title: Sadhu

text: The term "sadhu" (Sanskrit: साधु) appears in "Rigveda" and "Atharvaveda" where it means "straight, right, leading straight to goal", according to Monier Monier-Williams. In the Brahmanas layer of Vedic literature, the term connotes someone who is "well disposed, kind, willing, effective or efficient, peaceful, secure, good, virtuous, honourable, righteous, noble" depending on the context. In the Hindu Epics, the term implies someone who is a "saint, sage, seer, holy man, virtuous, chaste, honest or right".


title: Sadhu

text: The Sanskrit terms "sādhu" ("good man") and "sādhvī" ("good woman") refer to renouncers who have chosen to live lives apart from or on the edges of society to focus on their own spiritual practices.


title: Sadhu

text: The words come from the root "sādh", which means "reach one's goal", "make straight", or "gain power over". The same root is used in the word sādhanā, which means "spiritual practice". It literally means one who practises a ″sadhana″ or a path of spiritual discipline.


title: Sadhu

text: Unlike skilled workers and professionals, there is no certification for sadhus. So, it is very difficult to determine the exact number of sadhus. According to various assumptions, there are 4 to 5 million sadhus in India today. Sadhus are widely respected for their holiness. It is also thought that the austere practices of the sadhus help to burn off their karma and that of the community at large. Thus seen as benefiting society, sadhus are supported by donations from many people. However, reverence of sadhus is by no means universal in India. For example, Nath yogi sadhus have been viewed with a certain degree of suspicion particularly amongst the urban populations of India, but they have been revered and are popular in rural India.


title: Sadhu

text: There are naked (digambara, or "sky-clad") sadhus who wear their hair in thick dreadlocks called "jata". Sadhus engage in a wide variety of religious practices. Some practice asceticism and solitary meditation, while others prefer group praying, chanting or meditating. They typically live a simple lifestyle, have very few or no possessions, survive by food and drinks from leftovers that they beg for or is donated by others. Many sadhus have rules for alms collection, and do not visit the same place twice on different days to avoid bothering the residents. They generally walk or travel over distant places, homeless, visiting temples and pilgrimage centers as a part of their spiritual practice. Celibacy is common, but some sects experiment with consensual tantric sex as a part of their practice. Sex is viewed by them as a transcendence from a personal, intimate act to something impersonal and ascetic.


title: Sadhu

text: Shaiva sadhus are renunciants devoted to Shiva, and Vaishnava sadhus are renouncers devoted to Vishnu (or his avatar like Rama or Krishna). The Vaishnava sadhus are sometimes referred to as "vairagis". Less numerous are Shakta sadhus, who are devoted to Shakti. Within these general divisions are numerous sects and sub-sects, reflecting different lineages and philosophical schools and traditions often referred to as "sampradayas". Each sampradaya has several "orders" called parampara based on the lineage of the founder of the order. Each sampradaya and parampara may have several monastic and martial akharas.


title: Sadhu

text: Within the Shaiva sadhus are many subgroups. Most Shaiva sadhus wear a Tripundra mark on their forehead, dress in saffron, red or orange color clothes, and live a monastic life. Some sadhus such as the Aghori share the practices of ancient Kapalikas, where they beg with a skull, smeared their body with ashes from the cremation ground, and experiment with substances or practices that are generally abhorred by society.


title: Sadhu

text: Among the Shaiva sadhus, the Dashanami Sampradaya belong to the Smarta Tradition. They are said to have been formed by the philosopher and renunciant Adi Shankara, believed to have lived in the 8th century CE, though the full history of the sect's formation is not clear. Among them are the Naga subgroups, naked sadhu known for carrying weapons like tridents, swords, canes, and spears. Said to have once functioned as an armed order to protect Hindus from the Mughal rulers, they were involved in a number of military defence campaigns. Generally in the ambit of non-violence at present, some sections are known to practice wrestling and martial arts. Their retreats are still called "chhaavni" or armed camps (akhara), and mock duels are still sometimes held between them.


title: Sadhu

text: Female sadhus ("sadhvi"s) exist in many sects. In many cases, the women that take to the life of renunciation are widows, and these types of sadhvis often live secluded lives in ascetic compounds. Sadhvis are sometimes regarded by some as manifestations or forms of the Goddess, or Devi, and are honoured as such. There have been a number of charismatic sadhvis that have risen to fame as religious teachers in contemporary India, e.g. Anandamayi Ma, Sarada Devi, Mata Amritanandamayi, and Karunamayi.


title: Sadhu

text: The Jain community is traditionally discussed in its texts with four terms: "sadhu" (monks), "sadhvi or aryika" (nuns), "sravaka" (laymen householders) and "sravika" (laywomen householders). As in Hinduism and Buddhism, the Jain householders support the monastic community. The "sadhus" and "sadhvis" are intertwined with the Jain lay society, perform "murtipuja" (Jina idol worship) and lead festive rituals, and they are organized in a strongly hierarchical monastic structure.


title: Sadhu

text: There are differences between the Digambara and Svetambara sadhus and sadhvi traditions. The Digambara sadhus own no clothes as a part of their interpretation of Five vows, and they live their ascetic austere lives in nakedness. The Digambara sadhvis wear white clothes. The Svetambara sadhus and sadhvis both wear white clothes. According to a 2009 publication by Harvey J. Sindima, Jain monastic community had 6,000 sadhvis of which less than 100 belong to the Digambara tradition and rest to Svetambara.


title: Sadhu

text: The processes and rituals of becoming a sadhu vary with sect; in almost all sects, a sadhu is initiated by a guru, who bestows upon the initiate a new name, as well as a mantra, (or sacred sound or phrase), which is generally known only to the sadhu and the guru and may be repeated by the initiate as part of meditative practice.


title: Sadhu

text: Becoming a sadhu is a path followed by millions. It is supposed to be the fourth phase in a Hindu's life, after studies, being a father and a pilgrim, but for most it is not a practical option. For a person to become sadhu needs vairagya. Vairagya means desire to achieve something by leaving the world (cutting familial, societal and earthly attachments).


title: Sadhu

text: A person who wants to become sadhu must first seek a guru. There, he or she must perform "guruseva" which means service. The guru decides whether the person is eligible to take sannyasa by observing the sisya (the person who wants to become a sadhu or sanyasi). If the person is eligible, "guru upadesa" (which means teachings) is done. Only then, the person transforms into sanyasi or sadhu. There are different types of sanyasis in India who follow different sampradya. But, all sadhus have a common goal: attaining moksha (liberation).


title: Sadhu

text: Kumbh Mela, a mass-gathering of sadhus from all parts of India, takes place every three years at one of four points along sacred rivers in India, including the holy river Ganges. In 2007 it was held in Nasik, Maharashtra. Peter Owen-Jones filmed one episode of "Extreme Pilgrim" there during this event. It took place again in Haridwar in 2010. Sadhus of all sects join in this reunion. Millions of non-sadhu pilgrims also attend the festivals, and the Kumbh Mela is the largest gathering of human beings for a single religious purpose on the planet. The Kumbh Mela of 2013 started on 14 January of that year at Allahabad. At the festival, sadhus appear in large numbers, including those "completely naked with ash-smeared bodies, [who] sprint into the chilly waters for a dip at the crack of dawn".


title: Algal bloom

text: An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in freshwater or marine water systems. It is often recognized by the discoloration in the water from the algae's pigments. The term "algae" encompasses many types of aquatic photosynthetic organisms, both macroscopic multicellular organisms like seaweed and microscopic unicellular organisms like cyanobacteria.  "Algal bloom" commonly refers to the rapid growth of microscopic unicellular algae, not macroscopic algae. An example of a macroscopic algal bloom is a kelp forest.


title: Algal bloom

text: Algal blooms are the result of a nutrient, like nitrogen or phosphorus from various sources (for example fertilizer runoff or other forms of nutrient pollution), entering the aquatic system and causing excessive growth of algae. An algal bloom affects the whole ecosystem.


title: Algal bloom

text: Consequences range from the benign feeding of higher trophic levels to more harmful effects like blocking sunlight from reaching other organisms, causing a depletion of oxygen levels in the water, and, depending on the organism, secreting toxins into the water. Blooms that can injure animals or the ecology, especially those blooms where toxins are secreted by the algae, are usually called "harmful algal blooms" (HAB), and can lead to fish die-offs, cities cutting off water to residents, or states having to close fisheries. The process of the oversupply of nutrients leading to algae growth and oxygen depletion is called eutrophication.


title: Algal bloom

text: Algal and bacterial blooms have persistently contributed to mass extinctions driven by global warming in the geologic past, most infamously during the end-Permian extinction driven by Siberian Traps volcanism and the biotic recovery following the mass extinction.


title: Algal bloom

text: The term "algal bloom" is defined inconsistently depending on the scientific field and can range from a "minibloom" of harmless algae to a large, harmful bloom event. Since "algae" is a broad term including organisms of widely varying sizes, growth rates, and nutrient requirements, there is no officially recognized threshold level as to what is defined as a bloom. Because there is no scientific consensus, blooms can be characterized and quantified in several ways: measurements of new algal biomass, the concentration of photosynthetic pigment, quantification of the bloom's negative effect, or relative concentration of the algae compared to the rest of the microbial community. For example, definitions of blooms have included when the concentration of chlorophyll exceeds 100 ug/L, when the concentration of chlorophyll exceeds 5 ug/L, when the species considered to be blooming exceeds concentrations of 1000 cells/mL, and when the algae species concentration simply deviates from its normal growth.


title: Algal bloom

text: Blooms are the result of a nutrient needed by the particular algae being introduced to the local aquatic system. This growth-limiting nutrient is typically nitrogen or phosphorus, but can also be iron, vitamins, or amino acids. There are several mechanisms for the addition of these nutrients in water. In the open ocean and along coastlines, upwelling from both winds and topographical ocean floor features can draw nutrients to the photic, or sunlit zone of the ocean. Along coastal regions and in freshwater systems, agricultural, city, and sewage runoff can cause algal blooms.


title: Algal bloom

text: Algal blooms, especially large algal bloom events, can reduce the transparency of the water and can discolor the water. The photosynthetic pigments in the algal cells, like chlorophyll and photoprotective pigments, determine the color of the algal bloom. Depending on the organism, its pigments, and the depth in the water column, algal blooms can be green, red, brown, golden, and purple. Bright green blooms in freshwater systems are frequently a result of cyanobacteria (colloquially known as "blue-green algae") such as "Microcystis". Blooms may also consist of macroalgal (non-phytoplanktonic) species. These blooms are recognizable by large blades of algae that may wash up onto the shoreline.


title: Algal bloom

text: Once the nutrient is present in the water, the algae begin to grow at a much faster rate than usual. In a mini bloom, this fast growth benefits the whole ecosystem by providing food and nutrients for other organisms.


title: Algal bloom

text: Of particular note are the harmful algal blooms (HABs), which are algal bloom events involving toxic or otherwise harmful phytoplankton. Many species can cause harmful algal blooms. For example, "Gymnodinium nagasakiense" can cause harmful red tides, dinoflagellates "Gonyaulax polygramma" can cause oxygen depletion and result in large fish kills, cyanobacteria "Microcystis aeruginosa" can make poisonous toxins, and diatom "Chaetoceros convolutus" can damage fish gills.


title: Algal bloom

text: Freshwater algal blooms are the result of an excess of nutrients, particularly some phosphates. Excess nutrients may originate from fertilizers that are applied to land for agricultural or recreational purposes and may also originate from household cleaning products containing phosphorus.


title: Algal bloom

text: The reduction of phosphorus inputs is required to mitigate blooms that contain cyanobacteria. In lakes that are stratified in the summer, autumn turnover can release substantial quantities of bio-available phosphorus potentially triggering algal blooms as soon as sufficient photosynthetic light is available. Excess nutrients can enter watersheds through water runoff. Excess carbon and nitrogen have also been suspected as causes. Presence of residual sodium carbonate acts as catalyst for the algae to bloom by providing dissolved carbon dioxide for enhanced photosynthesis in the presence of nutrients.


title: Algal bloom

text: When phosphates are introduced into water systems, higher concentrations cause increased growth of algae and plants. Algae tend to grow very quickly under high nutrient availability, but each alga is short-lived, and the result is a high concentration of dead organic matter which starts to decompose. Natural decomposers present in the water begin decomposing the dead algae, consuming dissolved oxygen present in the water during the process. This can result in a sharp decrease in available dissolved oxygen for other aquatic life. Without sufficient dissolved oxygen in the water, animals and plants may die off in large numbers. This may also be known as a dead zone.


title: Algal bloom

text: Blooms may be observed in freshwater aquariums when fish are overfed and excess nutrients are not absorbed by plants. These are generally harmful for fish, and the situation can be corrected by changing the water in the tank and then reducing the amount of food given.


title: Algal bloom

text: Turbulent storms churn the ocean in summer, adding nutrients to sunlit waters near the surface. This sparks a feeding frenzy each spring that gives rise to massive blooms of phytoplankton. Tiny molecules found inside these microscopic plants harvest vital energy from sunlight through photosynthesis. The natural pigments, called chlorophyll, allow phytoplankton to thrive in Earth's oceans and enable scientists to monitor blooms from space. Satellites reveal the location and abundance of phytoplankton by detecting the amount of chlorophyll present in coastal and open waters—the higher the concentration, the larger the bloom. Observations show blooms typically last until late spring or early summer, when nutrient stocks are in decline and predatory zooplankton start to graze. The visualization on the left immediately below uses NASA SeaWiFS data to map bloom populations.


title: Algal bloom

text: The NAAMES study conducted between 2015 and 2019 investigated aspects of phytoplankton dynamics in ocean ecosystems, and how such dynamics influence atmospheric aerosols, clouds, and climate.


title: Algal bloom

text: In France, citizens are requested to report coloured waters through the project PHENOMER. This helps to understand the occurrence of marine blooms.


title: Algal bloom

text: A harmful algal bloom (HAB) is an algal bloom that causes negative impacts to other organisms via production of natural toxins, mechanical damage to other organisms, or by other means. The diversity of these HABs make them even harder to manage, and present many issues, especially to threatened coastal areas. HABs are often associated with large-scale marine mortality events and have been associated with various types of shellfish poisonings. Due to their negative economic and health impacts, HABs are often carefully monitored.


title: Algal bloom

text: HAB has been proved to be harmful to humans. Humans may be exposed to toxic algae by direct consuming seafood containing toxins, swimming or other activities in water, and breathing tiny droplets in the air that contain toxins.


title: Algal bloom

text: If the HAB event results in a high enough concentration of algae the water may become discoloured or murky, varying in colour from purple to almost pink, normally being red or green. Not all algal blooms are dense enough to cause water discolouration.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Kataeb Party ( '), also known in English as the Phalanges, is a Christian political party in Lebanon. The party played a major role in the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990). In decline in the late 1980s and 1990s, the party slowly re-emerged in the early 2000s and is currently part of the March 14 Alliance. The party currently holds 4 out of the 128 seats in the Lebanese Parliament.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Lebanese Phalanges Party is also known as ' in French and either "Kataeb" ( ') or "Phalangist Party" ( "") in Arabic. "Kataeb" is the plural of "Katiba" which is a translation into Arabic of the Greek word phalanx ("battalion") which is also the origin of the Spanish term "Falange". In 2021, the party changed its official name to "The Kataeb Party – Lebanese Social Democratic Party" (, "Hiẓb al-Katā'ib al-Lubnāniyya – Hiẓb al-dīmūqrāṭī al-ijtimāʿī al-lubnānī").


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Kataeb party was established on November 5, 1936 as a Maronite paramilitary youth organization by Pierre Gemayel who modeled the party after Spanish Falange and Italian Fascist parties he had observed as an Olympic athlete during the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin, then Nazi Germany. The movement's uniforms originally included brown shirts and members used the Roman salute.


title: Kataeb Party

text: I was the captain of the Lebanese football team and the president of the Lebanese Football federation. We went to the Olympic Games of 1936 in Berlin. And I saw then this discipline and order. And I said to myself: "Why can't we do the same thing in Lebanon?" So when we came back to Lebanon, we created this youth movement. When I was in Berlin then, Nazism did not have the reputation which it has now. Nazism? In every system in the world, you can find something good. But Nazism was not Nazism at all. The word came afterwards. In their system, I saw discipline. And we in the Middle East, we need discipline more than anything else.


title: Kataeb Party

text: He founded the party along with four other young Lebanese: Charles Helou (who later became a President of Lebanon), Chafic Nassif, Emile Yared and Georges Naccache. Gemayel was chosen to lead the organization, in part because he was not a political figure at that time.


title: Kataeb Party

text: During the first years of the Kataeb Party, the Party was strongly opposed to having anyone dominate Lebanon. They opposed the pan-Arabists who tried to take over Lebanon and also the French, whom they saw as trying to infiltrate their culture and impose themselves within Lebanon. Gemayel and the Kataeb Party have always believed in an independent and sovereign Lebanon free of all foreign influence. It actively took part in the struggle against the French Mandate, until Lebanese independence was proclaimed in November 1943. Its motto was "God, Nation and Family."


title: Kataeb Party

text: The influence of the Phalangists was very limited in the early years of Lebanon's independence, but came to prominence as a strong ally of the government in the 1958 crisis. In the aftermath of the crisis, Gemayel was appointed to the cabinet, and two years later, was elected to the National Assembly.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In 1968, the party joined the Helf Alliance formed with the two other big mainly Christian parties in Lebanon: the National Liberal Party of former President Camille Chamoun, and National Bloc of Raymond Eddé, and won 9 seats (of 99) in the parliamentary elections held that year, making it one of the largest groupings in Lebanon's notoriously fractured political system. By the end of the decade, the party created its own militia, the Kataeb Regulatory Forces (KRF) and soon clashes began with the rising Palestinian militant guerrillas.


title: Kataeb Party

text: By the 1970s, the party had become a political giant in Lebanon, with an estimated membership of 60,000 to 70,000. The vast majority (85%) of members were Maronites, but some were members of minority Christian communities, Shiites, Druze, and Jews.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Phalange party's militia was not only the largest and best organized political paramilitary force in Lebanon but also the oldest. It was founded in 1937 as the "Militants' organization" by the President of the Party Pierre Gemayel and William Hawi, a Lebanese-American glass industrialist, who led them during the 1958 civil war. Fighting alongside the pro-government forces, the Phalangists defended the Metn region.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Disbanded in January 1961 by order of the Kataeb Party' Political Bureau, Hawi created in their place the Kataeb Regulatory Forces. In order to coordinate the activities of all Phalange paramilitary forces, the Political Bureau set up the Kataeb War Council (Arabic: "Majliss al-Harbi") in 1970, with William Hawi being appointed as head. The seat of the Council was allocated at the Kataeb Party's Headquarters at the heart of Ashrafieh quarter in East Beirut and a quiet expansion of KRF units followed suit, complemented by the development of a training infrastructure.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Two company-sized Special Forces units, the "1st Commando" and the "2nd Commando" were created in 1963, soon followed by the "Pierre Gemayel" squad (later a company) and a VIP protection squad. To this was added in 1973 another commando platoon (Arabic: "Maghaweer") and a "Combat School" was secretly opened at Tabrieh, near Bsharri in the Keserwan District; another special unit, the "Bashir Gemayel brigade" – named after Pierre Gemayel's youngest son, Bashir – was formed in the following year, absorbing the old "PG" company in the process.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Considered by many analysts as the best organized of all militia "fiefs" in the whole of Lebanon under the leadership of "chef" Boutros Khawand, it was administered by a network of Phalangist-controlled business corporations headed by the GAMMA Group "brain-trust", backed by the DELTA computer company, and the SONAPORT holding. The latter had run since 1975 the legal commercial ports of Jounieh and Beirut, including the infamous clandestine "Dock Five" – "Cinquième basin" in French – from which the Phalange extracted additional revenues by levying illegal taxes and carried out arms-smuggling operations. The KRF was also served by a clandestine-built airstrip, the Pierre Gemayel International Airport, opened in 1976 at Hamat, north of Batroun, and had its own radio station "The Voice of Lebanon" (Arabic: "Iza'at Sawt Loubnan") or "La Voix du Liban" (VDL) in French set up in that same year.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In July–August of that same year, the Phalangists headed alongside its allies, the Army of Free Lebanon, Al-Tanzim, NLP Tigers Militia, Guardians of the Cedars (GoC), the Tyous Team of Commandos (TTC) and the Lebanese Youth Movement (LYM) in the sieges – and subsequent massacres – of Karantina, al-Masklah and Tel al-Zaatar Massacres at the Muslim-populated slum districts and adjacent Palestinian refugee camps of East Beirut, and at the town of Dbayeh in the Metn.


title: Kataeb Party

text: During the 1975–76 phase of the Lebanese Civil War, the Kataeb Regulatory Forces' own mobilization and street action skills allowed the Kataeb to become the primary and most fearsome fighting force in the Christian-conservative camp.


title: Kataeb Party

text: At Beirut and elsewhere, Phalange militia sections were heavily committed in several battles against Lebanese National Movement (LNM) leftist militias and suffered considerable casualties, notably at the Battle of the Hotels in October 1975 where they fought the al-Murabitoun and the Nasserite Correctionist Movement (NCM), and later at the 'Spring Offensive' held against Mount Lebanon in March 1976.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In 1943, the Kataeb played an instrumental role in attaining Lebanon's first independence from the French mandate. During this period, Kataeb led many social struggles to consolidate national cohesion and to promote individual liberties and social welfare. The Kataeb elaborated the first Lebanese "labour charter" in 1937. It was a pioneer initiative as it called for a minimum wage, a limitation of working hours and paid leaves. The Kataeb was one of the first Lebanese parties to have a solid avant-garde economic program and organized social activism throughout the country. The year of 1941 saw the creation of the first women section in a Lebanese Party. It called openly for stopping any kind of discrimination towards women. Since 1939, the Party has issued "Al Amal", a leading bilingual political publication.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Kataeb Party entered the political and parliamentary scene during the late 1940s after a period in which it refrained from entering the political arena to focus mainly on the promotion of the youth and on social issues, away from the trivialities of post-mandate politics.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Kataeb struggled to preserve Lebanon's independence facing the growing appetite of its neighbors. The Party expanded considerably its presence throughout the territory and attracted thousands of new members, undoubtedly forming one of the largest parties in the Middle-East. Kataeb adopted a modern organization which made its fame and became its trademark. In 1958 the Kataeb was the key actor in confronting the coup influenced by pan-Arabists led by Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of the ephemeral United Arab Republic (Egypt, Syria and Yemen), and succeeded in maintaining Lebanon's independence and liberal identity.


title: Kataeb Party

text: After having succeeded in preserving the Lebanese formula, Kataeb Party ranks grew considerably and reached 70,000 members (of a total population of 2.2 million). The Party achieved many electoral successes and became the main Christian component of successive governments. During the ministerial mandates held by its members, it made elementary education mandatory and improved the public school infrastructure. On a social level, the Kataeb Party introduced "labor laws" and contributed decisively in social security law. The party played a key role in promoting modern institutions that are still today the pillars of the Lebanese administrative system. including the Civil Service Council, the Central Inspection Board and many others.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Pierre Gemayel, leader of the party and minister of public works, gave Lebanon a large part of its modern infrastructure by completing 440 development projects during his term. Lebanon was at its peak, and became a first-tier destination for world tourism. But what was labeled as the "Switzerland of the Middle-East" was a shaky construction, with the influx of Palestinian refugees after 1949 setting the stage for an ominous future.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In the early 1970s, Christian leaders in Lebanon feared that the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) was increasingly operating in Lebanon as a state within a state. While it is contested whether the Palestinian presence was a cause of the Lebanese Civil War, Lebanon's political balance had been fragile since 1958 and political tensions were already running high among the Lebanese. In 1975, following these developments, and coupled with the disintegration of the state institutions and the army, the country became an open battlefield. Many foreign states were directly and militarily involved in the Lebanese conflict, especially Syria, which, under the banner of Arab solidarity, tried to impose its authority upon the country, and Israel, which invaded Lebanon in 1978. The Kataeb Party, along with other political parties, formed the Lebanese Forces and battled to preserve Lebanon and its independence and integrity. Driven by this ideal and the preservation of freedom and Christian dignity in the Middle East, more than 4000 members of the party died for this cause. The Kataeb Party succeeded in getting two of its leaders elected to the presidency. President-elect Bachir Gemayel, son of Pierre Gemayel and leader of the Lebanese Forces, was assassinated in 1982 when an explosion rocked the Party's headquarters in the Achrafieh area of Beirut. The architect of the blast was a member of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party. In the aftermath of the assassination, Amin Gemayel, the eldest son of Pierre Gemayel, was elected President of the Lebanese Republic.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The 1982 Israeli Judicial inquiry into the Sabra and Shatila massacre estimated that when fully mobilized, the Phalange had 5000 fighters, of whom 2000 were full-time. From the start of the invasion, Israeli Chief of Staff Rafael Eitan told the Phalange not to engage in any fighting.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Despite the turmoil caused by the civil strife in Lebanon and the raging wars that devastated the country, President Gemayel was able to accomplish many achievements during his presidential mandate. One of his first achievements was to rebuild the State's institutions and to reorganize and resupply the Army in preparation for the struggle to recover sovereignty and provide security for Lebanon. The same efforts to liberate the country culminated in the Agreement on Security Arrangements of 17 May 1983, which was somewhat an affirmation of the Armistice Agreement of 1949 with Israel even though this agreement was never concluded because of the opposition of Syria and then Israel. Amin Gemayel called for and chaired national dialogue conferences in Geneva and Lausanne and succeeded in creating a national accord and the formation of a fully representative government. He also rebuilt the Lebanese University and laid its modern foundation, introduced many economic reforms and even started to rebuild Beirut central district. The war was however still raging and Lebanon's neighbors, mainly Syria and Israel, expanded their influence in the country. On the other hand, Kataeb Party suffered a great loss with the death of its founder, Cheikh Pierre Gemayel in 1984.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Sabra and Shatila massacre was the slaughter of between 762 and 3,500 civilians, almost all Palestinians, by a Lebanese Christian militia in the Sabra and Shatila Palestinian refugee camps in Beirut, Lebanon from approximately 6:00 pm 16 September to 8:00 am 18 September 1982. The massacre was presented as retaliation for the assassination of the newly elected Lebanese president Bachir Gemayel, the leader of the Lebanese Kataeb Party. The Phalangist militia was led by intelligence chief Elie Hobeika. Many of the victims were tortured before they were killed. Women were raped and some victims were skinned alive. Others had limbs chopped off with axes.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In 1990, the Lebanese War came to a close when Syrian forces maintained their grip over the entire country leading to fifteen years of occupation during which President Amin Gemayel was exiled to France and the Kataeb Party fell under Syrian influence. Organized institutions that could endanger Syrian rule in Lebanon were systematically muzzled. Christian parties paid the highest price for their resistance to Syrian hegemony and their leaders were either eliminated, exiled or imprisoned. Kataeb spirit was however still strong between its members and sympathizers. This started to be visible in the late 1990s when Kataeb students participated actively in the student and intellectual resistance that started to be heard.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The revival of Lebanon and the Party: Amin Gemayel returned to Lebanon in June 2000 and was welcomed by large crowds that filled the streets and squares of Bikfaya. Pierre Amin Gemayel was elected MP for Metn district, signalling the rebirth of the Kataeb Party. "Kataeb opposition" was structured and began its activities within the framework of the "Kornet Shahwan Coalition", and then through the Bristol Gathering, which formed a platform for the joint Christian-Muslim opposition. Eventually, all this led to the Independence Uprising in February 2005 and on 14 March 2005 more than a million Lebanese filled the streets of central Beirut to demand Syrian withdrawal and the restoration of sovereignty. The Kataeb Party extensively participated in the Cedar Revolution and MP Pierre Gemayel played a significant role in shaping this uprising which led to Lebanon's second independence. Syrian troops effectively left Lebanon on 26 April of the same year, and at the same time, the Kataeb Party reunited and retrieved its historical role. Pierre Amin Gemayel played a key role in reuniting the Party in 2006. Pierre Gemayel was assassinated on 21 November 2006, and in 2007, the Party was dealt another blow when MP Antoine Ghanem was assassinated as well. During the 2009 general elections, under the leadership of Amine Gemayel, they managed to receive 5 seats in parliament.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In 2020, Kataeb Secretary-General Nazar Najarian was killed in the 2020 Beirut explosions on 4 August 2020, after a series of explosions had occurred at the Port of Beirut, sending debris across the city. He suffered head trauma and succumbed to his injuries. He was buried on 8 August 2020.


title: Kataeb Party

text: During the Lebanese general elections, candidates were announced on the 20 February 2022 under the campaign slogan "Ma minsawim" (ما منساوم ). Kataeb leader Samy Gemayel insisted that the Kataeb party was the only one that has "faced the fact of surrendering to Hezbollah's will, electing Michel Aoun as president and isolating Lebanon from its surroundings. Samy Gemayel emphasized:


title: Kataeb Party

text: On 2 April Nadim Gemayel, cousin of Samy, promoted his candidacy in a speech during a small event. Kataeb secured 4 seats for Salim Sayegh (3,477 votes), Nadim Gemayel (4,425 votes), Sami Gemayel (10,466 votes), and Elias Hankash (6,148 votes). A close ally of the party, Jean Talozian, also managed to wain a seat with 4,043 votes in Beirut I with Nadim.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Throughout the 1975 Civil War, the Phalange Party was the most important force within the Christian camp, and its militia carried out most of the fighting as part of the Lebanese Front, the mostly Christian rightist coalition.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In April 1975, four persons, among them two men close to the Gemayel family, were killed during an attack on a church inauguration ceremony by unknown attackers in the Beirut suburb of Ain El Remmaneh. In retaliation Phalangist militias killed 28 passengers of a bus later that day, most of them Palestinian with some that were deemed to be armed that were coming back from a rally at camp Tel el-Zaatar, since they suspected Palestinians to be behind the church attack. The Bus Massacre is commonly considered as the spark that set off the Lebanese Civil War. In the following days, the 8,000-strong party militia, the Kataeb Regulatory Forces, together with its allies, the Tigers militia, Al-Tanzim, Marada Brigade, Guardians of the Cedars, Lebanese Youth Movement, Tyous Team of Commandos and other formations, was heavily engaged in street fights against the Palestinian militias and their allies in the anti-government secular Lebanese National Movement.


title: Kataeb Party

text: During the Lebanese Civil war, many predominantly Christian militias were formed who gained support from the north of Lebanon. These militias were staunchly right-wing, nationalist and anti-Palestinian with a majority of their members being Maronite. The Kataeb party was the most powerful of these militias at the time of the Lebanese Civil war. The party later went on to help found the right-wing Lebanese Forces militia in 1977 which played a large role within the Lebanese Civil war.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In September 1982, Bachir Gemayel was elected President of Lebanon by the National Assembly. He was assassinated less than a month later in an operation thought to have been arranged by Syrian intelligence and was in turn succeeded by his brother, Amine Gemayel. Bachir was thought to have been radical in his approach, and hinted at possible peace agreements with Israel while trying to expel all Palestinian refugees from Lebanon. In contrast, Amine was thought to have been much more moderate.


title: Kataeb Party

text: On 16 September 1982, Elie Hobeika led the massacre of between 762 and 3,500 Palestinian refugees in the Sabra and Shatila refugee camps, while the periphery of the camps were under the control of the Israeli Defense Forces.


title: Kataeb Party

text: After the death of Pierre Gemayel in 1984, his successors Elie Karamé and Amine Gemayel struggled to maintain influence over the actions of the Lebanese Army, which become virtually independent as Muslim recruits deserted and rebelled against the mostly Christian officer ranks. The Kataeb party began to decline, not playing a major role for the remainder of the war.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The party, lacking direction, broke down into several rival factions. Georges Saadeh took control of the Party from 1986 until his death in 1998. He took a moderate position toward the Syrian presence. Mounir Hajj became the president of the party in 1999, followed by Karim Pakradouni in 2002. Amine Gemayel left Lebanon in 1988 after his mandate had ended, mainly to avoid a clash with Samir Geagea's Lebanese Forces and avoid more Intra-Christian bloodshed. He returned in 2000 to oppose the Syrian role in Lebanon and to back his son's (Pierre) parliamentary election campaign (which he won). His sons Pierre and Samy, had returned in 1997 and had been working on reorganizing the popular base of the party. However his return was not welcome by the established leadership of the party who had become government puppets. To distinguish themselves from the official leadership, Gemayel's supporters started referring to themselves as "The Kataeb Base" or "The Kataeb Reform Movement". General consensus amongst Lebanese always recognized Gemayel as the legitimate Leader of the party, not because of lineage but because most of popular support.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In March 2005 after the Rafik Hariri assassination, the Kataeb took part in an anti-Syrian presence demonstration, commonly known as the Cedar Revolution. It also became a member of the March 14 Alliance, along with the Future Movement, Progressive Socialist Party, Lebanese Forces and other minor parties. The Kataeb won 4 seats in the June 2005 elections, 3 representing the Gemayel Leadership (Pierre Gemayel, Solange Gemayel and Antoine Ghanem) and 1 representing the official leadership of the Party. However, they formed one parliamentary bloc after a reconciliation that took place in 2005. This reconciliation was marketed as gesture of good will from Pierre Amine Gemayel who deemed it was time to turn the page and give those who were unfaithful to the party principles a second chance. Practically, it was a way for Pakradouni and his men to leave the Party with as little humiliation as possible since the reconciliation deal stipulated the resignation of the entire political bureau after 2 years. This reconciliation saw Amine come back to the Party as Supreme President of the Party while Pakradouni stayed on as President. Samy Gemayel (Amine's second son) who had formed his own political ideas and identity at the time (much closer in principle and in manner to those of his uncle Bachir) was a very strong opposer of Pakradouni and his Syrian ties and thus was not a fan of this reconciliation. This drew Samy away from the party and prompted him to create a Think-Tank/Research-Center on Federalism named Loubnanouna (Our Lebanon).


title: Kataeb Party

text: In July 2005, the party participated in the Fouad Siniora Government, with Pierre Amine Gemayel as the minister of industry. Pierre played an important role in the reorganization and development of the party. His assassination in November 2006 was a major blow to the party. Syrian intelligence and "Fateh Al Islam" have been accused of the assassination. With 14 March Alliance forces, the party supports the Lebanese government against Hezbollah.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In September 2007 another Kataeb MP, Antoine Ghanem was assassinated in a car bombing. Solange Gemayel remained the party's only MP, since Pierre Gemayel's seat was lost to the Free Patriotic Movement of Michel Aoun in a special election in August 2007.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In 2007 also, Samy Gemayel and (most of) his Loubnanouna companions rejoined the Kataeb, prompting a renaissance in the party.


title: Kataeb Party

text: In the 2009 parliamentary elections the Kataeb Party managed to win 5 seats. 1 in the Metn Caza, 1 in the Beirut-1 Caza, 1 in Zahle, 1 in the Aley Caza and another in the Tripoli Caza. The victories in Beirut-1 and Zahle as well as not allowing the opposition's list to win fully in Metn were major upsets to the General Aoun's FPM who is an ally of Iranian-backed Hezbollah, although the opposition's list was not 100% complete, leaving one Maronite seat vacant by purpose for the candidate of the Gemayel family. These victories enabled Samy Gemayel, Nadim Gemayel (son of the assassinated President Bachir Gemayel), Elie Marouni, Fady el-Haber and Samer Saade to join the Parliament.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Since the end of Syria's occupation of Lebanon in 2005, the Kataeb Party has attracted once again new generations and has regained its role as one of the major political actors in Lebanon. The Party has a large network in Lebanon and abroad and one cannot find a major city or town without a Kataeb presence.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Party has an active parliamentary group and has MPs elected in nearly all major Christian constituencies such as Beirut, Metn, Zahlé, Aley and the North. Moreover, Kataeb Ministers have been particularly active in governments led by 14 March coalition, namely in Ministries of Industry, Social Affairs and Tourism.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Kataeb Party calls for an objective assessment of the Lebanese political system's limitations in order to guarantee the required political stability, security and economic prosperity. The series of political crises that Lebanon witnessed since its first independence in 1943 highlighted the shortcomings of the consensual and unitary system and its inadequacy with pluralistic countries such as Lebanon.


title: Kataeb Party

text: During the 2009 parliamentary elections that saw the victory of the Party and its allies, Kataeb presented a comprehensive program under the title of "Pact of Stability". The vision of the Party revolves around the following main ideas:


title: Kataeb Party

text: The Party is also strongly concerned about the presence of Palestinian refugees with their regional and domestic ramifications. Notwithstanding that the Kataeb has recently attempted to improve the inhumane living conditions of refugees through Parliament, it remains concerned about latent or gradual attempts to force their permanent settlement in Lebanon.


title: Kataeb Party

text: On 11 March 2018, the Kataeb Party unveiled their 131-point platform, in which they expressed some progressive values such as decriminalizing homosexuality, abolishing capital punishment, removing censorship laws, and adopting a 30% female quota system in the parliament.


title: Kataeb Party

text: The secretary-general of the party, Nazar Najarian, was killed in the 2020 Port of Beirut explosions.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Candidates were announced on the 20 February 2022 under the campaign slogan "Ma minsawim" (ما منساوم). Kataeb leader Samy Gemayel insisted that the Kataeb party was the only one that has faced the fact of surrendering to Hezbollah's will, electing Michel Aoun as president and isolating Lebanon from its surroundings. Samy Gemayel emphasized:On 2 April Nadim Gemayel, cousin of Samy, promoted his candidacy in a speech during a small event.


title: Kataeb Party

text: Kataeb secured 4 seats for Salim Sayegh (3,477 votes), Nadim Gemayel (4,425 votes), Sami Gemayel (10,466 votes), and Elias Hankash (6,148 votes).


title: DS4Ever

text: DS4Ever (stylized in all caps and alternatively titled Drip Season 4Ever) is the third studio album by American rapper Gunna. It was released on January 7, 2022, by YSL Records and 300 Entertainment. The album features guest appearances from Future, Young Thug, 21 Savage, Drake, Kodak Black, Chlöe, Lil Baby, G Herbo, Nechie, Yung Bleu, Chris Brown, and Roddy Ricch. It serves as the fourth and final installment of Gunna's "Drip Season" series, following "Drip Season 3" released in 2018.


title: DS4Ever

text: Despite receiving mixed reviews from music critics, "DS4Ever" performed well commercially, debuting atop the US "Billboard" 200 with 150,000 album-equivalent units of which 4,000 were pure sales, making for Gunna's second number-one album.


title: DS4Ever

text: On January 1, 2022, Gunna revealed the album's release date. The cover art, which was created by American architect Daniel Arsham, was revealed on January 4. It was followed by the tracklist, which was shared the following day.


title: DS4Ever

text: The album's lead single, "Too Easy", a collaboration with fellow American rapper Future, was released on September 24, 2021. The remix, which includes an additional feature from fellow American rapper Roddy Ricch, was released on December 3, 2021. The music video for the remix was released on January 7, 2022. "Too Easy" peaked at number 16 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: DS4Ever

text: A music video for the song "Livin Wild" was released on January 10, 2022, while the music video for "Pushin P" with Future featuring Young Thug, was released on January 12. The songs peaked at number 61 and seven on the "Billboard" Hot 100, respectively.


title: DS4Ever

text: On January 13, 2022, "P Power" (originally titled "Pussy Power"), a collaboration with fellow rapper Drake, was added to the album. The song peaked at number 24 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: DS4Ever

text: "DS4Ever" was met with mixed reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 51, based on five reviews.


title: DS4Ever

text: Michael Di Gennaro from "Exclaim!" enjoyed the album, saying, ""DS4Ever" is certainly a good mainstream rap record, and fans of Gunna and the community of high-profile Atlanta artists he's aligned with will find plenty to enjoy across the album's 19 tracks". Armon Sadler of "HipHopDX" said, ""DS4Ever" is proof he presumably won't allow stardom to make him complacent, balancing improvements in song topics and technical skill, even if the drip talk has gone stale". In a lukewarm review, "Rolling Stone"s Mosi Reeves wrote, "Gunna has a flashy and intoxicating vocal style, and that alone [makes] "DS4" a worthy escapade. But he can't transcend the clichés that define his era".


title: DS4Ever

text: Reviewing the album for AllMusic, David Crone stated, "After tunnelling into a very specific avenue for "Wunna", "DS4" loses focus, instead spreading the rapper thin across a much wider smattering of styles. The resulting project feels noncommittal: "DS4" is caught between the woozy, floating sounds of "Wunna" and an older, heavier-hitting sound, yet nails neither". "Pitchfork" critic Alphonse Pierre said, "The Atlanta rapper's latest album is monotonous, short on the quirks and out-of-body experiences of his better projects".


title: DS4Ever

text: "DS4Ever" debuted atop the US "Billboard" 200 with 150,000 album-equivalent units comprising 193.5 million on-demand streams and 4,000 pure sales, making it Gunna's second number-one album. The album notably blocked the Weeknd's album "Dawn FM" from the top spot by approximately 2,300 units.


title: Shion Takeuchi

text: Shion Takeuchi (born September 5, 1988) is an American television writer, animator, storyboard artist, showrunner, and producer. She is the creator of the Netflix television series "Inside Job" and has written and produced for the shows "Gravity Falls", "Disenchantment", "Regular Show", and others. She was nominated twice for an Annie Award in "Writing in an Animated Television/Broadcast Production", in 2016 and 2017, for her work on "Gravity Falls".


title: Shion Takeuchi

text: Takeuchi was born on September 5, 1988, and raised in the suburbs of Boston, Massachusetts, where her parents were a technology company executive and former translator. She attended the California Institute of the Arts (CalArts), graduating in 2010 with a BFA in animation. Her thesis film was titled "When the Time is Ripe", a coming-of-age story about a Jewish pear.


title: Shion Takeuchi

text: Takeuchi worked as an intern on the animated series "Adventure Time" during the first season of its development before joining animator J. G. Quintel to work as a storyboard artist on his Cartoon Network series "Regular Show". She was then hired to work in the story department at Pixar where she was involved in the production of the films "Monsters University" (2013) and "Inside Out" (2015). She later left Pixar to work as a writer on the Disney animated series "Gravity Falls" where she stayed until the show's conclusion in 2016. Takeuchi also worked as a writer on the Netflix animated series "Disenchantment" and the Amazon Prime Video animated series "Lost in Oz". Streaming platform Netflix signed a multi-year, multi-project deal with Takeuchi in 2018.


title: Shion Takeuchi

text: In 2019, Netflix announced the production of the adult animated series "Inside Job", created and produced by Takeuchi. The show premiered on October 22, 2021 and went on to become the fifth most streamed show on Netflix in the US and eighth most streamed on the platform globally within a week of its release.


title: The Romanoffs

text: The Romanoffs is an American anthology drama streaming television series created, written, produced, and directed by Matthew Weiner. It premiered on Amazon Prime Video October 12, 2018 and features an ensemble cast that differs from episode to episode, with John Slattery, JJ Feild, Louise Bourgoin, Aaron Eckhart, and Diane Lane appearing across multiple episodes. In July 2019, Amazon announced they have no plans for a second season.


title: The Romanoffs

text: "The Romanoffs" is a contemporary series "set around the globe, centering on separate stories about people who believe themselves to be descendants of the Russian royal family."


title: The Romanoffs

text: On October 26, 2016, multiple news outlets reported that Amazon had won a bidding war among six entities and committed to a straight-to-series order with a $70 million budget for an eight episode first season. The series was to be written, directed, and produced by "Mad Men" creator Matthew Weiner in cooperation with The Weinstein Company.


title: The Romanoffs

text: On August 29, 2017, the series' creative team was announced. The series’ collaborators include executive producer/writer Semi Chellas, co-executive producers Kriss Turner Towner, Blake McCormick, and Kathy Ciric, along with consulting producers/writers Andre Jacquemetton and Maria Jacquemetton. The series behind-the-scenes creative team includes director of photography Christopher Manley, costume designers Janie Bryant and Wendy Chuck, production designers Henry Dunn and Christopher Brown, and hair and makeup designers Theraesa Rivers and Lana Horochowski. The casting team includes Carrie Audino, Laura Schiff, and Kendra Clark. On October 11, 2017, following reports of sexual abuse allegations against producer Harvey Weinstein, Amazon announced that they were "reviewing their options" in regard to their relationship with The Weinstein Company. They subsequently severed ties with the production company. On July 28, 2018, it was announced during the Television Critics Association's annual summer press tour that the series would premiere on October 12, 2018.


title: The Romanoffs

text: From August to October 2017, a series of announcements revealed that Isabelle Huppert, Christina Hendricks, John Slattery, Jack Huston, Amanda Peet, Marthe Keller, Aaron Eckhart, Corey Stoll, Andrew Rannells, Mike Doyle, JJ Feild, Janet Montgomery, Paul Reiser, and Diane Lane had been cast in the series.


title: The Romanoffs

text: From March to August 2018, numerous guest cast members were announced. These actors included Noah Wyle, Hera Hilmar, Kathryn Hahn, Kerry Bishé, Jay R. Ferguson, Ben Miles, Mary Kay Place, Griffin Dunne, Cara Buono, Ron Livingston, Jon Tenney, Clea DuVall, Radha Mitchell, Hugh Skinner, Juan Pablo Castañeda, Emily Rudd, Adele Anderson, Annet Mahendru, Louise Bourgoin, Inès Melab, Michael O'Neill, and David Sutcliffe.


title: The Romanoffs

text: On July 28, 2018, the first teaser trailer for the series was released. On August 14, 2018, a second teaser trailer was released. On August 29, 2018, a series of "first look" promotional photographs from the series was released alongside a full episode lineup of the series featuring episode titles, synopsis, airdates, and a list of actors that would appear in each episode. On September 12, 2018, the trailer for the series was released.


title: The Romanoffs

text: On November 15, 2018, the series held its official premiere at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art in Los Angeles, California featuring a screening of the series. A red carpet arrival was originally scheduled to take place before the screening but was canceled out of respect for the victims of the Woolsey Fire, which was still burning in the Los Angeles and Ventura counties.


title: The Romanoffs

text: The series was met with a mixed response from critics upon its premiere. On the review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the first season holds a 48% approval rating, with an average rating of 5.8 out of 10 based on 64 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, "Matthew Weiner's return to television is as handsomely made as it is ambitious and sprawling—unfortunately, it's also fatally indulgent, asking for the utmost patience from audiences without a compelling incentive." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the season a score of 56 out of 100 based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: The Romanoffs

text: Despite the polarizing reception to the series overall, it went on to be nominated for awards for its work in the production, audio engineering and costume design for the series.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: In measure theory, a branch of mathematics, the Lebesgue measure, named after French mathematician Henri Lebesgue, is the standard way of assigning a measure to subsets of "n"-dimensional Euclidean space. For "n" = 1, 2, or 3, it coincides with the standard measure of length, area, or volume. In general, it is also called n"-dimensional volume, n"-volume, or simply volume. It is used throughout real analysis, in particular to define Lebesgue integration. Sets that can be assigned a Lebesgue measure are called Lebesgue-measurable; the measure of the Lebesgue-measurable set "A" is here denoted by "λ"("A").


title: Lebesgue measure

text: Henri Lebesgue described this measure in the year 1901, followed the next year by his description of the Lebesgue integral. Both were published as part of his dissertation in 1902.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: For any interval formula_1, or formula_2, in the set formula_3 of real numbers, let formula_4 denote its length. For any subset formula_5, the Lebesgue outer measure formula_6 is defined as an infimum


title: Lebesgue measure

text: The set of all such formula_8 forms a "σ"-algebra. For any such formula_8, its Lebesgue measure is defined to be its Lebesgue outer measure: formula_13.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: A set formula_8 that does not satisfy the Carathéodory criterion is not Lebesgue-measurable. Non-measurable sets do exist; an example is the Vitali sets.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: The first part of the definition states that the subset formula_8 of the real numbers is reduced to its outer measure by coverage by sets of open intervals. Each of these sets of intervals formula_16 covers formula_8 in a sense, since the union of these intervals contains formula_8. The total length of any covering interval set may overestimate the measure of formula_19 because formula_8 is a subset of the union of the intervals, and so the intervals may include points which are not in formula_8. The Lebesgue outer measure emerges as the greatest lower bound (infimum) of the lengths from among all possible such sets. Intuitively, it is the total length of those interval sets which fit formula_8 most tightly and do not overlap.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: That characterizes the Lebesgue outer measure. Whether this outer measure translates to the Lebesgue measure proper depends on an additional condition. This condition is tested by taking subsets formula_23 of the real numbers using formula_8 as an instrument to split formula_23 into two partitions: the part of formula_23 which intersects with formula_8 and the remaining part of formula_23 which is not in formula_8: the set difference of formula_23 and formula_8. These partitions of formula_23 are subject to the outer measure. If for all possible such subsets formula_23 of the real numbers, the partitions of formula_23 cut apart by formula_8 have outer measures whose sum is the outer measure of formula_23, then the outer Lebesgue measure of formula_8 gives its Lebesgue measure. Intuitively, this condition means that the set formula_8 must not have some curious properties which causes a discrepancy in the measure of another set when formula_8 is used as a "mask" to "clip" that set, hinting at the existence of sets for which the Lebesgue outer measure does not give the Lebesgue measure. (Such sets are, in fact, not Lebesgue-measurable.)


title: Lebesgue measure

text: All the above may be succinctly summarized as follows (although the last two assertions are non-trivially linked to the following):


title: Lebesgue measure

text: A subset of R is a "null set" if, for every ε > 0, it can be covered with countably many products of "n" intervals whose total volume is at most ε. All countable sets are null sets.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: If a subset of R has Hausdorff dimension less than "n" then it is a null set with respect to "n"-dimensional Lebesgue measure. Here Hausdorff dimension is relative to the Euclidean metric on R (or any metric Lipschitz equivalent to it). On the other hand, a set may have topological dimension less than "n" and have positive "n"-dimensional Lebesgue measure. An example of this is the Smith–Volterra–Cantor set which has topological dimension 0 yet has positive 1-dimensional Lebesgue measure.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: In order to show that a given set "A" is Lebesgue-measurable, one usually tries to find a "nicer" set "B" which differs from "A" only by a null set (in the sense that the symmetric difference ("A" − "B") ∪ ("B" − "A") is a null set) and then show that "B" can be generated using countable unions and intersections from open or closed sets.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: The modern construction of the Lebesgue measure is an application of Carathéodory's extension theorem. It proceeds as follows.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: where , and the product symbol here represents a Cartesian product. The volume of this box is defined to be


title: Lebesgue measure

text: These Lebesgue-measurable sets form a "σ"-algebra, and the Lebesgue measure is defined by for any Lebesgue-measurable set "A".


title: Lebesgue measure

text: The existence of sets that are not Lebesgue-measurable is a consequence of the set-theoretical axiom of choice, which is independent from many of the conventional systems of axioms for set theory. The Vitali theorem, which follows from the axiom, states that there exist subsets of R that are not Lebesgue-measurable. Assuming the axiom of choice, non-measurable sets with many surprising properties have been demonstrated, such as those of the Banach–Tarski paradox.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: In 1970, Robert M. Solovay showed that the existence of sets that are not Lebesgue-measurable is not provable within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory in the absence of the axiom of choice (see Solovay's model).


title: Lebesgue measure

text: The Borel measure agrees with the Lebesgue measure on those sets for which it is defined; however, there are many more Lebesgue-measurable sets than there are Borel measurable sets. The Borel measure is translation-invariant, but not complete.


title: Lebesgue measure

text: The Haar measure can be defined on any locally compact group and is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure (R with addition is a locally compact group).


title: Lebesgue measure

text: The Hausdorff measure is a generalization of the Lebesgue measure that is useful for measuring the subsets of R of lower dimensions than "n", like submanifolds, for example, surfaces or curves in R and fractal sets. The Hausdorff measure is not to be confused with the notion of Hausdorff dimension.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The Tigr () is a Russian 4×4 multipurpose all-terrain infantry mobility vehicle manufactured by Military Industrial Company, first delivered to the Russian army in 2006.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Primarily used by the Russian Armed Forces and Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs, it is also used by numerous other countries.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The Tigr was first shown at the IDEX exhibition in 2001. Pilot production started in 2004 with 96 vehicles. The Russian Army officially adopted the GAZ-2975 into service at the end of 2006. The vehicle was then officially manufactured in 2007.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: China co-produced the Tigr with Russia after it initially refused to grant them a full license. 110 Tigrs were delivered from 2008-2010 and are in service with the Chinese Public Security police. Some saw use publicly in the 2008 Beijing Olympics and in the 2009 Xinjiang riots.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Five Tigrs, fully assembled, were delivered with five more in kit form for assembly while 100 were assembled in China under Beijing Yanjing Motor Company. The contract was reported at the International Salon of Weapons and Military Equipment exhibition (MVSV-2008) in August 2008. Yanjing Motor-made vehicles are known as YJ2080C and YJ2081C, the differences are the engines installed and the weight.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: During the 2010 Interpolitex exhibition, MIC presented the upgraded version of Tigr-the VPK-233114 Tigr-M-with a new YaMZ-534 diesel engine, additional armour and an NBC protection system. This new Tigr-M entered service with the Russian army during the first half of the 2013. Mass production and the export version have already been launched with a 205 hp engine.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In early March 2015, OSCE inspectors spotted "a camouflaged Tigr-type armoured personnel carrier" guarding a DPR Checkpoint, close to the village Shyrokyne east of Mariupol.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In 2011, "Rosoboronexport" has offered Azerbaijan to create a licensed production of armored vehicles on its territory.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The Minsk Wheel Tractor Plant unveiled the Lis-PM (Fox-PM in English from Russian), a variant of the Tigr, in a public relations event on April 30, 2015. It's made from parts supplied from VPK-233136 Tigr kits. Parts made in Belarus are around 85 percent with plans to have the Lis-PM made with all the components made in Belarus. The vehicle was previously seen at the 7th International Exhibition of Armament and Military Equipment or MILEX-2014 event. They were then shown on May 9, 2015 in a Belarusian military parade.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: BYMC announced on November 8, 2016 that an unnamed country has purchased 177 YJ2080s, winning its first export order.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In January 2017, Tigr-Ms entered service with the Russian Army mounting the Arbalet-DM remote weapon station (RWS). It can hold a Kord 12.7 mm machine gun carrying 150 rounds of ammunition or a PKTM 7.62 mm machine gun carrying 250 rounds. The module has TV and thermal imaging cameras allowing target identification out to 2.5 km and 1.5 km respectively, an integral laser rangefinder, and the ability to lock on and track targets. In the same month, Corvus Slovakia received their rights to manufacture and sell the Tigr.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In 2018, Streit Group has the rights to manufacture the Tigr as the Falcon, which debuted at the AAD 2018 and EDEX 2018 defense conventions.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: As of May 2020, Tigr has been exported to 16 states and since 2005 over 2,000 vehicles have been built in various configurations and delivered to Russia and foreign countries.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the Tigr was heavily used by the Russian forces. Tigrs used by the Russians in Ukraine are equipped with the Arbalet-DM RWS. Ukrainian forces have been using captured Tigrs.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The vehicle was designed to transport troops and various equipment quickly on road and off-road. It has a chassis frame construction, with a traditional layout of front engine, middle crew compartment, and rear cargo area. Standard features include: power steering, independent all-wheel torsion suspension with hydraulic shock absorbers and stabilizer bars, a transfer case with a locking center differential, limited slip differentials, two-speed transfer case, automatic tire inflation, engine block heater, and electric winch.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The GAZ-233001 has optional air conditioning, stereo, electric windows, and an anti-lock braking system.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Armored versions of the Tigr feature ( for the SPM-2) heat-treated and stress-relieved armor plates. The Tigr can carry a half ton of cargo.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The available engines are a Cummins B180 turbodiesel with ; a Cummins B205 turbodiesel producing ; a Cummins B-214 turbodiesel making ; or a GAZ-562 turbodiesel with .


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Designed for performance in mountain, arctic, and desert environments, the Tigr is capable of operating at ambient temperatures ranging from . Moreover, the vehicle has approach and departure angles of 52 degrees and a wading depth of .


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Tigr-2, an experimental rebodied civilian style SUV, was presented for the first time in September 2006 at the Moscow Motor Show in the exhibition "Russian cars". Released in a small series from 2008, mainstream sales at dealers were planned to start in 2009 with the car available in two trim levels-luxury and regular.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The standard SUV is mechanically very similar to the military Tigr. It is packaged with a Steyr turbodiesel with or six-cylinder Cummins B205 with and is designed for speeds of up to .


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: With a weight of , the civilian Tigr-2 fuel consumption is 15 L/100 km. Its length is , its width and height is , and its ground clearance is . Compared with the military version, the civilian Tigr is lighter. The price was planned at $270,000/17,600,000 rubles.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In 2007, a ceremonial parade variant was designed, the СП46 (SP 46) ceremonial Tigr is a two-door convertible with a removable rigid roof. It features two seats in the front and one in the back, and is finished with modern luxury car appointments. This Tigr is equipped with an automatic Allison 1000 series transmission and Cummins B205 turbodiesel. Vehicle weight was reduced to , as this version is unarmoured.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In November 2008, a prototype of the parade Tigr was presented to the Minister of Defense Anatoly Serdyukov. Subsequently, three vehicles were ordered and used in the Victory Day parade on May 9, 2009 at the Palace Square in St. Petersburg and also at the 64th anniversary of Russia's World War II victory.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The CTC (English: STS) "Tigr", a special vehicle, The Russian Army's armored version. Winged sheathed hull with an anti-splinter coating made of aramid fiber. 4-stroke turbocharged diesel engine Cummins B 205. STS "Tigr" was accepted for supply to units of the General Staff of the Russian Federation by Order of the Minister of Defense of the Russian Federation from March 6, 2007. The STS took part in the 2014 Crimean operation.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Специальная полицейская машина СПМ-1 (Special police car SPM-1) Tigr is used by the Russian Interior Ministry OMON in counter-terrorism operations and territorial defense. It is armoured, with IEC 50963-96 Class 3 side/rear protection and Class 5 frontal protection (GOST P 50963-96, level 1 corresponds to the STANAG 4569). The vehicle has accommodations for seven occupants including the driver. Early models permit the firing of personal weapons through one-way portholes in the body. In later models personal weapons can be fired through portholes in the armored glass. An automatic gun carriage can be fitted to the roof, along with radio signal jamming equipment.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The SPM-1 Aircraft Assault Vehicle is an SPM-1 fitted with a large remote-control hydraulic ladder system. It is designed to provide access to the second or third floors of buildings and aircraft.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Специальная полицейская машина СПМ-2 (Special Police Vehicle SPM-2) Tigr-Alfa-BB (Tiger-Alpha-VV) is an SPM-1 with GOST 50963-965 level 5 ballistic protection all around (instead of a mixture of level 3 and 5). Two additional glass hatches on the roof allow for the firing of personal weapons.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: This variant is designed as a command center for special events and crises. It is a SPM-2 Tigr fitted with extensive communications equipment.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In 2011, the Tula Instrument Design Bureau demonstrated an upgraded Kornet-EM antitank missile system. Two such units were mounted on a modified chassis of the SPM-2 Tigr. The machine is equipped with two retractable launchers for 8 missiles and gunnery equipment (remote weapons control with screens to display images from the sighting systems), as well as 8 additional missiles. This antitank system tested at Kapustin-Yar. The missile complex when mounted on a Tigr is known as the Kornet-D, and it is meant to replace the 9P148 missile carrier. Deliveries started in 2015.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In early 2010, an improved Tigr armored vehicle with a 420-horsepower Cummins ISB and a Chrysler 545RFE automatic transmission was created. This engine/transmission combination was originally designed for a Dodge Ram pickup. Externally, the vehicle featured an additional air intake on the bonnet and enlarged brakes. Acceleration time to was reduced from 35 to 23 seconds compared to the standard version, and the top speed increased from to .


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: During the 2010 Interpolitex exhibition, the Multi-purpose Armored Vehicle (Ru: Автомобиль многоцелевого назначения (АМН)) AMN 233114 Tigr-M was presented by the Military Industrial Company. It featured a new YaMZ-534 diesel engine, a new armored hood, air filter installation, an increase in the number of rear passenger seats (from 8 to 9) and the replacement of the bicuspid rear hatch with a large square hatch. The M stands for Modernizirovanniy or Upgraded in Russian.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Currently, the Tigr-M is mass-produced and supplied to the Russian Army, including with the new Arbalet-DM remote control weapons station which is composed of 12.7mm Kord or 7.62mm PKTM machine guns.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The upgraded Tigr 4×4 armoured vehicle with increased protection displayed at the Army 2018 defence show in Kubinka, near Moscow, on 21–26 August. The upgrade is based on combat experience gained during operations in Syria and designated the ASN 233115 Tigr-M SpN.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The difference between the AMN 233144 and ASN 233115 models include a reduced number of seats since the latter has nine seats while the former has six seats, traverse platform on roof to mount weapons and stowage compartments inside to store weapons, ammo and accessories.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The CTC "Tigr" SPV prototype vehicle was first shown at the Bronnitsi Armoured Vehicles Show on June 10, 2011. Based on the SPM-2, the SPV is designed for combat officer transport. It has a four-door station wagon body with increased GOST 6A armor protection (heavy mine protection and special shock-absorbing seats/footrests which are not attached to the floor). As of November 2012, tests are being conducted. The roof of the car has a large rotating hatch with folding a folding lid and two brackets for mounting weapons. Firing from the personal weapons of the crew and the assault group carried out through open armored glass in the doors and on the sides of the vehicle. There are places for stowage of ammunition, rocket-propelled grenade launchers such as the RPG-26, a radio station and a radio-controlled explosive devices blocker.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The Tigr-M MKTK REI PP Leer-2 VPK-233114 or the Mobile Electronic Warfare system EW vehicle is a variant of the Tigr-M equipped with mobile technical control, electronic emulation and Lee 2 electronic countermeasures system.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The Tigr chassis has been fitted with the 1L122E radar to allow the vehicle to simultaneously locate 15 aerial targets per second and perform target assessment in one second. Its purpose is to give Russian soldiers armed with MANPADS a command and target indication vehicle to receive more precise target data. The vehicle can deploy within five minutes and operate in temperatures from -50 to 60 degrees Celsius (-58 to 132 degrees Fahrenheit). Development started in mid-2013, with the first prototype delivered in May 2014. The vehicle is currently an independently developed prototype, with talks being held for trials and the follow-up launch of series line production.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The Gibka-S is an anti-aircraft Tigr variant carrying four Igla-S or 9K333 Verba MANPADS tubes on a retractable launching station. By January 2017, the system was being prepared for preliminary trials. State tests were completed in December 2019. Its export version is ready for serial production as of late 2021.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: A recon vehicle equipped with optical, thermal imaging, radar, acoustic and seismic reconnaissance equipment.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The MZKT–233036 Lis-PM is a Belarusian-made version of the Tigr produced by the Minsk Wheel Tractor Plant (MZKT Volat). The Lis-PM has a weight of up to 7.5 t and transports eight soldiers. The vehicle is armed with an NSVT Utyos 12.7 mm heavy machinegun (HMG).


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The Falcon by STREIT Group, an analogue of the export modification "Tigr". It was unveiled at the AAD 2018 and EDEX 2018 convention.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: It's measured at 5.7 metres long, 2.33 metres wide, and is 2.4 metres high with a payload of 1,500 kg. The basic version carries two crew and seven passengers and can be armed with a 7.62 or 12.7 mm machinegun or an automatic grenade launcher. Ballistic armour is at CEN Level BR6 and BR7 while landmine protection is to STANAG Level 2.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: The Falcon has a Cummins ISB 6.7 litre diesel engine developing 385 hp and a top speed of 125–140 km/h.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: In 2010, an international forum in Zhukovsky publicly presented three prototypes of a modular all-wheel drive family of vehicles, called the MIC-3927 Volk (the Russian word Volk (Волк) translates to Wolf). Like the Tigr, it was developed by the Military Industrial Company of Russia.


title: Tigr (Russian military vehicle)

text: Th Volk is available as a 4×4 (MIC-3927) or 6×6 (MIC-39273) and has increased bulletproofing (Class 6A to GOST 50963-96) and mine protection (STANAG Level 2a/2b).


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney Elizabeth Whitmore, known as Stargirl (often called Stars or Star), is a superhero created by Geoff Johns and Lee Moder who appears in American comic books published by DC Comics. The character's name, appearance, and personality were patterned after Johns' 18-year-old sister Courtney, who died in the explosion of TWA Flight 800 in 1996.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney Whitmore was originally known as the second Star-Spangled Kid, but she began using the name "Stargirl" after she was presented with the Cosmic Staff by Jack Knight.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Stargirl has appeared in "Justice League Unlimited", "", "Justice League Action", and "Young Justice". She has also appeared in live-action shows "Smallville" played by Britt Irvin, "Legends of Tomorrow" played by Sarah Grey, and in her own television series played by Brec Bassinger.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: The character was created by writer Geoff Johns and artist Lee Moder. She made her first appearance in "Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E." #0 (July 1999). The character's inspiration was Geoff Johns' sister Courtney, who died in the explosion of TWA Flight 800 in 1996.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney Whitmore, stepdaughter of Pat Dugan, finds the original Star-Spangled Kid's gear in her stepfather's belongings. She dons the costume to annoy Dugan, as she resents his marrying her mother and moving the family from Los Angeles to Blue Valley, Nebraska. Dugan, a skilled mechanic, designs and builds S.T.R.I.P.E., a robotic suit that he uses to accompany and protect her.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: During her time in Blue Valley, her frequent nemesis is the young villainess known as Shiv, daughter of the immortal Dragon King. Their most recent rematch was in "Infinite Crisis", on a page added to the hardcover edition.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney joins the Justice Society of America. After being given Starman Jack Knight's cosmic staff, she changes her identity to Stargirl. Courtney appears in most issues of "JSA" and it is in these pages that her half-sister Patricia Dugan is born.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Later, she confronts her predecessor's killer, Solomon Grundy. Driven further into madness by the Joker's chemical assault, Grundy attacks the JSA headquarters with the head of the Statue of Liberty. With the aid of Jakeem Thunder, Courtney fights Grundy in the streets and into the sewers below. The young heroes barely defeat Grundy and Johnny Thunderbolt repairs the Statue. Grundy later develops an obsession with Courtney.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney encounters Merry Pemberton, the sister of the original Star-Spangled Kid, during the "Sins of Youth" storyline. Merry's concerns about her brother's legacy and about young superheroes battling adults causes friction with Courtney. They resolve their differences during a battle against the forces of Klarion the Witch Boy. Courtney later saves Merry's life during an attack by Amazo. During this incident, Courtney is magically aged to an adult by Klarion.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Later, she discovers her biological father Sam Kurtis working as a common thug for an incarnation of the Royal Flush Gang. They later confront each other during one of the Flush Gang's robberies.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: In "Stars and S.T.R.I.P.E." and an issue of "Impulse", Courtney hints at having a crush on Robin (Tim Drake), a concept that was not developed in subsequent issues.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney briefly dates fellow JSA member Captain Marvel, who, in his secret identity of Billy Batson, is the same age as she. To outsiders, however, Captain Marvel is by all appearances an adult, and the relationship between Marvel and Stargirl draws criticism from Jakeem Thunder and Jay Garrick. After Garrick confronts them, Marvel leaves the JSA and Courtney, instead of revealing his secret to the team. Marvel later returns to the JSA and explains that the Wisdom of Solomon prevents him from revealing his secret identity.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: A glimpse into the future shows an adult "Starwoman" married to Albert Rothstein, the JSA member known as Atom Smasher.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney's family is murdered by agents of Per Degaton and she travels with the rest of the JSA to 1951. The Modern Age successors to Golden Age JSA members meet and fight alongside the originals to save her family and the future. She finds herself forced to work with Atom Smasher again, for the first time since he defected to Black Adam's rival team. During her trip to the past, Courtney is briefly stuck in an asylum when she tries to recruit Ted Knight. Knight had become clinically depressed for his perceived role in the creation of the atomic bomb to the point that he initially thought Courtney was a hallucination, but she was saved by a figure later identified as Starwoman, an adult version of her infant sister Patricia. After the crisis is over, Courtney forgives Al for his past alliance with Black Adam but Atom Smasher is nearly killed by the Spectre during an attack on Khandaq. He survives, but the event reveals the depth of Courtney's feelings for him. She returns to her own time to find her family alive again.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Later, Atom Smasher is tried and convicted for his actions while working for Black Adam. During a TV appearance, Courtney says that with Al in prison, she would "be there for him... no matter how long it takes."


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney is approached by the Shade, who tells her that her biological father is dead. This tragedy and her experience of the relationship between Liberty Belle and Jesse Quick prompts her to re-evaluate her family life. She discovers that she can't hate her biological father for his failings as a father and as a man. She also learns to accept Pat Dugan as her only real father figure.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Stargirl becomes part of a coalition consisting of the JSA, the Doom Patrol and the Teen Titans that is organized to stop Superboy-Prime from destroying Smallville. Superboy-Prime kills several of the Titans, including Pantha and Baby Wildebeest and maims Risk, removing his arm. Stargirl later attends a memorial service for heroes who died in the Crisis.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Afterwards, she begins attending college. She has altered her equipment: her rod now telescopes into a small cylinder, and her costume and belt materialize as the rod extends to full size.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: A seasoned hero despite her age, she forges a bond with her young teammate Cyclone, the eager and over-impulsive granddaughter of the first Red Tornado. They two bond after witnessing the death of Mister America and Courtney suggests Cyclone create a new superhero costume and name. Stargirl resumes her role of mentorship for the youngest heroes by helping Jefferson Pierce's daughter, Jennifer, cope with her powers and her isolation. Courtney later expresses to Damage her doubts about Gog.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: A future version of Courtney is seen in "Teen Titans" #53 along with Lex Luthor and his future Titans. Her role is minimal, however, she is seen wearing Jack Knight's goggles and jacket—the closest she has ever come to Jack's vision of "Starwoman" at the end of his series.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: In the "Final Crisis" miniseries, Courtney joins with other heroes to form an underground resistance against Darkseid.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney is present (and apparently involved in voting) for discussions on how to move the JSA forward after the Gog debacle (and whom to retain or remove from the team) and she defends some of the heroes who sided with Gog. Later she is present when the JSA meet a depowered Billy Batson, who reveals his secret identity to the others.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: After the battle with Black Adam and Isis, Courtney was unhappy, as the events had happened on her birthday (and had ruined any planned celebrations). When she goes home and opens the door, the entire Justice Society is present and have prepared a late surprise party for her. Later she is unhappy to learn she still needed her braces despite being acknowledged as one of the senior members of the JSA. It has been established that both she and Atom Smasher love each other in direct quotes rather than asides and implied habits, but the elder JSA members' comments about their age difference forced Al to turn Courtney down, stating he loved her "like a sister".


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Following a massive supervillain attack, the JSA is split in two. Power Girl convinces Courtney to join the JSA All-Stars splinter group. She later expresses a deep feeling of regret over siding with the All-Stars, claiming that she feels more at home with the original roster. Karen talks her through these doubts, telling her that she needed Courtney on the team because all the other teen members of the JSA look up to her.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: In September 2011, The New 52 rebooted DC's continuity. In this new timeline, Stargirl appears as part of a new "Justice League of America" title.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Born in Los Angeles, Courtney Whitmore was cleaning out the office of Barbara Whitmore's boyfriend Pat Dugan when she found a staff, a belt, and a shirt with a star on it. While trying them on, she became Stargirl and caught the perpetrator of a fire she spotted. The heroic actions went viral. After talking to her friend about what happens next, Courtney was informed by Pat that the person who originally wielded the equipment has died. Though Pat agreed to train her, Courtney had to respond to the criminal activity caused by Shadow Thief who was taking hostages to draw out a superhero. She managed to rout out Shadow Thief. When Stargirl returned home, she found that Shadow Thief arrived first, killed her brother, and wounded Barbara and Ted. Stargirl used this trauma to become a better superhero.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: She was chosen by Amanda Waller as the public face of the JLA's PR campaign. After the disbandment of the JLA following the crossover event "Forever Evil", Stargirl joined the Justice League United.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: In the "Watchmen" sequel "Doomsday Clock", Stargirl is among the superheroes that confront Doctor Manhattan on the Moon. Stargirl appears with the Justice Society of America when Doctor Manhattan, undoes the changes that he made to the timeline that erased the Justice Society and the Legion of Super-Heroes.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: When wearing the Cosmic Converter Belt, Stargirl has enhanced strength, speed, agility, and stamina as well as the ability to project shooting stars.


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Over the years, Courtney has been careless with her secret identity. Many of her school friends and some villains are aware of her identity; she admits this during the "Identity Crisis" crossover. Courtney revealed her identity to her friend Mary moments into her first outing, before she decided to make a career of being a costumed hero. In "Justice Society of America" #26, the entire JSA is at her home in full uniform, and are also present when she visits the dentist (in costume, much to Courtney's annoyance).


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: With her stepfather as S.T.R.I.P.E., Stargirl had her own set of enemies that she fought in the comics:


title: Courtney Whitmore

text: Courtney Whitmore as Stargirl was originally going to appear in "Black Adam" as a member of the Justice Society of America, but was cut from the film.


title: Cash

text: In bookkeeping and financial accounting, cash is current assets comprising currency or currency equivalents that can be accessed immediately or near-immediately (as in the case of money market accounts). Cash is seen either as a reserve for payments, in case of a structural or incidental negative cash flow or as a way to avoid a downturn on financial markets.


title: Cash

text: The English word "cash" originally meant "money box", and later came to have a secondary meaning "money". This secondary usage became the sole meaning in the 18th century. The word "cash" derives from the Middle French "caisse" ("money box"), which derives from the Old Italian "cassa", and ultimately from the Latin "capsa" ("box")..


title: Cash

text: In Western Europe, after the fall of the Western Roman Empire, coins, silver jewelry and hacksilver (silver objects hacked into pieces) were for centuries the only form of money, until Venetian merchants started using silver bars for large transactions in the early Middle Ages. In a separate development, Venetian merchants started using paper bills, instructing their banker to make payments. Similar marked silver bars were in use in lands where the Venetian merchants had established representative offices. The Byzantine Empire and several states in the Balkan area and Kievan Rus also used marked silver bars for large payments. As the world economy developed and silver supplies increased, in particular after the colonization of South America, coins became larger and a standard coin for international payment developed from the 15th century: the Spanish and Spanish colonial coin of 8 reales. Its counterpart in gold was the Venetian ducat.


title: Cash

text: Coin types would compete for markets. By conquering foreign markets, the issuing rulers would enjoy extra income from seigniorage (the difference between the value of the coin and the value of the metal the coin was made of). Successful coin types of high nobility would be copied by lower nobility for seigniorage. Imitations were usually of a lower weight, undermining the popularity of the original. As feudal states coalesced into kingdoms, imitation of silver types abated, but gold coins, in particular, the gold ducat and the gold florin were still issued as trade coins: coins without a fixed value, going by weight. Colonial powers also sought to take away market share from Spain by issuing trade coin equivalents of silver Spanish coins, without much success.


title: Cash

text: In the early part of the 17th century, English East India Company coins were minted in England and shipped to the East. In England over time the word "cash" was adopted from Sanskrit कर्ष karsa, a weight of gold or silver but akin to the Old Persian 𐎣𐎼𐏁 karsha, unit of weight (83.30 grams). East India Company coinage had both Urdu and English writing on it, to facilitate its use within the trade. In 1671 the directors of the East India Company ordered a mint to be established at Bombay, known as Bombain. In 1677 this was sanctioned by the Crown, the coins, having received royal sanction, were struck as silver rupees; the inscription runs "The rupee of Bombaim", by the authority of Charles II.


title: Cash

text: At about this time coins were also being produced for the East India Company at the Madras mint. The currency at the company's Bombay and Bengal administrative regions was the rupee. At Madras, however, the company's accounts were reckoned in "pagodas", "fractions", "fanams", "faluce" and "cash". This system was maintained until 1818 when the rupee was adopted as the unit of currency for the company's operations.


title: Cash

text: Paper money was first used in China in the Tang Dynasty 500 years prior to it catching on in Europe. During his visit to China in the 13th century, Marco Polo was amazed to find that people traded paper money for goods rather than valuable coins made of silver or gold. He wrote extensively about how the Great Kaan used a part of the Mulberry Tree to create the paper money as well as the process with which a seal was used to impress on the paper to authenticate it. Marco Polo also talks about the chance of forgery and states that someone caught forging money would be punished with death. In the 17th century, European countries started to use paper money in part due to a shortage of precious metals, leading to less coins being produced and put into circulation. At first, it was most popular in the colonies of European powers. In the 18th century, important paper issues were made in colonies such as Ceylon and the bordering colonies of Essequibo, Demerara and Berbice. John Law did pioneering work on banknotes with the "Banque Royale". The relation between money supply and inflation was still imperfectly understood and the bank went under rendering its notes worthless, because they had been over-issued. The lessons learned were applied to the Bank of England, which played a crucial role in financing the Peninsular War against French troops, hamstrung by a metallic Franc de Germinal.


title: Cash

text: The ability to create paper money made nation-states responsible for the management of inflation, through control of the money supply. It also made a direct relation between the metal of the coin and its denomination superfluous. From 1816, coins generally became token money, though some large silver and gold coins remained standard coins until 1927. The World War I saw standard coins disappear to a very large extent. Afterward, standard gold coins, mainly British sovereigns, would still be used in colonies and less developed economies and silver Maria Theresa thalers dated 1780 would be struck as trade coins for countries in East Asia until 1946 and possibly later locally.


title: Cash

text: Cash has now become a very small part of the money supply. Its remaining role is to provide a form of currency storage and payment for those who do not wish to take part in other systems, and make small payments conveniently and promptly, though this latter role is being replaced more and more frequently by electronic payment systems. Research has found that the demand for cash decreases as debit card usage increases because merchants need to make less change for customer purchases.


title: Cash

text: Cash is increasing in circulation. The value of the United States dollar in circulation increased by 42% from 2007 to 2012. The value of pound sterling banknotes in circulation increased by 29% from 2008 to 2013. The value of the euro in circulation increased by 34% from August 2008 to August 2013 (2% of the increase was due to the adoption of euro in Slovakia 2009 and in Estonia 2011).


title: Cash

text: In economic theory (according Keynesian economics), the cash holding of cash (especially sight deposits) is roughly attributed to three motives:


title: Cash

text: The transactions motive covers the business needs of economic subjects, the precautionary motive serves to hold money for liquidity purposes and to provide for crisis situations, and the speculation motive, according to John Maynard Keynes, results from the uncertainty about future interest rate developments and relates to financial investments.


title: Cash

text: Cash in circulation is characterized by strong seasonal fluctuations. Wage and salary payment dates, tax payment dates or holidays lead to statistically perceptible increases in cash in circulation, for which the credit institutions are preparing. Since cash holdings at banks do not earn interest and can also lead to security problems (bank robbery), banks usually only hold very small amounts of cash. They are therefore forced to involve the central bank in times of higher cash requirements. Therefore, the cash in circulation only remains unchanged if the banks hand over cash from their own cash holdings to their bank customers or take cash deposits from their customers into their own holdings.


title: Cash

text: The ratio of the cash in circulation in relation to the gross domestic product (cash to GDP ratio) is a good indicator of cash usage and payment behavior in an economy. In countries like the United States, increased use of debit and credit cards is increasing the amount of cash in circulation at a slower rate than in countries with a high amount of cash payments. In 2018, it ranged from 1.3% (in Sweden) to more than 21% (in Japan), 10.5% in Switzerland and 10.7% in the eurozone.


title: Cash

text: Since around 2018, exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic, cash in circulation in the eurozone has increased significantly while the share of cash payments (i.e. transactions) has decreased, known as the "paradox of banknotes". Analyzes show that private households are increasingly keeping cash as a precaution against crises and that negative interest rates also play a role. This effect is also observed in many other currency areas, e.g. in the USA and Japan.