title: Willys

text: In 1962, Willys started building the French Alpine A108 as the Willys Interlagos. It was produced until 1966 and was the first Brazilian-made sports car. It was also the car in which many Brazilian racers cut their teeth, including greats such as Emerson Fittipaldi. Willys also designed and showed a larger sports car called the "Capeta" (Devil) in 1964, powered by the 2.6-litre six-cylinder Aero engine. In 1965, Willys–Overland do Brasil and Renault began collaborating on a new front-wheel drive car, called "Project M" and meant to replace the aging Dauphine. Developed in parallel with the Renault 12, which it antedated, the car eventually saw light as the Ford Corcel. Early Corcels had "Willys" stamping in the glass, and the Corcel line (which continued in production until 1997 as the Ford Pampa) always showed its French origins in its characteristic three-bolt wheels. In 1967, Ford took a controlling interest in Kaiser and thereby gained control of Willys–Overland do Brasil.


title: Willys

text: The Aero-based Itamaraty continued in production until the early 1970s, in latter years wearing "Ford" badges. Dauphine production ended in 1968, but the Willys Rural/Pickup and its derivatives were built as the Ford F-75 until 1983. The only visual difference is that the post-1970 cars have a tailgate with "Ford" rather than "Jeep" stamped in it. The military version of the Jeep Pickup was called the F-85.


title: Willys

text: In America, the company had already changed its name in 1963 to Kaiser-Jeep Corporation; the Willys name disappeared thereafter.


title: Willys

text: Kaiser-Jeep was sold to American Motors Corporation (AMC) in 1970 when Kaiser Industries decided to leave the automobile business. After the sale, AMC used engines it had developed for its other cars in Jeep models to improve performance and standardize production and servicing.


title: Willys

text: Renault purchased a major stake in AMC in 1979 and took over operation of the company, producing the CJ series until 1986. Chrysler purchased AMC in 1987 after the CJ had already been replaced with the Jeep Wrangler (also known as the YJ and later TJ), which had little in common with the CJ series other than outward appearance. The Jeep marque, owned by DaimlerChrysler and later Fiat, produces Jeep vehicles at a new Toledo Complex.


title: Willys

text: DaimlerChrysler introduced the Overland name for a trim package on the 2002 Jeep Grand Cherokee. The badging is a recreation of the Overland nameplate from the early twentieth century.


title: Willys

text: In 2014, the "Willys" trademark was acquired by Italian Carrozzeria Viotti, declaration of Emanuele Bomboi (head of design of Viotti). Carrozzeria Viotti together with Fabbrica Italiana Maggiora introduced at the Bologna Motor Show 2014 the Willys AW 380 Berlineta, a concept car inspired by the original Willys Interlagos assembled by Willys in Brazil under license of the French Alpine. Viotti and Maggiora plans to produce the vehicle in limited edition and relaunch the Willys marque.


title: Willys

text: The 1933-36 coupés and pickups were very popular gassers. The best-known would be the 1933 Willys 77. Only 12,800 were sold in 1933, 13,234 in 1934, 10,644 in 1935 (including a new panel delivery), and 30,825 the company's final year, making it a puzzle why it became popular: it was neither cheap nor plentiful.


title: Willys

text: After the company revived, the 1937-42 coupés, sedans, and pickups were again popular with hot rodders and gasser teams, and again, comparatively low production leaves unexplained why they gained so much attention. Ollie Olsen's "Wil-A-Meaner" 1940 coupé (driven by Bob "Rapid" Dwyer) won the 1961 NHRA Nationals A/G title.


title: Lisa Zane

text: Zane was born in Chicago, Illinois, the daughter of Thalia and William George Zane Sr., founders of a medical technical school. Her family's original surname, "Zanetakos", was anglicized to "Zane" by her father. Both of her parents are of Greek descent. She is the older sister of actor Billy Zane.


title: Lisa Zane

text: Zane's first film role was in the 1989 movie "Heart of Dixie". She starred in "Gross Anatomy" the same year. Other early acting roles included Claire in "Bad Influence" (1990), counselor Maggie Burroughs in "" (1991), the title role in "The Nurse" (1997) and a cameo as the gynaecologist in the comedy "Cruel but Necessary" (2005). She was a series regular as Melina Paros in "L.A. Law" from 1992 to 1993, JoAnne Meltzer in "Profit", Diana in "Roar", Le Sage in "Dinotopia" for Hallmark Entertainment and Sophia Keener in "Law and Order" in 2006. She provided the voice for She-Hulk in the first season of 1990s cartoon "The Incredible Hulk", as well as Charley Davidson in "Biker Mice from Mars" in the follow-up 2006 series, taking over from Leeza Miller-McGee.


title: Lisa Zane

text: She has originated many roles on stage, playing Varya in David Mamet's debut adaptation of "The Cherry Orchard" at the Goodman Theatre, Rita in Craig Lucas's "Prelude to a Kiss" and Cleo in Lyle Kessler's "Robbers". Zane has also made many guest appearances on TV shows, including "", "The Outer Limits", "Judging Amy", and "The Division".


title: Lisa Zane

text: Zane is a singer, BMI songwriter, and recording artist. In 2006, the Songwriters Hall of Fame recognized her as one of their new songwriters of the year.


title: Lisa Zane

text: She played the part of the "alter ego" in Amanda Eliasch's play ""As I Like It"" in 2012, and an award-winning documentary drama ""The Gun the Cake and the Butterfly"" (2014), in which she sang with Charles Eliasch.


title: Lisa Zane

text: The same year she performed in "The Girl from Nagasaki" a film by Michel Comte based on Madame Butterfly. In 2013, Zane performed in The Chateau Marmont in Los Angeles.


title: Indrajit

text: Meghanada (), also referred to by his epithet Indrajita , according to Hindu texts, was the crown prince of Lanka, who conquered Indraloka (Heaven). He is regarded as one of the greatest warriors in Hindu texts. He is a major character mentioned in the Indian epic "Ramayana." Meghnada is the central character in Bengali ballad "Meghnad Badh Kavya". He played an active role in the great war between Rama and Ravana. He acquired many kinds of celestial weapons from his Guru Shukra. His most prominent feat is having defeated the devas in heaven. Using the Brahmastra, Indrajita killed 670 million vanaras in a single day; nearly exterminating the entirety of the vanara race. No warrior had ever achieved this statistical feat before in the Ramayana.


title: Indrajit

text: Indrajita had the special ability to fight from the sky, hidden behind the clouds. That is why both Rama and Lakshmana were defeated during the battle and were tied up by the snake. In Sanskrit, the literal translation of the name "Indrajita" (इन्द्रजित) is mentioned as the "Conqueror of Indra" and "Meghanāda" () as " Lord of the sky". In Tamil, the literal translation of the name "Meghanathan" () is mentioned as the "Lord of Clouds", which combines the words "Megham" (clouds) and "Nathan" (lord). He defeated Indra, the king of the devas, after which he came to be known as "Indrajita" (the conqueror of Indra). He is also known as Shakrajit, Ravani, Vasavajit, Varidanada, and Ghananada.


title: Indrajit

text: Indrajita was the oldest son of Ravana and his wife Mandodari. He was named Meghanada after his birth because his birth cry sounded like thunder. When Meghanada was going to be born, Ravana wished his son to be supreme so that no one in the world could defeat him. Ravana wanted his son to be the ultimate warrior and extremely knowledgeable. Ravana was a great astrologer. To make his son immortal, he commanded all the planets and constellations in such a position that would allow his son to be born the way he wanted. Because of Ravana's anger and power, all the planets and constellations feared him. All the planets were in the position as desired by Ravana at time of his son Meghanada's birth. All the planets aligned in such a way that they came in the 11th house of Meghanada's horoscope. However, Shani (Saturn) had disobeyed Ravana's orders and had settled in the 12th house of Meghanada's horoscope. Ravana became furious at this and blamed Shani. Due to the state of Shani, Meghanada had to die at the hands of Lakshmana in the war between Prince Rama and Ravana.


title: Indrajit

text: Meghanada was also an expert in magical warfare, sorcery and tantra. His wife is not mentioned in the original epic; however in later versions of the epic, Sulochana—the daughter of the King of the serpents Shesha Naga—is mentioned as his wife.


title: Indrajit

text: During the battle between the devas and Ravana, Lord Indra, king of heavens accompanied by all other devas captured Ravana. To rescue his father, Meghanada attacked Indra and his elephant Airavata, and defeated all the devas, even Indra (although he was most likely defeated by the curse given to him). Meghanada tied and mounted Indra onto his celestial chariot and brought him to Ravana in Lanka. Ravana and Meghanada decided to kill Indra. At this juncture, Lord Brahma intervened and asked Meghanada to free Indra. Meghanada obliged and was granted a chance to ask for a boon from Brahma. Meghanada asked for immortality, but Brahma remarked that absolute immortality is against the law of the nature. Instead, he was then granted another boon that after the completion of the Yagna (fire-worship) of his native goddess Prathyangira or the "Nikumbhila yagna" would be completed, he will get a celestial chariot, mounting on which, any enemy can't kill him in a war and become invulnerable. But Brahma also cautioned him that whosoever would destroy this yagna, would also kill him. Brahma was highly impressed by Meghanada's valor in this war and it was Brahma who coined him the name Indrajita ("the conqueror of Indra"). It is also believed that Meghanada was granted another boon by Brahma in which it was promised to him that he would only be killed by a common man who hadn't slept for 12 years continuously.


title: Indrajit

text: Meghanada was the greatest warrior on Ravana's side. He was a great archer and unsurpassed grand master in illusion warfare techniques.


title: Indrajit

text: On the first day of his battle with Rama's army, Indrajita was fast with his weapons. Angada did defeat Indrajita and forced him to retreat . However, he swiftly wiped out the armies of Sugriva, calling on Rama and Lakshmana to come in a direct combat by his illusion tactics of sorcery, so he could avenge the deaths of his paternal uncle and his brothers. When Lakshmana appeared before him, he fought fiercely and used his most nefarious weapon "Nagapasha" (a trap made of a million snakes). Rama and Lakshmana fell on the ground breathless. They were rescued by Garuda on behest of Hanuman. Garuda was the uncle of Jatayu and Sampati and the enemy of the serpents and also the flying vehicle of Vishnu, of whom Rama was the seventh avatar.


title: Indrajit

text: When Indrajita discovered that both Rama and Lakshmana had been rescued by Garuda and were still alive, he was livid and vowed to kill at least one of the brothers on that day. When the battle started, he used all his force to cast a havoc on the armies of Sugriva. At this Lakshmana appeared before him and fought him fiercely. Indrajita used his supreme magical powers, darting across the clouds and skies like a bolt of lightning. He combined his skills of sorcery and illusion warfare, repeatedly vanishing and reappearing behind Lakshmana's back. He was invisible but his arrows injured Lakshmana. Indrajita used the "Vasavi Sakthi" against Lakshmana, and upon being impaled Lakshmana fell unconscious, poised to die precisely at the following sunrise. His life was saved by Hanuman, who brought the whole mountain of Dronagiri from the Himalayas to Lanka overnight to find the remedy (the magical herb - "Sanjivani") for the weapon used by Indrajita and cured him. Although there is false speculation that Rama fought, too. Dharma does not allow multiple warriors to fight against one and it was only Lakshmana who was injured because it is against moral duty to fight against an invisible warrior.


title: Indrajit

text: When Indrajita learned that Lakshmana had survived again, he went to his native deity's secret temple to perform the yagna that would make him a warrior who can't be killed by anyone. Vibhishana, Indrajita's paternal uncle who left Ravana to join Rama, learned of his nephew Indrajita's plans through his spies and alerted Rama. Lakshmana and Vibhisana took the opportunity to face Indrajita in the "Yagnaagaar", where Indrajita would not touch any weapons. As the Valmiki Ramayana quotes, upon his Yagna being destroyed by the armies of Lakshmana, Indrajita became enraged and stormed out of the Temple Cave.


title: Indrajit

text: Seeing his uncle Vibhishana at Lakshmana's side multiplied Indrajita's fury manyfold. He vowed to kill his uncle Vibhisana along with Lakshmana once and for all, letting loose the Yama-astra which he had been conserving for punishing Vibhishana's perceived treason. At this juncture, Lakshmana protected Vibhishana, countering the Yama-astra owing to an earlier warning by Kubera. Indrajita realised that Lakshmana was not an ordinary human and had met the criteria to defeat Indrajita, i.e. blunder the yagna and not sleep for more than 12 years. Indrajita vanished briefly from the battlefield, returning to Ravana at the royal palace, and reported the developments, proposing that his father make peace with Rama. Ravana, blinded with pride, was unrelenting and annoyed, claiming that Indrajita was a coward for having fled the battlefield. This accusation provoked Indrajita who briefly lost his temper, striking fear even at the mighty Ravana's heart before apologizing and clarifying to his father that his primary duty as a son was to serve his father's best interests and that even in the face of death, he would never abandon Ravana. Preparing to return to the battle and knowing that he indeed faced death at the hands of a heavenly incarnation, Indrajita said his last goodbyes to his parents and his wife. He returned to the battlefield and fought Lakshmana with all his skill at both illusion warfare and sorcery. The arrows of Indrajita refused to harm Lakshmana because Lakshmana was the incarnation of Shesha. Lakshmana slew Indrajita by beheading him with the Anjalikastra. It was possible only because of a curse given to Indrajita by Shesha for marrying his daughter without his permission. Shesha incarnated as Rama's brother Lakshmana, to kill Indrajita, didn't have any sleep for more than twelve years during their exile so that he would be able to serve Rama and Sita efficiently and meet the criteria to kill Indrajita.


title: Michael M. Gilday

text: Michael Martin Gilday (born October 10, 1962) is a United States Navy officer who has served as the 32nd chief of naval operations since August 22, 2019. Gilday has commanded two destroyers, served as Director of the Joint Staff, commanded the Tenth Fleet/Fleet Cyber Command, and led Carrier Strike Group 8.


title: Michael M. Gilday

text: Gilday was born in Lowell, Massachusetts, and is a 1985 graduate of the United States Naval Academy as a Surface Warfare Officer. He has also graduated with master's from the Harvard Kennedy School and the National War College.


title: Michael M. Gilday

text: Gilday's previous tours include duty with , , as well as commanding the and and Destroyer Squadron 7. He also had staff assignments on the Bureau of Naval Personnel, Chief of Naval Operation (Strategic Plans and Policy Directorate) and staff to the vice chief of naval operations. His joint assignments include Naval Aide to the President and executive assistant to the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Gilday was awarded the Navy Commendation Medal with Valor for his actions aboard "Princeton" when the ship was damaged by an Iraqi mine during the Persian Gulf War.


title: Michael M. Gilday

text: As a flag officer, Gilday served as Director of Operations for NATO's Joint Force Command in Lisbon and Director of Operations for United States Cyber Command. He assumed the duties of Commander, Fleet Cyber Command and United States Tenth Fleet on July 14, 2016, was appointed Director of Operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff in May 2018, and became Director of the Joint Staff from March 1, 2019.


title: Michael M. Gilday

text: On July 11, 2019, Gilday was nominated for appointment as the next chief of naval operations (CNO). On August 1, the United States Senate voted unanimously to award Gilday a fourth star following the Senate Armed Services Committee's recommendation that he succeed Admiral John M. Richardson as CNO in September 2019.


title: Michael M. Gilday

text: On April 15, 2020, Gilday announced the Navy was considering reinstating Brett Crozier, earlier fired in relation to Crozier's controversial response to coronavirus disease on the aircraft carrier . Gilday, and the acting United States secretary of the Navy, James E. McPherson recommended that Crozier be reinstated as Captain of the Roosevelt on April 25, 2020.


title: Michael M. Gilday

text: On August 10, 2020, Gilday was running on the Washington Navy Yard base, where he lives, when he “fell ill”. Gilday was assisted by a passing Marine, and was taken to his physician. He underwent heart surgery for a pre-existing condition about two weeks later. He returned to work full-time on September 28.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The Renault Twingo is a four-seater passenger city car manufactured and marketed by the French auto-maker Renault, introduced in 1992 and currently in its third generation.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The first generation Twingo (two door, front engine) debuted at the Paris Motor Show on 5 October 1992, receiving its formal market launch in continental European markets beginning in April 1993. Renault launched the second-generation Twingo (two door, front engine) in the summer of 2007 – and the third generation (four door, rear engine) debuted at the 2014 Geneva Motor Show, receiving its formal market launch in September 2014.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The original Twingo was launched in April 1993, was sold in Europe's LHD markets until August 2007, and received intermediate restylings in 1998, 2000 and 2004.


title: Renault Twingo

text: Designed under the direction of Patrick Le Quément, Renault's chief designer, the car derived a concept developed through the W60 project when Gaston Juchet was Renault's chief designer. The project was aimed at replacing the Renault 4 with a minivan model.


title: Renault Twingo

text: Le Quément chose a Jean-Pierre Ploué design to develop the production version. Le Quément stretched the original prototype and added an unconventional front end layout resembling a "smile". The interior equipment was mounted on a central console to free space. Renault had participated in the 1981 to 1984 'Mono-Box' ECO 2000 car project, along with PSA Peugeot Citroën and the French Government.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The Twingo I's electronic centrally mounted instrument panel had a speedometer, fuel gauge, clock, odometer, and trip recorder controlled via a stalk-located button. A strip of warning lights was located behind the steering wheel. The rear seat featured a sliding mechanism to enable either increased boot space or more rear-seat legroom. The boot parcel shelf was attached to the inside of the tailgate, and lifted with the tailgate – or could clip back against the rear window when not required.


title: Renault Twingo

text: Manufactured at the Flins Renault Factory from the time of its launch until 28 June 2007, the Twingo I was also manufactured in Taiwan, Spain, Colombia and Uruguay from 1999 to 2002, remaining in production until 8 June 2012 in Colombia, by the Sofasa conglomerate, strictly for the South American market.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In April 1993, the Twingo launched with only one trim level, and four exterior colors: coral red, Indian yellow, coriander green, and ultramarine blue. The car retailed at a price of 55,000FF (approximately €8,400). In June 1994, new exterior colors were introduced along with minor interior changes, as well as optional electric windows and mirrors, and locks with remote key less entry. Four months later, the Twingo Easy model was launched, with an automated manual gearbox.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In September 1995, the first of many special Twingo editions launched, while inbuilt airbags become optional. In July 1996, a new 1149 cc engine (from the Clio) was fitted to replace the previous engine from the Renault 5. Alongside the new engine came the Twingo Matic model, equipped with a 3-speed automatic gearbox. Also, various improvements were made including the addition of a third brake light.


title: Renault Twingo

text: Two years later, the Twingo underwent its first major restyling revisions to the interior and dashboard. The front and rear lights were revised, and front orange indicator lights were merged into the headlamp housing. The front of the car is reinforced for added safety in a frontal impact. Two months later, the top of the range Twingo Initiale model launched.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In September 2000, the Twingo underwent its second major restyling. Additions included larger 14" wheels, revised door trims with larger door pockets, a black trunk opener lever (instead of shiny silver), and cup holders in front of the gearstick.


title: Renault Twingo

text: December 2000, a new 1.2-litre 16v engine launched, with . In April 2001, a new automated manual gearbox launched, called Quickshift. Additional revisions followed in September 2002, including new interior trims and wheel covers.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In Japan, Renault was formerly licensed by Yanase Co., Ltd., but in 1999, Renault purchased a stake in Japanese auto-maker Nissan after Nissan had faced financial troubles following the collapse of the Japanese asset price bubble in 1991 and subsequent Lost Decade. As a result of Renault's purchase of interest, Yanase cancelled its licensing contract with Renault in the spring of 2000, and Nissan Motor Co., Ltd took over as the sole licensee, hence sales of the Twingo I in Japan were transferred from "Yanase Store" locations to "Nissan Red Stage Store" locations.


title: Renault Twingo

text: September 2004 marked the third major Twingo revision. The Renault logo was fitted to the boot lid, side rubbing strips were added and a new range of exterior colours launched. On 28 June 2007, Twingo I production ended in France, being replaced by the Twingo II. On 30 June 2007 2,478,648 units from the Twingo I were produced. The Renault Twingo I production went on into Colombia until 8 June 2012. In total there were over 2.6 million units of the first-generation Twingo produced.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The French company Lormauto presented at the 2022 Paris Motor Show a kit to transform the Renault Twingo 1 into a fully electric car.


title: Renault Twingo

text: After presenting an initial concept at the 2006 Mondial de l'Automobile, Renault debuted the production Twingo II at the 2007 Geneva Motor Show with French market trim levels named "Authentique, Expression, Initiale, Dynamique" and "GT". Using the floorpan of the Renault Clio II, the Twingo II offered improved crash protection and was available in LHD & RHD configurations. Production began in France and subsequently moved to the Revoz plant in Novo Mesto, Slovenia.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In January 2008, Renault debuted the Twingo Renaultsport 133, with a new 1,598 cc engine, at the 2008 Geneva Motor Show. In August 2013, ordering and production of the 133 model ended.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In July 2011, Renault debuted a facelifted Twingo II at the Frankfurt Motor Show, featuring a design language subsequently used on their entire range and offering revised fascias as well as redesigned front and rear light clusters.


title: Renault Twingo

text: On Series 14, Episode 4 of "Top Gear", presenter Jeremy Clarkson road tested the Twingo 133 on Belfast streets and barrel rolled upside down through a sewage tunnel. After numerous accidents, he raced to catch a departing ferry, instead landing in the ocean.


title: Renault Twingo

text: Special editions included the Twingo Renaultsport Gordini; Twingo Gordini TCe 100; Twingo Bizu; Twingo Pzaz; Twingo Renaultsport Silverstone GP (UK-only); Twingo Miss Sixty; and Twingo Renaultsport Red Bull RB7.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The Twingo II was licensed by Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. and sold exclusively through "Nissan Store" locations.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The third generation Renault Twingo debuted in March 2014 at the Geneva Motor Show in a five-door, rear mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. It was co-developed with Daimler's third generation Smart Fortwo and second generation Smart Forfour. The third generation Twingo and second generation Forfour are manufactured at the same factory in Novo Mesto, Slovenia.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The third generation Twingo entered into production in May 2014 at Novo Mesto and was launched into the European market in September.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In March 2010, Renault and Daimler, as part of their existing partnership, announced "Project Edison", a collaboration aimed at conceiving a shared platform for small city cars to be used by both companies. The Edison platform was designed from the start for mounting either an internal combustion engine or an electric motor as main power source.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The first cars using the platform were the third generation Twingo and the second generation Smart Forfour. Renault and Daimler AG invested equally during the research and development phase, with Renault subsequently specializing in the engines and Daimler in transmissions.


title: Renault Twingo

text: Both companies tried to ensure a distinctive design. Renault designers took inspiration from the Renault 5 and the first generation Twingo. The car was originally launched with four colour options, as with the original Twingo.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In January 2019, an updated Twingo was introduced with a new front fascia, cosmetic changes inside and out, and a new base 1.0 L engine; at the same time, declining sales in the UK (just 877 were sold in 2018) led Renault UK to discontinue marketing the right-hand-drive model.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The Twingo III is about 10 mm shorter than the Twingo II. The rear engine layout improves the manoeuvrability and the cabin space, but reduced the boot capacity. The suspension is composed by MacPherson struts on the front axle and a De Dion tube on the rear. The car uses a five-door architecture, which differs it from its three-door predecessors.


title: Renault Twingo

text: Brakes are ventilated disks on the front and drums on the rear, except in the base model (SCe 70) which uses drum brakes all round. The bonnet features a special opening mechanism and allows only partial opening to give access to the windscreen washer fluid, brake fluid and coolant reservoirs, and to the battery.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The car originally offered four trim levels: Expression, Play, Dynamique and Dynamique S with various customization packs. One option connects a smartphone with an instrument panel cradle (R&Go) and has an infotainment system (R-Link). Other levels such as the "Energy" trim have since been added. The GT model arrived in November 2016.


title: Renault Twingo

text: As standard, the car incorporates tyre pressure sensors, seatbelt reminders, four airbags and four head and chest side airbags. It achieved a four star Euro NCAP test rating in 2014.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The car originally came with two three-cylinder petrol engines. A 0.9-litre turbocharged unit and a 1-litre atmospheric. Both are fitted low and in a 49-degree angle to increase boot's capacity. In November 2016 a more powerful version of the petrol engine, the TCe 110, arrived for the sporting Twingo GT model.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In February 2014, Renault organised a "strip tweet" online event to promote the Twingo III. The manufacturer commissioned to Publicis the conception of the car's European advertising. Publicis hired French artists and animators Olivier Kuntzel and Françoise Deygas for the design of the visual campaign with the theme "Go Anywhere, Go Everywhere."


title: Renault Twingo

text: In 2015, Renault released a short music video, "All new Twingo : Show me a car !", in which a "twee" styled woman is searching a "nifty" car. It ends with a reference to "Papa & Nicole" adverts for the Renault Clio : "Papa! – Nicole? – Your seatbelt!". The brief video got a viral success in the United Kingdom, with approximately views in four weeks. A Pop Up Store was opened at the Crémerie de Paris.


title: Renault Twingo

text: In the United Kingdom, the new Twingo won the "City Car of the Year" 2014, "TopGear Magazine Awards", "City Car of the Year" in the "UK Car of the Year Awards" and "Best City Car" in the Daily Express 2014 Motoring Oscars, "Best City Car" at the 2015 British "GQ Car Awards".


title: Renault Twingo

text: Paul Horrell of "Top Gear Magazine" gave the car a score of seven out of 10, calling it: "a genuinely different approach to design and engineering that has brought real dividends, not just in being different for its own sake. Most important, it's much more fun than a base model supermini for the same cash." "Auto Express" and its sister publication "CarBuyer" scored it four out of five stars, praising its manoeuvrability, design, and rear passenger space but criticizing its wind noise and high price compared to its rivals. "What Car?" gave the car three out of five stars, saying: "The Renault Twingo mixes cheeky retro styling with genuine practicality. It’s neither as refined nor as comfortable as the best city cars, though."


title: Renault Twingo

text: The Twin'Z is a city car concept unveiled in April 2013. Its styling was created in partnership with British designer Ross Lovegrove. According to Renault's chief designer Laurens van den Acker, the purpose of its introduction was to "break down the boundaries between the world of an object whose calling is to be in movement, the automobile, and that of furniture." The concept has a rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout and is powered by an electric motor with a power output and torque of . It has no B-pillar or dashboard and its doors open in conventional doors up front and suicide doors in the rear.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The Twin'Run is a rear wheel drive hot hatch concept developed by Renault with assistance of Tork Engineering and Poclain Véhicules, unveiled in May 2013. It is powered by a mid-mounted V6 engine with , coupled to a twin clutch six speed sequential gearbox and limited slip differential. It has double-wishbone independent suspension on both axles. The chassis is a tubular steel frame inspired by the Mégane Trophy and Renault 5 Turbo Maxi from WRC.


title: Renault Twingo

text: After plans to roll out new electric vehicles, including an electric Twingo, were confirmed in September 2019, Renault announced the Twingo Electric, marketed as the Twingo Z.E. (Zero Emissions) and in France as the Twingo E-Tech Électrique, the first-ever electric version of its city car, in February 2020 at the Geneva Motor Show. It is the second electric car from Renault, following the Zoe. The Twingo Z.E. drive train is based on that of the Smart EQ Forfour, with a larger battery. Renault CEO Luca de Meo confirmed in 2021 the entire Twingo range would be discontinued after the third generation, driven in part by the forthcoming Euro 7 emissions standards, which will be implemented in 2025. It is expected the A-segment Twingo will be replaced by the larger B-segment Renault 5 EV.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The starting price, announced the following September, was . It was not marketed in the United Kingdom, following Renault's withdrawal of the Twingo range from the UK market after the car model's face lift in 2019. A limited edition "Vibes" model, based on the regular "Intens" trim, was announced in July 2020; the special Valencia Orange color was only available for the Vibes limited edition, but the Vibes could also be specified for any regular production color, and was later made available for the conventional petrol-engines Twingo. Trim levels in 2022 included the Life (), Zen (), Intens (), and Urban Night (). Although the suggested retail price was high compared to a petrol-powered Twingo, the French government electric car subsidy of up to or 27% of the price made the cost of the electric version comparable.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The car has a rated driving range of on the WLTP driving cycle (Full or City, respectively). The on-board charger, branded Caméléon, can accept AC electric supply at up to 22 kW; the lithium-ion battery, with 22 kW-hr capacity, incorporates lessons learned from the Renault Zoe. The battery itself weighs and is positioned beneath the front seats. The vehicle is limited to AC charging sources only, as the vehicle supply interface port does not accept a DC fast charge plug. The rear-mounted R80 traction motor has an output of and , and the car has a kerb weight of . The top speed is , and can accelerate from 0– in 12.6 seconds. The default driving mode "D" emulates the behaviour of a petrol-powered car with moderate "engine braking" when the driver's foot is lifted from the throttle; a more aggressive and adjustable "B" regeneration mode is selectable, but does not allow one-pedal driving at the highest regeneration level.


title: Renault Twingo

text: The base trim ("Life") was criticized for lacking expected basic features such as a radio and air conditioning; however, the lack of vibrations and abundant low-end torque from the electric traction motor were appreciated for city traffic. The Twingo Electric was marketed against other low-cost city cars, such as the base model of the Fiat New 500 and Volkswagen E-up! and the VW's rebadged versions, the SEAT Mii electric and Škoda Citigo-e iV; internally, the Twingo also competed with the Dacia Spring; compared to the VW and Dacia, the Twingo Electric offered a smaller driving range.


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome is the brand name for a color reversal film introduced by Eastman Kodak in 1935. It was one of the first successful color materials and was used for both cinematography and still photography. For many years Kodachrome was widely used for professional color photography, especially for images intended for publication in print media.


title: Kodachrome

text: Because of its complex processing requirements, the film was initially exclusively sold process-paid in the United States: customers had to pay Kodak for the cost of development when they bought the film, and independent photography stores were prohibited from developing Kodachrome photos. To develop the film, customers had to mail film to Kodak, who mailed the developed photos back for no additional charge. In 1954, the U.S. Department of Justice found this practice to be an uncompetitive violation of antitrust law. Kodak entered into a consent decree requiring they offer Kodachrome film for sale with and without the development fee, as well as license Kodachrome development patents to independent photography stores. Nonetheless, the process-paid arrangement continued in other markets around the world.


title: Kodachrome

text: Due to the growth and popularity of alternative photographic materials, its complex processing requirements, and the widespread transition to digital photography, Kodachrome lost market share. Its manufacture was discontinued in 2009, and processing ended in December 2010.


title: Kodachrome

text: In early 2017, Kodak announced they were investigating the possibility of reintroducing Kodachrome, but later conceded that this was unlikely to happen.


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome was the first color film that used a subtractive color method to be successfully mass-marketed. Previous materials, such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor, had used the additive screenplate methods. Until its discontinuation, Kodachrome was the oldest surviving brand of color film. It was manufactured for 74 years in various formats to suit still and motion picture cameras, including 8 mm, Super 8, 16 mm for movies (exclusively through Eastman Kodak), and 35 mm for movies (exclusively through Technicolor Corp as "Technicolor Monopack") and 35 mm, 120, 110, 126, 828 and large format for still photography.


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome is appreciated in the archival and professional market for its dark-storage longevity. Because of these qualities, it was used by professional photographers such as Steve McCurry, David Alan Harvey, Peter Guttman and Alex Webb. McCurry used Kodachrome for his 1984 portrait of Sharbat Gula, "Afghan Girl", for the "National Geographic" magazine. It was used by Walton Sound and Film Services in the UK in 1953 for the official 16 mm film of the coronation of Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom. Copies of the film for sale to the public were also produced using Kodachrome.


title: Kodachrome

text: Before Kodachrome film was marketed in 1935, most color photography had been achieved using additive methods and materials such as Autochrome and Dufaycolor, which were the first practical color processes. These had several disadvantages because they used a "réseau" filter made from discrete color elements that were visible upon enlargement. The finished transparencies absorbed between 70% and 80% of light upon projection, requiring very bright projection lamps, especially for large projections. Using the subtractive method, these disadvantages could be avoided.


title: Kodachrome

text: The first Kodak product called Kodachrome was invented by John Capstaff in 1913. His Kodachrome was a subtractive process that used only two colours: blue-green and red-orange. It required two glass plate negatives, one made using a panchromatic emulsion and a red filter, the other made using an emulsion insensitive to red light. The two plates could be exposed as a "bipack" (sandwiched emulsion to emulsion, with a very thin red filter layer between), which eliminated the need for multiple exposures or a special colour camera. After development, the silver images were bleached out with chemistry that hardened the bleached portions of the gelatin. Using dyes that were absorbed only by the unhardened gelatin, the negative that recorded the blue and green light was dyed red-orange and the red-exposed negative was dyed blue-green. The result was a pair of positive dye images. The plates were then assembled emulsion to emulsion, producing transparency that was capable of surprisingly good (for a two-colour process) colour rendition of skin tones in portraits. Capstaff's Kodachrome was made commercially available in 1915. It was also adapted for use as a 35 mm motion picture film process.


title: Kodachrome

text: Today, this first version of Kodachrome is nearly forgotten, completely overshadowed by the next Kodak product bearing the name Kodachrome.


title: Kodachrome

text: In 2012, Capstaff's early film tests were added to the United States Library of Congress National Film Registry under the title "Two-Color Kodachrome Test Shots No. III" (1922) for being “culturally, historically or aesthetically” significant."


title: Kodachrome

text: The next version of Kodachrome was invented in the early 1930s by two professional musicians, Leopold Godowsky Jr. and Leopold Mannes, who were also university-trained scientists.


title: Kodachrome

text: Mannes and Godowsky first took an interest in color photography when in 1917, still high school pupils at the time, they saw a movie called "Our Navy", a movie made using a four-color additive process. Both agreed the color was terrible. After reading up on the subject in the library they started to experiment with additive color processes. Their experiments were continued during their college years, eventually producing a camera having two lenses that projected images side by side on a single strip of film. The color rendition of this additive two-color process was not too bad, but aligning the two lenses of the projector was difficult.


title: Kodachrome

text: Their experiments, which continued after they finished college, turned from multiple lenses that produced multiple, differently colored images that had to be combined to form the final transparency, to multiple layered film in which the different color images were already combined, perfectly aligned.


title: Kodachrome

text: Such a multi-layered film had already been invented and patented in 1912 by the German inventor Rudolph Fischer. Each of the three layers in the proposed film would be sensitive to one of the three primary colors, and each of the three layers would have substances (called "color couplers") embedded in them that would form a dye of the required color when combined with the by-products of the developing silver image. When the silver images were bleached away, the three-color dye image would remain. Fischer himself did not find a way to stop the color couplers and color sensitizing dyes from wandering from one layer into the other, where they would produce unwanted colors.


title: Kodachrome

text: Mannes and Godowsky followed that route, started experimenting with color couplers, but their experiments were hindered by a lack of money, supplies and facilities. In 1922 Robert Wood, a friend of Mannes, wrote a letter to Kodak chief scientist Kenneth Mees, introducing Mannes and Godowsky and their experiments, and asking if Mees could let them use the Kodak facilities for a few days. Mees offered to help, and after meeting with Mannes and Godowsky agreed to supply them with multi-layer emulsions made to Mannes and Godowsky's specifications. Financial aid, in the form of a $20,000 loan, was supplied by the investment firm Kuhn, Loeb and Company, who had Mannes and Godowsky's experiments brought to their attention by a secretary working for that firm Mannes had acquainted.


title: Kodachrome

text: By 1924 they were able to patent a two-color process. The important part of that patented process was a process called controlled diffusion. By timing how long it took for an image to form in the top layer, but not yet in the next layer beneath that one, they began to solve the problem that Fischer could not. Using this time-controlled way of processing one layer at a time, they could create the dye image of the required color in only that layer in which it was required. Some three years later they were still experimenting using this controlled diffusion method of separating the colors in the multi-layer emulsion, but by then they had decided that instead of incorporating the color couplers into the emulsion layers themselves, they could be added to the developing chemicals, solving the problem of wandering color couplers. The only part left of Fischer's original problem with a multi-layer emulsion were the wandering sensitizing dyes.


title: Kodachrome

text: In 1929 money ran out, and Mees decided to help them once more. Mees knew that the solution to the problem of the wandering dyes had already been found by one of Kodak's own scientists, Leslie Brooker. So he gave Mannes and Godowsky enough money to pay off the loan Kuhn Loeb had supplied and offered them a yearly salary. He also gave them a three-year deadline to come up with a finished and commercially viable product.


title: Kodachrome

text: Not long before the three-year period would expire, at the end of 1933, Mannes and Godowsky still had not managed to come up with anything usable, and thought their experiments would be terminated by Kodak. Their only chance for survival was to invent something in a hurry, something that the company could put into production and capitalise. Mees, however, granted them a one-year extension and, still having technical challenges they needed to solve, they eventually presented Mees with a two-color movie process in 1934. The original Kodachrome invented by John Capstaff some 20 years earlier was also two-color.


title: Kodachrome

text: Mees immediately set things in motion to produce and market this film, but just before Kodak was about to introduce the two-color film in 1935, Mannes and Godowsky completed work on the long-awaited but no longer expected, much better, three-color version. On April 15, 1935, this new film, borrowing the name from Capstaff's process, was formally announced.


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome was first sold in 1935 as 16 mm movie film with an ASA speed of 10 and the following year it was made available as 8 mm movie film, and in 35mm and 828 formats for still cameras.


title: Kodachrome

text: In 1961 Kodak released Kodachrome II with sharper images and faster speeds at 25 ASA. In 1962, Kodachrome-X at ASA 64 was introduced.


title: Kodachrome

text: In 1974, with the transition to the K-14 process, Kodachrome II and Kodachrome-X were replaced by Kodachrome 25 and Kodachrome 64.


title: Kodachrome

text: In later years, Kodachrome was produced in a wide variety of film formats including 120 and 4" × 5", and in ISO-ASA values ranging from 8 to 200.


title: Kodachrome

text: Until manufacturing was taken over by rival film manufacturer GAF, View-Master stereo reels used Kodachrome films.


title: Kodachrome

text: Later color transparency films, such as Agfachrome, Anscochrome, Fujichrome and Kodak's own Ektachrome used simpler, quicker, and more accessible color development processes. Their higher film speeds also eroded Kodachrome's market share, as the quality of competing films improved over time. As digital photography reduced the demand for all film after 2000, Kodachrome sales further declined. On June 22, 2009, Kodak announced it would no longer manufacture Kodachrome film, citing declining demand. During its heyday, many Kodak and independent laboratories processed Kodachrome, but by 2010, only one Kodak-certified facility remained: Dwayne's Photo in Parsons, Kansas. On July 14, 2010, it was announced that the last roll of Kodachrome manufactured had been developed by Dwayne's for photographer Steve McCurry, a National Geographic photographer. McCurry had asked Kodak for the last roll in stock, then went out on his own to use that roll. Although McCurry retains ownership of the slides, prints of the 36 exposures are permanently housed at the George Eastman House in Rochester, New York and most of the pictures have been published on the Internet by "Vanity Fair" magazine.


title: Kodachrome

text: After announcing the return of Ektachrome at the beginning of 2017, Eastman Kodak CMO Steven Overman told "The Kodakery" podcast, "we are investigating Kodachrome, looking at what it would take to bring that back". Although the statement generated widespread media interest, it was subsequently conceded by an official at Kodak Alaris (who would be responsible for its production and sale) that the return of Kodachrome was probably impractical (due to the difficulty in restoring the now-dismantled infrastructure needed to support it) and therefore unlikely.


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome films are non-substantive. Unlike substantive transparency and negative color films, Kodachrome film does not incorporate dye couplers into the emulsion layers. The dye couplers are added during processing. This means that Kodachrome emulsion layers are thinner and less light is scattered upon exposure, meaning that the film could record an image with more sharpness than substantive films. Transparencies made with non-substantive films have an easily visible relief image on the emulsion side of the film. Kodachrome 64 and 200 can record a dynamic range of about 2.3D or 8 stops, as shown in the characteristic curves. Kodachrome transparencies have a dynamic range of around 12 stops, or 3.6–3.8D.


title: Kodachrome

text: The color rendering of Kodachrome films was unique in color photography for several decades after its introduction in the 1930s. Even after the introduction of other successful professional color films, such as Fuji Velvia, some professionals continued to prefer Kodachrome, and maintain that it still has certain advantages over digital. Steve McCurry told Vanity Fair magazine:<ref name="Vanity Fair/McCurry">David Friend (February 9, 2011): "Vanity Fair"</ref>


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome is generally used for direct projection using white light. As such, it possesses a relatively high contrast.


title: Kodachrome

text: For professional uses, where duplication is expected and required, a special version, Kodachrome Commercial (KCO), was available in a 35 mm BH-perforated base (exclusively through Technicolor) and in a 16 mm base (exclusively through Eastman Kodak's professional products division). In both cases, Eastman Kodak performed the processing.


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome Commercial has a low-contrast characteristic that complements the various duplication films with which it is intended to be used: silver separation negatives for 35 mm (controlled exclusively by Technicolor) and reversal duplicating and printing stocks for 16 mm (controlled exclusively by Eastman Kodak).


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome Commercial was available until the mid-1950s, after which Ektachrome Commercial (ECO) replaced it for these specific applications.


title: Kodachrome

text: After the late 1950s, 16 mm Kodachrome Commercial-originated films (and Ektachrome Commercial-originated films as well) were quite often duplicated onto Eastmancolor internegative film, after which these films were printed on Eastmancolor positive print film, as a cost-reduction measure, thereby yielding relatively low-cost prints for direct projection.


title: Kodachrome

text: When stored in darkness, Kodachrome's long-term stability under suitable conditions is superior to other types of color film of the same era. While existing Kodachrome materials from before Kodak simplified the development process in 1938 are almost always faded, images on Kodachrome slides and motion picture films made after this point retain accurate color and density to this day. It has been calculated that the yellow dye, the least stable, would suffer a 20% loss of dye in 185 years. This is because developed Kodachrome does not retain unused color couplers. Nevertheless, Kodachrome's color stability under bright light, for example during projection, is inferior to substantive slide films. Kodachrome's fade time under projection is about one hour, compared to Fujichrome's two and a half hours.


title: Kodachrome

text: Unprocessed Kodachrome film may survive long periods between exposure and processing. In one case, several rolls were exposed and then lost in a Canadian forest. Upon discovery 19 years later they were processed and the slides were usable.


title: Kodachrome

text: A 35mm Kodachrome transparency, like other 35mm transparencies on films of comparable ISO rating, contains an equivalent of approximately 20 megapixels of data in the 24 mm x 36 mm image. Scanning Kodachrome transparencies can be problematic because of the film's tendency to scan with a blue color cast. Some software producers deliver special Kodachrome color profiles with their software to avoid this. An IT8 calibration with a special Kodachrome calibration target is necessary for accurate color reproduction.


title: Kodachrome

text: Many scanners use an additional infrared channel to detect defects, as the long wave infrared radiation passes through the film but not through dust particles. Dust, scratches, and fingerprints on the slide are typically detected and removed by a scanner's software. Kodachrome interacts with this infrared channel in two ways. The absorption of the cyan dye extends into the near infrared region, making this layer opaque to infrared radiation. Kodachrome also has a pronounced relief image that can affect the infrared channel. These effects can sometimes cause a slight loss of sharpness in the scanned image when Digital ICE or a similar infrared channel dust removal function is used.


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome, and other non-substantive films, unlike most color films, required complex processing that could not practicably be carried out by amateurs. The process underwent four significant alterations since its inception. The final version of the process, designated K-14, was introduced in 1974. The process was complex and exacting, requiring technicians with extensive chemistry training and large, complex machinery. This is because most color films contain dye couplers in the film itself; during development the couplers react with the developer to form the dyes that form the final image. Kodachrome film has no such couplers; instead the dyes are formed on the film by a complex processing sequence that required four different developers; one black and white developer, and three color developers. Normal color film requires just one developer. Also, processing Kodachrome film requires 8 or more tanks of processing chemicals, each of which must be precisely controlled for concentration, temperature and agitation, resulting in very complex processing equipment with precise chemical control, no small feat for small processing companies.


title: Kodachrome

text: The first step in the process was the removal of the antihalation backing with an alkaline solution and wash. The film was then developed using a developer containing phenidone and hydroquinone, which formed three superimposed negative images, one for each primary color. After the first developer was washed out, the film underwent re-exposure and redevelopment. Re-exposure fogged the silver halides that were not developed in the first developer, limiting development to one layer at a time. A color developer then developed the fogged image, and its exhaustion products reacted with a color coupler to form a dye in the color complementary to the layer's sensitivity. The red-sensitive layer was re-exposed through the base of the film with red light, then redeveloped forming cyan dye. The blue-sensitive layer was re-exposed through the emulsion side of the film with blue light, then redeveloped forming yellow dye. The green-sensitive layer was redeveloped with a developer that chemically fogged it and formed magenta dye. After color development, the metallic silver was converted to silver halide using a bleach solution. The film was then fixed, making these silver halides soluble and leaving only the final dye image. The final steps were to wash the film to remove residual chemicals that might cause deterioration of the dye image, then to dry, cut, and mount the film in slide frames.


title: Kodachrome

text: Due to its complex processing requirements, Kodachrome film was initially sold at a price that included processing by Kodak. An envelope was included with the film in which the photographer would send the exposed film to the nearest of several designated Kodak laboratories. The film was processed, mounted in 2" x 2" cardboard mounts in the case of 35 mm slides, and returned by mail to the sender. After 1954, as a result of a lawsuit from the federal government, this practice was prohibited in the United States as anticompetitive. Kodak entered into a consent decree that ended this practice in the United States, and allowed independent processing laboratories to acquire the chemicals needed to process Kodachrome films. In other countries, the price of Kodachrome film continued to include processing by Kodak.


title: Kodachrome

text: The use of transparency film declined in the 1980s and 1990s, which, combined with competition from Fuji's Velvia slide film, caused a drop in Kodachrome sales. Some business analysts speculated that heavy subsidies by the Japanese government propped up Fuji and may have even allowed dumping of Fuji's films at below the cost to manufacture them. Kodachrome products were gradually discontinued and on June 22, 2009, Kodak announced that the remaining film, Kodachrome 64, would no longer be manufactured.


title: Kodachrome

text: Because of the decline in business, many Kodak-owned and independent Kodachrome processing facilities were closed. The loss of processing availability further accelerated the decline in Kodachrome sales. In 1999, Kodak attempted to increase the availability of K-14 processing through its K-Lab program, where small labs equipped with smaller Kodak processing machines would supplement Kodak's own processing services. This effort did not endure and all the K-labs were closed by 2005.


title: Kodachrome

text: On July 25, 2006, extensive documentation about Kodak's Lausanne Kodachrome lab's impending closure was sent to the European Parliament by the Dutch office of the European Parliament because, although located in Switzerland, the facility served all of Europe and its closure would affect European photographers. The Parliamentary committees for Culture and Education and for Internal Market and Consumer Protection studied the matter.


title: Kodachrome

text: After its Lausanne processing facility closed, Kodak subcontracted the processing work to Dwayne's Photo, an independent facility in the United States, which became the world's last Kodachrome processing facility. Dwayne's processing of 35 mm films was fully endorsed by Kodak, but its Super-8 process was not endorsed because it required more agitation. Films sent for processing in the USA were mailed directly to Dwayne's, while those in Europe were sent to the Lausanne facility's address and forwarded to Dwayne's.


title: Kodachrome

text: Dwayne's Photo announced in late 2010 that it would process all Kodachrome rolls received at the lab by December 30, 2010, after which processing would cease. As Dwayne's final processing deadline approached, thousands of stored rolls of film were sent in for processing. Once film received by the deadline had been developed, the world's last K-14 processing machine was taken out of service. The final roll to be processed was exposed by Dwayne Steinle, owner of Dwayne's Photo. The cessation of processing by Dwayne's Photo is commemorated in the book "Kodachrome – End of the Run: Photographs from the Final Batches", edited by photographers Bill Barrett and Susan Hacker Stang with introductory essays by famed "Time" magazine worldwide pictures editor Arnold Drapkin and Dwayne's Photo vice president Grant Steinle. The book presents a year of pictures shot by Webster University photography students on more than 100 rolls of by-then rare Kodachrome film and processed by Dwayne's on the last day (extended to January 18, 2011) before processing chemicals officially ceased production. Kodachrome film can no longer be processed in color, but it can be processed in black and white by some labs that specialize in obsolete processes and old film processing.


title: Kodachrome

text: Kodachrome was the subject of Paul Simon's 1973 song "Kodachrome", and Kodachrome Basin State Park in Utah was named after it, becoming the only park named for a brand of film.


title: Kodachrome

text: In 2017 the film "Kodachrome" premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival and featured a dying photographer, played by Ed Harris, whose son, played by Jason Sudeikis, helps him to get the last of his Kodachrome photography processed.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Janet Gaynor (born Laura Augusta Gainor; October 6, 1906 – September 14, 1984) was an American film, stage, and television actress.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor began her career as an extra in shorts and silent films. After signing with Fox Film Corporation (later 20th Century-Fox) in 1926, she rose to fame and became one of the biggest box offices draws of the era. In 1929, she became the first recipient of the Academy Award for Best Actress for her performances in three films: "7th Heaven" (1927), "" (1927), and "Street Angel" (1928). This was the only occasion an actress won one Oscar for multiple film roles. Gaynor's career success continued into the sound film era, and she achieved notable success in the original version of "A Star Is Born" (1937), for which she received a second Best Actress Academy Award nomination.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: After retiring from acting in 1939, Gaynor married film costume designer Adrian, with whom she had a son. She briefly returned to acting in films and television in the 1950s and later became an accomplished oil painter. In 1980, Gaynor made her Broadway debut in the stage adaptation of the 1971 film "Harold and Maude," and appeared in the touring theatrical production of "On Golden Pond" in February 1982.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: In September 1982, Gaynor sustained multiple injuries when a drunken driver struck the taxicab in which she and others were passengers. These injuries eventually caused her death in September 1984.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor was born Laura Augusta Gainor (some sources stated Gainer) in Germantown, Philadelphia. Nicknamed "Lolly" as a child, she was the younger of two daughters born to Laura (Buhl) and Frank De Witt Gainor. Frank Gainor worked as a theatrical painter and paperhanger. When Gaynor was a toddler, her father began teaching her how to sing, dance, and perform acrobatics. As a child in Philadelphia, she began acting in school plays. After her parents divorced in 1914, Gaynor, her sister, and her mother moved to Chicago. Shortly thereafter, her mother married electrician Harry C. Jones. The family later moved to San Francisco.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: After graduating from San Francisco Polytechnic High School in 1923, Gaynor spent the winter in Melbourne, Florida, where she did stage work. Upon returning to San Francisco, Gaynor, her mother, and stepfather moved to Los Angeles, where she could pursue an acting career. She was initially hesitant to do so and enrolled at Hollywood Secretarial School. She supported herself by working in a shoe store and later as a theatre usher. Her mother and stepfather continued to encourage her to become an actress and she began making the rounds to the studios (accompanied by her stepfather) to find film work.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor won her first professional acting job on December 26, 1924, as an extra in a Hal Roach comedy short. This led to more extra work in feature films and shorts for Film Booking Offices of America and Universal. Universal eventually hired her as a stock player for $50 a week. Six weeks after being hired by Universal, an executive at Fox Film Corporation offered her a screen test for a supporting role in the film "The Johnstown Flood" (1926). Her performance in the film caught the attention of Fox executives, who signed her to a five-year contract and began to cast her in leading roles.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Later that year, Gaynor was selected as one of the WAMPAS Baby Stars (along with Joan Crawford, Dolores del Río, Mary Astor, and others).


title: Janet Gaynor

text: By 1927, Gaynor was one of Hollywood's leading ladies. Her image was that of a sweet, wholesome, and pure young woman who was notable for playing her roles with depth and sensitivity. Her performances in "7th Heaven", the first of 12 films she would make with actor Charles Farrell; "", directed by F. W. Murnau; and "Street Angel", also with Charles Farrell, earned her the first Academy Award for Best Actress in 1929, when for the first and only time the award was granted for multiple roles, on the basis of total recent work rather than for one particular performance. This practice was prohibited three years later by a new Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences rule. Gaynor was not only the first actress to win the award, but at 22, was the youngest until 1986 when actress Marlee Matlin, 21, won for her role in "Children of a Lesser God".


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor was one of only a handful of established lead actresses who made a successful transition to sound films. In 1929, she was reteamed with Charles Farrell (the pair was known as "America's favorite love birds") for the musical film "Sunny Side Up".


title: Janet Gaynor

text: During the early 1930s, Gaynor was one of Fox's most popular actresses and one of Hollywood's biggest box-office draws. In 1931 and 1932, she and Marie Dressler were tied as the number-one draw at the box office. After Dressler's death in 1934, Gaynor held the top spot alone. She often was cited as a successor to Mary Pickford, and was cast in remakes of two Pickford films, "Daddy Long Legs" (1931) and "Tess of the Storm Country" (1932). Gaynor drew the line at a proposed remake of "Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm", which she considered "too juvenile".


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor continued to garner top billing for roles in "State Fair" (1933) with Will Rogers and "The Farmer Takes a Wife" (1935), which introduced Henry Fonda to the screen as Gaynor's leading man. However, when Darryl F. Zanuck merged his fledgling studio, Twentieth Century Pictures, with Fox Film Corporation to form 20th Century-Fox, her status became precarious and even tertiary to those of burgeoning actresses Loretta Young and Shirley Temple. According to press reports at the time, Gaynor held out on signing with 20th Century-Fox until her salary was raised from $1,000 per week to $3,000. The studio quickly issued a statement denying that Gaynor was holding out for more money. She quietly signed a new contract, the terms of which were never made public.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor received top billing above Constance Bennett, Loretta Young, and Tyrone Power in "Ladies in Love" (1937), but her box-office appeal had begun to wane: once ranked number one, she had dropped to number 24. She considered retiring due to her frustration with studio executives, who continued to cast her in the same type of role that brought her fame while audiences' tastes were changing. After 20th Century-Fox executives proposed that her contract be renegotiated and she is demoted to featured player status, Gaynor left the studio, but her retirement plans were quashed when David O. Selznick offered her the leading role in a new film to be produced by his company, Selznick International Pictures. Selznick, who was friendly with Gaynor off-screen, was convinced that audiences would enjoy seeing her portray a character closer to her true personality. He believed that she possessed the perfect combination of humor, charm, vulnerability, and innocence for the role of aspiring actress Esther Blodgett (later Vicki Lester) in "A Star Is Born". Gaynor accepted the role. The romantic drama was filmed in Technicolor and co-starred Fredric March. Released in 1937, it was an enormous hit and earned Gaynor her second Academy Award nomination for Best Actress; she lost to Luise Rainer for "The Good Earth".


title: Janet Gaynor

text: "A Star Is Born" revitalized Gaynor's career, and she was cast in the screwball comedy "The Young in Heart" (1938) with Paulette Goddard. That film was a modest hit, but by then Gaynor had definitely decided to retire. She later explained "I had been working steadily for 17 long years, making movies was really all I knew of life. I just wanted to have time to know other things. Most of all I wanted to fall in love. I wanted to get married. I wanted a child. And I knew that in order to have these things one had to make time for them. So I simply stopped making movies. Then as if by a miracle, everything I really wanted happened." At the top of the industry, she retired at age 33.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: In August 1939, Gaynor married Hollywood costume designer Adrian, with whom she had a son in 1940. The couple divided their time between their 250-acre cattle ranch in Anápolis, Brazil, and their homes in New York and California. Both were also heavily involved in the fashion and arts community. Gaynor returned to acting in the early 1950s with appearances in live television series, including "Medallion Theatre", "Lux Video Theatre", and "General Electric Theater". In 1957, she appeared in her final film role as Dick Sargent's mother in the musical comedy "Bernardine", starring Pat Boone and Terry Moore. In November 1959, she made her stage debut in the play "The Midnight Sun" in New Haven, Connecticut. The play, which Gaynor later called "a disaster", was not well received and closed shortly after its debut.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor also became an accomplished oil painter of vegetable and flower still lifes. She sold over 200 paintings and had four showings under the Wally Findlay Galleries banner in New York, Chicago, and Palm Beach from 1975 to February 1982.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: In 1980, Gaynor made her Broadway debut as Maude in the stage adaptation of the 1971 film "Harold and Maude". She received good reviews for her performance, but the play was panned by critics and closed after 21 performances. Later that year, she reunited with her "Servants' Entrance" co-star Lew Ayres to film an episode of the anthology series "The Love Boat". It was the first television appearance Gaynor had made since the 1950s and was her last screen role. In February 1982, she starred in the touring production of "On Golden Pond". This was her final acting role.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor was romantically involved with her friend and frequent co-star Charles Farrell during their work together in silent films until she married her first husband. Choosing to keep their relationship out of the public eye, Gaynor and Farrell were often assisted by a mutual friend Douglas Fairbanks Jr. in maintaining the ruse. Looking back, Fairbanks would later recall, "We three were so chummy that I became their 'beard,' the cover-up for their secret romance. I would drive them out to a little rundown, wooden house well south of Los Angeles, near the sea. I'd leave them there and go sailing or swimming until [it was] time to collect them and then we'd all have a bit of dinner."


title: Janet Gaynor

text: According to Gaynor's biographer Sarah Baker, Farrell proposed marriage during the filming of "Lucky Star", but the two never followed through with it. In her later years, Gaynor would hold their different personalities accountable for their eventual separation.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor was married three times and had one child. Her first marriage was to lawyer Jesse Lydell Peck, whom she married on September 11, 1929. Gaynor's attorney announced the couple's separation in late December 1932. She was granted a divorce on April 7, 1933. On August 14, 1939, she married MGM costume designer Adrian in Yuma, Arizona. This relationship has been called a lavender marriage because Adrian was openly gay within the film community. The couple had one son, Robin Gaynor Adrian, born in 1940. Gaynor and Adrian remained married until Adrian's death from a stroke on September 13, 1959.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: On December 24, 1964, Gaynor married her longtime friend, stage producer Paul Gregory, to whom she remained married until her death. The two maintained a home in Desert Hot Springs, California and owned 3,000 acres of land in Brazil, situated near Brasília.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor and her husband traveled frequently with her close friend Mary Martin and her husband. A Brazilian press report noted that Gaynor and Martin briefly lived with their respective husbands in Anapolis, state of Goiás at a ranch ("fazenda" in Portuguese) in the 1950s and 1960s. Both houses remain intact as of 2021. There is a project by the Jan Magalinski Institute to restore their houses to create a Cinema Museum of Goiás.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: On the evening of September 5, 1982, Gaynor, her husband Paul Gregory, actress Mary Martin, and Martin's manager Ben Washer were involved in a serious car wreck in San Francisco. A van ran a red light at the corner of California and Franklin Streets and crashed into the Luxor taxicab in which the group was riding, knocking it into a tree. Ben Washer was killed, Mary Martin sustained two broken ribs and a broken pelvis, and Gaynor's husband suffered two broken legs. Gaynor sustained several serious injuries, including 11 broken ribs, a fractured collarbone, pelvic fractures, a punctured lung, and injuries to her bladder and kidney. Robert Cato, the driver of the van, was arrested on two counts of felony drunk driving, reckless driving, speeding, running a red light, and vehicular homicide. Cato pleaded not guilty and was later released on $10,000 bail. On March 15, 1983, he was found guilty of drunk driving and vehicular homicide and was sentenced to three years in prison.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: As a result of her injuries, Gaynor was hospitalized for four months and underwent two surgeries to repair a perforated bladder and internal bleeding. She recovered sufficiently to return to her home in Desert Hot Springs, but continued to experience health issues due to the injuries and required frequent hospitalizations. Shortly before her death, she was hospitalized for pneumonia and other ailments. On September 14, 1984, Gaynor died at Desert Hospital in Palm Springs at the age of 77. Her doctor, Bart Apfelbaum, attributed her death to the 1982 car wreck and stated that Gaynor "never recovered" from her injuries.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: Gaynor is buried at Hollywood Forever Cemetery next to her second husband, Adrian. Her headstone reads "Janet Gaynor Gregory", her legal name after her marriage to her third husband, producer and director Paul Gregory.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: For her contribution to the motion picture industry, Gaynor has a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6284 Hollywood Blvd.


title: Janet Gaynor

text: On March 1, 1978, Howard W. Koch, then the president of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, presented Gaynor with a citation for her "truly immeasurable contribution to the art of motion pictures".


title: Janet Gaynor

text: In 1979, Gaynor was awarded the Order of the Southern Cross for her cultural contributions to Brazil.


title: Machete (character)

text: Isador Cortez, primarily known under the alias of Machete, is a fictional character in the "Spy Kids" films, the "Grindhouse" fake trailer, and the "Machete" films. The character is played by Danny Trejo.


title: Machete (character)

text: According to "Spy Kids" and "Machete" director Robert Rodriguez, the character Machete was always intended for Danny Trejo: "When I met Danny, I said, 'This guy should be like the Mexican Jean-Claude Van Damme or Charles Bronson, putting out a movie every year and his name should be Machete. Rodriguez also said, in an interview, that he "wrote [Trejo] this idea of a "federale" from Mexico who gets hired to do hatchet jobs in the U.S. I had heard sometimes FBI or DEA have a really tough job that they don't want to get their own agents killed on, they'll hire an agent from Mexico to come do the job for $25,000. I thought, 'That's Machete. He would come and do a really dangerous job for a lot of money to him, but for everyone else over here, it's peanuts.' But I never got around to making it."


title: Machete (character)

text: Isador Cortez is a former Mexican "Federale" and mercenary. His weapon of choice is the "machete", but he is also very proficient with firearms. Cortez is fluent in both Spanish and English. On his chest is a tattoo depicting a woman. Trejo has described Machete as a "badass", and said that his mother had started calling him "Machete".


title: Machete (character)

text: In "Spy Kids", he has his own shop that sells spy gadgets, and is the uncle of Juni Cortez and Carmen Cortez, their father's brother.


title: Machete (character)

text: In "Spy Kids", Machete is first seen in a flashback, at his brother Gregorio's wedding. When Gregorio and his wife Ingrid get captured by Fegan Floop, Carmen and Juni, Gregorio's children, visit their "Uncle Machete", hoping he will help them to save their parents. Machete refuses to go after Gregorio, as they are estranged, but allows his niece and nephew to stay with him, and shows them a one-passenger jet that could get them to Floop's castle. Carmen and Juni take the jet, some of his gadgets, and a map of the castle at night. Machete appears again near the end of the film, when he decides to help the Cortezes against an army of robotic children. When asked why he came back, Machete claimed it is the same reason he left. Gregorio no longer remembers the reason and neither does Machete. Machete then cries in his brother's arms. At the end of the film, he is seen with the Cortez family.


title: Machete (character)

text: In "", Machete has built Carmen and Juni a high-tech treehouse after they have become secret agents. Machete then shows some of his latest gadgets - spy watches and the Machete elastic wonder. At the end of the film, Carmen claims she cannot sing, so Machete shows Carmen a microphone that autotunes her voice and Juni a guitar that plays itself. When they are done, Machete informs Carmen and Juni that he did not put any batteries in them and that Carmen was actually singing and Juni was actually playing guitar.


title: Machete (character)

text: Machete appears near the end of "", when he helps battle the Toymaker's video-game robots. After the battle, Machete becomes closer with the Cortezes.


title: Machete (character)

text: In ""Machete"", Isador "Machete" Cortez witnesses his wife and daughter being murdered by ruthless drug baron Rogelio Torrez (Steven Seagal). Three years later, he is seen working at a construction site in Texas. There, he is paid $150,000 by businessman Michael Booth (Jeff Fahey) to assassinate the anti-illegal immigration politician John McLaughlin (Robert De Niro). After getting shot in the neck before he can shoot McLaughlin, Machete realizes that he has been set up in a false-flag operation. Booth is revealed to be working with Torrez, a staunch supporter of McLaughlin's. Seeking vengeance, Machete kidnaps Booth's daughter and wife with the help of a few allies, and also takes down his henchmen. This eventually leads to a confrontation between Machete and his allies (mostly Mexican immigrants) and Torrez and his gang. Machete triumphs, leaving the criminals for dead.


title: Machete (character)

text: Machete makes a cameo appearance in "", where he is seen tripping in a laboratory when time is frozen by Danger D'Amo (Armageddon). In a deleted scene, while Cecil and Rebecca are running from two OSS agents, they end up in his laboratory, managing to ruin several experiments. As they are found by Machete, he hides them from the OSS agents.


title: Machete (character)

text: Machete returns in "Machete Kills", where he is employed by Rathcock (Charlie Sheen), the President of the United States, to foil a plan of world domination. The perpetrator is initially thought to be Mendez (Demián Bichir), a crazed revolutionary planning to missile-bomb the Congressional Palace. However, Machete finds out that the true mastermind is Luther Voz (Mel Gibson), who is keen on initiating rampage throughout the U.S. Machete finds Voz and foils his plans, but a now-disfigured Voz, having been burnt by Machete, escapes into outer space with his henchmen. Without hesitating, Machete agrees to track him down in space. The end of the film advertises a third Machete-led spin-off film entitled "Machete Kills Again in Space".


title: Machete (character)

text: Machete makes a brief cameo in an episode of "", where he is once again seen in a laboratory tinkering with gadgets.


title: Machete (character)

text: Sharon Knolle of "Moviefone" called Machete the Mexican equivalent of fictional British spy James Bond.


title: Machete (character)

text: In February 2015, Snickers' Super Bowl XLIX commercial featured a parody of a scene from an episode of "The Brady Bunch" entitled "The Subject Was Noses." In the commercial, Carol and Mike try to calm down a very angry Machete. When the parents give Machete a Snickers bar, he reverts into Marcia before an irate Jan (played by Steve Buscemi) rants upstairs and walks away. In a second commercial set earlier, Marcia (as Machete) angrily brushes her hair while yelling through her door.


title: Machete (character)

text: Trejo and Rodriguez made two different statements regarding the "Machete" films' relation to the "Spy Kids" movies. Trejo jokingly stated that it's "what Uncle Machete does when he’s not taking care of the kids", while Rodriguez stated in a Reddit AMA that they are alternate universes.


The Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats (S&D) is the political group in the European Parliament of the Party of European Socialists (PES). The Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats was officially founded as a Socialist Group on 29 June 1953 which makes it the second oldest political group in the European Parliament after Renew Europe (Renew). It adopted its present-day name on 23 June 2009. Centre-left in orientation, the group mostly comprises social-democratic parties and is affiliated with the Progressive Alliance and Socialist International.


title: Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats

text: Until the 1999 European Parliament elections, it was the largest group in the Parliament, but since then it has always been the second-largest group. During the eighth EU Parliament Assembly, the S&D was the only Parliament group with representation from all 27 EU member states. In the current EU Parliament the S&D is currently composed of 146 members from 25 member states.


text: In the European Council, 8 out of 27 heads of state and government belong to PES parties and in the European Commission, 8 out of 27 Commissioners come from PES parties.


text: The Socialist Group was one of the first three groups to be created when it was founded on 23 June 1953 in the Common Assembly of the European Coal and Steel Community. The Common Assembly was the predecessor of the European Parliament. A group bureau and secretariat was established in Luxembourg. The group continued through the creation of the appointed Parliament in 1958 and, when the Parliament became an elected body in 1979 following the first European election, the group became the largest in terms of returned MEPs. It has ever since remained the largest or second-largest Group.


text: In 1987, the Single European Act came into force and the group began co-operating with the European People's Party (EPP) to secure the majorities needed under the cooperation procedure. The left–right coalition between the Socialists and EPP has dominated the Parliament since then and the post of President of the Parliament has alternated between the two groups ever since, with some exceptions.


text: Meanwhile, the national parties making up the group were also organising themselves on a European level "outside" the Parliament, creating the "Confederation of Socialist Parties of the European Community" in 1974. The Confederation was succeeded by the Party of European Socialists (PES), in 1992. As a result, the parliamentary group was renamed the "Group of the Party of European Socialists" on 21 April 1993.


text: In 1999, the Parliament refused to approve the Santer Commission's handling of the EU budget. Allegations of corruption centred on two PES Commissioners, Édith Cresson and Manuel Marín. The group initially supported the Commission but later withdrew their support, forcing the Commission to resign.


text: The group was renamed again to the "Socialist Group in the European Parliament" on 20 July 2004 and was given a different logo, to further distinguish the PES group organisation from the PES European political party.


text: In 2007, the Socialist Group was the second largest group in Parliament, with MEPs from all but two member states, Latvia and Cyprus. However, the 2009 European election saw a reduction in the number of PES MEPs returned from 2004. The group sought additional members in the Democratic Party of Italy, which was not affiliated to the PES in 2009. By the conclusion of the 2004–2009 parliamentary term, the Democratic Party had 8 MEPs in the Socialist Group (coming from the Democrats of the Left), but also had 8 MEPs in ALDE Group (coming from the Daisy). The Democratic Party is a big tent centre-left party, strongly influenced by social democracy and the Christian left, and had MEPs who were former Christian Democrats or had other political views. So a new and more inclusive group name had to be found.


text: The group was going to be named "Alliance of Socialists and Democrats for Europe" (ASDE) but this was seemed too similar to Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe (ALDE). The name "Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats" was suggested on 18 June by group president Martin Schulz and it was renamed on 23 June 2009. The English abbreviation was initially unclear, being variously reported as PASD, S&D Group or PASDE. Dissatisfaction by Socialist MEPs towards the new name led Martin Schulz to admit that the name was still under consideration and that the group was to be referred to as the "Socialists and Democrats" until a final title was chosen. On 14 July 2009, the first day of the constitutive session of the 2009–2014 term, the full formal group name was "Group of the Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats in the European Parliament" and the abbreviation was "S&D".


text: The S&D Group joined the Progressive Alliance upon its official foundation on 22 May 2013 and is a member of the organisation's board. The group was formerly an associated organisation of the Socialist International.


text: The group is led by a President and a Bureau of vice-presidents. There is also a Treasurer and a Secretary General.


text: Following the 2019 European elections, S&D Members elected their new political Bureau made up of the President Iratxe García Pérez, nine vice-presidents and the treasurer. As a consequence of Brexit, British S&D Member Claude Moraes had to resign from his position as vice-president. Marek Belka has been appointed the new vice-president.


title: Charuhasan

text: Charuhasan (born 5 January 1931) is an Indian actor, director and retired lawyer who has acted in Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam and Hindi films. He won the National Film Award for Best Actor and the Karnataka State Film Award for Best Actor for the Kannada film "Tabarana Kathe" (1987). Charuhasan is the elder brother of veteran actor Kamal Haasan and father of Indian actress Suhasini.


title: Charuhasan

text: Charuhasan was born on 5 January 1931 to lawyer and Indian independence activist D. Srinivasan and his wife Rajalakshmi. He was the eldest son of the couple and more than twenty-four years older than his youngest brother Kamal Haasan.


title: Charuhasan

text: Charuhasan had a different schooling to other children his age; due to an accident he was unable to attend school for the first few years of his life and had a private tutor give him a basic education. He was directly admitted to fifth grade at the age of nine. In 1949, Charuhasan joined the Raja Lakhamgouda Law College in Belgaum and qualified as a lawyer in 1951.


title: Charuhasan

text: Charuhasan practised law from 1951 to 1981. As lawyer, Charuhasan appeared in many high-profile cases, even representing U. Muthuramalingam Thevar in the Immanuvel Sekaran murder case. During this period, he was influenced by the rationalist philosophy of Periyar E. V. Ramasamy. Periyar even referred to Charuhasan as his "sishyan" (disciple).


title: Charuhasan

text: Charuhasan was interested in movies since childhood. During the late 1940s, he used to watch two foreign films a day. When his younger brother, Kamal Hasan, started acting in movies as a child actor, Charuhasan was his caretaker. Charuhasan eventually made his debut in 1979 Tamil film Uthiripookkal directed by Mahendran which was based on a short story by Pudhumaipithan. Since then, he has acted in more than 120 films often playing supporting or antagonistic roles, his most important movies being "Vedham Pudhithu", "Tabarana Kathe" and "Thalapathi". He has also directed two films, "IPC 215" and "Puthiya Sangammam".


title: Charuhasan

text: Charuhasan is married to Komalam since 1953 and has three daughters Nandhini, Suhasini, and Subhasini. Suhasini is an actress and married to film director Mani Ratnam.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Rodolfo Mancuso (born February 28) is an American Internet personality, musician and actor. He is known for making comedy skits with his friends on YouTube and Vine having 10.6 million followers by the time it shut down making him the 4th most followed Viner and being behind many voices in the YouTube channel, Awkward Puppets.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Mancuso was raised in Glen Ridge, New Jersey, the son of an Italian-American father and a Brazilian mother, along with a sister, Marianna. He attended Glen Ridge High School and Rutgers University Newark. He lived in Rio de Janeiro for a while and speaks Portuguese fluently. He started playing the piano at the age of five. Mancuso was diagnosed with synesthesia.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Mancuso started his Vine channel in 2013. He was often known for his Hispanic characters as well as his IRL videos. Mancuso's partnered with Shots Studios to create videos and launched his YouTube channel in 2016.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: He has been featured on Comedy Central's "Drunk History" and HBO's "Outpost". He also starred in YouTube Red's "Keys of Christmas" along with Mariah Carey and DJ Khaled.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Mancuso was the opener for Justin Bieber's Purpose World Tour in Brazil's section of his Latin America shows in 2017.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Dolce & Gabbana invited Mancuso to walk in their Milan Men's Fashion Week Spring/Summer 2018 show on June 17, 2017.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: In July 2017, Mancuso performed at Villa Mix, Brazil's biggest music festival, in Goiânia for two consecutive days. On October 6, 2017, Mancuso released his first single, "Black & White," in collaboration with songwriter/producer Poo Bear. On October 7, 2017 Mancuso performed at the Villa Mix festival in São Paulo.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Mancuso's next single, "Mama", was his first video single without a featured artist. The video, directed by Mancuso, featured Chantel Jeffries, evoked "odd nostalgia", according to "Billboard". Mancuso also released an original song coloration with Alesso to the latter's channel.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: In 2018, Mancuso directed the music video for Lele Pons' debut solo single "Celoso" and the music video for Alesso's single "REMEDY." Mancuso also directed the music video for O.A.R.'s single "Miss You All The Time" which was released October 2018.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Mancuso collaborated with fellow comedian and musician Simon Rex for the video "Storytelling" which was released on his channel July 2018.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Mancuso and fellow Shots Studios artist Lele Pons hosted the 2018 Hispanic Heritage Foundation Awards show. The two performed Pons' "Celoso," with Mancuso playing the instrumental on the piano.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: In October 2018, Mancuso released "Superhero Therapy" with Lele Pons, Anwar Jibawi, and King Bach. The video is the most recent installment of his super hero series, which has over 68 million views total.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: In November 2018, Mancuso both performed and received an award at the 2018 ALMAs. The award was presented by fellow Shots Studios star Alesso. He also performed a cover of Queen's You're My Best Friend in support of Netflix's Bohemian Rhapsody (film) and the Mercury Phoenix Trust which was released to his YouTube channel.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Mancuso also hosted the 'Concert for Tommy's Field', a charity event held at the Orpheum Theater in Los Angeles. Performances included Lele Pons, Bryce Vine, and others.


title: Rudy Mancuso

text: Mancuso has produced sponsored videos working with companies such as Target and Clif bar which blend music and comedy. He also appeared in a video with basketball star Stephen Curry for Brita water filters.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: Piriformis syndrome is a condition which is believed to result from compression of the sciatic nerve by the piriformis muscle. Symptoms may include pain and numbness in the buttocks and down the leg. Often symptoms are worsened with sitting or running.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: Causes may include trauma to the gluteal muscle, spasms of the piriformis muscle, anatomical variation, or an overuse injury. Few cases in athletics, however, have been described. Diagnosis is difficult as there is no definitive test. A number of physical exam maneuvers can be supportive. Medical imaging is typically normal. Other conditions that may present similarly include a herniated disc.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: Treatment may include avoiding activities that cause symptoms, stretching, physiotherapy, and medication such as NSAIDs. Steroid or botulinum toxin injections may be used in those who do not improve. Surgery is not typically recommended. The frequency of the condition is unknown, with different groups arguing it is more or less common.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: The signs and symptoms include gluteal pain that may radiate down buttock and the leg, and that is made worse in some sitting positions.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: When the piriformis muscle shortens or spasms due to trauma or overuse, it can compress or strangle the sciatic nerve beneath the muscle. Generally, conditions of this type are referred to as nerve entrapment or as entrapment neuropathies; the particular condition known as "piriformis syndrome" refers to sciatica symptoms not originating from spinal roots and/or spinal disc compression, but involving the overlying piriformis muscle.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: In 17% of an assumed normal population the sciatic nerve passes through the piriformis muscle, rather than underneath it; however, in patients undergoing surgery for suspected piriformis syndrome such an anomaly was found only 16.2% of the time leading to doubt about the importance of the anomaly as a factor in piriformis syndrome. Some researchers discount the importance of this relationship in the etiology of the syndrome.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: MRI findings have shown that both hypertrophy (unusual largeness) and atrophy (unusual smallness) of the piriformis muscle correlate with the supposed condition.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: Piriformis syndrome may also be associated with direct trauma to the piriformis muscle, such as in a fall or from a knife wound.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: Piriformis syndrome occurs when the sciatic nerve is compressed or pinched by the piriformis muscle of the hip. It usually only affects one hip at a given time, though both hips may produce piriformis syndrome at some point in the patient's lifetime, and having had it once greatly increases the chance that it will recur in one hip or the other at some future point unless action is taken to prevent it. Indications include sciatica (radiating pain in the buttock, posterior thigh, and lower leg) and the physical exam finding of tenderness in the area of the sciatic notch. If the piriformis muscle can be located beneath the other gluteal muscles, it will feel noticeably cord-like and will be painful to compress or massage. The pain is exacerbated with any activity that causes flexion of the hip including lifting, prolonged sitting, or walking.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: The diagnosis is largely clinical and is one of exclusion. During a physical examination, attempts may be made to stretch the irritated piriformis and provoke sciatic nerve compression, such as the Freiberg test, the Pace test, the FABER test (flexion, abduction, external rotation), and the FAIR test (flexion, adduction, internal rotation). Sciatica secondary to conditions to be ruled out include herniated nucleus pulposus (HNP), facet arthropathy, spinal stenosis, and lumbar muscle strain. Pathology in the sacroiliac joint region, Sacroiliac joint dysfunction and Sacroiliitis are other conditions that present with pain in the low back and hip regions, which may radiate down along the back of the thigh, rarely going down below knee.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: Wallet neuritis is an extra-spinal tunnel neuropathy of sciatic nerve, occurring mostly in men. Sitting down on a thick Wallet in the back pocket produces uneven pressure in the hip region that impinges on the Piriformis muscle and / or sciatic nerve. Wallet induced chronic sciatic nerve constriction produces gluteal and ipsilateral lower extremity pain, tingling, and burning sensation.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: Diagnostic modalities such as ultrasound Imaging, MRI, CT scan, and EMG are mostly useful in excluding other conditions. Increased thickness [iTh] and increased cross‐sectional area [iCSA] for piriformis muscle may be demonstrated on ultrasound imaging and MRI.


title: Piriformis syndrome

text: Magnetic resonance neurography is a medical imaging technique that can show the presence of irritation of the sciatic nerve at the level of the sciatic notch where the nerve passes under the piriformis muscle. However, Magnetic resonance neurography is considered "investigational/not medically necessary" by some insurance companies. Neurography can determine whether or not a patient has a split sciatic nerve or a split piriformis muscle – this may be important in getting a good result from injections or surgery. Image guided injections carried out in an open MRI scanner, or other 3D image guidance can accurately relax the piriformis muscle to test the diagnosis. Other injection methods such as blind injection, fluoroscopic guided injection, ultrasound, or EMG guidance can work but are not as reliable and have other drawbacks.