposure to ionising radiation, such as x-rays and gamma rays, will also kill most endospores.


title: Endospore

text: The endospores of certain types of (typically non-pathogenic) bacteria, such as "Geobacillus stearothermophilus", are used as probes to verify that an autoclaved item has been rendered truly sterile: a small capsule containing the spores is put into the autoclave with the items; after the cycle the content of the capsule is cultured to check if anything will grow from it. If nothing will grow, then the spores were destroyed and the sterilization was successful.


title: Endospore

text: In hospitals, endospores on delicate invasive instruments such as endoscopes are killed by low-temperature, and non-corrosive, ethylene oxide sterilizers. Ethylene oxide is the only low-temperature sterilant to stop outbreaks on these instruments. In contrast, "high level disinfection" does not kill endospores but is used for instruments such as a colonoscope that do not enter sterile bodily cavities. This latter method uses only warm water, enzymes, and detergents.


title: Endospore

text: Bacterial endospores are resistant to antibiotics, most disinfectants, and physical agents such as radiation, boiling, and drying. The impermeability of the spore coat is thought to be responsible for the endospore's resistance to chemicals. The heat resistance of endospores is due to a variety of factors:


title: Endospore

text: Reactivation of the endospore occurs when conditions are more favourable and involves "activation", "germination", and "outgrowth". Even if an endospore is located in plentiful nutrients, it may fail to germinate unless activation has taken place. This may be triggered by heating the endospore. Germination involves the dormant endospore starting metabolic activity and thus breaking hibernation. It is commonly characterised by rupture or absorption of the spore coat, swelling of the endospore, an increase in metabolic activity, and loss of resistance to environmental stress.


title: Endospore

text: Outgrowth follows germination and involves the core of the endospore manufacturing new chemical components and exiting the old spore coat to develop into a fully functional vegetative bacterial cell, which can divide to produce more cells.


title: Endospore

text: Endospores possess five times more sulfur than vegetative cells. This excess sulfur is concentrated in spore coats as an amino acid, cysteine. It is believed that the macromolecule accountable for maintaining the dormant state has a protein coat rich in cystine, stabilized by S-S linkages. A reduction in these linkages has the potential to change the tertiary structure, causing the protein to unfold. This conformational change in the protein is thought to be responsible for exposing active enzymatic sites necessary for endospore germination.


title: Endospore

text: Endospores can stay dormant for a very long time. For instance, endospores were found in the tombs of the Egyptian pharaohs. When placed in appropriate medium, under appropriate conditions, they were able to be reactivated. In 1995, Raul Cano of California Polytechnic State University found bacterial spores in the gut of a fossilized bee trapped in amber from a tree in the Dominican Republic. The bee fossilized in amber was dated to being about 25 million years old. The spores germinated when the amber was cracked open and the material from the gut of the bee was extracted and placed in nutrient medium. After the spores were analyzed by microscopy, it was determined that the cells were very similar to "Bacillus sphaericus" which is found in bees in the Dominican Republic today.


title: Endospore

text: As a simplified model for cellular differentiation, the molecular details of endospore formation have been extensively studied, specifically in the model organism "Bacillus subtilis". These studies have contributed much to our understanding of the regulation of gene expression, transcription factors, and the sigma factor subunits of RNA polymerase.


title: Endospore

text: Endospores of the bacterium "Bacillus anthracis" were used in the 2001 anthrax attacks. The powder found in contaminated postal letters consisted of anthrax endospores. This intentional distribution led to 22 known cases of anthrax (11 inhalation and 11 cutaneous). The case fatality rate among those patients with inhalation anthrax was 45% (5/11). The six other individuals with inhalation anthrax and all the individuals with cutaneous anthrax recovered. Had it not been for antibiotic therapy, many more might have been stricken.


title: Endospore

text: According to WHO veterinary documents, "B. anthracis" sporulates when it sees oxygen instead of the carbon dioxide present in mammal blood; this signals to the bacteria that it has reached the end of the animal, and an inactive dispersable morphology is useful.


title: Endospore

text: Sporulation requires the presence of free oxygen. In the natural situation, this means the vegetative cycles occur within the low oxygen environment of the infected host and, within the host, the organism is exclusively in the vegetative form. Once outside the host, sporulation commences upon exposure to the air and the spore forms are essentially the exclusive phase in the environment.


title: Endospore

text: "Bacillus subtilis" spores are useful for the expression of recombinant proteins and in particular for the surface display of peptides and proteins as a tool for fundamental and applied research in the fields of microbiology, biotechnology and vaccination.


title: Nyquist frequency

text: In signal processing, the Nyquist frequency (or folding frequency), named after Harry Nyquist, is a characteristic of a sampler, which converts a continuous function or signal into a discrete sequence. In units of cycles per second (Hz), its value is one-half of the sampling rate (samples per second). When the highest frequency (bandwidth) of a signal is less than the Nyquist frequency of the sampler, the resulting discrete-time sequence is said to be free of the distortion known as aliasing, and the corresponding sample rate is said to be above the Nyquist rate for that particular signal.


title: Nyquist frequency

text: In a typical application of sampling, one first chooses the highest frequency to be preserved and recreated, based on the expected content (voice, music, etc.) and desired fidelity. Then one inserts an anti-aliasing filter ahead of the sampler. Its job is to attenuate the frequencies above that limit. Finally, based on the characteristics of the filter, one chooses a sample rate (and corresponding Nyquist frequency) that will provide an acceptably small amount of aliasing.


title: Nyquist frequency

text: In applications where the sample rate is pre-determined, the filter is chosen based on the Nyquist frequency, rather than vice versa. For example, audio CDs have a sampling rate of 44100 samples/sec. The Nyquist frequency is therefore 22050 Hz. The anti-aliasing filter must adequately suppress any higher frequencies but negligibly affect the frequencies within the human hearing range; a filter that preserves 0–20 kHz is more than adequate for this.


title: Nyquist frequency

text: In this example, is the sampling rate, and is the corresponding Nyquist frequency. The black dot plotted at represents the amplitude and frequency of a sinusoidal function whose frequency is 60% of the sample rate. The other three dots indicate the frequencies and amplitudes of three other sinusoids that would produce the same set of samples as the actual sinusoid that was sampled. Undersampling of the sinusoid at is what allows there to be a lower-frequency alias. If the true frequency were , there would still be aliases at 0.6, 1.4, 1.6, etc.


title: Nyquist frequency

text: The red lines depict the paths (loci) of the 4 dots if we were to adjust the frequency and amplitude of the sinusoid along the solid red segment (between    and  ).  No matter what function we choose to change the amplitude vs frequency, the graph will exhibit symmetry between 0 and    This symmetry is commonly referred to as folding, and another name for    (the Nyquist frequency) is folding frequency.


title: Nyquist frequency

text: Early uses of the term "Nyquist frequency", such as those cited above, are all consistent with the definition presented in this article. Some later publications, including some respectable textbooks, call twice the signal bandwidth the Nyquist frequency; this is a distinctly minority usage, and the frequency at twice the signal bandwidth is otherwise commonly referred to as the Nyquist rate.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: Cobb Vanth (also known as The Sheriff and later The Marshal), is a fictional character in the "Star Wars" franchise. Introduced in the 2015–2017 Chuck Wendig novel trilogy , he is a former slave who has used the Mandalorian armor of Boba Fett to bring order to Tatooine "Freetown" Mos Pelgo in the five years after the events of the 1983 film "Return of the Jedi". Throughout the trilogy, Cobb faces off against the Red Key Raiders mining collective, the Tusken Raiders, and a krayt dragon, and while successful in defeating the former is unable to find the latter.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: The character reappears in the second season of the Disney+ television series "The Mandalorian", set a month after the events of the "Aftermath" trilogy and depicting Cobb joining forces with the Tuskens and the series' title character to finally defeat the krayt dragon. He is portrayed by Timothy Olyphant, who reprised the role in spin-off series "The Book of Boba Fett", where Cobb faces off against the Pyke Syndicate and their representative, Cad Bane.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: Cobb first appeared in the 2015 Chuck Wendig novel "Aftermath", the first installment of what became known as the "Aftermath" trilogy, via an interlude chapter in each of the three novels; named as a reference to "The Office" supporting character Bob Vance, his name is often misspelled "Cobb Vance" in certain chapters throughout the "Aftermath" trilogy. He is a former Imperial slave and sheriff/marshal of the town of Mos Pelgo/Freetown.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: Cobb is voiced by Marc Thompson in the audiobook for the "Aftermath" trilogy, and played by Timothy Olyphant in the second season of "The Mandalorian" and its spin-off series "The Book of Boba Fett".


title: Cobb Vanth

text: The "Aftermath" trilogy was written by Chuck Wendig between 2015 and 2017. In addition to Cobb, the trilogy introduced several notable characters, including Norra and Snap Wexley. Beginning immediately after the events depicted in "Return of the Jedi" and concluding one year later with the Battle of Jakku, the Rebel Alliance, now known as the New Republic, fights the remnants of the Galactic Empire, as they consolidate behind Gallius Rax and Rae Sloane in two separate factions; Rax seeking to become the new Emperor, and Sloane seeking to form a more peaceful "first order". On Tatooine, various mining syndicates take advantage of the decreased Imperial presence and vacuum left by the death of Jabba the Hutt to take control over several settlements from which they demand tribute; Cobb Vanth, a former slave-turned-lawman, decides to take a stand against them.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: In Aftermath (2015), Adwin Charu, a representative for the Red Key Raiders crime syndicate that sprouts up on Tatooine after the death of Jabba the Hutt, meets with a group of Jawas for some mining equipment, as the syndicate wants to work under the guise of being a mining company, yet cannot come to any agreement with the Jawas. Cobb Vanth, present on the Jawas' vehicle, presents himself as someone willing to help Adwin find purchases for the collective, as Cobb has a rapport with the creatures. After examining the wreckage of Jabba's barge, recovered from a Sarlacc recently eaten by a krayt dragon, the pair come across some Mandalorian armor, both pulling blasters upon the other in seeking to acquire it, with Cobb shooting Adwin. Cobb orders the injured Adwin to tell the rest of the Red Key Raiders to cease their operations or he will come for them, then leaves with the armor.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: Life Debt (2016) reveals that Cobb has since become the sheriff of the town Mos Pelgo after liberating it from the Red Key Raiders' mining collective, continuing to wear the Mandalorian armor and take a stand against the Red Key Raiders' forces. Meeting Malakili, the former beastmaster for Jabba, framed for killing a group of Red Key Raiders, Cobb agrees to accompany Malakili – and the infant heir of Jabba he is protecting – Borgo – back to Mos Pelgo (also known as Freetown) to start a different life.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: In Empire's End (2017), set about a month before the events of "The Mandalorian" episode "Chapter 9: The Marshal", Cobb and Malakili continue to work together to create a deal with the Tusken Raiders to keep the town protected. The Tusken Raiders agree, due to the town being in a sacred location and having a Hutt, and themselves being promised the pearl from inside a krayt dragon. However, Red Key members capture the town before the krayt dragon can be killed, reducing Cobb's arsenal to such an extent that he is no longer able to try to kill it. While held captive, Cobb is revealed to have once been a slave, having slave markings on his back. Soon enough, Tusken Raiders come and free Cobb from the Red Key members. They then drive out the crime syndicate, and Cobb vows to continue protecting the town.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: In the time between Empire's End and The Mandalorian, however, the town is turned against the Tusken Raiders, and Malakili leaves with the Hutt.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: In May 2020, it was reported that Timothy Olyphant would appear as Cobb Vanth in the second season of "The Mandalorian" web television series, potentially confirming the character's Mandalorian armor from the "Aftermath" trilogy to have been that of Boba Fett. In the second season's premiere, "", the show's title character arrives in Mos Pelgo looking for a Mandalorian and is surprised to find Cobb instead, who is wearing Fett's Mandalorian armor. Following a brief standoff, after which Cobb summarises how he acquired the armor, he offers to give his armor to the Mandalorian in exchange for his assistance in killing the krayt dragon he failed to kill in the "Aftermath" trilogy, allying with the Tusken Raiders once again to do so. Thanks to an ingenious idea by the Mandalorian to use a bantha as a suicide bomber and have it detonate once the dragon eats it, which nearly results in failure and the Mandalorian's death, they manage to kill the dragon, obtaining a pearl in the process. Following this, Cobb honors their agreement by giving up the armor to the Mandalorian, and the two part on good terms.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: Cobb Vanth, played again by Timothy Olyphant, returns in "The Book of Boba Fett", a spin-off series of "The Mandalorian". He first appears in the sixth episode, titled "Chapter 6: From the Desert Comes a Stranger", where he faces a new threat to Mos Pelgo (renamed Freetown), namely the Pyke Syndicate, who are trying to conquer Tatooine. After Cobb confronts and shoots several Pykes, the syndicate retaliates by sending bounty hunter Cad Bane to deal with him. Before Bane arrives, Cobb is visited by the Mandalorian, who enlists his and his people's help in the upcoming war between Boba Fett's crime syndicate and the Pykes. Cobb is reluctant to get involved, but agrees to hold a townhall meeting. Shortly after the Mandalorian leaves Freetown, Bane arrives to demand that Cobb take a neutral stance in the upcoming war. After explaining Fett's prior involvement with the Empire, Bane shoots Cobb and his deputy after a showdown, killing the latter and leaving Cobb's fate uncertain.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: Cobb is revealed to have survived in the mid-credits scene of "Chapter 7: In the Name of Honor", where he is seen recovering in Fett's bacta tank while the mod artist who saved Fennec Shand's life after she was similarly wounded prepares to apply cybernetic enhancements to him.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: Upon the character's initial appearance in the "Aftermath" trilogy, speculation was common as to the character's Mandalorian armor belonging to Boba Fett, or the character themselves being a disguised Fett; the former theory was proven true in the second season of "The Mandalorian". Olyphant's portrayal of Cobb in "The Mandalorian" was generally praised, with Rachel Leishman of "The Mary Sue" describing the character's backstory of acquiring the armor of Fett as "[h]onestly, iconic", and "Comic Book Resources" drawing comparisons of Olyphant's portrayal to "basically [his "Justified" character] Raylan Givens... in Space". "TechRadar" additionally expressed interest in seeing a spin-off developed around the character.


title: Cobb Vanth

text: Olyphant's performance as Vanth in the second season of "The Mandalorian" earned him a nomination for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: Gridiron Gang is a 2006 American sports drama film directed by Phil Joanou, and starring Dwayne Johnson, Xzibit, L. Scott Caldwell and Kevin Dunn. It is loosely based on the true story of the Kilpatrick Mustangs during the 1990 season. The film was released in the United States on September 15, 2006. It was distributed by Sony Pictures Releasing and Columbia Pictures.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: Sean Porter (Dwayne Johnson) works at Kilpatrick Detention Center in Los Angeles. He becomes frustrated at not being able to help the kids get away from their problems in life when they are released from the center, such as street gangs and drug dealings. He decides to create a football team so the kids can feel like they're part of something. Porter believes that football will teach the teenage inmates what it takes to be responsible, mature, and disciplined winners.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: He picks out a few kids in the room that he feels will benefit from this program and requires that they practice with him the following day. He states to his new team, the Kilpatrick Mustangs, "You do it my way, not your way. Your way got you here and you're here because you lost. Right now you are all losers, but if you accept this challenge and stick with the program, you are all going to be winners at the end."


title: Gridiron Gang

text: Two of the teens do not get along because they are from rival gangs. William "Willie" Weathers (Jade Yorker) is from the 88's and Kelvin Owens (David Thomas) is from the 95's (also why you will notice Willie wears the number 13 and Kelvin wears the number 31). The first game is against one of the best teams in the league, Barrington Panthers. The game starts out somewhat positive for the Mustangs, as they recover a fumble on the first drive, but things quickly turn. They are demolished by Barrington, losing by 38 points.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: After starting 0–2, the Mustangs start winning games as they learn to work together. Kelvin and Willie finally shake hands when they win a game by one touchdown after Kelvin makes a big block for Willie. Near the end of the season, the Mustangs are headed for the playoffs. They are getting more publicity and more fans along the way.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: One of Willie's 88 gang mates, Free, stops by the field. He realizes that Kelvin is a 95. Free and Kelvin get into a fight, and Free shoots Kelvin in the shoulder. As Free prepares to put another bullet in Kelvin's head, Willie runs toward Free and tackles him to the ground to save Kelvin. Free is shocked that Willie helped Kelvin and not him.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: The police show up, and Free runs off. He fires at the responding officers who fire in return, killing him. Although Kelvin survives the attack, he will not be able to play in the finals. Kilpatrick is almost forced to forfeit the playoff game due to concerns about further gang violence, but Porter's boss steps in to prevent it by arranging for volunteers from neighboring police departments to patrol the game. The County Sheriff's spokesperson states that "We will do whatever it takes to ensure that gangs do not take over the lives of our youth".


title: Gridiron Gang

text: In the playoff game, a rematch against Barrington, the Mustangs go into the half down 14–0. Willie gives a motivational speech, and they go out and beat Barrington on the last play of the game. It is revealed in the narration that they lost the championship game 17–14, but no one called them losers. A few months later, Sean's football method is officially made part of the program.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: Nearly all the former members of the Mustangs are doing well in their new lives outside the detention center: Willie Weathers is playing football at a top boarding school. Kelvin Owens is playing football for Washington High. Kenny Bates is going to school in Redondo Beach and living with his mother. Junior Palaita got a job working for a furniture company and Leon Hayes is playing football for Dorsey High. However, Miguel Perez and Donald Madlock went back to their old gangs and are now in California youth authority prisons, and Bug Wendal was killed in a drive-by shooting in Compton, California.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: In all, 24 of the players are continuing their educations, three are working full-time jobs, and only five are back in jail. The movie ends with a new group of Mustangs training for the next season. Some footage of the 1993 "Gridiron Gang" documentary is shown during the end credits.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: It is set and filmed at Agoura Hills, Camp Kilpatrick, Los Angeles, San Fernando and Westlake Village, California, in 92 days between May 23 and August 23, 2005.


title: Gridiron Gang

text: Rotten Tomatoes reports a 43% approval rating with an average rating of 5.65/10 based on 101 reviews. The website's consensus reads, "The role of probation officer Sean Porter fits Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson like a glove; however, the execution is so clichéd, the youths' stories (based on real events), fail to inspire."


title: Gridiron Gang

text: DVD was released in Region 1 in the United States on January 16, 2007, and also Region 2 in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2007, it was distributed by Newvideo Home Entertainment.


title: Twin prime

text: A twin prime is a prime number that is either 2 less or 2 more than another prime number—for example, either member of the twin prime pair (41, 43). In other words, a twin prime is a prime that has a prime gap of two. Sometimes the term "twin prime" is used for a pair of twin primes; an alternative name for this is prime twin or prime pair.


title: Twin prime

text: Twin primes become increasingly rare as one examines larger ranges, in keeping with the general tendency of gaps between adjacent primes to become larger as the numbers themselves get larger. However, it is unknown whether there are infinitely many twin primes (the so-called twin prime conjecture) or if there is a largest pair. The breakthrough work of Yitang Zhang in 2013, as well as work by James Maynard, Terence Tao and others, has made substantial progress towards proving that there are infinitely many twin primes, but at present this remains unsolved.


title: Twin prime

text: Usually the pair (2, 3) is not considered to be a pair of twin primes. Since 2 is the only even prime, this pair is the only pair of prime numbers that differ by one; thus twin primes are as closely spaced as possible for any other two primes.


title: Twin prime

text: Five is the only prime that belongs to two pairs, as every twin prime pair greater than formula_1 is of the form formula_2 for some natural number "n"; that is, the number between the two primes is a multiple of 6. As a result, the sum of any pair of twin primes (other than 3 and 5) is divisible by 12.


title: Twin prime

text: In 1915, Viggo Brun showed that the sum of reciprocals of the twin primes was convergent. This famous result, called Brun's theorem, was the first use of the Brun sieve and helped initiate the development of modern sieve theory. The modern version of Brun's argument can be used to show that the number of twin primes less than "N" does not exceed


title: Twin prime

text: The question of whether there exist infinitely many twin primes has been one of the great open questions in number theory for many years. This is the content of the "twin prime conjecture", which states that there are infinitely many primes "p" such that "p" + 2 is also prime. In 1849, de Polignac made the more general conjecture that for every natural number "k", there are infinitely many primes "p" such that "p" + 2"k" is also prime. The case "k" = 1 of de Polignac's conjecture is the twin prime conjecture.


title: Twin prime

text: A stronger form of the twin prime conjecture, the Hardy–Littlewood conjecture (see below), postulates a distribution law for twin primes akin to the prime number theorem.


title: Twin prime

text: On April 17, 2013, Yitang Zhang announced a proof that for some integer "N" that is less than 70 million, there are infinitely many pairs of primes that differ by "N". Zhang's paper was accepted by "Annals of Mathematics" in early May 2013. Terence Tao subsequently proposed a Polymath Project collaborative effort to optimize Zhang's bound. As of April 14, 2014, one year after Zhang's announcement, the bound has been reduced to 246. These improved bounds were discovered using a different approach that was simpler than Zhang's and was discovered independently by James Maynard and Terence Tao. This second approach also gave bounds for the smallest "f"("m") needed to guarantee that infinitely many intervals of width "f"("m") contain at least "m" primes. Moreover (see also the next section) assuming the Elliott–Halberstam conjecture and its generalized form, the Polymath project wiki states that the bound is 12 and 6, respectively.


title: Twin prime

text: A strengthening of Goldbach’s conjecture, if proved, would also prove there is an infinite number of twin primes, as would the existence of Siegel zeroes.


title: Twin prime

text: In 1940, Paul Erdős showed that there is a constant and infinitely many primes such that where denotes the next prime after . What this means is that we can find infinitely many intervals that contain two primes as long as we let these intervals grow slowly in size as we move to bigger and bigger primes. Here, "grow slowly" means that the length of these intervals can grow logarithmically. This result was successively improved; in 1986 Helmut Maier showed that a constant can be used. In 2004 Daniel Goldston and Cem Yıldırım showed that the constant could be improved further to In 2005, Goldston, János Pintz and Yıldırım established that can be chosen to be arbitrarily small, i.e.


title: Twin prime

text: On the other hand, this result does not rule out that there may not be infinitely many intervals that contain two primes if we only allow the intervals to grow in size as, for example, .


title: Twin prime

text: By assuming the Elliott–Halberstam conjecture or a slightly weaker version, they were able to show that there are infinitely many such that at least two of , , , , , , or are prime. Under a stronger hypothesis they showed that for infinitely many , at least two of , , , and are prime.


title: Twin prime

text: is a major improvement on the Goldston–Graham–Pintz–Yıldırım result. The Polymath Project optimization of Zhang's bound and the work of Maynard have reduced the bound: the lim inf is at most 246.


title: Twin prime

text: The Hardy–Littlewood conjecture (named after G. H. Hardy and John Littlewood) is a generalization of the twin prime conjecture. It is concerned with the distribution of prime constellations, including twin primes, in analogy to the prime number theorem. Let denote the number of primes such that is also prime. Define the twin prime constant as


title: Twin prime

text: (here the product extends over all prime numbers ). Then a special case of the first Hardy-Littlewood conjecture is that


title: Twin prime

text: in the sense that the quotient of the two expressions tends to 1 as approaches infinity. (The second ~ is not part of the conjecture and is proven by integration by parts.)


title: Twin prime

text: The conjecture can be justified (but not proven) by assuming that describes the density function of the prime distribution. This assumption, which is suggested by the prime number theorem, implies the twin prime conjecture, as shown in the formula for above.


title: Twin prime

text: The fully general first Hardy–Littlewood conjecture on prime "k"-tuples (not given here) implies that the "second" Hardy–Littlewood conjecture is false.


title: Twin prime

text: Polignac's conjecture from 1849 states that for every positive even integer , there are infinitely many consecutive prime pairs and such that (i.e. there are infinitely many prime gaps of size ). The case is the twin prime conjecture. The conjecture has not yet been proven or disproven for any specific value of , but Zhang's result proves that it is true for at least one (currently unknown) value of . Indeed, if such a did not exist, then for any positive even natural number there are at most finitely many such that formula_10 for all and so for large enough we have formula_11 which would contradict Zhang's result.


title: Twin prime

text: Beginning in 2007, two distributed computing projects, Twin Prime Search and PrimeGrid, have produced several record-largest twin primes. , the current largest twin prime pair known is 2996863034895 · 2 ± 1, with 388,342 decimal digits. It was discovered in September 2016.


title: Twin prime

text: An empirical analysis of all prime pairs up to 4.35 · 10 shows that if the number of such pairs less than x is f(x)·x/(log x) then f(x) is about 1.7 for small x and decreases towards about 1.3 as x tends to infinity. The limiting value of f(x) is conjectured to equal twice the twin prime constant () (not to be confused with Brun's constant), according to the Hardy–Littlewood conjecture.


title: Twin prime

text: Every third odd number is divisible by 3, which requires that no three successive odd numbers can be prime unless one of them is 3. Five is therefore the only prime that is part of two twin prime pairs. The lower member of a pair is by definition a Chen prime.


title: Twin prime

text: For a twin prime pair of the form (6"n" − 1, 6"n" + 1) for some natural number "n" > 1, "n" must end in the digit 0, 2, 3, 5, 7, or 8 ().


title: Twin prime

text: An isolated prime (also known as single prime or non-twin prime) is a prime number "p" such that neither "p" − 2 nor "p" + 2 is prime. In other words, "p" is not part of a twin prime pair. For example, 23 is an isolated prime, since 21 and 25 are both composite.


title: Twin prime

text: the ratio of the number of isolated primes less than a given threshold "n" and the number of all primes less than "n" tends to 1 as "n" tends to infinity.


title: Princess Feodora of Leiningen

text: Princess Feodora of Leiningen (Anna Feodora Auguste Charlotte Wilhelmine; 7 December 1807 – 23 September 1872) was the only daughter of Emich Carl, Prince of Leiningen (1763–1814), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (1786–1861). Feodora and her older brother Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen, were maternal half-siblings to Queen Victoria of Great Britain. She is a matrilineal ancestress (through women only) of Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden and of Felipe VI of Spain.


title: Princess Feodora of Leiningen

text: Feodora was born in Amorbach, Bavaria, on 7 December 1807 to Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld and her first husband, Emich Carl, Prince of Leiningen. She received her first two names from her maternal aunt, Grand Duchess Anna Feodorovna of Russia, who was born Princess Juliane of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld but received the name Anna Feodorovna following her conversion to Eastern Christianity, for her marriage to Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia in 1796. Feodora's father died in 1814.


title: Princess Feodora of Leiningen

text: On 29 May 1818, her mother remarried to Prince Edward Augustus, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III. The following year, when the duchess's pregnancy was reaching full term, the household moved so that the new potential heir to the British throne could be born in Britain.


title: Princess Feodora of Leiningen

text: Feodora enjoyed a very close relationship with her younger half-sister Victoria, who was devoted to her, although Victoria resented the fact that Feodora was one of only a few other children with whom she was allowed regular interaction. Despite their closeness, Feodora was eager to leave their residence at Kensington Palace permanently, as her "only happy time was driving out" with Victoria and her governess Baroness Louise Lehzen, when she could "speak and look as she liked".


title: Princess Feodora of Leiningen

text: In early 1828, Feodora married Ernst I, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg (1794–1860), at Kensington Palace. The match was arranged by Queen Adelaide of Great Britain, as Prince Ernst I was her first cousin. Prior to that, she had only met him twice. After their honeymoon, she returned to the German Confederation, where she lived until her death in 1872. The prince had no domain, however, as the principality had been mediatised to Württemberg in 1806. The couple lived in a large and uncomfortable castle, Schloss Langenburg.


title: Princess Feodora of Leiningen

text: Feodora maintained a lifelong correspondence with her half-sister Victoria and was granted an allowance of £300 () whenever she could visit Britain. She was a member of the royal party at Victoria's coronation in 1838.


title: Princess Feodora of Leiningen

text: Feodora's youngest daughter, the Duchess of Saxe-Meiningen, died in early 1872 of scarlet fever. Feodora died later that year. On hearing of Feodora's death, Victoria wrote:


title: Princess Feodora of Leiningen

text: In "Victoria" Series 3 (2019), Feodora is played by Kate Fleetwood. In the programme, Feodora is portrayed as a scheming, jealous sister who has fled Langenburg and refuses to return to her home, which is not historically accurate. Also, Feodora claims that King George IV (who was Victoria's paternal uncle and related to Feodora through her mother as a third cousin twice removed) wanted to marry her, but there is no historical evidence for that.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Software-defined networking (SDN) technology is an approach to network management that enables dynamic, programmatically efficient network configuration in order to improve network performance and monitoring, making it more like cloud computing than traditional network management. SDN is meant to address the static architecture of traditional networks. SDN attempts to centralize network intelligence in one network component by disassociating the forwarding process of network packets (data plane) from the routing process (control plane). The control plane consists of one or more controllers, which are considered the brain of the SDN network where the whole intelligence is incorporated. However, centralization has its own drawbacks when it comes to security, scalability and elasticity and this is the main issue of SDN.


title: Software-defined networking

text: SDN was commonly associated with the OpenFlow protocol (for remote communication with network plane elements for the purpose of determining the path of network packets across network switches) since the latter's emergence in 2011. However, since 2012, proprietary systems also used the term. These include Cisco Systems' Open Network Environment and Nicira's network virtualization platform.


title: Software-defined networking

text: The history of SDN principles can be traced back to the separation of the control and data plane first used in the public switched telephone network as a way to simplify provisioning and management well before this architecture began to be used in data networks.


title: Software-defined networking

text: The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) began considering various ways to decouple the control and forwarding functions in a proposed interface standard published in 2004 appropriately named "Forwarding and Control Element Separation" (ForCES). The ForCES Working Group also proposed a companion SoftRouter Architecture. Additional early standards from the IETF that pursued separating control from data include the Linux Netlink as an IP Services Protocol and A Path Computation Element (PCE)-Based Architecture.


title: Software-defined networking

text: These early attempts failed to gain traction for two reasons. One is that many in the Internet community viewed separating control from data to be risky, especially owing to the potential for a failure in the control plane. The second is that vendors were concerned that creating standard application programming interfaces (APIs) between the control and data planes would result in increased competition.


title: Software-defined networking

text: The use of open-source software in split control/data plane architectures traces its roots to the Ethane project at Stanford's computer sciences department. Ethane's simple switch design led to the creation of OpenFlow. An API for OpenFlow was first created in 2008. That same year witnessed the creation of NOX—an operating system for networks.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Several patent applications were filed by independent researchers in 2007 describing practical applications for SDN, operating system for networks, network infrastructure compute units as a multi-core CPU, and a method for virtual network segmentation based on functionality. These applications became public in 2009 and have since been abandoned, rendering all information within prior art.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Work on OpenFlow continued at Stanford, including with the creation of testbeds to evaluate the use of the protocol in a single campus network, as well as across the WAN as a backbone for connecting multiple campuses. In academic settings there were a few research and production networks based on OpenFlow switches from NEC and Hewlett-Packard; as well as based on Quanta Computer whiteboxes, starting from about 2009.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Beyond academia, the first deployments were by Nicira in 2010 to control OVS from Onix, co-developed with NTT and Google. A notable deployment was Google's B4 deployment in 2012. Later Google acknowledged their first OpenFlow with Onix deployments in their Datacenters at the same time. Another known large deployment is at China Mobile.


title: Software-defined networking

text: At the 2014 Interop and Tech Field Day, software-defined networking was demonstrated by Avaya using shortest path bridging (IEEE 802.1aq) and OpenStack as an automated campus, extending automation from the data center to the end device, removing manual provisioning from service delivery.


title: Software-defined networking

text: SDN architectures decouple network control and forwarding functions, enabling the network control to become directly programmable and the underlying infrastructure to be abstracted from applications and network services.


title: Software-defined networking

text: The explosion of mobile devices and content, server virtualization, and the advent of cloud services are among the trends driving the networking industry to re-examine traditional network architectures. Many conventional networks are hierarchical, built with tiers of Ethernet switches arranged in a tree structure. This design made sense when client-server computing was dominant, but such a static architecture is ill-suited to the dynamic computing and storage needs of today's enterprise data centers, campuses, and carrier environments. Some of the key computing trends driving the need for a new network paradigm include:


title: Software-defined networking

text: The implementation of the SDN control plane can follow a centralized, hierarchical, or decentralized design. Initial SDN control plane proposals focused on a centralized solution, where a single control entity has a global view of the network. While this simplifies the implementation of the control logic, it has scalability limitations as the size and dynamics of the network increase. To overcome these limitations, several approaches have been proposed in the literature that fall into two categories, hierarchical and fully distributed approaches. In hierarchical solutions, distributed controllers operate on a partitioned network view, while decisions that require network-wide knowledge are taken by a logically centralized root controller. In distributed approaches, controllers operate on their local view or they may exchange synchronization messages to enhance their knowledge. Distributed solutions are more suitable for supporting adaptive SDN applications.


title: Software-defined networking

text: A key issue when designing a distributed SDN control plane is to decide on the number and placement of control entities. An important parameter to consider while doing so is the propagation delay between the controllers and the network devices, especially in the context of large networks. Other objectives that have been considered involve control path reliability, fault tolerance, and application requirements.


title: Software-defined networking

text: In SDN, the data plane is responsible for processing data-carrying packets using a set of rules specified by the control plane. The data plane may be implemented in physical hardware switches or in software implementations, such as Open vSwitch. The memory capacity of hardware switches may limit the number of rules that can be stored where as software implementations may have higher capacity.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Flow table entries may be populated in a proactive, reactive, or hybrid fashion. In the proactive mode, the controller populates flow table entries for all possible traffic matches possible for this switch in advance. This mode can be compared with typical routing table entries today, where all static entries are installed ahead of time. Following this, no request is sent to the controller since all incoming flows will find a matching entry. A major advantage in proactive mode is that all packets are forwarded in line rate (considering all flow table entries in TCAM) and no delay is added. In the reactive mode, entries are populated on demand. If a packet arrives without a corresponding match rule in the flow table, the SDN agent sends a request to the controller for further instruction it the reactive mode. The controller examines the SDN agent requests and provides instruction, installing a rule in the flow table for the corresponding packet if necessary. The hybrid mode uses the low-latency proactive forwarding mode for a portion of traffic while relying on the flexibility of reactive mode processing for the remaining traffic.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Software-defined mobile networking (SDMN) is an approach to the design of mobile networks where all protocol-specific features are implemented in software, maximizing the use of generic and commodity hardware and software in both the core network and radio access network. It is proposed as an extension of SDN paradigm to incorporate mobile network specific functionalities. Since 3GPP Rel.14, a Control User Plane Separation was introduced in the Mobile Core Network architectures with the PFCP protocol.


title: Software-defined networking

text: An SD-WAN is a WAN managed using the principles of software-defined networking. The main driver of SD-WAN is to lower WAN costs using more affordable and commercially available leased lines, as an alternative or partial replacement of more expensive MPLS lines. Control and management is administered separately from the hardware with central controllers allowing for easier configuration and administration.


title: Software-defined networking

text: An SD-LAN is a Local area network (LAN) built around the principles of software-defined networking, though there are key differences in topology, network security, application visibility and control, management and quality of service. SD-LAN decouples control management, and data planes to enable a policy driven architecture for wired and wireless LANs. SD-LANs are characterized by their use of a cloud management system and wireless connectivity without the presence of a physical controller.


title: Software-defined networking

text: SDN architecture may enable, facilitate or enhance network-related security applications due to the controller's central view of the network, and its capacity to reprogram the data plane at any time. While security of SDN architecture itself remains an open question that has already been studied a couple of times in the research community, the following paragraphs only focus on the security applications made possible or revisited using SDN.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Several research works on SDN have already investigated security applications built upon the SDN controller, with different aims in mind. Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) detection and mitigation, as well as botnet and worm propagation, are some concrete use-cases of such applications: basically, the idea consists in periodically collecting network statistics from the forwarding plane of the network in a standardized manner (e.g. using Openflow), and then apply classification algorithms on those statistics in order to detect any network anomalies. If an anomaly is detected, the application instructs the controller how to reprogram the data plane in order to mitigate it.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Another kind of security application leverages the SDN controller by implementing some moving target defense (MTD) algorithms. MTD algorithms are typically used to make any attack on a given system or network more difficult than usual by periodically hiding or changing key properties of that system or network. In traditional networks, implementing MTD algorithms is not a trivial task since it is difficult to build a central authority able of determining - for each part of the system to be protected - which key properties are hid or changed. In an SDN network, such tasks become more straightforward thanks to the centrality of the controller. One application can for example periodically assign virtual IPs to hosts within the network, and the mapping virtual IP/real IP is then performed by the controller. Another application can simulate some fake opened/closed/filtered ports on random hosts in the network in order to add significant noise during reconnaissance phase (e.g. scanning) performed by an attacker.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Additional value regarding security in SDN enabled networks can also be gained using FlowVisor and FlowChecker respectively. The former tries to use a single hardware forwarding plane sharing multiple separated logical networks. Following this approach the same hardware resources can be used for production and development purposes as well as separating monitoring, configuration and internet traffic, where each scenario can have its own logical topology which is called slice. In conjunction with this approach FlowChecker realizes the validation of new OpenFlow rules that are deployed by users using their own slice.


title: Software-defined networking

text: SDN controller applications are mostly deployed in large-scale scenarios, which requires comprehensive checks of possible programming errors. A system to do this called NICE was described in 2012. Introducing an overarching security architecture requires a comprehensive and protracted approach to SDN. Since it was introduced, designers are looking at possible ways to secure SDN that do not compromise scalability. One architecture called SN-SECA (SDN+NFV) Security Architecture.


title: Software-defined networking

text: Distributed applications that run across datacenters usually replicate data for the purpose of synchronization, fault resiliency, load balancing and getting data closer to users (which reduces latency to users and increases their perceived throughput). Also, many applications, such as Hadoop, replicate data within a datacenter across multiple racks to increase fault tolerance and make data recovery easier. All of these operations require data delivery from one machine or datacenter to multiple machines or datacenters. The process of reliably delivering data from one machine to multiple machines is referred to as Reliable Group Data Delivery (RGDD).


title: Software-defined networking

text: SDN switches can be used for RGDD via installation of rules that allow forwarding to multiple outgoing ports. For example, OpenFlow provides support for Group Tables since version 1.1 which makes this possible. Using SDN, a central controller can carefully and intelligently setup forwarding trees for RGDD. Such trees can be built while paying attention to network congestion/load status to improve performance. For example, MCTCP is a scheme for delivery to many nodes inside datacenters that relies on regular and structured topologies of datacenter networks while DCCast and QuickCast are approaches for fast and efficient data and content replication across datacenters over private WANs.


title: Software-defined networking

text: NFV Network Function Virtualization is a concept that complements SDN. Thus, NFV is not dependent on SDN or SDN concepts. NFV disunites software from hardware to enable flexible network deployment and dynamic operation. NFV deployments typically use commodity servers to run network services software versions that previously were hardware-based. These software-based services that run in an NFV environment are called Virtual Network Functions (VNF). SDN-NFV hybrid program was provided for high efficiency, elastic and scalable capabilities NFV aimed at accelerating service innovation and provisioning using standard IT virtualization technologies. SDN provides the agility of controlling the generic forwarding devices such as the routers and switches by using SDN controllers. On the other hand, NFV agility is provided for the network applications by using virtualized servers. It is entirely possible to implement a virtualized network function (VNF) as a standalone entity using existing networking and orchestration paradigms. However, there are inherent benefits in leveraging SDN concepts to implement and manage an NFV infrastructure, particularly when looking at the management and orchestration of VNFs, and that's why multivendor platforms are being defined that incorporate SDN and NFV in concerted ecosystems.


title: Software-defined networking

text: DPI Deep Packet Inspection provides network with application-awareness, while SDN provides applications with network-awareness. Although SDN will radically change the generic network architectures, it should cope with working with traditional network architectures to offer high interoperability. The new SDN based network architecture should consider all the capabilities that are currently provided in separate devices or software other than the main forwarding devices (routers and switches) such as the DPI, security appliances


title: Software-defined networking

text: When using an SDN based model for transmitting multimedia traffic, an important aspect to take account is the QoE estimation. To estimate the QoE, first we have to be able to classify the traffic and then, it's recommended that the system can solve critical problems on its own by analyzing the traffic.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: Ulysses John Lupien Sr. (December 12, 1883 – August 15, 1965) was an American businessman and government official who served as Massachusetts director of civil service and city manager of Lowell, Massachusetts.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: Lupien was born in Cochituate, a neighborhood in Wayland, Massachusetts. His parents were of French descent and were brought to the United States from Canada when they were infants. He was named "Ulysses" because of his grandfather's admiration for President Ulysses S. Grant. He began working at the age of 14, shoeing mules at the Metropolitan Water Works. After about six months, he was given a job swinging a sledgehammer and was later promoted to a pick and shovel crew. He later worked in construction as a concrete mixer and as a shoe packer for a shoe manufacturing company. Lupien also played semipro baseball while working and attending school.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: After graduating from Wayland High School, Lupien attended Harvard College. He worked his way through school as a tutor. While at Harvard, Lupien was unable to play for the school's varsity athletic teams due to his status as a semipro baseball player. He graduated from Harvard in 1906.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: After graduating, Lupien worked at the General Electric plant in Lynn, Massachusetts. During World War I, he was in charge of construction at the Bethlehem Sparrows Point Shipyard in Sparrows Point, Maryland. Lupien later worked as a teacher and athletic coach at the Lowell Textile Institute. Courses taught by Lupien included electrical engineering and physics. While he was at the Institute, Lupien also acted as a contractor on the school's construction projects, which included additions to the school and installing a power plant.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: Lupien left the Institute to enter the business world. His first job was as director of industrial relations at Cheney Brothers in Manchester, Connecticut. In 1933, he returned to Massachusetts as the director of public relations for Pacific Mills in Lawrence, Massachusetts. His duties as public relations director included passing on the qualifications of job applicants, which were then divided into between 200 and 250 types of work.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: In 1939, Lupien was appointed to a five-year term as the state director of civil service. The position was created by a revision in the state law which replaced the three-person civil service board with a five-person commission consisting of members of both political parties and a civil service director chosen by the board and approved by the Governor. His duties consisted of appointing examiners, setting up classifications, and judging appeals.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: Lupien's appointment was heralded as an end to favoritism in civil service hiring. Lupien considered himself to be a political independent, as he had never voted a straight party line in his life, and his only political experience was on the Chelmsford, Massachusetts school committee more than two decades earlier. He sought to eliminate the practice of job selling in the state civil service and pledged to hire the best person, regardless of race, religion, or political affiliation. He was praised for breathing new life into the civil service system, but was also involved in a number of controversies involving the hiring and firing of employees. One such controversy involved the Lowell School Committee voting to bypass Lupien's recommendation for the position of school attendance officer, a disabled veteran who had scored a 72 on the civil service test, in favor of a woman who had earned a higher score (90), as the committee had asked only for a list of female candidates (the school system already had a male attendance officer and wanted a female officer as there was a majority of female students). He was also criticized by Boston City Councilor Charles I. Taylor for usurping the power of the chief executives of the cities in towns by serving as the final authority on whether or not municipalities needed additional temporary help.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: After his term ended, Lupien returned to Pacific Mills as the consulting director of public relations.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: On November 29, 1952, the Lowell City Council voted five to four to appoint Lupien to the position of city manager. Lupien was elected over City Solicitor P. Harold Ready on the 10th ballot at a special meeting called days before incumbent city manager John J. Flannery was to retire due to ill health. Lupien was sworn in by the city clerk soon after the vote was taken. In September 1953, the Lowell retirement board ruled that Lupien, who would turn 70 in December, must quit by December 31 of that year, citing a provision in the retirement law dealing with employees who began their initial employment with the city after the age of 60. On November 10, 1953, the City Council voted five to three to remove Lupien from office in order to give the next city manager plenty of time to prepare the city's budget for the following year.


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: After his firing, Lupien campaigned to get his job back. Four city councilors strongly supported him and were ready to rehire him if a fifth councilor was willing to join them. He remained involved in Lowell politics by delivering a weekly "State of the Nation" radio address. On July 24, 1954, Lupien announced his candidacy for the Massachusetts Senate seat in the 1st Middlesex District, which included his hometown of Chelmsford as well as most of Lowell. He faced incumbent Senator Paul A. Achin and former Lowell City Council candidate Joseph N. Herbert. According to Fred A. Simmonds of "The Boston Daily Globe", Lupien's candidacy was viewed by some as a test of strength in his effort to return to Lowell politics. Lupien finished second in the primary with 2731 (36%) votes to Achin's 4099 (54%).


title: Ulysses J. Lupien

text: Lupien lived on a small farm in Chelmsford from 1939 until his death. He had four sons, Ulysses John "Tony" Lupien Jr., an athletic standout at Harvard who played professional baseball for the Boston Red Sox, Philadelphia Phillies, Chicago White Sox, and in the Pacific Coast League, Albert J. Lupien, captain of the 1932 Harvard Crimson football team, Theodore A. Lupien, also a varsity athlete at Harvard, and Frank U. Lupien. His great-grandson is wrestler John Cena, and his great-granddaughter is computer scientist Natalie Enright Jerger.


title: Names of Germany

text: Because of Germany's long history before 1871 as a non-united region of distinct tribes and states, there are many widely varying names of Germany in different languages, more so than for any other European nation. For example, in the German language, the country is known as from the Old High German , in Arabic as "Almania (ألمانيا)," in Spanish as and in French as from the name of the Alamanni tribe, in Italian as from the Latin (although the German people are called ), in Polish as from the Proto-Slavic "nemets", and in Finnish and Estonian as and respectively from the name of the Saxon tribe.


title: Names of Germany

text: 6. From the name of Prussia*: "Teutonisch Land", "Teutschland" used in many areas until the 19th century (see Walhalla opening song)


title: Names of Germany

text: The name "Deutschland" and the other similar-sounding names above are derived from the Old High German "diutisc", or similar variants from Proto-Germanic "*Þeudiskaz" (Old English "þeod"), which originally meant "of the people". This in turn comes from a Germanic word meaning "folk" (leading to Old High German "diot", Middle High German "diet"), and was used to differentiate between the speakers of Germanic languages and those who spoke Celtic or Romance languages. These words come from *"teuta", the Proto-Indo-European word for "people" (Lithuanian and Latvian "tauta", Old Irish "tuath").


title: Names of Germany

text: Also the Italian for "German", "tedesco" (local or archaic variants: "todesco", "tudesco", "todisco"), comes from the same Old High German root, although not the name for "Germany" ("Germania"). Also in the standardised Romansh language "Germania" is the normal name for Germany but in Sursilvan, Sutsilvan and Surmiran it is commonly referred to as "Tiaratudestga", "Tearatudestga" and "Tera tudestga" respectively, with "tiara/teara/tera" meaning "land". French words "thiois", "tudesque", "théotisque" and "Thiogne" and Spanish "tudesco" share this etymology.


title: Names of Germany

text: The Germanic language which "diutisc" most likely comes from is West Frankish, a language which died out a long time ago and which there is hardly any written evidence for today. This was the Germanic dialect used in the early Middle Ages, spoken by the Franks in Western Francia, i.e. in the region which is now northern France. The word is only known from the Latin form "theodiscus". Until the 8th century the Franks called their language "frengisk"; however, when the Franks moved their political and cultural centre to the area where France now is, the term "frengisk" became ambiguous, as in the West Francian territory some Franks spoke Latin, some vulgar Latin and some "theodisc". For this reason a new word was needed to help differentiate between them. Thus the word "theodisc" evolved from the Germanic word "theoda" (the people) with the Latin suffix "-iscus", to mean "belonging to the people", i.e. the people's language.


title: Names of Germany

text: In Eastern Francia, roughly the area where Germany now is, it seems that the new word was taken on by the people only slowly, over the centuries: in central Eastern Francia the word "frengisk" was used for a lot longer, as there was no need for people to distinguish themselves from the distant Franks. The word "diutsch" and other variants were only used by people to describe themselves, at first as an alternative term, from about the 10th century. It was used, for example, in the Sachsenspiegel, a legal code, written in Middle Low German in about 1220: " Iewelk düdesch" "lant hevet sinen palenzgreven: sassen, beieren, vranken unde svaven"


title: Names of Germany

text: The Teutoni, a tribe with a name which probably came from the same root, did, through Latin, ultimately give birth to the English words "Teuton" (first found in 1530) for the adjective German, (as in the Teutonic Knights, a military religious order, and the Teutonic Cross) and "Teuton" (noun), attested from 1833. "Teuton" was also used for "Teutonisch Land" (land of the Teutons), its abbreviation "Teutschland" used in some areas until the 19th century and its currently used official variation "Deutschland".


title: Names of Germany

text: In the northern French language area (northern France, Belgium), the neighboring Germanic dialects, areas and inhabitants of Flanders to Alsace are sometimes referred to as "Thiois", most likely still for the area between Maastricht and Aachen and for the traditional German speaking part of Lorraine ("Lorraine Thioise"), The term is obsolete and derives from theodisc (see above).


title: Names of Germany

text: The name "Germany" and the other similar-sounding names above are all derived from the Latin "Germania", of the 3rd century BC, a word simply describing fertile land behind the "limes" (frontier). It was likely the Gauls who first called the people who crossed east of the Rhine "Germani" (which the Romans adopted) as the original Germanic tribes did not refer to themselves as "Germanus" (singular) or "Germani" (plural).


title: Names of Germany

text: Julius Caesar was the first to use "Germanus" in writing when describing tribes in north-eastern Gaul in his "Commentarii de Bello Gallico": he records that four northern Belgic tribes, namely the Condrusi, Eburones, Caeraesi and Paemani, were collectively known as Germani. In AD 98, Tacitus wrote "Germania" (the Latin title was actually: "De Origine et situ Germanorum"), an ethnographic work on the diverse set of Germanic tribes outside the Roman Empire. Unlike Caesar, Tacitus claims that the name "Germani" was first applied to the Tungri tribe. The name "Tungri" is thought to be the endonym corresponding to the exonym "Eburones".


title: Names of Germany

text: 19th-century and early 20th-century historians speculated on whether the northern Belgae were Celts or Germanic tribes. Caesar claims that most of the northern Belgae were descended from tribes who had long ago crossed the Rhine from Germania. However many tribal names and personal names or titles recorded are identifiably Celtic. It seems likely that the northern Belgae, due to their intense contact with the Gaulish south, were largely influenced by this southern culture. Tribal names were 'qualifications' and could have been translated or given by the Gauls and picked up by Caesar. Perhaps they were Germanic people who had adopted Gaulish titles or names. The Belgians were a political alliance of southern Celtic and northern Germanic tribes. In any case, the Romans were not precise in their ethnography of northern barbarians: by "German(ic)" Caesar meant "originating east of the Rhine". Tacitus wrote in his book "Germania": "The Treveri and Nervii take pride in their German origin, stating that this noble blood separates them from all comparison (with the Gauls) and the Gaulish laziness".


title: Names of Germany

text: The OED2 records theories about the Celtic roots of the Latin word "Germania": one is "gair", neighbour (a theory of Johann Zeuss, a German historian and Celtic philologist) – in Old Irish "gair" is "neighbour". Another theory is "gairm", battle-cry (put forward by Johann Wachter and Jacob Grimm, who was a philologist as well as collector and editor of fairy tales). Yet another theory is that the word comes from "ger", "spear"; however, Eric Partridge suggests "*gar" / "gavin", to shout (as Old Irish "garim"), describing the Germanic tribesmen as noisy. He describes the "ger" theory as "obsolete".


title: Names of Germany

text: In English, the word "German" is first attested in 1520, replacing earlier uses of "Almain", "Alman" and "Dutch". In German, the word "Germanen" today refers to Germanic tribes, just like the Italian noun "Germani" (adjective: "germanici"), and the French adjective ""germanique"". The English noun "german" (as in "cousin-german") and the adjective "germane" are not connected to the name for the country, but come from the Latin "germanus", "siblings with the same parents or father", which has cognates in Catalan, "germà", and Spanish, "hermano", meaning "brother".


title: Names of Germany

text: The name "Allemagne" and the other similar-sounding names above are derived from the southern Germanic Alemanni, a Suebic tribe or confederation in today's Alsace, parts of Baden-Württemberg and Switzerland.


title: Names of Germany

text: In English, the name "Almain" or "Alman" was used for Germany and for the adjective German until the 16th century, with "German" first attested in 1520, used at first as an alternative then becoming a replacement, maybe inspired mainly by the need to differ them from the more and more independently acting Dutch. In Othello ii,3, (about 1603), for example, Shakespeare uses both "German" and "Almain" when Iago describes the drinking prowess of the English:


title: Names of Germany

text: Through this name, the English language has also been given the Allemande (a dance), the Almain rivet and probably the almond furnace, which is probably not really connected to the word "almond" (of Greek origin) but is a corruption of "Almain furnace". In modern German, "Alemannisch" (Alemannic German) is a group of dialects of the Upper German branch of the Germanic language family, spoken by approximately ten million people in six countries.


title: Names of Germany

text: Among the indigenous peoples of North America of former French and British colonial areas, the word for "Germany" came primarily as a borrowing from either French or English. For example, in the Anishinaabe languages, three terms for "Germany" exist: ᐋᓂᒫ ("Aanimaa", originally "Aalimaanh", from the French "Allemagne"), ᑌᐦᒋᒪᓐ ("Dechiman", from the English "Dutchman") and ᒣᐦᔭᑴᑦ ("Meyagwed", Ojibwe for "foreign speaker" analogous to Slavic "Némcy" "Mutes" and Arab (ajam) "mute"), of which "Aanimaa" is the most common of the terms to describe Germany.


title: Names of Germany

text: The names "Saksamaa" and "Saksa" are derived from the name of the Germanic tribe of the Saxons. The word "Saxon", Proto-Germanic *"sakhsan", is believed (a) to be derived from the word seax, meaning a variety of single-edged knives: a Saxon was perhaps literally a swordsman, or (b) to be derived from the word "axe", the region axed between the valleys of the Elbe and Weser.


title: Names of Germany

text: In Finnish and Estonian the words that historically applied to ancient Saxons changed their meaning over the centuries to denote the whole country of Germany and the Germans. In some Celtic languages the word for the English nationality is derived from Saxon, e.g., the Scottish term "Sassenach", the Breton terms "Saoz, Saozon", the Cornish terms "Sows, Sowson" and the Welsh terms "Sais, Saeson". "Saxon" also led to the "-sex" ending in Wessex, Essex, Sussex, Middlesex, etc., and of course to "Anglo-Saxon".


title: Names of Germany

text: The Slavic exonym "nemets", "nemtsy" derives from Proto-Slavic "němьcь", pl. "němьci", 'the mutes, not able (to speak)' (from adjective "němъ" 'mute' and suffix "-ьcь"). It may never have meant 'the mutes', but rather 'those who can't speak (like us), foreigners'. Fittingly, the Slavic autonym (Proto-Slavic "*Slověninъ") likely derives from "slovo", meaning 'word'. According to a theory, early Slavs would call themselves the 'speaking people' or the 'keepers of the words', as opposed to their Germanic neighbors, the 'mutes' (a similar idea lies behind Greek "barbaros" 'barbarian' and Arab عجم (ajam), originally meaning 'mute').


title: Names of Germany

text: At first, "němьci" may have been used for any non-Slav foreigners, later it was narrowed to just Germans. The plural form is used for the Germans instead of any specific country name, e.g. "Niemcy" in Polish and "Ńymcy" in Silesian dialect. In other languages, the country's name derives from the adjective "němьcьska (zemja)" meaning 'German (land)' (f.i. Czech "Německo"). Belarusian ("Niamieččyna"), Bulgarian ("Nemtsiya") and Ukrainian ("Nimecchyna") are also from "němьcь" but with the addition of the suffix "-ina".


title: Names of Germany

text: According to another theory, "Nemtsy" may derive from the Rhine-based, Germanic tribe of Nemetes mentioned by Caesar and Tacitus. This etymology is dubious for phonological reasons, as "nemetes" could not become Slavic "němьcь".


title: Names of Germany

text: In Russian, the adjective for "German", "nemetskiy" (немецкий) comes from the same Slavic root while the name for the country is "Germaniya" (Германия). Likewise, in Bulgarian the adjective is "nemski" (немски) and the country is "Germaniya" (Германия).


title: Names of Germany

text: Over time, the Slavic exonym was borrowed by some non-Slavic languages. The Hungarian name for Germany is "Németország" (from the stem Német-, lit. "Német land"). The popular Romanian name for German is "neamț", used alongside the official term, "german", which was borrowed from Latin.


title: Names of Germany

text: According to the Chinese "History of Yuan", the Mongol commander Uriyangkhadai took part in the invasion of Poland and of the Holy Roman Empire, described as the land of the "Nie-mi-sz<nowiki>'</nowiki>".


title: Names of Germany

text: The Arabic name for Austria النمسا "an-Nimsā" or "an-Namsā" appeared during the Crusades era, another possibility is that the term could have been known early by Arabs in Al Andalus, the reason behind calling Austria "an-Nimsā", which should designate Germans is that Arabs considered Austria to be the nation of German people for a long time in the middle ages, on the other hand the Arabic name of "Germany", "Germania" or "Allemania", took its origin from the Latin names "Germania" or "Alemanni" respectively.


title: Names of Germany

text: Ottoman Turkish and Persian word for Austria, "Nemçe" (نمچه), is borrowed from the anterior Arabic name of Austria known throughout the Islamic world who considered Austria to be home of the Germans. The Austrian Empire as well was the biggest German-speaking country in the 16th to 17th centuries bordering on the Ottoman Empire.


title: Names of Germany

text: In Latvian and Lithuanian the names "Vācija" and "Vokietija" contain the root vāca or vākiā. Lithuanian linguist Kazimieras Būga associated this with a reference to a Swedish tribe named Vagoths in a 6th-century chronicle (cf. finn. "Vuojola" and eston. "Oju-/Ojamaa", 'Gotland', both thought to be derived from the Baltic word; the ethnonym *vakja, used by the Votes ("vadja") and the Sami, in older sources ("vuowjos"), may also be related). So the word for "German" possibly comes from a name originally given by West Baltic tribes to the Vikings. Latvian linguist Konstantīns Karulis proposes that the word may be based on the Indo-European word "*wek" ("speak"), from which derive Old Prussian wackis ("war cry") or Latvian vēkšķis. Such names could have been used to describe neighbouring people whose language was incomprehensible to Baltic peoples.


title: Names of Germany

text: In East Asia, the names have generally been imported directly from German "deutsch" or Dutch "duits" in various ways.


title: Names of Germany

text: The Chinese name is a phonetic approximation of the German proper adjective. The Vietnamese name is based on the Chinese name. The Japanese name is a phonetic approximation of the Dutch proper adjective. The Korean name is based on the Japanese name. This is explained in detail below:


title: Names of Germany

text: The common Chinese name 德国 (德國, ) is a combination of the short form of 德意志 (), which approximates the German pronunciation of "Deutsch" ‘German’, plus "guó" ‘country’.


title: Names of Germany

text: The Vietnamese name "Đức" is the Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation ("đức" ) of the character that appears in the Chinese name.


title: Names of Germany

text: Japanese language ("doitsu") is an approximation of the word meaning ‘German’. It was earlier written with the Sino-Japanese character compound (whose has since been simplified to ), but has been largely superseded by the aforementioned katakana spelling .


title: Names of Germany

text: However, the character is still used in compounds, for example ("dokubun") meaning ‘German literature’, or as an abbreviation, such as in ("Dokunichi kankei", German-Japanese relations).


title: Names of Germany

text: The (South) Korean name "Dogil" () is the Korean pronunciation of the former Japanese name. The compound coined by the Japanese was adapted into Korean, so its characters 獨逸 are not pronounced "do+itsu" as in Japanese, but "dok+il" = "Dogil". Until the 1980s, South Korean primary textbooks adopted "Doichillanteu" () which approximates the German pronunciation of "Deutschland".


title: Names of Germany

text: The official North Korean name "toich'willandŭ" () approximates the German pronunciation of "Deutschland". Traditionally "Dogil" () had been used in North Korea until the 1990s. Use of the Chinese name (in its Korean pronunciation "Deokguk", ) is attested for the early 20th century. It is now uncommon.


title: Names of Germany

text: The terminology for "Germany", the "German states" and "Germans" is complicated by the unusual history of Germany over the last 2000 years. This can cause confusion in German and English, as well in other languages. While the notion of "Germans" and "Germany" is older, it is only since 1871 that there has been a nation-state of Germany. Later political disagreements and the partition of Germany (1945–1990) have further made it difficult to use proper terminology.


title: Names of Germany

text: Starting with Charlemagne, the territory of modern Germany was within the realm of the Holy Roman Empire. It was a union of relatively independent rulers who each ruled their own territories. This empire was called in German "Heiliges Römisches Reich", with the addition from the late Middle Ages of "Deutscher Nation" (of (the) German nation), showing that the former idea of a universal realm had given way to a concentration on the German territories.


title: Names of Germany

text: In 19th- and 20th-century historiography, the Holy Roman Empire was often referred to as "Deutsches Reich", creating a link to the later nation state of 1871. Besides the official "Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation", common expressions are "Altes Reich" (the old Reich) and "Römisch-Deutsches Kaiserreich" (Roman-German Imperial Realm).


title: Names of Germany

text: Roman authors mentioned a number of tribes they called "Germani"—the tribes did not themselves use the term. After 1500 these tribes were identified by linguists as belonging to a group of Germanic language speakers (which include modern languages like German, English and Dutch). "Germani" (for the people) and "Germania" (for the area where they lived) became the common Latin words for Germans and Germany.


title: Names of Germany

text: Germans call themselves "Deutsche" (living in "Deutschland"). "Deutsch" is an adjective (Proto-Germanic *"theudisk-") derived from Old High German "thiota, diota" (Proto-Germanic *"theudō") meaning "people", "nation", "folk". The word *"theudō" is cognate with Proto-Celtic *"teutā", whence the Celtic tribal name Teuton, later anachronistically applied to the Germans. The term was first used to designate the popular language as opposed to the language used by the religious and secular rulers who used Latin.


title: Names of Germany

text: In the Late Medieval and Early Modern period, Germany and Germans were known as "Almany" and "Almains" in English, via Old French "alemaigne", "alemans" derived from the name of the Alamanni and Alemannia. These English terms were obsolete by the 19th century. At the time, the territory of modern Germany belonged to the realm of the Holy Roman Empire (the Roman Empire restored by the Christian king of Francony, Charlemagne). This feudal state became a union of relatively independent rulers who developed their own territories. Modernisation took place on the territorial level (such as Austria, Prussia, Saxony or Bremen), not on the level of the Empire.


title: Names of Germany

text: The French emperor, Napoleon, forced the Emperor of Austria to step down as Holy Roman Emperor in 1806. Some of the German countries were then collected into the Confederation of the Rhine, which remained a military alliance under the "protection" of Napoleon, rather than consolidating into an actual confederation. After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, these states created a German Confederation. Some member states, such as Prussia and Austria, had only a part of their territories included within the confederation, while other member states brought territories to the alliance that included people, like Poles and the Czechs, who did not speak German as their native tongue. In addition, there were also substantial German speaking populations that remained outside the confederation.


title: Names of Germany

text: In 1841 Hoffmann von Fallersleben wrote the song "Das Lied der Deutschen", giving voice to the dreams of a unified Germany ("Deutschland über Alles") to replace the alliance of independent states. In this era of emerging national movements, "Germany" was used only as a reference to a particular geographical area.


title: Names of Germany

text: In 1866/1867 Prussia and her allies left the German Confederation. After Austria was defeated in the German War of summer 1866, it acknowledged the dissolution of the confederation. Prussia was free to create a new alliance, called the North German Confederation. It became a federal state with its constitution of 1 July 1867. The remaining South German countries, with the exception of Austria and Liechtenstein, joined the country in 1870.


title: Names of Germany

text: The first nation state named "Germany" began in 1871; before that "Germany" referred to a geographical entity comprising many states, much as "the Balkans" is used today, or the term "America" was used by the founders of "the United States of America".


title: Names of Germany

text: In German constitutional history, the expressions "Reich" (reign, realm, empire) and "Bund" (federation, confederation) are somewhat interchangeable. Sometimes they even co-existed in the same constitution: for example in the German Empire (1871–1918) the parliament had the name "Reichstag", the council of the representatives of the German states "Bundesrat". When in 1870–71 the North German Confederation was transformed into the German Empire, the preamble said that the participating monarchs are creating "einen ewigen Bund" (an eternal confederation) which will have the name "Deutsches Reich".


title: Names of Germany

text: Due to the history of Germany, the principle of federalism is strong. Only the state of Hitler (1933–1945) and the state of the communists (East Germany, 1949–1990) were centralist states. As a result, the words "Reich" and "Bund" were used more frequently than in other countries, to distinguish between imperial or federal institutions and those at a subnational level. For example, a modern federal German minister is called "Bundesminister", in contrast to a "Landesminister" who holds office in a state such as Rhineland-Palatinate or Lower Saxony.


title: Names of Germany

text: As a result of the Hitler regime, and maybe also of Imperial Germany up to 1919, many Germans – especially those on the political left – have negative feelings about the word "Reich".


title: Names of Germany

text: "Bund" is another word also used in contexts other than politics. Many associations in Germany are federations or have a federalised structure and differentiate between a "Bundesebene" (federal/national level) and a "Landesebene" (level of the regional states), in a similar way to the political bodies. An example is the German Football Association "Deutscher Fußballbund". (The word "Bundestrainer", referring to the national football coach, does not refer to the Federal Republic, but to the Fußball"bund" itself.)


title: Names of Germany

text: In other German speaking countries, the words "Reich" (Austria before 1918) and "Bund" (Austria since 1918, Switzerland) are used too. An organ named "Bundesrat" exists in all three of them: in Switzerland it is the government and in Germany and Austria the house of regional representatives.


title: Names of Germany

text: In the 19th century before 1871, Germans, for example in the Frankfurt Parliament of 1848–49, argued about what should become of Austria. Including Austria (at least the German-speaking parts) in a future German state was referred to as the "Greater German Solution", while a German state without Austria was the "Smaller German Solution".


title: Names of Germany

text: In 1919, the Weimar Constitution postulated the inclusion of "Deutsch-Österreich" (the German-speaking parts of Austria), but the Western Allies objected to this. It was realised only in 1938 when Germany annexed Austria "(Anschluss)". National Socialist propaganda proclaimed the realisation of Großdeutschland and, in 1943, the German Reich was officially renamed "Großdeutsches Reich". However, these expressions became neither common nor popular.


title: Names of Germany

text: In National Socialist propaganda, Austria was also called "Ostmark". After the "Anschluss", the previous territory of Germany was called "Altreich" (old Reich).


title: Names of Germany

text: The official name of the German state in 1871 became "Deutsches Reich", linking itself to the former "Reich" before 1806 and the rudimentary "Reich" of 1848/1849. This expression was commonly used in official papers and also on maps, while in other contexts "Deutschland" was more frequently used.


title: Names of Germany

text: Those Germans living within its boundaries were called "Reichsdeutsche", those outside were called "Volksdeutsche" (ethnic Germans). The latter expression referred mainly to the German minorities in Eastern Europe. Germans living abroad (for example in America) were and are called "Auslandsdeutsche".


title: Names of Germany

text: After the forced abdication of the Emperor in 1918, and the republic was declared, Germany was informally called the "Deutsche Republik". The official name of the state remained the same. The term Weimar Republic, after the city where the National Assembly gathered, came up in the 1920s, but was not commonly used until the 1950s. It became necessary to find an appropriate term for the Germany between 1871 and 1919: "Kaiserliches Deutschland" (Imperial Germany) or "(Deutsches) Kaiserreich".


title: Names of Germany

text: After Adolf Hitler took power in 1933, the official name of the state was still the same. For a couple of years, Hitler used the expression "Drittes Reich" (Third Reich), which was introduced by writers in the last years of the republic. In fact, this was only a propaganda term and did not constitute a new state. Another propaganda term was "Tausendjähriges Reich" (Thousand years Reich). Later, Hitler renounced the term "Drittes Reich" (officially in June 1939), but it already had become popular among supporters and opponents and is still used in historiography (sometimes in quotation marks). It later led to the name "Zweites Reich" (Second Empire) being used to refer to Germany between the years 1871 and 1919. Germany under Hitler's rule is most commonly called in English "Nazi Germany", "Nazi" being a colloquial abbreviation of "Nationalsozialist".


title: Names of Germany

text: After the defeat in World War II, Germany was occupied by the troops of Britain, France, the United States and Soviet Union. Berlin was a case of its own, as it was situated on the territory of the Soviet zone but divided into four sectors. The western sectors were later called West Berlin, the other one East Berlin. The communists tended to consider the Soviet sector of Berlin as a part of GDR; West Berlin was, according to them, an independent political unit. In the GDR "Westberlin" was the preferred spelling to de-emphasize the relationship to "Berlin, Hauptstadt der DDR" (the GDR capital).


title: Names of Germany

text: After 1945, "Deutsches Reich" was still used for a couple of years (in 1947, for instance, when the Social Democrats gathered in Nuremberg they called their rally "Reichsparteitag"). In many contexts, the German people still called their country "Germany", even after two German states were created in 1949.


title: Names of Germany

text: The Federal Republic of Germany, "Bundesrepublik Deutschland", established in 1949, saw itself as the same state founded in 1867/71 but "Reich" gave place to "Bund". For example, the "Reichskanzler" became the "Bundeskanzler", "reichsdeutsch" became "bundesdeutsch", "Reichsbürger" (citizen of the "Reich") became "Bundesbürger".


title: Names of Germany

text: Germany as a whole was called "Deutschland als Ganzes" or "Gesamtdeutschland", referring to Germany in the international borders of 1937 (before Hitler started to annex other countries). This resulted in "all German" (or "pan germanique"—a chauvinist concept) aspirations. In 1969 the Federal Ministry for All German Affairs was renamed the Federal Ministry for Intra-German Relations.


title: Names of Germany

text: Until 1970, a number of expressions competed in the Federal Republic to designate the other German state (the communist German Democratic Republic). It was called "Sowjetische Besatzungszone" (SBZ, Soviet Zone of Occupation), "Sowjetzone", "Ostzone", "Mitteldeutschland" or "Pankow" (many GDR politicians lived or worked in Berlin-Pankow).


title: Names of Germany

text: In 1949, the communists, protected by the Soviet Union, established the "Deutsche Demokratische Republik" (DDR, German Democratic Republic, GDR). This state was not considered to be a successor of the Reich, but, nevertheless, to represent all "good Germans". Rulers and inhabitants of GDR called their state simply DDR or "unsere Republik" (our republic). The GDR still supported the idea of a German nation and the need for reunification. The Federal Republic was often called "Westdeutschland" or the BRD. After 1970 the GDR called itself a "socialist state of German nation". Westerners called the GDR "Sowjetische Besatzungszone" (SBZ, Soviet Zone of Occupation), "Sowjetzone", "Ostzone", "Mitteldeutschland" or "Pankow" (the GDR government was in the Pankow district of Berlin).


title: Names of Germany

text: In 1990 the "German Democratic Republic" ceased to exist. Five new federal states ("Bundesländer") were established and joined the "Bundesrepublik Deutschland" (Federal Republic of Germany). East Berlin joined through merger with West Berlin; technically this was the sixth new federal state since West Berlin, although considered a de facto federal state, had the legal status of a military occupation zone.


title: Names of Germany

text: The official name of the country is "Federal Republic of Germany" (Bundesrepublik Deutschland). The terms "Westdeutschland" and "Ostdeutschland" are still used for the western and the eastern parts of the German territory, respectively.


title: Bresaola

text: Bresaola ( , , , ) is air-dried, salted beef (but it can also be made of horse, venison and pork) that has been aged two or three months until it becomes hard and turns a dark red, almost purple color. It is made from top (inside) round, and it is lean and tender, with a sweet, musty smell. It originated in Valtellina, a valley in the Alps of northern Italy's Lombardy region.


title: Bresaola

text: A strict trimming process is essential to give the unique flavour. Legs of beef are thoroughly defatted and seasoned with a dry rub of coarse salt and spices, such as juniper berries, cinnamon and nutmeg. They are then left to cure for a few days. A drying period of between one and three months follows, depending on the weight of the particular bresaola. The meat loses up to 40% of its original weight during aging.


title: Bresaola

text: In Valtellina, a similar process is applied to smaller pieces of meat. This produces a more strongly flavoured product, "slinzega". Traditionally, horse meat was used for "slinzega", but now other meats, such as venison and pork, are used as well.


title: Bresaola

text: As an antipasto, bresaola is usually sliced paper-thin and served at room temperature or slightly chilled. It is most commonly served and eaten with drizzled olive oil and lemon juice or balsamic vinegar, and served with rocket (rucola, arugula) salad, cracked black pepper, and fresh Parmesan cheese. Bresaola is sometimes confused with carpaccio, which is made from thinly sliced raw beef (the other ingredients are the same). Sliced bresaola should be stored well wrapped in a refrigerator.


title: Bresaola

text: The bresaola produced in Valtellina is now a protected geographical indication (PGI) under EU Regulation 2081/92. Since this designation, dried beef made outside Valtellina may carry a generic name such as "viande séchée"". There are traditional products from several other areas that are similar:


title: Primo Carnera

text: Primo Carnera (; 26 October 1906 – 29 June 1967), nicknamed the Ambling Alp, was an Italian professional boxer and wrestler who reigned as the boxing World Heavyweight Champion from 29 June 1933 to 14 June 1934. He won more fights by knockout than any other heavyweight champion (IBU, NBA, NYSAC) in boxing history.


title: Primo Carnera

text: Primo Carnera was born in Sequals, then in the Province of Udine, now in the Province of Pordenone, Friuli-Venezia Giulia at the north-easternmost corner of Italy.


title: Primo Carnera

text: On 13 March 1939, Carnera married Giuseppina Kovačič (1913–1980), a post office clerk from Gorizia. In 1953, they received dual citizenship. They settled in Los Angeles, where Carnera opened a restaurant and a liquor store. They had two children, Umberto and Giovanna Maria. Umberto became a medical doctor.


title: Primo Carnera

text: Carnera was touted in America as being tall, and thus the tallest heavyweight in history (up until that time), but he was actually tall. He fought at as much as . Jess Willard who stood was the tallest world heavyweight champion in boxing history until Nikolai Valuev, at and . Though shorter than Willard, Carnera was around heavier and was the heaviest champion in boxing history until Valuev.


title: Primo Carnera

text: At a time when the average height in Italy was approximately and in the United States , Carnera was considered a giant.


title: Primo Carnera

text: He enjoyed a sizable reach advantage over most rivals, and when seen on fight footage, he seems like a towering giant compared to many heavyweights of his era, who were usually at least lighter and shorter. One publicity release about him read in part: "For breakfast, Primo has a quart of orange juice, two quarts of milk, nineteen pieces of toast, fourteen eggs, a loaf of bread and half a pound of Virginia ham." His size earned him the nickname "The Ambling Alp". "Time" magazine called him "The Monster".


title: Primo Carnera

text: 12 September 1928 was the date of Carnera's first professional fight, against Leon Sebilo, in Paris. Carnera won by knockout in round two. He won his first six bouts, then lost to Franz Diener by disqualification in round one at Leipzig. Then, he won seven more bouts in a row before meeting Young Stribling. He and Stribling exchanged disqualification wins, Carnera winning the first in four rounds, and Stribling winning the rematch in round seven. In Carnera's next bout he avenged his defeat to Diener with a knockout in round six.


title: Primo Carnera

text: In 1930, he moved to the United States, where he toured extensively, winning his first seventeen bouts there by knockout. George Godfrey broke the knockout streak in Philadelphia by losing to Carnera by disqualification in the fifth round. In 1932, Carnera faced the tallest heavyweight in history up to that point, Santa Camarão, a Portuguese fighter. Carnera won the fight in a sixth-round knockout.


title: Primo Carnera

text: On 10 February 1933, he knocked out Ernie Schaaf in thirteen rounds in New York City. Schaaf died four days later. Schaaf had suffered a severe beating and knockout in a bout with future heavyweight champion Max Baer six months earlier, on 31 August 1932. Furthermore, an autopsy revealed that Schaaf had meningitis, a swelling of the brain, and was still recovering from a severe case of influenza when he entered the ring with Carnera.


title: Primo Carnera

text: For his next fight, Carnera faced the world heavyweight champion, Jack Sharkey, on June 29, at the Madison Square Garden Bowl in Queens, New York. Carnera became world champion by knocking out Sharkey in round six.


title: Primo Carnera

text: He retained the title against Paulino Uzcudun and Tommy Loughran, both by decision in 15 rounds, but in his next fight on 14 June 1934 against Max Baer, Carnera was knocked down multiple times in 11 rounds, before referee Arthur Donovon stopped the fight. There is disagreement regarding how many times Carnera was knocked down, with sources giving conflicting totals of 7, 10, 11 (per Associated Press) and 12 (per "The Ring" magazine founder Nat Fleischer, ringside for the fight, who wrote that Carnera was knocked down 12 times and slipped once after a missed punch).


title: Primo Carnera

text: After that, Carnera won his next four fights, three of them as part of a South American tour that took him to Brazil, Argentina and Uruguay, as well as two exhibitions fought on the South American continent. But then, on 25 June 1935, he was knocked out in six rounds by Joe Louis.


title: Primo Carnera

text: For the next two and a half years, he won five and lost three of eight total fights. But in 1938, Carnera, a diabetic, had to have a kidney removed, which forced him into retirement by 1944. Carnera's record was 89 wins and 14 losses. His 72 wins by knockout made him a member of the exclusive club of boxers that won 50 or more bouts by knockout.


title: Primo Carnera

text: Carnera died in 1967 in his native town of a combination of liver disease and complications from diabetes.


title: Primo Carnera

text: Carnera was the third European to hold the world heavyweight championship after Bob Fitzsimmons and Max Schmeling. He would be the last until Ingemar Johansson claimed the title against Floyd Patterson in 1959, over a quarter of a century later.


title: Primo Carnera

text: Carnera was also the first boxer to win the European Heavyweight title and subsequently become World Heavyweight champion.


title: Primo Carnera

text: Carnera's 1933 title defense against Tommy Loughran held the record for the greatest weight differential between two combatants in a world title fight () for 73 years until the reign of Nikolai Valuev, who owns the current record for the weight advantage he held in his 2006 defense against Monte Barrett.


title: Primo Carnera

text: Valuev also broke Carnera's record of to become the heaviest world champion in history, weighing as high as during his reign. Carnera still ranks as the fourth-heaviest, behind Valuev, Tyson Fury and Andy Ruiz Jr., over eighty years after he held the title.


title: Primo Carnera

text: Carnera's 1933 title defense against Paulino Uzcudun in Italy was the first Heavyweight title fight to be held in Europe since Jack Johnson's title defence against Frank Moran in Paris in 1913. It would be the last such occasion until Muhammad Ali defended the title against Henry Cooper in London in 1966. Carnera-Uzcudun was the first World Heavyweight championship fight to be contested between two Europeans. It would be another sixty years, when Lennox Lewis defended the WBC heavyweight title against fellow-Englishman Frank Bruno in 1993, that this would occur again.