title: Army of the Czech Republic

text: The Czech Republic is a member of the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. At the 1999 Washington summit, the Czech Republic joined NATO. Since 1990, the ACR and the Czech Armed Forces have contributed to numerous peacekeeping and humanitarian operations, including IFOR, SFOR, and EUFOR Althea in Bosnia, Desert Shield/Desert Storm, Afghanistan, Kosovo, Albania, Turkey, Pakistan and with the Coalition forces in Iraq.


title: Army of the Czech Republic

text: Many of the duties of the President of the Czech Republic can be said to be ceremonial to one degree or another, especially since the President has relatively few powers independent of the will of the Prime Minister. One of those is the status as commander in chief of the military; no part of these duties can take place but through the assent of the Prime Minister. In matters of war, he is in every sense merely a figurehead, since the Constitution gives all substantive constitutional authority over the use of the armed forces to the Parliament. In fact, the only specific thing the constitution allows the President to do with respect to the military is to appoint its generalsbut even this must be done with the signature of the Prime Minister.


title: Army of the Czech Republic

text: The 153rd Engineer Battalion based in Olomouc was created on 15 October 2008 and is subordinated to the 15th Engineer Regiment. The unit is stationed in the outskirts of the city of Olomouc, in place of the canceled 156th Rescue Battalion.


title: Army of the Czech Republic

text: Active Reserve (in Czech "Aktivní záloha") is a part of the otherwise professional Army of the Czech Republic. This service was created to allow the participation of citizens with a positive attitude to the military.


title: Army of the Czech Republic

text: A volunteer needs either to have completed the compulsory military service (which ended in 2004) or to attend 6 week training. Then the reservists have to serve up to three weeks a year and can be called up to serve two weeks during a non-military crisis. They are not intended to serve abroad, but individuals may volunteer to do so. The Reserve presents itself on events like BAHNA, a military show.


title: Army of the Czech Republic

text: The Army of the Czech Republic, to a large extent, currently uses equipment dating back to the times of the Warsaw Pact. During the Cold War, Czechoslovakia was a major supplier of tanks, armoured personnel carriers, military trucks and trainer aircraft – the bulk of military exports went to its Comecon partners. Replacement of aging or obsolete equipment, or making it at least compliant with NATO standards, is urgently required. Modernization plans include acquisition of new multi-role helicopters, transport aircraft, infantry fighting vehicles, air defence radars and missiles. If possible, the Czech Ministry of Defence selects products that are manufactured or co-produced in the Czech Republic. This includes firearms of the Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod, namely the CZ 75 pistol, CZ Scorpion Evo 3 submachine gun, and CZ 805 BREN and BREN 2 assault rifles. Moreover, the Czech Army is equipped with about 3,000 T810 and T815 vehicles of various modifications produced by the Czech Tatra Trucks company. Tatra Defence Vehicle factory ensures licensed production of Pandur II and Titus armoured vehicles. Aircraft such as the Aero L-39 Albatros, Aero L-159 Alca and Let L-410 Turbolet have been produced domestically as well.


title: Army of the Czech Republic

text: At the beginning of 2019, the Czech Ministry of Defence announced its modernization program, consisting of acquiring 210 new modern IFVs as a replacement for the aging BVP-2. MoD approached four manufacturers: BAE Systems (CV90), GDELS (ASCOD), Rheinmetall (Lynx) and PSM (Puma). The cost of the program is expected to exceed 50 billion CZK.


title: Army of the Czech Republic

text: In May 2022 the Czech Ministry of Defence announced it will get 15 Leopards 2A4 from Germany as an exchange for Czech tanks that will be given to Ukraine to help defend against Russian invasion and will purchase up to 50 modern 2A7+ variants later.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The Swiss Air Force (; ; ; ) is the air component of the Swiss Armed Forces, established on 31 July 1914 as a part of the army and in October 1936 as an independent service.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In peacetime, Dübendorf is the operational air force headquarters. The Swiss Air Force operates from several fixed bases (see current status) but its personnel are also trained to carry out air operations from temporary highway airstrips. In case of crisis or war, several stretches of road are specially prepared for this option.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The first military aviation in Switzerland took the form of balloon transport, pioneered by Swiss balloonist Eduard Spelterini, but by 1914 there was still little official support for an air corps. The outbreak of World War I changed opinions drastically and cavalry officer Theodor Real was charged with forming a flying corps. He commandeered three civilian aircraft at Bern's airfield and set about training the initial nine pilots at a makeshift airfield close to Wankdorf Stadium, later moving to a permanent home at Dübendorf. Switzerland remained neutral and isolated during the conflict, and the air corps confined its activities to training and exercises, reconnaissance and patrol. It was only with the worsening international situation in the 1930s that an effective air force was established at great cost, with up-to-date Messerschmitt Bf 109 and Morane-Saulnier D‐3800 fighters ordered from Germany, Italy and France respectively (the Moranes were licence-built in Switzerland). The Swiss Air Force as an autonomous military service was created in October 1936.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Although Switzerland remained neutral throughout World War II, it had to deal with numerous violations of its airspace by combatants from both sides – initially by German aircraft, especially during their invasion of France in 1940. Zealous Swiss pilots attacked and shot down eleven German aircraft, losing two of their own, before a threatening memorandum from the German leadership forced General Guisan to forbid air combat above Swiss territory.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Later in the war, the Allied bomber offensive sometimes took US or British bombers into Swiss airspace, either damaged craft seeking safe haven or even on occasions bombing Swiss cities by accident. Swiss aircraft would attempt to intercept individual aircraft and force them to land, interning the crews. Only one further Swiss pilot was killed during the war, shot down by a US fighter in September 1944. From September red and white neutrality bands were added to the wings of aircraft to stop accidental attacks on Swiss aircraft by Allied aircraft.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: From 1943 Switzerland shot down American and British aircraft, mainly bombers, overflying Switzerland during World War II: six by Swiss air force fighters and nine by flak cannons, and 36 airmen were killed. On 1 October 1943 the first American bomber was shot near Bad Ragaz: Only three men survived. The officers were interned in Davos, airmen in Adelboden. The representative of the U.S. military in Bern, U.S. military attaché Barnwell R. Legge, instructed the soldiers not to flee so as to allow the U.S. Legation to coordinate their escape attempts, but the majority of the soldiers thought it was a diplomatic ruse or did not receive the instruction directly.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: On 1 October 1944 Switzerland housed 39,670 internees in all: 20,650 from Italy, 10,082 from Poland, 2,643 from the United States, 1,121 from the United Kingdom (including five Australians), 822 from the Soviet Union and 245 from France. In September the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) was commissioned by the U.S. supreme command to organize the escapes of 1,000 American internees, but the task was not effectively accomplished before late winter 1944/45. Soldiers who were caught after their escape from the internment camp, were often detained in the Wauwilermoos internment camp near Luzern.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Official Swiss records identify 6,501 airspace violations during the course of the war, with 198 foreign aircraft landing on Swiss territory and 56 aircraft crashing there.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: With the threat of WW2 and the possible need for the army and civilian population to retreat into the mountains (Reduit) as proposed by General Guisan, it was clear that the army air force needed the ability to attack enemy ground forces in the mountains. To practice this Axalp was selected. After WW2 Ground attack by jet aircraft was practiced at Axalp, including strafing and bombing exercises.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: During the Cold War, military liaison officers from western, eastern and non-aligned nations were invited to the screenings. Nowadays Axalpfliegerschiessen ("Airshow Axalp") is a performance by the Air Force for anyone interested. It is the only event where everybody may have a look at a live exercise at 1,700 m (5,600 ft) above sea level. The use of helicopter ops at high altitudes, search & rescue and firefighting demonstrations also have become a large part of the Axalp air show.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: After World War II, the service was renamed Airforce and Anti-Aircraft Command (). In 1966, this became a separate service independent from the Army, under its present name .


title: Swiss Air Force

text: With the prospect of a future World War 3 involving nuclear weapons, jet aircraft were purchased: 75 De Havilland Vampires in 1950, followed by over 100 De Havilland Venoms and the same number of Hawker Hunters. The Venoms served until 1983; Vampires until 1990 and Hunters even until 1994. In the late 1940s Switzerland purchased the North American P-51 Mustang from US surplus WW2 stock. The aircraft initially was intended as a stop-gap solution for the Swiss army in order to maintain a defence force during a time when the outdated Bf 109E's and Swiss built D-3801 Moranes were being phased out but the licensed production of the British designed Dh-100 Vampires and Dh-112 Venoms was not in full swing.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: At the end of the 1950s, reflecting both the threat of possible invasion by the Soviet Union and a nuclear warfare, Swiss military doctrine changed to mobile defence that included missions outside its territory, in order to defeat stand-off attacks and nuclear threats, including the possibility of defensive employment of air-delivered nuclear weapons. However the inability to field a force capability to carry out such missions led to the return of traditional "protection of own territory" doctrine. Meanwhile, the army started preparing ad hoc airbases in the mountains, with sections of highway strengthened to act as runways and hangars carved out of the mountains.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In 1954 the first Air Radar Recruit School activated, the first early warning radar systems were installed and the concept of command & control facilities at mountain summits was introduced; leading to acquisition of the FLORIDA early warning and command guidance system in 1965 followed by the current FLORAKO system in 2003. At the same time, ground-based air defence (GBAD) projects were initiated such as radar-equipped medium-caliber guns with an integrated 63 "Superfledermaus" (Superbat) fire control system' as well as the "BL-64 ‘Bloodhound’" air defence missile system (1964–1999).


title: Swiss Air Force

text: After the prototypes EFW N-20 and FFA P-16, Switzerland did not invest in development combat aircraft anymore. In 1964 the procurement of the "Dassault Mirage 3 fighters" (1964–2002) caused a scandal due to severe budget overruns. The commander, the chief of the general staff and the minister of defence were forced to resign, followed by a complete restructuring of the air force and air defence units in 1968 and leading to separation of users and procurement officials.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In February 1968, the airfield brigade 32 was founded as part of a reorganization. The airbase group comprised all military airfields in Switzerland, around 16,000 members of the army. Built up by a


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In combination with the Bundesamt für Militärflugplätze (BAMF), this organization, together with its ZV Central Administration in Dübendorf, constituted a robust structure, which could be activated by mobilization within 48 hours.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The Patrouille Suisse aerobatics team was founded in 1964, the 50th anniversary year of Swiss army aviation.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In 1969, airforce logistics and airdefence were reassigned into brigades, the "Armed Forces Meteo Group" and "Avalanche Rescue Service" came under air force and air defence command and the "Para Reconnaissance Company" was established.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In the 1970s major manoeuvres with over 22,000 participants took place. A new air defence concept was also introduced in which the air superiority fighter in interceptor role stood central. In 1974 the first 2 Northrop F-5 "Tiger" fighters were tested and in 1978 the first F-5 Tiger fighter/interceptor squadron became ops. The F-5 is currently still ops but is scheduled to be replaced in 2018.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In the late 1980s changing political and military world situations implied the need of multirole aircraft in the Air Force. After evaluation, the performance of the F/A-18 Hornet was decisive in its selection. Designed for carrier-borne ops, it was optimally suited to operate from very short runways with steep take-offs. Its radar allowed detection of multiple targets and simultaneously engaging with medium-range air to air missiles.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Between 1996 and 1999, 34 licence-built Hornets left the assembly lines at Emmen. As the F/A-18 size is larger than either the Mirage III or Tiger II the caverns in the mountains used to protect the aircraft had to be enlarged, a continuing process as of 2011.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The 100th anniversary of the Swiss Air Force has been celebrated in 2014 with the airshow "Air14" at Payerne.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Switzerland is a small country which has always kept its neutrality. Therefore, its air component is also limited in size and not capable of fighting a long term full scale air conflict. So the main Swiss Air Force mission is guaranteeing Swiss air sovereignty and air defence throughout the country. This is achieved by:


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Its secondary missions are executing airlift, reconnaissance operations, and gathering and interpreting intelligence for the Swiss political and military leadership.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Through the years, the Swiss Air Force traditionally had been a militia-based service, including its pilots. Its inventory existed of approximately 450 aircraft whose operational service life overlapped several eras. Beginning with its separation from the army in 1966 the Air Force has been reduced in size (currently about 230 fixed and rotary-wing aircraft) moving towards a small professional cadre with fewer reserves and conscripted supporting personnel. Currently the Swiss air force has a peacetime strength of 1,600 career military and about 20,000 reservists on call.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Its air defence consists of 30 McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornets and 53 Northrop F-5 Tiger IIs (110 purchased in 1978–85). The F/A-18 pilots are career military; the F-5 pilots however are reservists (mostly air- or freight-liner pilots with F-5 rating). During reserve duty periods they are assigned to military duties refreshing their operational live flying training and rating. In 2008, the Swiss F-18 component reached its 50,000 flight hour milestone. Due to the RUAG Upgrade 21 (UG21) programme between 2004 and 2009 and the Mid-Life Update (MLU) its operational lifecycle will be guaranteed until 2022.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: From 2011 the air force intended to start the Partial F-5 Tiger Replacement programme for 22 new aircraft with the JAS 39 Gripen, Eurofighter Typhoon and Dassault Rafale as replacement candidates. In November 2011 the Swiss government announced its decision to buy 22 Gripen New Generation fighters. The contract for the 22 aircraft was signed at 3.1 billion Swiss francs. On 25 August 2012, the order was confirmed by both the Swedish and Swiss authorities.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The first new aircraft would be delivered in 2018 and the intention was to lease 11 current generation (eight JAS 39Cs/3 JAS 39Ds) Gripen fighters from 2016 to 2020 in order to train Swiss fighter pilots while avoiding expensive upkeep of the F-5s. However, in a national referendum in May 2014 a majority of Swiss rejected the purchase of the Gripen. This included continued operation of the Patrouille Suisse on F-5E.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: To reduce the risk of a negative referendum outcome the Swiss defence ministry revised its procurement strategy. With its Air 2030 programme The Swiss government now opted for a planning order for a combined purchase of new fighters together with long-range groundbased air defences (GBAD). This programme valued at CHF8 billion ($8.1 billion), the biggest arms procurement programme in modern Swiss history. Defence minister Viola Amherd unveiled results of studies tackling the defence procurement package: fighters replacing both the current F-5 Tigers and F/A-18 Hornets scheduled to be retired in the 2020s as well as a reconfigured GBAD.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Armasuisse, the Federal Office for Defence Procurement, asked several firms to submit pricing for 40 aircraft including missile armament and logistics as well as an assessment of the number of aircraft necessary to fulfil Swiss needs and kicked off the competition for 5 types of combat aircraft under consideration (Eurofighter Typhoon, Boeing F-18 Super Hornet, Dassault Rafale, Lockheed Martin F-35A and Saab Gripen E) at Payerne airbase. With a reconfigured GBAD system covering appx 15,000 km2 in the densely populated Swiss plateau the balance between fighter aircraft and ground-based air defence would be ensured for the next decades. On the 30th of June 2021 the F-35A was announced as the winner of the competition.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: On 10 December 2010, the last 20 outdated Aérospatiale Alouette III were replaced by two VIP configuration Eurocopter EC135s and 18 Eurocopter EC635s. The first EC-635 was delivered in 2008.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In peacetime the air defence radar coverage is maintained on a 24/7 basis. Until late 2020, the aviator corps however was incapable of maintaining a matching state of readiness due to limited budget and lack of staff available and was operated from 06:00-22:00 local time only. This became painfully clear as the Swiss Air Force was unable to respond to the Ethiopian Airlines ET702 hijacking in 2014 which occurred outside routine operating hours. Agreements with Italy and France in particular enabled fighters from both air forces to enter Swiss airspace to handle the threat.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The aim for a 24-hour Quick Reaction Alert readiness of two armed F/A-18 fighters was achieved on 31 December 2020.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: A major problem in defending the Swiss airspace is the size of the country. The Swiss maximum extension is only . Commercial airliners may pass over in about 15–20 minutes, while fast jets would take even less time. However, noise-abatement issues traditionally caused problems for the Swiss Air Force because of the tourist industry. Due to these reasons, the Swiss Air Force is increasingly participating in air defence training exercises with many NATO counterparts. These exercises have covered the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, the Euro 2008 football championships, and the annual World Economic Forum.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: During the past 35 years, Swiss military and civil airspace control depended on the FLORIDA (FLugsicherungs Operations Radar IDentifikation Alarm – Flight Ops, Radar Identifying, and Alerting) air defense system.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Since its phasing out, however, the Swiss airspace control and defence is being carried out by the THALES Raytheon FLORAKO. This system is being operated from 4 fixed locations on the Pilatus, Scopi, Weisshorn and Weissfluh mountains.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: At least one of these Command, Control, and Communications (C3) facilities is always connected to the Air Defence & Direction Center (ADDC or air ops centre) at Dübendorf Air Base and fully operational on-line on a 24/7 basis, monitoring Swiss airspace. Depending on the international situation, more facilities will be manned; in case of crisis or war (ADDC and 4 facilities operational) radarcoverage will be extended far beyond the Swiss boundaries. Each of these facilities is capable of making all battle management decisions in case of elimination of the ADDC or other facilities.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The first FLORAKO unit activated in 2003 and the operational lifetime of this hi-tech system is guaranteed by its manufacturers for at least 25 years. The system consists of:


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The radar system may eventually be completed by 2 mobile TAFLIR (TAktische FLIeger Radars – Tactical Flight Radars). These AN/MPQ-64 radars are a variant of the Northrop Grumman AN/TPS-75 and are deployable in areas of difficult terrain or where specific coverage is needed. Peacetime TAFLIR deployment locations are at Dübendorf Air Base and Emmen. In time of crisis or at war they can be deployed anywhere.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Air surveillance in Switzerland (including the airspace of Liechtenstein) is also called Permanent Air Surveillance (PLÜ); uninterrupted 24/365 coverage with the FLORAKO system, wherein the Identifications Officer (IDO) and Track Monitor (TM) monitor and represent the general Recognized Air Picture (RAP).


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The Air Force has several operational centres. In peacetime, the primary military command centre is at Dübendorf Air Base joint with the civilian air traffic control Skyguide. The locations of the other operational centres are classified. The command centres are part of the unit "Einsatz Luftwaffe," the chief of which is directly subordinate to the commander of the Air Force. It consists of the operations center of the Air Force, redundant direct connections to the emergency organizations (air rescue and federal police), as well as to the 2 Skyguide air traffic centers (Geneva and Zurich) and to the relevant military and civilian air traffic control centers of neighboring countries.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Air policing is the main peacetime activity of the Swiss Air Force. The Air Force distinguishes two types of mission, live mission (observation, identification) and hot mission (intervention).


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The Ground Based Air Defence (GBAD) is currently headquartered at Emmen airbase. Formerly it used the fixed emplacement BL-64 "Bloodhound" missile system. The current system uses three shorter ranged but mobile systems which may be deployed anywhere.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The Swiss Air Force supports third party organisations with equipment and staff. It provides the civilian radar Skyguide with FLORAKO radardata enabling safe air traffic management. Air Force helicopters and drones regularly conduct surveillance flights for the Border Guard Corps GWK, for general surveillance at major events and search flights (SAR) for national police and Rega (air rescue). The Fire Department also uses its drones and helicopters with FLIR to locate forestfires and to extinguish them with "Bambibuckets". 3 helicopters supported "Swisscoy" in the KFOR, some supported in large-scale events for relief abroad (e.g. Sumatra after the tsunami). The Air Force supports the Federal Office of Public Health, National Emergency Operations Centre and conducts regular ENSI flights collecting airquality data and radioactivity measurements; it also does parabolic F-5 flights as part of the ARES program of the ETH Zurich and other research institutions. The Air Force also modified all diplomatic flights outside the opening times of the FOCA and represents the REGA (Swiss Air Rescue) communication systems. The Swiss Air Force operates the Rescue Coordination Center "RCC Zurich" on behalf of the FOCA at the Dübendorf Air Base.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Some systems have also been offered by Swiss and foreign companies to be trialled by the Swiss Air Force but these have never been purchased.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: The Air Force has a number of aerobatic teams and solo display aircraft that are used to represent the Swiss Air Force at events around Europe:


title: Swiss Air Force

text: Swiss military aircraft are identified by a role prefix and number, the prefix or code identifies the role and the serial numbers the type or variant, the system was introduced in 1936.


title: Swiss Air Force

text: In four digit numbers, the first digit identifies the aircraft type. The next three are the sub-type and individual aircraft, with the first and sometimes second for the subtype; and the third and sometimes fourth for the individual aircraft, In the following examples, "x" identifies the individual aircraft:


title: Swiss Air Force

text: "3 digit numbers" Most aircraft have three numbers. These follow a broadly similar pattern to the four-digit numbers, although there are exceptions.


title: T-statistic

text: In statistics, the "t"-statistic is the ratio of the departure of the estimated value of a parameter from its hypothesized value to its standard error. It is used in hypothesis testing via Student's "t"-test. The "t"-statistic is used in a "t"-test to determine whether to support or reject the null hypothesis. It is very similar to the z-score but with the difference that "t"-statistic is used when the sample size is small or the population standard deviation is unknown. For example, the "t"-statistic is used in estimating the population mean from a sampling distribution of sample means if the population standard deviation is unknown. It is also used along with p-value when running hypothesis tests where the p-value tells us what the odds are of the results to have happened.


title: T-statistic

text: Let formula_1 be an estimator of parameter "β" in some statistical model. Then a "t"-statistic for this parameter is any quantity of the form


title: T-statistic

text: where "β" is a non-random, known constant, which may or may not match the actual unknown parameter value "β", and formula_3 is the standard error of the estimator formula_1 for "β".


title: T-statistic

text: By default, statistical packages report "t"-statistic with (these "t"-statistics are used to test the significance of corresponding regressor). However, when "t"-statistic is needed to test the hypothesis of the form , then a non-zero "β" may be used.


title: T-statistic

text: If formula_1 is an ordinary least squares estimator in the classical linear regression model (that is, with normally distributed and homoscedastic error terms), and if the true value of the parameter "β" is equal to "β", then the sampling distribution of the "t"-statistic is the Student's "t"-distribution with degrees of freedom, where "n" is the number of observations, and "k" is the number of regressors (including the intercept).


title: T-statistic

text: In the majority of models, the estimator formula_1 is consistent for "β" and is distributed asymptotically normally. If the true value of the parameter "β" is equal to "β", and the quantity formula_3 correctly estimates the asymptotic variance of this estimator, then the "t"-statistic will asymptotically have the standard normal distribution.


title: T-statistic

text: In some models the distribution of the "t"-statistic is different from the normal distribution, even asymptotically. For example, when a time series with a unit root is regressed in the augmented Dickey–Fuller test, the test "t"-statistic will asymptotically have one of the Dickey–Fuller distributions (depending on the test setting).


title: T-statistic

text: Most frequently, "t" statistics are used in Student's "t"-tests, a form of statistical hypothesis testing, and in the computation of certain confidence intervals.


title: T-statistic

text: The key property of the "t" statistic is that it is a pivotal quantity – while defined in terms of the sample mean, its sampling distribution does not depend on the population parameters, and thus it can be used regardless of what these may be.


title: T-statistic

text: to compute an estimate for the number of standard deviations a given sample is from the mean, as a sample version of a z-score, the z-score requiring the population parameters.


title: T-statistic

text: Given a normal distribution formula_9 with unknown mean and variance, the "t"-statistic of a future observation formula_10 after one has made "n" observations, is an ancillary statistic – a pivotal quantity (does not depend on the values of "μ" and "σ") that is a statistic (computed from observations). This allows one to compute a frequentist prediction interval (a predictive confidence interval), via the following t-distribution:


title: T-statistic

text: from which one may compute predictive confidence intervals – given a probability "p", one may compute intervals such that 100"p"% of the time, the next observation formula_12 will fall in that interval.


title: T-statistic

text: The term ""t"-statistic" is abbreviated from "hypothesis test statistic". In statistics, the t-distribution was first derived as a posterior distribution in 1876 by Helmert and Lüroth. The t-distribution also appeared in a more general form as Pearson Type IV distribution in Karl Pearson's 1895 paper. However, the T-Distribution, also known as Student's T Distribution gets its name from William Sealy Gosset who was first to published the result in English in his 1908 paper titled "The Probable Error of a Mean" (in Biometrika) using his pseudonym "Student" because his employer preferred their staff to use pen names when publishing scientific papers instead of their real name, so he used the name "Student" to hide his identity. Gosset worked at the Guinness Brewery in Dublin, Ireland, and was interested in the problems of small samples – for example, the chemical properties of barley where sample sizes might be as few as 3. Hence a second version of the etymology of the term Student is that Guinness did not want their competitors to know that they were using the t-test to determine the quality of raw material. Although it was William Gosset after whom the term "Student" is penned, it was actually through the work of Ronald Fisher that the distribution became well known as "Student's distribution" and "Student's t-test"


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange is a fictional space adventurer appearing in American comic books published by DC Comics. Created by editor Julius Schwartz with a costume designed by Murphy Anderson, he first appeared in "Showcase" #17 (November 1958).


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange made his live action debut in the television series "Krypton", portrayed by Shaun Sipos.


title: Adam Strange

text: In 1957, DC Comics editorial director Irwin Donenfeld held a meeting with editors Jack Schiff and Julius Schwartz in his office, asking them each to create a new science fiction hero, one from the present and one from the future. Given first pick Schiff chose to create one from the future, Space Ranger. Schwartz was happy with the pick feeling that readers would more readily identify with a hero from the present. He conceived the idea of an Earth man repeatedly traveling to a planet in the Alpha Centauri star system by using a "Zeta-beam" altered by space radiation. Since Adam Strange was the first Earthman on another planet, he named his character Adam after the Biblical first man.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange debuted in issues #17–19 of the tryout series "Showcase", published November 1958-March 1959. The first artwork of the character was a cover for "Showcase" #17 by Murphy Anderson. Schwartz rejected the drawing and commissioned a new one by Gil Kane, though Anderson's costume design was retained. Schwartz then assigned the scribing of the stories to Gardner Fox and the penciling to Mike Sekowsky. Schwartz and Fox devised the plots for the stories in Schwartz's office and Fox would write the scripts at home. A science major, Schwartz specialized in giving Fox scientific pointers that gave the Adam Strange tales a plausibility that made them stand out from most science fiction comic books of the time.


title: Adam Strange

text: Sales on the three-issue "Showcase" tryout were enough to justify giving Adam Strange a slot in "Mystery in Space", which ran in issues #53–100 and 102. Though Schwartz and Fox continued their work on the character, Schwartz gave the penciler assignment to Carmine Infantino instead of Sekowsky. Most issues were inked by Murphy Anderson (although Bernard Sachs, Joe Giella and Sid Greene did a few issues each). In the "Justice League of America" comic book, the Flash mentioned Adam Strange as a possible new member for the Justice League. When a letter to the editor pointed out the group had not met Adam Strange and could not have heard of him, as all his heroics took place on Rann, Schwartz and Fox wrote a story showing how the Justice League came to Rann and how Adam Strange saved them from Kanjar Ro. The story was published in "Mystery in Space" #75 and won the Alley Award for the "Best Book-Length Story" of 1962.


title: Adam Strange

text: As of #92, Jack Schiff replaced Schwartz as editor of "Mystery in Space" and Lee Elias became the artist for Adam Strange. Following the discontinuation of the Adam Strange stories reprints were presented in "Strange Adventures" #217 through 244 (except for #222, which instead has a new story with Strange, written by Denny O'Neil, while #226 has a new Strange text story by Fox, with illustrations by Anderson).


title: Adam Strange

text: Through the 1970s the character was a regular presence in the DC Universe despite having no series of his own. In September 1980 Adam Strange began as a back-up feature in "Green Lantern" (this lasted from #132 to #147). Later in the 1980s Alan Moore wrote a retcon of Adam Strange's reason for his visits to Rann. In this retcon the population of the planet, the majority of whom view the Terran with contempt, is sterile, and Adam Strange is there to be a breeding stud. In a 1990 limited series, "The Man of Two Worlds", Adam learns of the population's opinion of him and Alanna dies giving birth to their daughter Aleea. In "JLA" #20 (July 1998) Alanna is revealed to be alive and is briefly reunited with her husband and daughter before Adam is transported back to Earth.


title: Adam Strange

text: In 2013, Jeff Lemire said he intended to introduce a New 52 incarnation of Adam Strange at some point in "Justice League Canada", a series scheduled to launch in Spring 2014. Lemire's series was instead titled "Justice League United", featuring Alanna as well as Adam.


title: Adam Strange

text: The series "Strange Adventures" vol. 5, written by Tom King and illustrated by Mitch Gerads and Evan Shaner was launched in 2020, focusing on the character of Adam Strange.


title: Adam Strange

text: Strange is an archeologist suddenly teleported from Peru, Earth, to the planet Rann through a "Zeta-Beam". Upon his arrival, he is attacked by one of the planet's predators and rescued by a dark-haired woman called Alanna. She takes him to her father Sardath, who explains that the Zeta-Beam was transmitted to Earth in the hopes that whatever form of intelligent life lived there would trace it back to Rann, and he also theorizes that in the 4.3 years it took the Zeta-Beam to reach Earth, it was altered by space radiation into a transportation beam. Called on to protect the planet from extraterrestrial threats using Rann's technology, Strange grew to care for the planet and its inhabitants, especially Alanna. Eventually, the effects of the beam's transportation wore off, automatically returning Strange to Earth at the exact point of departure—but not before Sardath had given him a schedule of beam firings, allowing him to periodically return to the planet. Using mathematical calculations, he was able to determine the exact time and the precise locations at which the Zeta-Beams would arrive. He travels the world and intercepts them, to defend Rann and be with Alanna.


title: Adam Strange

text: In 1997, Grant Morrison revived the Justice League of America in the "JLA" series. During this period, Mark Waid featured Adam Strange when he filled in for Morrison. Adam Strange kidnapped the entirety of the Justice League and put them to forced labor to reconstruct Rann, as part of a ruse to rescue Alanna and her father. Strange returned to Rann in "JLA: Heaven's Ladder" (2000) and presumably reunited with his family shortly after.


title: Adam Strange

text: "Planet Heist", a 2004 eight-issue limited series, written by Andy Diggle, penciled by Pasqual Ferry and colored by Dave McCaig, replaced Adam Strange's costume with a spacesuit that allows for interstellar travel. Adam was prepared to relocate to Rann permanently when he was informed that the planet was destroyed and that he was blamed for its destruction. In fact, Sardath transported Rann to another dimension to save the planet from the cosmic being Starbreaker. Adam, with the help of the Omega Men and the Darkstars, among others, saved Rann and defeated the evil being.


title: Adam Strange

text: When Rann was moved, its orbit was believed to have pushed the planet Thanagar closer to its sun, destroying much of the surface (it was later discovered that the actions of Superboy-Prime moved Thanagar). Many Thanagarians were relocated to Rann, but enmity between the two races resulted in a war, depicted in "Rann-Thanagar War". Strange, working with Hawkman, Hawkwoman, Kyle Rayner and Kilowog, tried to end the conflict, a six-issue precursor to DC's 2005 to 2006 limited series and DC crossover event, "Infinite Crisis". Strange was eventually able to end the war when he discovered evidence of Superboy-Prime's role in Thanagar's relocation.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam was stranded on a paradise-like planet with Animal Man and Starfire. As a result of a teleportation accident involving the Zeta-Beam he lost both of his eyes, but in spite of his injuries he tried to fix a damaged spaceship so that the trio might return home. After being attacked by Devilance the Pursuer they eventually escaped, having realized that the entire planet was a trap.


title: Adam Strange

text: This ragtag team made a stand against the villainess Lady Styx, whose undead legions were ravaging planets across the galaxy. With Styx presumably defeated and Animal Man seemingly killed, Strange and Starfire continued their journey back to Earth and Rann, still pursued by angry Lady Styx followers. With Starfire wounded in one such battle, and their ship breaking apart and malfunctioning, Adam was saved by Mogo and a rookie Green Lantern. Brought to Rann, Strange was equipped with new eyes cloned by Aleea and genetically engineered to grant him vision of the entire electromagnetic spectrum. He was briefly questioned by the Green Lantern Corps about the secret of 52 but, when an emergency arose during the interrogation, the Lanterns offered to respond in Strange's stead so he could return to his wife.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange joined Animal Man and Starfire in the series "Countdown to Adventure" written by Adam Beechen in August 2007.


title: Adam Strange

text: In issue #1, Adam finds himself replaced as Rann's protector by Champ Hazard, a former actor from Earth. However, Hazard has no regard for any life and is responsible for ending his battles in a horrifically bloody way. It appears Champ was infected by a madness plague created by Lady Styx before leaving Earth, and has infected one third of the people on Rann, causing them to riot and say "Believe in Her". Adam and his family escape to Earth, where he enlists the aid of Animal Man and Starfire, eventually discovering a way to cure the plague and restore the infectees to normal.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange, along with many of the DC space heroes including Hawkman, Starfire, The Weird, and the Prince Gavyn Starman, battles Synnar the Demiurge. Adam Strange's actions in this story result in the depopulation of Prince Gavyn's Throneworld at the hands of Lady Styx. Later, to defeat Synnar and Lady Styx, Rann's atmosphere was explosively discharged into outer space with Rann's entire population Zeta-beamed to Throneworld. Strange also discovers in this story that he is a member of the so-called Aberrant Six.


title: Adam Strange

text: With Throneworld renamed New Rann, Adam Strange once more teams up with the DC space heroes to investigate why some of the galaxy's stars are disappearing. It is discovered from the future spirit of Synnar that he is destined to be one of 'The Aberrant Six', a group critical to preventing the Synnar of today (trapped in The Weird's body) from destroying the universe. Ultimately the Aberrant Six did not form and the future Synnar was forced to leave, but not before Captain Comet's mercenary friend Eye was killed by Synnar's supreme god-enemy to prevent the forming of the Six. Comet was entrusted with Eye's robot companion Orb until she returns, told by Synnar that when that happens he will "continue his negotiations – all has changed, but remains as it was". Adam Strange realizes that one day Synnar will return and force him to join his Aberrant Six.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange then found himself joining up with Vril Dox as part of his R.E.B.E.L.S. Adam Strange helped to save the Vega system and several galaxies by defeating Starro the Conqueror. It was also around this time that Adam Strange visited New Krypton to protest the accord that their Council reached with the Thanagarians. Explaining that the Rannians have recently been on the losing end in a war with the Thanagarians, Adam questions the judgment of the Council in reaching this accord. Whilst there he aided Superman who was investigating a murder.


title: Adam Strange

text: The plight of Rann's people was soon resolved by Vril Dox, seeking to restore his reputation after Starro the Conqueror stole L.E.G.I.O.N. from him and used it to enslave its client worlds. Dox Zeta-beamed Rann into the Vega system, in the orbit previously held by the now destroyed planet Tamaran, and proceeded to terraform Rann and make it suitable to sustain life again.


title: Adam Strange

text: The restoration of the planet Rann wasn't Dox's only reason for relocating it into the Vega system. First, by putting Rann into Tamaran's orbit, it restored the gravitational balance to the Vega system, which had been thrown off by Tamaran's destruction. Secondly, in exchange for restoring their planet, the people of Rann agreed to let Dox rebuild L.E.G.I.O.N. headquarters on Rann.


title: Adam Strange

text: Tamaranian refugees, led by Blackfire, attacked Rann believing that since the planet was in Tamaran's orbit they had claim to it. The violence was ended when Vril Dox, who was off-world at the start of the conflict, arrived with Thanagarian warships and stopped the fighting without bloodshed on either side. As it turned out, Dox was off-world negotiating an official end to the Rann-Thanagar War, using Rann's new-found distance from Thanagar and change in leadership on both sides as leverage.


title: Adam Strange

text: Dox then went on to mediate the tension between the Rannians and the Tamaranians by proposing that the Tamaranians live on Rann's uninhabited southern continent.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange, as well as protector of Rann, would also become a senior commander of L.E.G.I.O.N. ensuring peace with the Green Lantern Corps. He also helped create an alliance between Rannians, Tamaranians and L.E.G.I.O.N. after defeating Starro the Conqueror, ensuring security for Rann, the Vega System and the galaxy.


title: Adam Strange

text: In "The New 52", a 2011 reboot of the DC Comics universe, Adam Strange was reintroduced to mainstream continuity as a Canadian archaeologist who has a relationship with Alanna (now Alanna Lewis, a former student of his). He and other heroes are teleported to his home planet Rann in order to stop the villain . He and Alanna then became founding members of the Justice League United. An accident with the Zeta Beam allowed Adam to merge with its time-space energy signature, allowing him to project his consciousness throughout all known reality. By the end of the series, Adam would lose his newfound abilities and return to normal.


title: Adam Strange

text: During Vandal Savage's compels scheme to gain more power from the comet that made him immortal, the JLU assisted in a weaker Superman's efforts to thwart his plans. However, the heroes were captured and their powers used as fuel to bring the comet closer to Earth to give Savage's descendants with their own abilities. They were saved by Superman, who was now empowered by Kryptonite, the heroes held back Savage's forces long enough for Superman to final defeat the immortal, but he would eventually die.


title: Adam Strange

text: Strange was next featured in "The Death of Hawkman" series, once again caught in the middle of the Rann/Thangar conflict. Suspicious that Thangar initiated the first attack, Adam began an investigation into the events with the aid of his friend Hawkman. The two soon discover that Despero was behind the conflict, aiming to collect the planets Nth Metal supply. They fought Despero, but the villain proved to be too strong to handle. In an act of desperation, Hawkman ordered Adam to active a machine that will magnetize all of the planets Nth Metal, killing Hawkman and Despero. A reluctant Adam agreed, but the machine unexpectedly sent him hurdling into another dimension. The dimension was revealed to be the home of Jonny Quest as part of the "Future Quest" series.


title: Adam Strange

text: He soon found his way back to the DC Universe, where he divides his attention between his home world and his adopted world. He also became a reserve member of the Justice League.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange lacks any real superhuman attributes, choosing to rely more on quick thinking and ingenuity. Before coming to Rann, Strange was an accomplished explorer and archaeologist who specialized in gathering and studying lost artifacts found in the remains of ancient civilizations. Applying these qualities to his new life on Rann, he would venture out with his new family into the wilds of their homeworld to study and rediscover its ancient history. Eventually his experiences accumulated on his adventures through the study and understanding of both Rannian culture and its vast technologies as well as its vested history, enabled Adam to pick up a host of vaunted combat techniques and scientific knowledge, giving him the edge needed to physically match and defeat immeasurably more imposing opponents over the many years. He has battled and bested adversaries both native and extraterrestrial in nature, such as Thanagarians, Durlans, Qwardians, En'Tarans, and Meta-Humans. This along with his many decades of thriving in the harsh environments of Rann, Earth and other galactic territories has made Adam an accomplished survivalist, having spent just as long traversing the rural areas as treacherous as the Amazon rainforest back on Earth.


title: Adam Strange

text: Strange has a tactical intellect on par with - or exceeding - the likes of Bruce Wayne and Lex Luthor, and complements this with the learning that he has gained in his many years of study on Rann. He is able to reverse engineer functional technological wonders even from the damaged remains of an alien ship with ease. He is also an accomplished mathematician, who can expertly deduce the exact time and place when and where Sardath's Zeta Beam will hit on his home planet of Earth. Mark Waid showcases his intellect in his run on "JLA". After Rann is conquered by a telepathic race called En'Tarans, Strange defeats them by secretly converting the planet into a giant Zeta Beam gun, powered by the latent Mega Zeta Radiation in his body. With the aid of the JLA, Strange successfully transports the En'Taran fleet to another part of the galaxy. In the aftermath of the Infinite Crisis event, Adam Strange loses his eyes in a freak Zeta Beam accident. Sardath is able to clone a new set of eyes from his granddaughter, Aleea Strange, and transplant them into Adam. These new eyes enable Adam to see the entire electromagnetic spectrum.


title: Adam Strange

text: As the protector of Rann, Adam is well connected with Sardeth and his science council. Adam uses a colorful variety of technologies both as a hero and spacefarer. The resources pertaining to Rann's wonders of science available to him are numerous. He has studied, disassembled and rebuilt much of his own equipment; consisting mainly of high-tech munitions, armor, gadgets & utensils or cutting edge genetics engineering. Strange is also well versed in their mechanical function as well as practical use in his heroic endeavors.


title: Adam Strange

text: Strange is an adept aerial combatant, often making use of a fireproof, thermal insulated and environmentally adapted suit with which to traverse the terrains of foreign worlds or in the cold depths of space. With further upgrades, Strange’s costume boasts a built-in Zeta Beamer with which to warp lightyears across the universe in an instant.


title: Adam Strange

text: The helmet is equipped with a life support system that protects Adam from harmful atmospheric conditions, while the suit itself pulls up a head-up display system with which to control his equipment via thought & voice command. Technology of which is slaved to his handheld blaster, sporting real-time threat assessment and targeting priority reticules to better combat adversaries.


title: Adam Strange

text: The jetpack is a twin-engine propulsion system attached to a harness adorning his back capable of aerial aviation for an undisclosed amount of time. Strange is also versed in other kinds of rocket propulsion equipment like a booster system with hidden back up blasters, with his equipment Strange can also make escape velocity in order to break planetary orbit.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange's primary weapon of choice is a Rannian laser pistol among other assorted weapons and munitions picked up from across the galaxy. He is a crack marksman with just about any ranged weapon on hand at the time, the gun comes with a targeting system conductor when worked in tandem with his costume and has a stun setting for non-lethal application.


title: Adam Strange

text: Other munitions in his arsenal include Holo-Blasters, which are Hard-Light Energy arms that Strange can use to conjure any number of ordinance or enhanced protective shielding with while in a firefight. The effectiveness of these armaments makes them potent enough in dispatching Smite, one of Starro's lieutenants boasting physical capabilities rivalling Superman or Lobo. When properly calibrated by outside forces, these energy weapons can also channel the light of a Power Ring or a facsimile of its corresponding emotion that can dispatch a small enclave of Black Lanterns.


title: Adam Strange

text: One of Strange's as well as the planet of Rann's greatest resource is the Zeta Beam technology developed by Sardeth. Initially designed as a means of communications with intelligent life from across the universe, it was accidentally discovered to be an instantaneous means of intergalactic transport that rode along a cosmic radiation called Zeta Rays. The effects of the ray were always short lived, and their dissipation meant Adam would return to where he first intercepted the ray. This would be a running staple for years until later Zeta designs made its effects permanent, albeit at the cost debilitating mental sickness for its user. Eventual innovations in Rannian transport technology would produce a more streamlined device called the Zeta Beamer module, an A.I. commanded mobile drone in the form of a floating sphere that could be used to track Zeta Rays across galaxies and even into alternate universes. Like the Mega Zeta Beam, transport was also permanent, without the danger of Zeta Ray sickness. Further modifications integrated the transport device into Adam's space suit.


title: Adam Strange

text: In "Just Imagine..." created by Stan Lee, Adam Strange is the superpowered teenage son of the villainous Reverend Dominic Darrk and Morgan/Morgan Le Fey, who stole his Sapphire of Ranagar in a bid to take his father's power. He indirectly leads to the formation of the Justice League as well as controlling a trio of villains under Reverend Darrk, called the "Doom Patrol". Adam realizes his energy powers aren't a match for his father, so he feigns allegiance thus allowing Darrk to kill his own son.


title: Adam Strange

text: Dr. Adam Strange appears in the comic book tie-in to "Smallville" as a colleague of Emil Hamilton from STAR Labs. His invention of the Zeta-Beam with Alanna plays into the construction of the Justice League Watchtower.


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange appears in issues #25–27 of "Justice League Adventures" #25-26 and issue #4 of "Justice League Unlimited" set in the "DC Animated Universe".


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange has a descendant, also named Adam Strange, in the future of the Space Ranger, as seen in "Mystery in Space" #94 (September 1964).


title: Adam Strange

text: Adam Strange had a crossover with Jonny Quest in "Adam Strange / Future Quest" Annual #1 in March 2017.


title: Adam Strange

text: The character and series of the same name have received several awards over the years, including the 1967 and 1968 Alley Awards for Strip Most Desired for Revival. IGN ranked Adam Strange as the 97th greatest comic book hero of all time stating that:If by fluke we were given the chance to ride a Zeta Beam into space, meet a sexy alien princess on the planet Rann, and fight extraterrestrial threats with high-tech weaponry, I wouldn’t want to go back to mundane Earth-life either. That makes us completely sympathetic to Adam Strange’s plight.


title: Maria Reynolds

text: Maria Reynolds (née Lewis; March 30, 1768 – March 25, 1828) was the wife of James Reynolds, and was Alexander Hamilton's mistress between 1791 and 1792. She became the object of much scrutiny after the release of the Reynolds Pamphlet and central in America's first political sex scandal.


title: Maria Reynolds

text: Maria Reynolds, born as "Maria Lewis," was born in New York City on March 30, 1768, the daughter of Susanna Van Der Burgh and her second husband, Richard Lewis. She had six half-siblings, including Col. Lewis DuBois and Captain Henry DuBois, and five full siblings, at least two of whom (older sisters named Susannah and Sarah) lived to adulthood. The Lewises do not appear to have been well-off: Richard Lewis was a merchant and/or laborer, and could not sign his name. Susanna Van Der Burgh Lewis, however, could write at least her name, and Maria Lewis grew up literate, though largely uneducated. On July 28, 1783, when she was 15, Maria Lewis married James Reynolds. Reynolds had served in the Revolutionary War in the commissary department, and was older than Maria by at least several years. After the war, he tried frequently to claim damages and obtain reimbursement from the government. Maria had one child with Reynolds, a daughter named Susan, born August 18, 1785, later baptized in October.


title: Maria Reynolds

text: At some point before 1791, James Reynolds moved with Maria and their daughter from New York to Philadelphia. It was there in summer 1791 that 23-year-old Maria visited 34-year-old Hamilton at his Philadelphia residence and asked for help, claiming her abusive husband had abandoned her. Due to Hamilton's political office, he could very easily help her move back to New York City. Hamilton organized a meeting for later that evening to give Maria the money. Once Hamilton arrived at the boarding house where Maria was lodging, she brought him upstairs and led him into her bedroom, where he recounts that "Some conversation ensued from which it was quickly apparent that other than pecuniary consolation would be acceptable”. Thus beginning the infamous Reynolds Affair.


title: Maria Reynolds

text: During summer and fall 1791, Maria and Hamilton continued the affair while Hamilton's wife, Eliza, and their children were in Albany, visiting her parents. A short time into the affair, Maria informed Hamilton that her husband had sought a reconciliation with her, to which she agreed without ending the affair with Hamilton. She then obtained an interview for James Reynolds, who applied to Hamilton for a position in the Treasury Office, which Hamilton refused. After Hamilton had shown unequivocal signs that he wanted to end the affair on December 15, 1791, Maria sent him a letter warning of Reynolds's anger over the supposed discovery of the affair:I have not the time to tell you the cause of my present troubles; only that Mr. Reynolds has wrote you this morning and I know not whether you have got the letter or not and he has swore that if you do not answer, or if he does not see or hear from you today, he will write to Mrs. Hamilton. He has just gone out and I am alone. I think you had better come here one moment that you may know the cause, then you will the better know how to act. Oh, my God, I feel more for you than myself and wish I had never been born to give you so much unhappiness. Do not respond to him; not even a line. Come here soon. Do not send or leave any thing in his power. From December 15 to December 19, 1791, Reynolds sent threatening letters to Hamilton, and after a personal meeting instead of seeking redress from dueling, he asked for financial compensation. Hamilton complied, paying to Reynolds the requested $1,000 and discontinuing the affair, as he had wished to do for some time. However, on January 17, 1792, Reynolds wrote to Hamilton inviting him to renew his visits to his wife. Maria, most likely manipulated into the scheme, also began to write to Hamilton whenever her husband was out of the house and seduced him anew. After each of these exchanges, Reynolds would write to Hamilton under the guise of being friends, and Hamilton would, in return, send $30. Hamilton's last "loan" of the $50 to James Reynolds, and possibly the end of the affair, dates in June 1792. In November 1792, James Reynolds, after illegally purchasing Revolutionary War soldiers' pensions and back-pay claims, was imprisoned for forgery with Virginian Jacob Clingman, his partner in crime. Reynolds wrote to Hamilton, who refused to help and likewise rejected Maria's letters and requests for further money. Clingman then informed Hamilton's Democratic-Republican rivals that Reynolds had information against the Treasury Secretary. James Monroe, Frederick Muhlenberg, and Abraham Venable visited Reynolds in jail, where Reynolds hinted at some unspecified public misconduct on Hamilton's part whose details he promised to expose after coming out of prison, only to disappear immediately after his release on December 12, 1792. The congressmen also personally interviewed Maria who corroborated her husband's accusations of speculation against Hamilton by producing the notes in Hamilton's disguised hand that had accompanied his payments to Reynolds. On December 15, 1792, Monroe, Venable, and Muhlenberg went to Hamilton with the evidence they had gathered and confronted him on the possible charge of speculation. Fearful of what a scandal could do to his career, Hamilton admitted to the affair with Maria, proved with the letters from both Maria and James Reynolds that his payments to Reynolds related to the blackmail over his adultery, and not to treasury misconduct and asked them to keep the information private as he was innocent of any public wrongdoing. They agreed, although Monroe created copies of the letters and sent them to Thomas Jefferson. John Beckley also created copies of the correspondence. Clingman, on January 1, 1793, declared to Monroe that Maria claimed that the affair had been invented as a cover for the speculation scheme. However, the letter from Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth to Hamilton dated 2 August 1797 relates how during Reynolds's detention in November–December 1792 Maria had applied to both Wadsworth and Governor General Thomas Mifflin. In the attempt to convince them to help her obtain her husband's release from prison, Maria spontaneously told both of them the story of her first acquaintance and following "amour" with Hamilton in words that match Hamilton's description of their first encounter as reported in both the first draft of the Reynolds Pamphlet of July 1797 (before Wadsworth's letter) and the printed version, also dated July 1797, as well as James Reynolds’ first letter to Hamilton. Historian Tilar J. Mazzeo has advanced a theory that the affair never happened. Outside of The Reynolds Pamphlet, there is no evidence that the affair occurred. Others connected with the scandal, from James Monroe to Maria Reynolds herself, said that it was a cover-up for a financial scandal. Hamilton never produced the manuscript copies of Maria's letters, though the newspapers and Maria both suggested obtaining a handwriting sample. Hamilton said that they had been placed with a friend of his, who claimed that he had never seen them, suggesting that the letters could have been forged. The newspaper writers also pointed out that Maria's letters correctly spell long, complex words, and yet sometimes misspelled simple words in a way that makes no phonetic sense. As Thomas Jefferson's biographer, Julian P. Boyd, stated that the letters could resemble what an educated man believed an uneducated woman's love letters to look like.


title: Maria Reynolds

text: In 1793, Maria enlisted the aid of Aaron Burr and successfully petitioned for a divorce from Reynolds. Before obtaining the divorce she had gone to live with Virginian Jacob Clingman — whom she later married in 1795 - who had also been a partner in crime in Reynolds' speculations. He had been arrested with him in November 1792. She took up residence in Alexandria, Virginia.


title: Maria Reynolds

text: In summer 1797, journalist James T. Callender published a collection of pamphlets entitled "The History of the United States for 1796", in which he promised to uncover public wrongdoing on Hamilton's part. On August 25, 1797, unwilling to let the charges of public misconduct lie, Hamilton published what is known as "The Reynolds Pamphlet", a 95-page account of Hamilton's affair with Maria and the blackmail scheme set up by her husband. After the Pamphlet was released, Maria was publicly scorned and she and her second husband decided to move to Britain. Having returned to Philadelphia without Clingman some years later, she went by the name of Maria Clement. No record of her divorce from Clingman has been found. Soon thereafter, she became the housekeeper of Dr. Mathew. A merchant by the name of Peter Grotjan in 1842 reported that he had met Maria many years earlier. She had apparently told him that she had written a pamphlet of her own, giving her side of the story that Hamilton had told in his Reynolds Pamphlet. If Maria's pamphlet existed, it was never published. In 1800, her daughter Susan was sent to a Boston boarding school with the help of Congressman William Eustis, who had been petitioned by Aaron Burr to help the girl.


title: Maria Reynolds

text: In 1806, Maria married Dr. Mathew, for whom she had worked as a housekeeper. In 1808, Susan Reynolds came to live with her mother, and spent several years with her in Philadelphia. Susan was married several times, but never happily. However, she birthed two daughters: Josepha Philips, whom Maria raised from age 12, after Susan's death at age 39. Described by her acquaintance Peter Grotjan as "highly amiable and handsome," Maria Reynolds, now Mathew, became highly respected with her marriage to the doctor. She became religious, joining the Methodist Church, and put her past behind her. "She enjoyed...the love and good will of all who knew her". She died on March 25, 1828.


title: Television advertisement

text: A television advertisement (also called a television commercial, TV commercial, commercial, spot, television spot, TV spot, advert, television advert, TV advert, television ad, TV ad or simply an ad) is a span of television programming produced and paid for by an organization. It conveys a message promoting, and aiming to market, a product, service or idea. Advertisers and marketers may refer to television commercials as TVCs.


title: Television advertisement

text: Advertising revenue provides a significant portion of the funding for most privately-owned television networks. During the 2010s, the number of commercials has grown steadily, though the length of each commercial has diminished. Advertisements of this type have promoted a wide variety of goods, services, and ideas ever since the early days of the history of television.


title: Television advertisement

text: The viewership of television programming, as measured by companies such as Nielsen Media Research in the United States, or BARB in the UK, is often used as a metric for television advertisement placement, and consequently, for the rates which broadcasters charge to advertisers to air within a given network, television program, or time of day (called a "daypart").


title: Television advertisement

text: In many countries, including the United States, television campaign advertisements are commonplace in a political campaign. In other countries, such as France, political advertising on television is heavily restricted, while some countries, such as Norway, completely ban political advertisements.


title: Television advertisement

text: The first official paid television advertisement came out in the United States on July 1, 1941 at 2:30 p.m., over New York station WNBT (subsequently WNBC) before a baseball game between the Brooklyn Dodgers and Philadelphia Phillies. The announcement for Bulova watches, for which the company paid anywhere from $4.00 to $9.00 (reports vary), displayed a WNBT test pattern modified to look like a clock with the hands showing the time. The Bulova logo, with the phrase "Bulova Watch Time", appeared in the lower right-hand quadrant of the test pattern while the second hand swept around the dial for one minute. The first TV ad broadcast in the UK went on air on ITV on September 22, 1955, advertising Gibbs SR toothpaste. In Asia, the first TV ad broadcast appeared on Nippon Television in Tokyo on August 28, 1953, advertising Seikosha (subsequently Seiko); it also displayed a clock with the current time.


title: Television advertisement

text: The television market has grown to such an extent that it was estimated to reach $69.87 billion for TV ad spending in the United States for 2018.


title: Television advertisement

text: Television advertising involves three main tasks: creating a television advertisement that meets broadcast standards, placing the advertisement on television to reach the desired customer and then measuring the outcomes of these ads, including the return on investment.


title: Television advertisement

text: To accomplish the first step means different things to different parts of the world depending on the regulations in place. In the UK for example, clearance must be given by the body Clearcast. Another example is Venezuela where clearance is governed by a body called CNAC. The clearance provides a guarantee to the broadcasters that the content of the advertisement meets legal guidelines. Because of this, special extended clearance sometimes applies to food and medical products as well as gambling advertisements.


title: Television advertisement

text: The second is the process of TV advertising delivery and usually incorporates the involvement of a post-production house, a media agency, advertising distribution specialists and the end-goal, the broadcasters.


title: Television advertisement

text: At New York's TV Week in November 2018, the TV advertising model was described by Turner Broadcasting System as broken.


title: Television advertisement

text: However, with the emergence of over-the-top media services, the Internet itself has become a platform for television, and hence TV advertising. TV attribution is a marketing concept whereby the impact television ads have on consumers is measured.


title: Television advertisement

text: Addressable television is where targeted advertising is used on digital platforms, so two people watching the same show receive different ads.


title: Television advertisement

text: After the video cassette recorder (VCR) became popular in the 1980s, the television industry began studying the impact of users fast-forwarding through commercials. Advertising agencies fought the trend by making them more entertaining. The introduction of digital video recorders (also known as digital television recorders or DTRs), such as TiVo, and services like Sky+, Dish Network and Astro MAX, which allow the recording of television programs into a hard drive, also enabled viewers to fast-forward or automatically skip through advertisements of recorded programs.


title: Television advertisement

text: At the end of 2008, 22 per cent of UK households had a DTR. The majority of these households had Sky+ and data from these homes (collected via the SkyView panel of more than 33,000) shows that, once a household gets a DTR, they watch 17 per cent more television. 82 per cent of their viewing is to normal, linear, broadcast TV without fast-forwarding the ads. In the 18 per cent of TV viewing that is time-shifted (i.e. not watched as live broadcast), viewers still watch 30 per cent of the ads at normal speed. Overall, the extra viewing encouraged by owning a DTR results in viewers watching 2 per cent more ads at normal speed than they did before the DTR was installed.


title: Television advertisement

text: The SkyView evidence is reinforced by studies on actual DTR behaviour by the Broadcasters' Audience Research Board (BARB) and the London Business School.


title: Television advertisement

text: Other forms of TV advertising include product placement advertising in the TV shows themselves. For example, "Extreme Makeover: Home Edition" advertises Sears, Kenmore, and the Home Depot by specifically using products from these companies, and some sports events like the Monster Energy Cup of NASCAR are named after sponsors, and race cars are frequently covered in advertisements.Today's sports advertisements frequently push boundaries or test out innovative methods using digital advances, depending less and less on the "spots and dots," the conventional 30-second commercials on television and radio. Additionally, companies are becoming more closely associated with sports content, particularly if it connects them to a digital audience made up mostly of highly sought-after men and women between the ages of 18 and 34. Many major sporting venues in North America are named for commercial companies, dating back as far as Wrigley Field. Television programs delivered through new mediums such as streaming online video also bring different opportunities to the traditional methods of generating revenue from television advertising.


title: Television advertisement

text: Another type of advertisement shown increasingly, mostly for advertising TV shows on the same channel, is an ad overlay at the bottom of the TV screen, which blocks out some of the picture. "Banners", or "Logo Bugs", as they are called, are referred to by media companies as Secondary Events (2E). This is done in much the same way as a severe weather warning is done, only these happen more frequently. They may sometimes take up only 5 to 10 per cent of the screen, but in the extreme, they can take up as much as 25 per cent of the viewing area. Subtitles that are part of the programme content can be completely obscured by banners. Some even make noise or move across the screen. One example is the 2E ads for Three Moons Over Milford, which was broadcast in the months before the TV show's première. A video taking up approximately 25 per cent of the bottom-left portion of the screen would show a comet impacting into the moon with an accompanying explosion, during another television programme. Another example is used in Poland to use any premieres of new shows/new seasons of the same show. TVP has taken a step further, overlaying on screen not only the channel on which the show is premiered, but also on a sister channel.


title: Television advertisement

text: Online video directories are an emerging form of interactive advertising, which help in recalling and responding to advertising produced primarily for television. These directories also have the potential to offer other value-added services, such as response sheets and click-to-call, which enhance the scope of the interaction with the brand.Researchers have found that For some consumer types and for specific ad types, that the standard linear advertising format is really superior to interactive advertising. Particularly, they have discovered that a cognitive "matching" of the system's (predominantly visual or verbal) characteristics and the demands of the customer group (preferring their information to be delivered in a visual or verbal fashion) appears to be crucial.


title: Television advertisement

text: During the 2008–09 TV season, Fox experimented with a new strategy, which the network dubbed "Remote-Free TV". Episodes of "Fringe" and "Dollhouse" contained approximately ten minutes of advertisements, four to six minutes fewer than other hour-long programs. Fox stated that shorter commercial breaks keep viewers more engaged and improve brand recall for advertisers, as well as reducing channel surfing and fast-forwarding past the advertisements. However, the strategy was not as successful as the network had hoped and it is unclear whether it will be continued in the future.


title: Television advertisement

text: In May 2018, Fox Networks Group said its channels would try one-minute commercial breaks, mainly during sports events, but also on some shows on Fox Broadcasting Company. Ads during these breaks would cost more and fewer advertisers would be willing to pay that much. Also in 2018, NBC used one-minute commercial breaks after the first block in many shows. These "prime pods" are intended to keep viewers who are watching live, and advertisers pay more for the NBC spots.


title: Television advertisement

text: Children can be impacted by advertising in a variety of ways, and how they respond to it will depend on a number of factors, including their age, background knowledge, and level of experience. Youngsters under two years old are unable to distinguish between television programs and advertisements; however, children between the ages of three and six can. Children between the ages of 7 and 11 can grasp that they are being sold something, can identify sales tactics, and are willing to buy items with poor selling points, therefore they could also not be able to understand what they are being marketed. Teenagers between the ages of 12 and 13 can typically understand what they are being sold and decide whether they want to purchase it based on what they were told. However, they may not be able to recognize products with tricky placement or understand that celebrities are being paid to endorse a product. Over 14-year-olds could not have the necessary judgment abilities to make a decent purchase and may not comprehend how the market operates.


title: Television advertisement

text: Advertising agencies often use humor as a tool in their creative marketing campaigns. Many psychological studies have attempted to demonstrate the effects of humor and their relationship to empowering advertising persuasion.


title: Television advertisement

text: Animation is often used in advertisements. The pictures can vary from hand-drawn traditional animation to computer animation. By using animated characters, an advertisement may have a certain appeal that is difficult to achieve with actors or mere product displays. Animation also protects the advertisement from changes in fashion that would date it. For this reason, an animated advertisement (or a series of such advertisements) can be very long-running, several decades in many instances. Notable examples are the series of advertisements for Kellogg's cereals, starring Snap, Crackle and Pop and also Tony the Tiger. The animation is often combined with real actors. Animated advertisements can achieve lasting popularity. In any popular vote for the most memorable television advertisements in the UK, such as on ITV or Channel 4, the top positions in the list invariably include animations, such as the classic "Smash" and Creature Comforts advertisements.


title: Television advertisement

text: Other long-running advertising campaigns catch people by surprise, even tricking the viewer, such as the Energizer Bunny advertisement series. It started in the late 1980s as a simple comparison advertisement, where a room full of battery-operated bunnies was seen pounding their drums, all slowing down except one, with the Energizer battery. Years later, a revised version of this seminal advertisement had the Energizer bunny escaping the stage and moving on (according to the announcer, he "keeps going and going and going..."). This was followed by what appeared to be another advertisement: viewers were oblivious to the fact that the following "advertisement" was actually a parody of other well-known advertisements until the Energizer bunny suddenly intrudes on the situation, with the announcer saying "Still going..." (the Energizer Battery Company's way of emphasizing that their battery lasts longer than other leading batteries). This ad campaign lasted for nearly fifteen years. The Energizer Bunny series has itself been imitated by others, via a Coors Light Beer advertisement, in motion pictures, and by current advertisements by GEICO Insurance.


title: Television advertisement

text: Many television advertisements feature songs or melodies ("jingles") or slogans designed to be striking and memorable, which may remain in the minds of television viewers long after the span of the advertising campaign. Some of these ad jingles or catch-phrases may take on lives of their own, spawning gags that appear in films, television shows, magazines, comics, or literature. These long-lasting advertising elements may be said to have taken a place in the pop culture history of the demographic to whom they appeared. An example is the enduring phrase, "Winston tastes good like a cigarette should", from the eighteen-year advertising campaign for Winston cigarettes from the 1950s to the 1970s. Variations of this dialogue and direct references to it appeared as long as two decades after the advertising campaign expired. Another example is "Where's the Beef?", which grew so popular it was used in the 1984 presidential election by Walter Mondale. Another popular catch-phrase is "I've fallen and I can't get up", which still appears occasionally, over two decades after its first use. Some advertising agency executives have originated more than one enduring slogan, such as Mary Wells Lawrence, who is responsible for such famous slogans as "Raise your hand if you're Sure", "I♥New York" and "Trust the Midas touch."


title: Television advertisement

text: Prior to the 1970s, music in television advertisements was generally limited to jingles and incidental music; on some occasions lyrics to a popular song would be changed to create a theme song or a jingle for a particular product. An example of this is found on the recent popular Gocompare.com advert that utilises "Over There", the 1917 song popular with United States soldiers in both World Wars and written by George M. Cohan during World War I. In 1971 the converse occurred when a song written for a Coca-Cola advertisement was re-recorded as the pop single "I'd Like to Teach the World to Sing (In Perfect Harmony)" by the New Seekers, and became a hit. Additionally songwriter Paul Williams composed a piece for a Crocker Bank commercial which he lengthened and The Carpenters recorded as "We've Only Just Begun". Some pop and rock songs were re-recorded by cover bands for use in advertisements, but the cost of licensing original recordings for this purpose remained prohibitive in certain countries (including the U.S.) until the late 1980s.


title: Television advertisement

text: The use of previously recorded popular songs in American television advertisements began in earnest in 1985 when Burger King used the original recording of Aretha Franklin's song "Freeway of Love" in a television advertisement for the restaurant. This also occurred in 1987 when Nike used the original recording of The Beatles' song "Revolution" in an advertisement for athletic shoes. Since then, many classic popular songs have been used in similar fashion. Songs can be used to concretely illustrate a point about the product being sold (such as Bob Seger's "Like a Rock" used for Chevy trucks), but more often are simply used to associate the good feelings listeners had for the song to the product on display. In some cases the original meaning of the song can be totally irrelevant or even completely opposite to the implication of the use in advertising; for example Iggy Pop's "Lust for Life", a song about heroin addiction, has been used to advertise Royal Caribbean International, a cruise ship line. Music-licensing agreements with major artists, especially those that had not previously allowed their recordings to be used for this purpose, such as Microsoft's use of "Start Me Up" by the Rolling Stones and Apple Inc.'s use of U2's "Vertigo" became a source of publicity in themselves.


title: Television advertisement

text: In early instances, songs were often used over the objections of the original artists, who had lost control of their music publishing, the music of the Beatles being perhaps the most well-known case; more recently artists have actively solicited use of their music in advertisements and songs have gained popularity and sales after being used in advertisements. A famous case is Levi's company, which has used several one hit wonders in their advertisements (songs such as "Inside", "Spaceman", and "Flat Beat"). In 2010, research conducted by PRS for Music revealed that "Light & Day" by The Polyphonic Spree is the most performed song in UK TV advertising.


title: Television advertisement

text: Sometimes a controversial reaction has followed the use of some particular song on an advertisement. Often the trouble has been that people do not like the idea of using songs that promote values important for them in advertisements. For example, Sly and the Family Stone's anti-racism song, "Everyday People", was used in a car advertisement, which angered some people.


title: Television advertisement

text: Generic scores for advertisements often feature clarinets, saxophones, or various strings (such as the acoustic/electric guitars and violins) as the primary instruments.


title: Television advertisement

text: In the late 1990s and early 2000s, electronica music was increasingly used as background scores for television advertisements, initially for automobiles, and later for other technological and business products such as computers and financial services. Television advertising has become a popular outlet for new artists to gain an audience for their work, with some advertisements displaying artist and song information onscreen at the beginning or end.


The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, commonly known as the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) or the United Nations Human Rights Office, is a department of the Secretariat of the United Nations that works to promote and protect human rights that are guaranteed under international law and stipulated in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948. The office was established by the United Nations General Assembly on 20 December 1993 in the wake of the 1993 World Conference on Human Rights.


title: Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

text: The office is headed by the High Commissioner for Human Rights, who co-ordinates human rights activities throughout the United Nations System and acts as the secretariat of the Human Rights Council in Geneva, Switzerland. The eighth and current High Commissioner is Volker Türk of Austria, who succeeded Michelle Bachelet of Chile on 8 September 2022.


text: In 2018–2019, the department had a budget of $201.6 million (3.7 per cent of the regular United Nations budget), and approximately 1,300 employees based in Geneva and New York City. It is an ex officio member of the Committee of the United Nations Development Group.


text: The mandate of OHCHR derives from Articles 1, 13 and 55 of the Charter of the United Nations, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action and General Assembly resolution 48/141 of 20 December 1993, by which the Assembly established the post of United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. In connection with the programme for reform of the United Nations (A/51/950, para. 79), the OHCHR and the Centre for Human Rights were consolidated into a single OHCHR on 15 September 1997.


text: The OHCHR is divided into organizational units, as described below. The OHCHR is headed by a High Commissioner with the rank of Under-Secretary-General.


text: The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, accountable to the Secretary-General, is responsible for all the activities of the OHCHR, as well as for its administration, and carries out the functions specifically assigned to him or her by the UN General Assembly in its resolution 48/141 of 20 December 1993 and subsequent resolutions of policy-making bodies. It advises the Secretary-General on the policies of the United Nations in the area of human rights, ensures that substantive and administrative support is given to the projects, activities, organs and bodies of the human rights program, represents the Secretary-General at meetings of human rights organs and at other human rights events, and carries out special assignments as decided by the Secretary-General. As well as those human rights that are currently included in legally binding treaties, the High Commissioner also promotes human rights yet to be recognized in international law (such as the adoption of economic, social and cultural rights as a strategic priority, which are not all currently recognized in international legal instruments).


text: The United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, in the performance of his or her activities, is assisted by a Deputy High Commissioner who acts as Officer-in-Charge during the absence of the High Commissioner. In addition, the Deputy High Commissioner carries out specific substantive and administrative assignments as decided by the High Commissioner. The Deputy is accountable to the High Commissioner.


text: The Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights (not to be confused with the Deputy High Commissioner, who is also an Assistant Secretary-General) based in New York City heads the New York Office of the High Commissioner. The New York Office represents the High Commissioner at United Nations Headquarters in New York and promotes the integration of human rights in policy processes and activities undertaken by inter-governmental and inter-agency bodies at the United Nations.


text: The post of Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights was created in 2010, when Ivan Šimonović was appointed to the position. From 2016 to 2019, the position was held by Andrew Gilmour. The current Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights, since 2020, is Ilze Brands Kehris.


text: The Staff Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights is headed by a Chief who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Staff Office are to:


text: The Administrative Section is headed by a Chief, Kyle F. Ward, who is accountable to the Deputy High Commissioner. The core functions of the Administrative Section, in addition to those set out in section 7 of Secretary-General's bulletin ST/SGB/1997/5, are to:


text: The New York Office is headed by an Assistant Secretary-General who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the New York Office are to:


text: The Thematic Engagement, Special Procedures and Right to Development Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to:


text: The Human Rights Council and Treaty Mechanisms Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to:


text: The Field Operations and Technical Cooperation Division is headed by a Director who is accountable to the High Commissioner. The core functions of the Division are to:


text: Journalist Emma Reilly leaked e-mails in 2020 and 2021 in which the OHCHR provided names of Chinese participants in UN human rights activities to China on request. This occurred on multiple occasions from before 2012 to at least 2019, despite an explicit ban against this sort of activity. In some cases, after obtaining their name in advance from the UN, the Chinese Communist Party made sure an activist was not able to leave China for Geneva to attend.


title: 2000 World Series

text: The 2000 World Series was the championship series of Major League Baseball's (MLB) 2000 season. The 96th edition of the World Series, it was a best-of-seven playoff between crosstown opponents, the two-time defending World Series champions and American League (AL) champion New York Yankees and the National League (NL) champion New York Mets. The Yankees defeated the Mets, four games to one, to win their third consecutive championship and 26th overall. The series was often referred to as the "Subway Series", referring to the longstanding matchup between New York baseball teams; it was the first World Series contested between two New York teams since the 1956 World Series and the first since the New York Giants and the Brooklyn Dodgers moved west to California (as the current San Francisco Giants and Los Angeles Dodgers, respectively) in 1958 and the subsequent formation of the Mets in 1962. This World Series that featured teams from the same city or state, was the first of its kind since 1989 between the Oakland Athletics and the San Francisco Giants. Yankees shortstop Derek Jeter was named the World Series Most Valuable Player.


title: 2000 World Series

text: The Yankees advanced to the World Series by defeating the Oakland Athletics, three games to two, in the AL Division Series, and then the Seattle Mariners, four games to two, in the AL Championship Series; it was the third consecutive season the Yankees had reached the World Series, the fourth time in the past five years, and the 37th overall, making it the most of any team in MLB. The Mets advanced to the World Series by defeating the San Francisco Giants, three games to one, in the NL Division Series, and then the St. Louis Cardinals, four games to one, in the NL Championship Series; it was the team's fourth World Series appearance, making it the most of any expansion franchise in MLB and the Mets' first appearance since winning the 1986 World Series.


title: 2000 World Series

text: The Yankees were the first team in baseball to win three consecutive championships since the 1972–1974 Oakland Athletics, and the second North American professional sports team in 5 years to accomplish the feat after the 1996–1998 Chicago Bulls.


title: 2000 World Series

text: Although the Yankees were in the midst of a dynasty and not far removed from their dominant 114-win 1998 season, the 2000 season was their weakest performance since 1995. They won just 87 games in the regular season and lost 15 of their last 18.


title: 2000 World Series

text: Nonetheless, strong seasons by Jorge Posada, Derek Jeter, Bernie Williams, and Mariano Rivera were enough to secure the AL East by 2.5 games and the third seed in the American League. In the postseason, they defeated the Oakland Athletics in the AL Division Series 3–2 and the Seattle Mariners in the AL Championship Series 4–2 to reach the World Series. At the time, they were just the fourth team since 1960 to make the World Series after winning fewer than 90 games in the regular season.


title: 2000 World Series

text: Highlighted by MVP-caliber seasons from Edgardo Alfonzo and Mike Piazza as well as strong pitching performances from Al Leiter and Mike Hampton, the New York Mets won 94 games in the regular season to capture the Wild Card by 8 games (though they lost the NL East to the Atlanta Braves by 1 game). By winning the 1999 and 2000 Wild Card, the Mets achieved their first back-to-back post-season appearances in franchise history, a feat they would match in 2015 and 2016.


title: 2000 World Series

text: The fourth-seeded Mets defeated the 97-game winning San Francisco Giants in the NL Division Series, 3–1, and the 95-game winning St. Louis Cardinals, 4–1, in the NL Championship Series. The 2000 World Series was the first World Series appearance for the Mets since their championship in 1986 and their second post-season appearance since 1988.


title: 2000 World Series

text: This series marked the second year in a row that a World Series matchup would be a repeat from the regular season. The Yankees had beaten the Mets 4-2 in six games from June 9–10 and July 7–9 (including a double header on July 8). This was also the very first time a World Series champion would beat the World Series loser in both the regular season and the World Series.


title: 2000 World Series

text: The American national anthem was sung by Billy Joel. The opener fell on two anniversaries. Twenty-five years prior, Boston Red Sox catcher Carlton Fisk ended Game 6 of the 1975 World Series with his famous home run off the left-field foul pole at Fenway Park to beat the Cincinnati Reds and force a Game 7. Twenty years prior, the Philadelphia Phillies won their first World Series title, defeating the Kansas City Royals in six games.


title: 2000 World Series

text: Game 1 was a match-up between postseason veterans Al Leiter and Andy Pettitte. Pettitte had been with the Yankees for each of their previous three World Series appearances to this point, while Leiter had won world championship as a member of the 1992 and 1993 Toronto Blue Jays teams and the 1997 Florida Marlins.


title: 2000 World Series

text: The two teams engaged in a scoreless tie with neither squad threatening much. Then in the sixth, with two outs and rookie Timo Perez in scoring position, Mets first baseman Todd Zeile hit a deep fly to left field. Perez misjudged the ball, thinking it was going to clear the fence, but it hit the top of the wall and bounced back into the field of play. Since it had not gone into the stands, the ball was still live and Yankees left fielder David Justice was able to relay the ball back to the infield just as Perez, who had been running at a trotting speed, was rounding third base. The relay from Derek Jeter to Jorge Posada easily beat Perez to the plate, and instead of scoring the first run of the game the Mets ended the sixth with nothing. Justice then responded in the bottom half of the inning with a double that scored Jeter and Chuck Knoblauch to give the Yankees a 2-0 lead.


title: 2000 World Series

text: In the top of the seventh inning, the Mets loaded the bases against Pettitte with one out on two singles and a walk before Bubba Trammell tied the game with a two-run single to left. After Timo Perez's sacrifice bunt moved up the runners, Jeff Nelson relieved Pettitte and allowed an RBI single to Edgardo Alfonzo to put the Mets on top. John Franco relieved Leiter in the eighth and held the Yankees in check, while Mariano Rivera staved off a rally in the top of the ninth to keep the score at 3-2.


title: 2000 World Series

text: Looking to secure the victory, the Mets called upon their closer, Armando Benítez, to finish the game. Benítez had had some trouble against the Yankees in the past, having faced them often as a member of the Baltimore Orioles, and this time would prove no different. After retiring the first batter he faced, Benitez walked Paul O'Neill. Pinch hitter Luis Polonia followed with a single, as did Jose Vizcaino, loading the bases. Knoblauch then drove in O’Neill with a sacrifice fly to tie the game. Benitez recovered to strike out Jeter for the last out, ensuring the game would require extra innings to decide.


title: 2000 World Series

text: Rivera retired the Mets in order in the tenth, and the Yankees got another chance to win the game when Justice and Bernie Williams drew walks against Dennis Cook to lead off the bottom half. Glendon Rusch then came in and threw a wild first pitch, which enabled the baserunners to advance into scoring position. Rusch then got Tino Martinez to pop out, and after walking Posada he managed to escape further damage by inducing an inning ending double play from O’Neill.


title: 2000 World Series

text: Mike Stanton, the Yankees’ left-handed relief specialist, entered the game in the eleventh and set the Mets down in order again. Rusch took the mound again for the Mets and retired Luis Sojo to lead off the inning. He walked Vizcaino, then got Knoblauch to pop out. Jeter drew a walk, but ball four got away from Todd Pratt and the runners advanced to second and third. Rusch then left in favor of Turk Wendell, who retired pinch hitter Glenallen Hill on a fly ball to keep the game going.


title: 2000 World Series

text: After Stanton once again retired the side in order in the twelfth, Wendell came out to try and keep the Yankees from scoring. With one out, back to back hits by Martinez and Posada put both men in scoring position and brought O’Neill to the plate. Wendell put him on intentionally, then got Sojo to pop out to Pratt for the second out. This time, he would not get out of the inning as Vizcaino lined a single into left field to drive in Martinez to give the Yankees a 4-3 win.