title: World Naked Bike Ride

text: Two male riders were arrested during the 2005 WNBR in North Conway, New Hampshire, and charged with "indecent exposure and lewdness". The two riders agreed to having the charges reduced to "disorderly conduct" and paid a $300 fine, the majority of which was paid for by the WNBR Legal Defense Fund. Six male riders were charged with public indecency during the 2005 WNBR Chicago ride and later prosecuted with sentences ranging from fines and non-expungeable conviction to three months of court supervision. In 2007, during the first World Naked Bike ride in Denver, Colorado police surrounded the bike riders and wrote several people tickets. During the WNBR held on June 12, 2010, two males were arrested by campus police at Western Washington University in Bellingham, Washington.


title: World Naked Bike Ride

text: Simon Oosterman, the organizer of the 2005 WNBR in Auckland, and the first to be arrested during a WNBR event, is credited with going further and refocusing on the issue on moving away from fossil fuel dependency in the context of climate change. He urged: "Stop the indecent exposure to vehicle emissions."


title: Liane Moriarty

text: Liane Moriarty (born 15 November 1966) is an Australian author. She has written nine novels, including the "New York Times" best sellers "Big Little Lies" and "Nine Perfect Strangers", which were adapted into television series for HBO and Hulu, respectively.


title: Liane Moriarty

text: After leaving school, Moriarty worked in advertising and marketing at a legal publishing company. She then ran her own company for a while before taking work as a freelance advertising copywriter. In 2004, after obtaining a master's degree at Macquarie University in Sydney, her first novel "Three Wishes", written as part of the degree, was published. She has since published eight further novels.


title: Liane Moriarty

text: Her novel "Big Little Lies" was adapted into a television series by HBO, and stars Reese Witherspoon, Nicole Kidman, Shailene Woodley, Laura Dern, Zoë Kravitz, and Alexander Skarsgård. The series premiered on 19 February 2017, with the first season concluding on 2 April 2017. A second season was announced in December 2017. Season two premiered in June 2019.


title: Liane Moriarty

text: In September 2013, CBS Films acquired the rights to an earlier Moriarty novel, "The Husband's Secret". In May 2017, it was announced that the film will star Blake Lively. In February 2022, it was announced that Kat Coiro would be directing the film for Sony Pictures.


title: Liane Moriarty

text: Her novel "Nine Perfect Strangers," published November 6, 2018, was adapted into a television series by Hulu, starring and produced by Nicole Kidman.


title: Liane Moriarty

text: Moriarty lives in Sydney with her husband, Adam, a former farmer from Tasmania. They have two children, George and Anna. She is the older sister of author Jaclyn Moriarty.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Lucien Carr (March 1, 1925 – January 28, 2005) was a key member of the original New York City circle of the Beat Generation in the 1940s; later he worked for many years as an editor for United Press International.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr was born in New York City; his parents, Marion Howland (née Gratz) and Russell Carr, were both offspring of socially prominent St. Louis families. His maternal grandfather was Benjamin Gratz, a St. Louis capitalist who was engaged in the rope making business and was descended from Michael Gratz, who was among the first Jewish settlers of Philadelphia and was prominent in Philadelphia's social life. After his parents separated in 1930, young Lucien and his mother moved back to St. Louis; Carr spent the rest of his childhood there.


title: Lucien Carr

text: At the age of 12, Carr met David Kammerer (b. 1911), a man who would have a profound influence on the course of his life. Kammerer was a teacher of English and a physical education instructor at Washington University in St. Louis. Kammerer was a childhood friend of William S. Burroughs, another of St. Louis wealth who knew the Carr family. Burroughs and Kammerer had gone to primary school together, and as young men they traveled together and explored Paris's nightlife: Burroughs said Kammerer "was always very funny, the veritable life of the party, and completely without any middle-class morality." Kammerer met Carr when he was leading a Boy Scout Troop of which Carr was a member, and quickly became infatuated with the teenager.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Over the next five years, Kammerer pursued Carr, showing up wherever the young man was enrolled at school. Carr would later insist, as would his friends and family, that Kammerer had been hounding Carr sexually with a predatory persistence that would today be considered stalking. Whether Kammerer's attentions were frightening or flattering to Carr (or both) is now a matter of some debate among those who chronicle the history of the Beat Generation. What is not in dispute is that Carr moved quickly from school to school: from the Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, to Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, to the University of Chicago, and that Kammerer followed him to each one. The two of them socialized on occasion. Carr always insisted, and Burroughs believed, that he never had sex with Kammerer; Jack Kerouac biographer Dennis McNally wrote that Kammerer "was a Doppelgänger whose sexual desires Lucien would not gratify; their connection was an intertwined mass of frustration that hinted ominously of trouble."


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr's University of Chicago career ended abruptly after he put his head into a gas oven. He explained away this act as a "work of art," but the apparent suicide attempt, which Carr's family believed was catalyzed by Kammerer, led to a two-week stay in the psychiatric ward at Cook County hospital. Carr's mother who had moved to New York City, brought her son there and enrolled him at Columbia University, close to her home.


title: Lucien Carr

text: If Marion Carr had sought to distance her son from David Kammerer, she did not succeed. He soon quit his job and followed Carr to New York, moving into an apartment on Morton Street in the West Village, one block from William Burroughs' residence; the two older men remained friends.


title: Lucien Carr

text: As a freshman at Columbia, Carr was recognized as an exceptional student with a quick, roving mind. A fellow student from Lionel Trilling's humanities class described him as "stunningly brilliant. ... It seemed as if he and Trilling were having a private conversation." He joined the campus literary and debate group, the Philolexian Society.


title: Lucien Carr

text: It was also at Columbia that Carr befriended Allen Ginsberg in the Union Theological Seminary dormitory on West 122nd Street (an overflow residence for Columbia at the time), when Ginsberg knocked on the door to find out who was playing a recording of a Brahms trio. Soon after, a young woman Carr had befriended, Edie Parker, introduced Carr to her boyfriend, Jack Kerouac, then twenty-two and nearing the end of his short career as a sailor. Carr, in turn, introduced Ginsberg and Kerouac to one another – and both of them to his older friend with more first-hand experience at decadence: William Burroughs. The core of the New York Beat scene had formed, with Carr at the center. As Ginsberg put it, "Lou was the glue."


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr, Kerouac, Ginsberg and Burroughs explored New York's grimier underbelly together. It was at this time that they fell in with Herbert Huncke, an underworld character and later writer and poet. Carr had a taste for provocative behavior, for bawdy songs and for coarse antics aimed at shocking those with staid middle-class values. According to Kerouac, Carr once convinced him to get into an empty beer keg, which Carr then rolled down Broadway. Ginsberg wrote in his journal at the time: "Know these words, and you speak the Carr language: fruit, phallus, clitoris, cacoethes, feces, foetus, womb, Rimbaud." It was Carr who first introduced Ginsberg to the poetry and the story of 19th century French poet Arthur Rimbaud. Rimbaud would be a major influence on Ginsberg's poetry.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Ginsberg was plainly fascinated by Carr, whom he viewed as a self-destructive egotist but also as a possessor of real genius. Fellow students saw Carr as talented and dissolute, a prank-loving late-night reveler who haunted the dark pockets of Chelsea and Greenwich Village until dawn, without making a dent in his brilliant performance in the classroom. On one occasion, asked why he was carrying a jar of jam across the campus, Carr simply explained that he was "going on a date." Returning to his dorm in the early hours another morning to find that his bed had been short-sheeted, Carr retaliated by spraying the rooms of his dorm-mates with the hallway fire-hose – while they were still sleeping.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr developed what he called the "New Vision," a thesis recycled from Emersonian transcendentalism and Parisian Bohemianism which helped undergird the Beats' creative rebellion:


title: Lucien Carr

text: For ten months, Kammerer remained a fringe member of this simmering crowd, still utterly infatuated with Carr, who sometimes avoided him and on other occasions indulged Kammerer's attentions. On one occasion he may even have brought Kammerer to a session of Trilling's class. Accounts of this period report that Kammerer's presence and lovelorn devotion to Carr made many of the other Beats uncomfortable. On one occasion, Burroughs found Kammerer trying to hang Kerouac's cat. Kammerer's psyche was evidently decaying; he was barely scraping by, helping a janitor clean his building on Morton Street in exchange for rent. In July 1944, Carr and Kerouac began talking about shipping out of New York on a Merchant Marine vessel, a scheme which drove Kammerer frantic with anxiety at the possibility of losing Carr. In early August, Kammerer crawled into Carr's room via the fire escape and watched him sleep for half an hour; he was caught by a guard as he crawled back out again.


title: Lucien Carr

text: On August 13, 1944, Carr and Kerouac attempted to ship out of New York to France on a merchant ship. They were aiming to fulfill a fantasy of travelling across France in character as a Frenchman (Kerouac) and his deaf-mute friend (Carr) and hoped to be in Paris in time for the liberation by the Allies. Kicked off the ship by the first mate at the last minute, the two men drank together at the Beats' regular bar, the West End. Kerouac left first and bumped into Kammerer, who asked where Carr was; Kerouac told him.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Kammerer caught up with Carr at the West End, and the two men went for a walk, ending up in Riverside Park on Manhattan's Upper West Side.


title: Lucien Carr

text: According to Carr's version of the night, he and Kammerer were resting near West 115th Street when Kammerer made yet another sexual advance. When Carr rejected it, he said that Kammerer assaulted him physically, and gained the upper hand in the struggle due to his larger size. In desperation and panic, Carr said, he stabbed the older man by using a Boy Scout knife from his St. Louis childhood. Carr then tied his assailant's hands and feet, wrapped Kammerer's belt around his arms, weighted the body with rocks, and dumped it in the nearby Hudson River.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Next, Carr went to the apartment of William Burroughs, gave him Kammerer's bloodied pack of cigarettes, and explained the incident. Burroughs flushed the cigarettes down the toilet and told Carr to get a lawyer and to turn himself in. Instead, Carr sought out Kerouac, who with the aid of Abe Green (a protégé of Herbert Huncke) helped him dispose of the knife and some of Kammerer's belongings before the two went to a movie (Zoltan Korda's "The Four Feathers") and the Museum of Modern Art to look at paintings. Finally, Carr went to his mother's house and then to the office of the New York District Attorney, where he confessed. The prosecutors, uncertain whether the story was true or whether a crime had even been committed kept him in custody until they had recovered Kammerer's body. Carr identified the corpse and led police to where he had buried Kammerer's eyeglasses in Morningside Park.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Kerouac, who was identified in "The New York Times" coverage of the crime as a "23-year-old seaman", was arrested as a material witness, as was Burroughs, whose father posted bail. However, Kerouac's father refused to post the $100 bond to bail him out. In the end, Edie Parker's parents agreed to post the money if Kerouac would marry their daughter. With detectives serving as witnesses, Edie and Jack were married at the Municipal Building, and after his release, he moved to Grosse Pointe Park, Michigan, Parker's hometown. Their marriage was annulled in 1948.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr was charged with second-degree murder. The story was closely followed in the press since it involved a well-liked, gifted student from a prominent family, New York's premier university, and the scandalous elements of rape and homosexuality. The newspaper coverage embraced Carr's story of an obsessed homosexual preying on an appealing heterosexual younger man, who finally lashed out in self-defense. The "Daily News" called the killing an "honor slaying", an early example of what was later called the 'gay panic defense.' If there were subtle shadings to the tale of Carr's five-year saga with Kammerer, the newspapers ignored them. Carr pleaded guilty to first-degree manslaughter, and his mother testified at a sentencing hearing about Kammerer's predatory habits. Carr was sentenced to a term of one to twenty years in prison. He served two years in the Elmira Correctional Facility in Upstate New York and was released.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr's Beat crowd (which Ginsberg called "the Libertine Circle") was, for a time, shattered by the killing. Several members sought to write about the events. Kerouac's "The Town and the City" is a fictional retelling, in which Carr is represented by the character "Kenneth Wood." A more literal depiction of events appears in Kerouac's later "Vanity of Duluoz". Soon after the killing, Allen Ginsberg began a novel about the crime, which he called "The Bloodsong", but his English instructor at Columbia, seeking to preclude more negative publicity for Carr or the university, persuaded Ginsberg to abandon it. According to the author Bill Morgan in his book, "The Beat Generation in New York", the Carr incident also inspired Kerouac and Burroughs to collaborate in 1945 on a novel entitled "And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks", which was published for the first time in its entirety in November 2008.


title: Lucien Carr

text: The 2013 film "Kill Your Darlings" is a fictionalized account of the killing in Riverside Park that tells a version of the murder similar to the version that is portrayed in "And the Hippos Were Boiled in Their Tanks". In the film, Kammerer is portrayed as deeply in love with Carr to the point of obsession. Carr is portrayed as a young man who is very conflicted by his feelings towards Kammerer and struggles to break ties. Their relationship is further complicated by Carr using Kammerer to write his school essays and Kammerer using the essays to stay attached to Carr.


title: Lucien Carr

text: In a letter to "New York" magazine, published on June 7, 1976 and written by Patricia Healy (née Goode), the wife of the Irish writer T. F. Healy, she puts forth a strident defense of Kammerer in her rebuttal to an article written by Aaron Latham and previously published in the magazine. She had been a student at Barnard College while the Beat Generation was coalescing in the 1940s in New York City. She had known several key members of the literary movement, including Burroughs, Kerouac, and Carr but not Ginsberg at the time.


title: Lucien Carr

text: In her rebuttal, she painted a radically different portrait of Kammerer, with whom she stated that she had been particularly close, and his relationship with Carr. Far from Kammerer having been the fringe figure within the Beat movement of the time as often depicted, she asserted that he had been a guiding light within the literary circle with many taking inspiration from his informal lectures, particularly Kerouac, whom she accused of ingratitude for never acknowledging his debt to Kammerer. She rebutted what she termed "the Lucien myth," that Carr was the victim of Kammerer's relentless obsession and stalking. On the contrary, she stated that it was Kammerer who wanted to be rid of Carr, whom he referred to as "that little bastard." On one occasion, she wrote, she accompanied Carr to Kammerer's apartment, where Kammerer was hostile toward Carr and insisted that he had told Carr never to come around again. The resulting altercation culminated with Kammerer assaulting Carr with his fists and knocking him to the floor. Within her rebuttal letter, Healy hinted that Carr had frequently sought Kammerer's help in writing his Columbia term papers.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Healy also offers evidence that Kammerer, far from being the homosexual pedophile as often depicted in later accounts, was very much heterosexual, as evidenced by his pursuit of a "kept woman" of his acquaintance.


title: Lucien Carr

text: In Carr's obituary in "The Guardian" (February 8, 2005), Eric Homberger questioned Carr's account of the killing:


title: Lucien Carr

text: After his prison term, Carr went to work for United Press (UP), which later became United Press International (UPI), where he was hired as a copy boy in 1946. He remained on good terms with his Beat friends, and served as best man when Kerouac impetuously married Joan Haverty in November 1950. Carr has sometimes been credited with having provided Kerouac with a roll of teleprinter paper "pilfered" from the UP offices, on which Kerouac then wrote the entire first draft of "On the Road" in a 20-day marathon fueled by coffee, speed, and marijuana. The scroll was real, but Carr's share of this first draft tale is probably a conflation of two different episodes; the 119-foot first roll, which Kerouac wrote in April 1951, was actually many different large sheets of paper trimmed down and taped together. After Kerouac finished that first version, he moved briefly into Carr's apartment on 21st Street, where he wrote a second draft in May on a roll of United Press teleprinter, and then transferred that work to individual pages for his publisher.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr remained a diligent and devoted employee of UP / UPI. In 1956, when Ginsberg's "Howl" and Kerouac's "On the Road" were about to be national sensations, Carr was promoted to night news editor.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Leaving behind his youthful exhibitionism, Carr came to cherish his privacy. In one well-noted gesture, Carr asked Ginsberg to remove his name from the dedication at the start of "Howl." The poet agreed. Carr even became a voice of caution in Ginsberg's life, warning him to "keep the hustlers and parasites at arm's length." For many years, Ginsberg would visit the UPI offices and press Carr to cover the various causes with which Ginsberg had allied himself. Carr continued to serve Kerouac as a drinking buddy, a reader and critic, reviewing early drafts of Kerouac's work and absorbing Kerouac's growing frustrations with the publishing world.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr married Francesca von Hartz in 1952, and the couple had three children: Simon, Caleb, and Ethan (in 1994, Caleb published "The Alienist", a novel which became a best-seller.) They divorced and he later married Sheila Johnson.


title: Lucien Carr

text: "When I met him in the mid-50s," wrote jazz musician David Amram, Carr "was so sophisticated and worldly and fun to be with that even while you always felt at home with him, you knew he was always one step ahead and expected you to follow." According to Amram, Carr remained loyal to Kerouac to the end of the older man's life, even as Kerouac descended into alienation and alcoholism.


title: Lucien Carr

text: Lucien Carr spent 47 years, his entire professional career, with UPI, and went on to head the general news desk until his retirement in 1993. If he was famous as a young man for his flamboyant style and outrageous vocabulary, he perfected an opposite style as an editor, and nurtured the skills of brevity in the generations of young journalists whom he mentored. He was known for his oft-repeated suggestion, "Why don't you just start with the second paragraph?" Carr was reputed to have strict acceptable standards for a good lead, his mantra being "Make 'em laugh, make 'em cry, make 'em horny" (or variations of this).


title: Lucien Carr

text: Carr died at George Washington University Hospital in Washington, D.C. in January 2005 after a long battle with bone cancer.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: In software architecture, publish–subscribe is a messaging pattern where senders of messages, called publishers, do not program the messages to be sent directly to specific receivers, called subscribers, but instead categorize published messages into classes without knowledge of which subscribers, if any, there may be. Similarly, subscribers express interest in one or more classes and only receive messages that are of interest, without knowledge of which publishers, if any, there are.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: Publish–subscribe is a sibling of the message queue paradigm, and is typically one part of a larger message-oriented middleware system. Most messaging systems support both the pub/sub and message queue models in their API; e.g., Java Message Service (JMS).


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: This pattern provides greater network scalability and a more dynamic network topology, with a resulting decreased flexibility to modify the publisher and the structure of the published data.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: In the publish-subscribe model, subscribers typically receive only a subset of the total messages published. The process of selecting messages for reception and processing is called "filtering". There are two common forms of filtering: topic-based and content-based.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: In a topic-based system, messages are published to "topics" or named logical channels. Subscribers in a topic-based system will receive all messages published to the topics to which they subscribe. The publisher is responsible for defining the topics to which subscribers can subscribe.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: In a content-based system, messages are only delivered to a subscriber if the attributes or content of those messages matches constraints defined by the subscriber. The subscriber is responsible for classifying the messages.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: Some systems support a hybrid of the two; publishers post messages to a topic while subscribers register content-based subscriptions to one or more topics.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: In many publish-subscribe systems, publishers post messages to an intermediary message broker or event bus, and subscribers register subscriptions with that broker, letting the broker perform the filtering. The broker normally performs a store and forward function to route messages from publishers to subscribers. In addition, the broker may prioritize messages in a queue before routing.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: Subscribers may register for specific messages at build time, initialization time or runtime. In GUI systems, subscribers can be coded to handle user commands (e.g., click of a button), which corresponds to build time registration. Some frameworks and software products use XML configuration files to register subscribers. These configuration files are read at initialization time. The most sophisticated alternative is when subscribers can be added or removed at runtime. This latter approach is used, for example, in database triggers, mailing lists, and RSS.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: The Data Distribution Service (DDS) middleware does not use a broker in the middle. Instead, each publisher and subscriber in the pub/sub system shares meta-data about each other via IP multicast. The publisher and the subscribers cache this information locally and route messages based on the discovery of each other in the shared cognizance. In effect, brokerless architectures require publish/subscribe system to construct an overlay network which allows efficient decentralized routing from publishers to subscribers. It was shown by Jon Kleinberg that efficient decentralised routing requires Navigable Small-World topologies. Such Small-World topologies are usually implemented by decentralized or federated publish/subscribe systems. Locality-aware publish/subscribe systems construct Small-World topologies that route subscriptions through short-distance and low-cost links thereby reducing subscription delivery times.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: One of the earliest publicly described pub/sub systems was the "news" subsystem of the Isis Toolkit, described at the 1987 Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) Symposium on Operating Systems Principles conference (SOSP '87), in a paper "Exploiting Virtual Synchrony in Distributed Systems. 123–138".


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: Publishers are loosely coupled to subscribers, and need not even know of their existence. With the topic being the focus, publishers and subscribers are allowed to remain ignorant of system topology. Each can continue to operate as per normal independently of the other. In the traditional tightly coupled client–server paradigm, the client cannot post messages to the server while the server process is not running, nor can the server receive messages unless the client is running. Many pub/sub systems decouple not only the locations of the publishers and subscribers but also decouple them temporally. A common strategy used by middleware analysts with such pub/sub systems is to take down a publisher to allow the subscriber to work through the backlog (a form of bandwidth throttling).


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: Pub/sub provides the opportunity for better scalability than traditional client-server, through parallel operation, message caching, tree-based or network-based routing, etc. However, in certain types of tightly coupled, high-volume enterprise environments, as systems scale up to become data centers with thousands of servers sharing the pub/sub infrastructure, current vendor systems often lose this benefit; scalability for pub/sub products under high load in these contexts is a research challenge.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: Outside of the enterprise environment, on the other hand, the pub/sub paradigm has proven its scalability to volumes far beyond those of a single data center, providing Internet-wide distributed messaging through web syndication protocols such as RSS and Atom. These syndication protocols accept higher latency and lack of delivery guarantees in exchange for the ability for even a low-end web server to syndicate messages to (potentially) millions of separate subscriber nodes.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: The most serious problems with pub/sub systems are a side-effect of their main advantage: the decoupling of publisher from subscriber.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: A pub/sub system must be designed carefully to be able to provide stronger system properties that a particular application might require, such as assured delivery.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: The pub/sub pattern scales well for small networks with a small number of publisher and subscriber nodes and low message volume. However, as the number of nodes and messages grows, the likelihood of instabilities increases, limiting the maximum scalability of a pub/sub network. Example throughput instabilities at large scales include:


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: For pub/sub systems that use brokers (servers), the argument for a broker to send messages to a subscriber is in-band, and can be subject to security problems. Brokers might be fooled into sending notifications to the wrong client, amplifying denial of service requests against the client. Brokers themselves could be overloaded as they allocate resources to track created subscriptions.


title: Publish–subscribe pattern

text: Even with systems that do not rely on brokers, a subscriber might be able to receive data that it is not authorized to receive. An unauthorized publisher may be able to introduce incorrect or damaging messages into the pub/sub system. This is especially true with systems that broadcast or multicast their messages. Encryption (e.g. Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS)) can prevent unauthorized access, but cannot prevent damaging messages from being introduced by authorized publishers. Architectures other than pub/sub, such as client/server systems, are also vulnerable to authorized message senders that behave maliciously.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Vishwaroopam II, or Vishwaroop II, is a 2018 Indian spy action thriller film written and directed by Kamal Haasan and co-written by Atul Tiwari and Chakri Toleti. It is the sequel to "Vishwaroopam" (2013) and features Kamal Haasan alongside Rahul Bose, Shekhar Kapur, Pooja Kumar and Andrea Jeremiah, reprising their roles. While the first film was set in the United States, "Vishwaroopam II" takes place in India. The film was simultaneously shot in Tamil and Hindi.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Produced by Kamal Haasan and Venu Ravichandran in Tamil, the film was promoted by Ekta Kapoor and Shobha Kapoor in Hindi as "Vishwaroop II". Initially planned as a late 2013 release, the film was stuck in development hell and was revived only in April 2017 when Haasan took over as producer himself.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: RAW Agent Major Wisam Ahmad Kashmiri is given the task to eliminate Al-Qaeda member, Omar Qureshi, and his fellow jihadis, who plan to attack New York City.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Wisam and his team travel to United Kingdom to perform the final rites of their colleague, Dawkins. Nirupama gets jealous of Ashmita's closeness with Wisam and asks her how both are related. Wisam recalls his days in the Indian Army where he found a young, enthusiastic, and brave young lady officer, Ashmita, in a parade and award ceremony. Wisam and Colonel Jagannathan together finalize Ashmita for their project, and she is trained by Wisam. Wisam was chosen for the mission as he is an illegitimate son of a Pakistani and his mother is an Indian woman. Wisam and Ashmita created an impression that she was having an affair with Wizam, to which he was court-martialed for 10 years, for having an affair with an army woman, failing to do his duties. Wisam was imprisoned but, subsequently escapes, with the help of Jagannathan. Wisam was stamped as a wanted militant and he along with Lieutenant Roy aka Imtiaz set for their mission to join Omar's group.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: In the present, Wisam, Nirupama, Ashmita and Jagannathan are received by Goswami, their fellow army officer, under the instructions of his superior, Eshwar Iyer. On their way in the car to hand over Dawkins' mortal remains to his family, they are attacked by a group of militants, and their car gets into a fatal accident. While Nirupama, Ashmita, and Jagannathan are trapped in the car, Wisam is thrown out. Wisam and his team are further tracked down by a militant, and he engages in a duel to stop him and subsequently kills him. Goswami succumbs to the accident and dies happily seeing his enemy's face, which used to be his wish as an army officer.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Wisam faints and is immersed in the flashback of his final encounter with Omar. Wizam and Imtiaz work together to take down the terrorist group. Though Jagannathan trusts Wisam completely, his senior officer, Seshadri is suspicious of Wisam, and he never conceals his suspicion of Wisam's loyalty to India. Wisam tries to place a locator to give the coordinates of the Al Qaeda's prime leader Osama to the NATO troops. Omar catches Wisam red-handed and tries to shoot him, which kills Imtiaz. Wisam escapes from Omar and signals flares for the fighter choppers. Wisam is shot heavily, and the army soldiers take him to the hospital, where he is saved eventually.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Back to the present, all the accident victims reach their hotel, where they are received by Eshwar. Eshwar and Wisam engage in an argument for killing the terrorist instead of catching him. Eshwar taunts Wisam with his religion, but Wisam says he is a proud Muslim who is willing to sacrifice his life for his country. Eshwar leaves the place angrily. Wisam and Ashmita scan the room for bugging devices and eventually break one into pieces and ask Eshwar not to try anything with them. Wisam and Nirupama get into a romantic scene but are interrupted by a call for a meeting with Jagannathan, Eshwar, and an ISI agent, who turns out to be Munnavar. Wisam suspects Eshwar's hand in the terrorist attack on them. Wisam, Ashmita, and Nirupama leave to scan a building, along with an ISI agent, in a place outside the city. Wisam and Eshwar engage in a phone call during Wisam's visit to the building to search for bombs. Eshwar insists Wisam to leave the building, but Wisam disobeys. Wisam actually left the building but pretends to have got trapped inside the building. Eshwar triggers a bomb from his cell phone and is quite happy that Wisam is killed. However, Munnavar informs that Wisam is alive, and he escapes the scene. Wisam threatens Eshwar that he has revealed himself and he would hunt him down at any cost. Eshwar kills himself to avoid getting caught by Jagannathan.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The team finds a book on tides receding time, and they trace a 65-year flashback of how 1500 tons of weapons sent by America during the Second World War helped British troops getting sunk under the sea near the London shore and how militants are trying to blow the cesium weapons underwater, creating a tsunami, which can immerse London 10 to 16 meters below sea level. Nirupama, who owns a deep sea diving certificate, dives underwater to examine the intensity of the tsunami triggered. Wisam's acquaintance, Jim, is killed by a militant, and Wisam tracks him down, who tries to blast the 1500-ton bomb underwater. Wisam succeeds in stopping him by killing him.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The team reaches Delhi, and Jagannathan is called alone by his senior for debriefing. Wisam, Nirupama, and Ashmita reach their rooms to have rest. Nirupama gets angry on seeing Ashmita and Wisam sleeping in the same bed. She angrily leaves to a nearby coffee shop, where she overhears Jagannathan's debriefing session with his senior Seshadri. Jagannathan and Seshadri argue on Nirupama's role in the team. Seshadri asks him to get rid of her, but Jagannathan refuses as Wisam loves her more than anything and that they are supposed to respect his feelings. Nirupama is moved by Wisam's love. She returns to him, and the two make love. Nirupama and Wisam later go to meet Wizam's mother, who is an Alzheimer's patient living in a care home. Wisam's mother could not recognize her own son but is always lamenting looking at the childhood photos of her son. Wisam feels very sad and happy simultaneously and gets emotional with his mother. He recalls his days with her during their Kathak sessions.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Ashmita and Nirupama are kidnapped by Salim. Ashmita tries to knock him down, but he kills her and sends her chopped body to Wisam. Wisam goes to Omar to free Nirupama, who is imprisoned with her hands behind her back in handcuffs as Omar's hostage. Wisam begs Omar to spare Nirupama, but Omar refuses as Wisam was the reason behind the death of his family members during the NATO attack. Wisam tells that his wife, son, and nephew are alive. He explains to him that he handed over them to NATO to be taken to a safe haven. Omar insists on killing Wisam but pretends to spare Nirupama. Nirupama is taken to Daryaganj, where Wisam's mother too has been kept as a hostage. Omar plants a bomb on Wisam's neck with a 40-second timer. Nirupama gets devastated on seeing the bomb blast from Daryaganj. Salim tells her that to celebrate 64 years of Indian Independence, they have planted 64 bombs which would blast by an SMS. Wisam shatters the window from outside and kills Salim. A short flashback shows how Wisam escaped the bombing in a few seconds knocking everyone down and how the bomb blast burnt Omar alive. Wisam instructs his men to stop the mass bombing.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: In the hospital, Wisam shows Omar's sons to Omar stating that Jalal (the elder son) has finished engineering and moving to London for MTech and Nasser (the younger son) is in his first year of med-school. Omar, on his death bed, realizes his mistake and dies. Wisam, along with Nirupama, quietly walk out of the hospital.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The film is set in India. Kamal has earlier stated that the second part will be laced with a strong mother-son sentiment. He stated that 40% of the film was shot during the making of part one itself. While part 1 was a little over 2 hours 20 minutes, the sequel's length will be less than 2 hours.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Due to personal reasons, cinematographer Sanu Varghese opted out of "Vishwaroopam II" and was replaced by Shamdat Sainuddeen. Ghibran was signed up to compose the music. Haasan has added Waheeda Rahman and Anant Mahadevan for the sequel in addition to the main cast.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The shooting of "Vishwaroopam II" started in Thailand and the team shot scenes at the Bangkok airbase. There was a sequence where actors defuse bombs and engage enemies in a gun battle underwater which was done by the actors themselves after training in scuba diving. The Chennai schedule of the film started on 13 June 2013. It was also reported that an underwater fight sequence involving Kamal Haasan has been shot by stunt director Ramesh in the second week of October 2016. The film started its final schedule of shooting from 27 November 2017 at Chennai. Some promotion of the film took place on the television series "Bigg Boss Tamil 2", which is hosted by Hasaan, as well as on "Bigg Boss Malayalam" and also in Indian Idol and Dus Ka Dum hosted by Salman Khan.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The soundtrack album and background score for "Vishwaroopam II" is composed by Ghibran, replacing Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy who composed for the first part. The lyrics for the songs of the Tamil version were written by Vairamuthu and Kamal Haasan, and the songs of the Hindi version were written by Prasoon Joshi and Sandeep Srivastava. The soundtrack rights for the Tamil version were acquired by Lahari Music, whereas the Hindi version was acquired by T-Series.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Kamal Hassan, penned and sung the song "Naanagiya Nadhimoolame" along with Kaushiki Chakraborty and Karthik Suresh Iyer, which was released as a single track by composer Ghibran, via his official Twitter account on 29 June 2018. The partial audio launch of the film was held on 30 June 2018 during the ongoing Bigg Boss Tamil 2 season. The event was telecasted on 1 July 2018, through Star Vijay. Kamal Hassan and Shruti Hassan performed the songs "Naanagiya Nadhimoolame" and "Gnyabagam Varugiradha" at the event. The latter was released a single track on 2 July 2018. While Shruti Hassan performed the song at the event, the original version of the song which was written by Vairamuthu, were rendered by Aravind Srinivas and Sarath Santhosh. The third single track "Saadhi Madham" was released on 27 July 2018. Written by Kamal Haasan and sung by Sathyaprakash and Andrea Jeremiah, the song was performed at the ongoing Bigg Boss Tamil 2 season. The full album, which consists of an EDM version of "Gnyabagam Varugiradha" and the karaoke versions of all the songs, were launched on 5 August 2018.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The title track of Vishwaroop II, which was written by Prasoon Joshi and Sandeep Shrivatsava and sung by Aravind Srinivas and Sarath Santhosh, was launched on 25 July 2018. The full soundtrack album was released on 3 August 2018.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The first look poster of the film was released on 2 May 2017, the theatrical trailer was released on 11 June 2018.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: "Vishwaroopam II" was scheduled to release in February 2014, but due to delays, Hassan postponed the release. Haasan also stated initially that the film would be released as a direct to home feature in the United States. However, he later stated that he would not, as "there seems to be a lot of reticence in that." In November, Haasan stated that he hopes to release the film by 2016, but the release of the film is on hold due to the financial crisis of the producer even though some combination scenes, as well as VFX, are pending. It was also reported that Haasan will complete his portions only after his remaining salary of Rs.10 crores is settled and Lyca Productions might take over the project from Aascar Ravichandran.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: In February 2017, Kamal Haasan revealed that the film was on hold as Aascar Ravichandran was not able to pay the technical crew of the film. He added that over six months' worth of post-production remained pending on the project.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The digital rights of the film were sold to Amazon Prime Video, while the satellite rights of the Tamil version, "Vishwaroopam 2" were sold to STAR Vijay.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: "Vishwaroopam 2" grossed from the Tamil Nadu box office in its first 7 days. The film collected around at worldwide box office in first weekend. The film collected in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, in Karnataka and in rest of India. The film is believed to be earned in overseas to at worldwide box office. Despite this, the film grossed over and became one of the highest grossing Tamil films of the year.


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. Rachit Gupta of "The Times of India" has given 2.5 stars and summarized "Despite having some genuinely good moments, the film tries to put forth a little too much, a little too quickly.". "Behindwoods" given 3 stars out of 5 and said "Vishwaroopam 2 is a fitting sequel to the masterpiece". Baradwaj Rangan of "Film Companion" said "A not-exactly-needed sequel, but a solid delivery mechanism for Kamal-isms". Raisa Nasreen of DGZ Media summarized "Kamal Haasan is heroic as the one man army". Sowmya Rajendran of "The News Minute" said "A predictable sequel short of fresh ideas". Vishal Menon of "The Hindu" wrote "Add that to particularly tacky production design and uninspiring visuals, you realise that it’s easy for someone to mistake the first part as the newer film. By the end of Vishwaroopam 2 , we’ve seen so many bombs being planted, only for them to be defused. What’s another 100 more?" Ashameera Aiyappan of "The Indian Express" gave the film 3.5 stars and wrote "Do catch Vishwaroopam if possible before watching the second part. You won’t lose anything if you don’t, but there is a lot to gain if you do." Subra Gupta of "The Indian Express" gave the film 1.5 out of 5 stars and stated that "That leaves Kamal Haasan, who has co-written, directed and produced the film, as the patriotic RAW agent, to do all the heavy lifting. In the first edition, the veteran star-actor led from the front: here the ‘dirty soldier turned bloody espionage agent’ is all thundery lines like ‘main mazhab nahin mulk ke liye khoon bahaata hoon’. But even he can't rise above the shockingly inept script, which he rescues only in a few places, when his trademark intelligent, wry self-awareness manages to kick in. The rest can be safely ignored." Saibal Chatterjee of "NDTV" gave 1.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "That pretty much sums up Vishwaroop 2. It repeatedly fires blanks - noisy but of no use. Has a movie sequel ever been so pointless?. Janani K of "India Today" gave 2 out of 5 stars and wrote "On the whole, Vishwaroopam 2 is a story that is let down by the shoddy screenplay. Even a star performer like Kamal Haasan couldn't save the audience from this mess." Karishma Shetty of "Pinkvilla" wrote "Is Vishwaroopam 2 worth a watch? I would recommend you to see Mission Impossible - Fallout instead. If it is of any interest, the first part of the franchise was honoured with Best Production at the National Film Awards. We rate it a 35% in the movie meter. Priyanka Sundar of "Hindustan Times" gave 2.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "That, however, is not the biggest problem of Vishwaroopam. That indubitably is Kamal directing the film as a director and not filmmaker. We can see the savvy politician Kamal is doing great onscreen. Wisam, unfortunately, is lost in the back ground." Shreedhar Pillai of "Firstpost" gave the film 2.5 out of 5 stars and stated that "The USP of the film is Kamal Haasan, who doesn’t look his age (63) and does action, romance and dialogue-delivery with consummate ease and style. Some of the action scenes are well choreographed. Ghibran’s music is a major plus point. But the sequel is nowhere near the first part and looks stretched (2 hours 21 minutes). Though part two lacks the finesse of part one, Vishwaroopam 2 is still an entertainer." "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film's rating 1.5 out of 5 and wrote "On the whole, Vishwaroop II is a highly avoidable flick. The film has too many tracks and the narration and execution is flawed and weak. Also at the box office, the film will have a tough time."


title: Vishwaroopam II

text: Sudhir Srinivasan of "The New Indian Express" gave the film 3.5 out of 5 and wrote "It’s such small, effective moments that make me feel quite fondly about the Vishwaroopam films, and despondently about Tamil cinema without Kamal Haasan, the director." Reshe Manglik of "India TV" gave 2 out of 5 stars and wrote "In short, it’s only Kamal Haasan doing all the work in the film. He delivers the thundery lines like ‘Main mazhab ke liye nahi mulk ke liye khoon bahata hu’ with immense grit. However, even a spectacular actor like Haasan can't rise above the script that was clearly sinking." Anupama Subramanian of "Deccan Chronicle" gave 3.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "To be fair, most of these stunts and action sequences are riveting and enjoyable. Kamal is ever present with his dry wit and self-aware punch dialogues, which also brings his political aspirations to the fore. He is relentless and although he looks burnt out due to Vis’s heavy workload, his brains never tire and is always a step ahead of his numerous halfwit villains. Enjoyable in parts!" "Moviecrow" gave the film's rating 3 out of 5 stating that "An engaging sequel despite the inevitable comparison with the prequel and a few misfires. Watch it for Kamal Haasan's unsatiating desire to push the bar higher. " Umesh Punwani of "Koimoi" rated the film 1.5 out of 5 stars and wrote "All said and done, fans of Vishwaroop should forget there was a sequel planned for it. They should again watch the part 1 instead and keep its memories intact. It’s like one of those many Hollywood actioners which are all glam and no content." "DNA India" gave the film's rating 2 out of 5 and wrote "Vishwaroop 2 boasts of some great cameos by Shekhar Kapur, Waheeda Rahman and Jaideep Ahlawat but they are so good in whatever little screen-time they have got that sometimes you feel they are wasted in the film. The spy-thriller doesn't rely much on jingoism, though, which is a relief." "Ananda Vikatan" rated the film 42 out of 100.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: In chemistry, the valence (US spelling) or valency (British spelling) of an element is the measure of its combining capacity with other atoms when it forms chemical compounds or molecules.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The combining capacity, or affinity of an atom of a given element is determined by the number of hydrogen atoms that it combines with. In methane, carbon has a valence of 4; in ammonia, nitrogen has a valence of 3; in water, oxygen has a valence of 2; and in hydrogen chloride, chlorine has a valence of 1. Chlorine, as it has a valence of one, can be substituted for hydrogen. Phosphorus has a valence of 5 in phosphorus pentachloride, . Valence diagrams of a compound represent the connectivity of the elements, with lines drawn between two elements, sometimes called bonds, representing a saturated valency for each element. The two tables below show some examples of different compounds, their valence diagrams, and the valences for each element of the compound.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: This definition differs from the IUPAC definition as an element can be said to have more than one valence.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: A very similar modern definition given in a recent article defines the valence of a particular atom in a molecule as "the number of electrons that an atom uses in bonding", with two equivalent formulas for calculating valence:


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The etymology of the words "valence" (plural "valences") and "valency" (plural "valencies") traces back to 1425, meaning "extract, preparation", from Latin "valentia" "strength, capacity", from the earlier "valor" "worth, value", and the chemical meaning referring to the "combining power of an element" is recorded from 1884, from German "Valenz".


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The concept of valence was developed in the second half of the 19th century and helped successfully explain the molecular structure of inorganic and organic compounds.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The quest for the underlying causes of valence led to the modern theories of chemical bonding, including the cubical atom (1902), Lewis structures (1916), valence bond theory (1927), molecular orbitals (1928), valence shell electron pair repulsion theory (1958), and all of the advanced methods of quantum chemistry.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: In 1789, William Higgins published views on what he called combinations of "ultimate" particles, which foreshadowed the concept of valency bonds. If, for example, according to Higgins, the force between the ultimate particle of oxygen and the ultimate particle of nitrogen were 6, then the strength of the force would be divided accordingly, and likewise for the other combinations of ultimate particles (see illustration).


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The exact inception, however, of the theory of chemical valencies can be traced to an 1852 paper by Edward Frankland, in which he combined the older radical theory with thoughts on chemical affinity to show that certain elements have the tendency to combine with other elements to form compounds containing 3, i.e., in the 3-atom groups (e.g., , , , etc.) or 5, i.e., in the 5-atom groups (e.g., , , , etc.), equivalents of the attached elements. According to him, this is the manner in which their affinities are best satisfied, and by following these examples and postulates, he declares how obvious it is that


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: This “combining power” was afterwards called quantivalence or valency (and valence by American chemists). In 1857 August Kekulé proposed fixed valences for many elements, such as 4 for carbon, and used them to propose structural formulas for many organic molecules, which are still accepted today.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Most 19th-century chemists defined the valence of an element as the number of its bonds without distinguishing different types of valence or of bond. However, in 1893 Alfred Werner described transition metal coordination complexes such as , in which he distinguished "principal" and "subsidiary" valences (German: 'Hauptvalenz' and 'Nebenvalenz'), corresponding to the modern concepts of oxidation state and coordination number respectively.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: For main-group elements, in 1904 Richard Abegg considered "positive" and "negative" valences (maximal and minimal oxidation states), and proposed Abegg's rule to the effect that their difference is often 8.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The Rutherford model of the nuclear atom (1911) showed that the exterior of an atom is occupied by electrons, which suggests that electrons are responsible for the interaction of atoms and the formation of chemical bonds. In 1916, Gilbert N. Lewis explained valence and chemical bonding in terms of a tendency of (main-group) atoms to achieve a stable octet of 8 valence-shell electrons. According to Lewis, covalent bonding leads to octets by the sharing of electrons, and ionic bonding leads to octets by the transfer of electrons from one atom to the other. The term covalence is attributed to Irving Langmuir, who stated in 1919 that "the number of pairs of electrons which any given atom shares with the adjacent atoms is called the "covalence" of that atom". The prefix "co-" means "together", so that a co-valent bond means that the atoms share a valence. Subsequent to that, it is now more common to speak of "covalent bonds" rather than "valence", which has fallen out of use in higher-level work from the advances in the theory of chemical bonding, but it is still widely used in elementary studies, where it provides a heuristic introduction to the subject.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: In the 1930s, Linus Pauling proposed that there are also polar covalent bonds, which are intermediate between covalent and ionic, and that the degree of ionic character depends on the difference of electronegativity of the two bonded atoms.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Pauling also considered hypervalent molecules, in which main-group elements have apparent valences greater than the maximal of 4 allowed by the octet rule. For example, in the sulfur hexafluoride molecule (), Pauling considered that the sulfur forms 6 true two-electron bonds using spd hybrid atomic orbitals, which combine one s, three p and two d orbitals. However more recently, quantum-mechanical calculations on this and similar molecules have shown that the role of d orbitals in the bonding is minimal, and that the molecule should be described as having 6 polar covalent (partly ionic) bonds made from only four orbitals on sulfur (one s and three p) in accordance with the octet rule, together with six orbitals on the fluorines. Similar calculations on transition-metal molecules show that the role of p orbitals is minor, so that one s and five d orbitals on the metal are sufficient to describe the bonding.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Many elements have a common valence related to their position in the periodic table, and nowadays this is rationalised by the octet rule.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The Greek/Latin numeral prefixes (mono-/uni-, di-/bi-, tri-/ter-, and so on) are used to describe ions in the charge states 1, 2, 3, and so on, respectively. "Polyvalence" or "multivalence" refers to species that are not restricted to a specific number of valence bonds. Species with a single charge are univalent (monovalent). For example, the cation is a univalent or monovalent cation, whereas the cation is a divalent cation, and the cation is a trivalent cation. Unlike Cs and Ca, Fe can also exist in other charge states, notably 2+ and 4+, and is thus known as a multivalent (polyvalent) ion. Transition metals and metals to the right are typically multivalent but there is no simple pattern predicting their valency.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: † The same adjectives are also used in medicine to refer to vaccine valence, with the slight difference that in the latter sense, "quadri-" is more common than "tetra-".


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: ‡ As demonstrated by hit counts in Google web search and Google Books search corpora (accessed 2017).


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: § A few other forms can be found in large English-language corpora (for example, "*quintavalent, *quintivalent, *decivalent"), but they are not the conventionally established forms in English and thus are not entered in major dictionaries.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Because of the ambiguity of the term valence, other notations are currently preferred. Beside the system of oxidation states (also called "oxidation numbers") as used in Stock nomenclature for coordination compounds, and the lambda notation, as used in the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry, oxidation state is a more clear indication of the electronic state of atoms in a molecule.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The oxidation state of an atom in a molecule gives the number of valence electrons it has gained or lost. In contrast to the valency number, the oxidation state can be positive (for an electropositive atom) or negative (for an electronegative atom).


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Elements in a high oxidation state have an oxidation state higher than +4, and also, elements in a high valence state (hypervalent elements) have a valence higher than 4. For example, in perchlorates , chlorine has 7 valence bonds (thus, it is heptavalent, in other words, it has valence 7), and it has oxidation state +7; in ruthenium tetroxide , ruthenium has 8 valence bonds (thus, it is octavalent, in other words, it has valence 8), and it has oxidation state +8.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: In some scenarios, the difference between valence and oxidation state arises. Valence and oxidation state of the same atom may not be the same. For example, in disulfur decafluoride molecule , each sulfur atom has 6 valence bonds (5 single bonds with fluorine atoms and 1 single bond with sulfur atom), thus, each sulfur atom is hexavalent, in other words, it has valence 6, but has oxidation state +5. In dioxygen molecule , each oxygen atom has 2 valence bonds, thus, each oxygen atom is divalent, in other words, it has valence 2, but has oxidation state 0. In acetylene , each carbon atom has 4 valence bonds (1 single bond with hydrogen atom and 3 single bonds with carbon atom), thus, each carbon atom is tetravalent, in other words, it has valence 4, but has oxidation state −1.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: <nowiki>**</nowiki> Valences may also be different from absolute values of oxidation states due to different polarity of bonds. For example, in dichloromethane, , carbon has valence 4 but oxidation state 0.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: <nowiki>***</nowiki> Iron oxides appear in a crystal structure, so no typical molecule can be identified. In ferrous oxide, Fe has oxidation state +2; in ferric oxide, oxidation state +3.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Frankland took the view that the valence (he used the term "atomicity") of an element was a single value that corresponded to the maximum value observed. The number of unused valencies on atoms of what are now called the p-block elements is generally even, and Frankland suggested that the unused valencies saturated one another. For example, nitrogen has a maximum valence of 5, in forming ammonia two valencies are left unattached; sulfur has a maximum valence of 6, in forming hydrogen sulphide four valencies are left unattached.


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) has made several attempts to arrive at an unambiguous definition of valence. The current version, adopted in 1994:


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Hydrogen and chlorine were originally used as examples of univalent atoms, because of their nature to form only one single bond. Hydrogen has only one "valence electron" and can form only one bond with an atom that has an incomplete outer shell. Chlorine has seven "valence electrons" and can form only one bond with an atom that donates a "valence electron" to complete chlorine's outer shell. However, chlorine can also have oxidation states from +1 to +7 and can form more than one bond by donating "valence electrons".


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Hydrogen has only one valence electron, but it can form bonds with more than one atom. In the bifluoride ion (), for example, it forms a three-center four-electron bond with two fluoride atoms:


title: Valence (chemistry)

text: Maximum valences for the elements are based on the data from list of oxidation states of the elements.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci (14 May 1559 – 30 September 1626), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Qing (), was a Jurchen chieftain who rose to prominence in the late 16th century in Manchuria. A member of the House of Aisin-Gioro, he reigned as the founding khan of the Later Jin dynasty of China from 1616 to 1626.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci reorganized and united various Jurchen tribes (the later "Manchu"), consolidated the Eight Banners military system, and eventually launched attacks on both the Ming and Joseon dynasties. His conquest of Ming dynasty's northeastern Liaodong region laid the groundwork for the Qing conquest of the Ming by his descendants, who founded the Qing dynasty in 1636. He is also generally credited with ordering the creation of a new written script for the Manchu language based on the Mongolian vertical script.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci is written as in Manchu language. Some suggest that the meaning of the name in the Manchu language is "the skin of a wild boar", other explanation is "brave person like wild boar". Regarded as the founding father of the Qing dynasty, he is given the customary temple name of "Taizu", which is traditionally assigned to founders of dynasties. His name is also alternatively spelled "Nurgaci", "Nurhachi", or "Nu-er-ha-chi" (the last of these simply the transcription of the Chinese characters used to write his name).


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci was the last chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens and first khan of the Later Jin dynasty. His title in Manchu as khan was "Geren gurun-be ujire genggiyen han" ("brilliant khan who benefits all nations"). His era name was Tianming (; Manchu:"Abkai Fulingga"), in Mongolian Тэнгэрийн сүлдэт Tengri-yin Süldetü. It means "Heaven's Mandate." He was given a posthumous name in 1736 (see infobox), the shortened form of which was "Emperor Gao" , Manchu:"Dergi Hūwangdi")


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci was born in 1559. Being a member of the Gioro clan of the Suksuhu River tribe, Nurhaci also claimed descent from Mentemu, a Jurchen headman who lived some two centuries earlier. The young man grew up as a soldier in the household of the Ming dynasty general Li Chengliang in Fushun, where he learned Mandarin Chinese, the official language of the courts. Nurhaci read the Chinese novels "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" and "Water Margin" learning all he knew about Chinese military and political strategies from them. He named his clan Aisin Gioro around 1612, when he formally ascended the throne as the Khan of the Later Jin dynasty.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci's grandfather Giocangga was a chieftain of the Jurchens in Hetu Ala who enjoyed the patronage of Li. He frequented the Fushun market as official delegation leader, and accompanied Li to Beijing at least once. In 1582, Nikan Wailan, a rival Jurchen chief, led Ming forces to attack the Fort Gure (古勒城, now in Xinbin County). Giocangga feared for his granddaughter who was married to Atai, the town's chief. He rushed into the city, taking Nurhaci's father Taksi with him. During the ensuing battle, both Giocangga and Taksi were killed.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci sought revenge against Nikan Wailan for the deaths of his father and grandfather. The Ming returned his father's remains, grant him trade patents, and recognized him as the successor of Giocangga. However, Nurhaci's demand that they hand over Nikan Wailan was refused. Nurhaci therefore started to expand his own power, starting only from thirteen sets of armor inherited from his father. In 1584, he attacked Nikan Wailan at Turun. Nikan Wailan fled away to Erhun, which Nurhaci attacked again in 1587. Nikan Wailan this time fled to Li Chengliang's territory. Li relented and gave Nikan Wailan over to Nurhaci, who beheaded Nikan Wailan immediately.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci gradually grew his strength in the following years and subdued the core Jianzhou Jurchen tribes and towns from 1583 to 1588. At the same time, Nurhaci still considered himself a representative of imperial Ming power. He received the title of assistant commissioner-in chief in 1589 and the honor of "dragon-tiger general" in 1595. From 1590 onward, he led multiple tributary missions to Beijing.


title: Nurhaci

text: In 1593, the Yehe called upon a coalition of nine tribes: the Hada, Ula, Hoifa, Khorchin Mongols, Sibe, Guwalca, Jušeri, Neyen, and the Yehe themselves to attack the Jianzhou Jurchens. The coalition was defeated at the Battle of Gure and Nurhaci emerged victorious.


title: Nurhaci

text: From 1599 to 1618, Nurhaci set out on a campaign against the four Hulun tribes. He began by attacking the Hada in 1599 and conquering them in 1603. Then in 1607, Hoifa was also conquered with the death of its beile Baindari, followed by an expedition against Ula and its "beile" Bujantai in 1613, and finally the Yehe and its beile Gintaisi at the Battle of Sarhu in 1619. As Nurhaci's power expanded, the relationship with the Ming also became increasingly strained. In 1608, Ming subjects were prohibited from cultivating the land or gathering ginseng, one of the main Jurchen export products, within Nurhaci's boundary.


title: Nurhaci

text: In 1599, Nurhaci gave two of his translators, Erdeni Baksi ('Jewel Teacher' in Mongolian) and Dahai Jargūci, the task of creating a Manchu alphabet by adapting the Mongolian script. Dahai was described with his origin from the Liao valley and his ethnicity as Han Chinese in the Korean book "Nanjung chamnok; Sok chamnok" (亂中雜錄) by Cho Kyŏng-nam (趙慶南) (1570-1641) a Korean official and scholar, contradicting Qing texts which says his clan is Giolca. The Qing texts said Dahau's family lived near Fushun in the Giolca region.


title: Nurhaci

text: In 1616, Nurhaci declared himself Khan and founded the Jin dynasty ("aisin gurun"), often called the Later Jin in reference to the legacy of the "earlier" Jurchen Jin dynasty of the 12th century. The "Later Jin" was renamed to "Qing" by his son Hong Taiji after his death in 1626, however Nurhaci is usually referred to as the founder of the Qing dynasty.


title: Nurhaci

text: In order to help with the newly organized administration, five of his trusted companions were appointed as his chief councilors, Anfiyanggū, Eidu, Hūrhan, Fiongdon, and Hohori.


title: Nurhaci

text: Only after he became Khan did he finally unify the Ula (clan of his consort Lady Abahai, mentioned below) and the Yehe, the clan of his consort Monggo Jerjer.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci chose to variously emphasize either differences or similarities in lifestyles with other peoples like the Mongols for political reasons. Nurhaci said to the Mongols that "The languages of the Chinese and Koreans are different, but their clothing and way of life is the same. It is the same with us Manchus (Jurchen) and Mongols. Our languages are different, but our clothing and way of life is the same." Later Nurhaci indicated that the bond with the Mongols was not based in any real shared culture, rather it was for pragmatic reasons of "mutual opportunism", when he said to the Mongols: "You Mongols raise livestock, eat meat and wear pelts. My people till the fields and live on grain. We two are not one country and we have different languages."


title: Nurhaci

text: When the Jurchens were reorganized by Nurhaci into the Eight Banners, many Manchu clans were artificially created as a group of unrelated people founded a new Manchu clan (mukun) using a geographic origin name such as a toponym for their hala (clan name). The irregularities over Jurchen and Manchu clan origin led to the Qing trying to document and systematize the creation of histories for Manchu clans, including manufacturing an entire legend around the origin of the Aisin Gioro clan by taking mythology from the northeast.


title: Nurhaci

text: In 1618, Nurhaci commissioned a document titled the Seven Grievances in which he enumerated seven problems with Ming rule and began to rebel against the domination of the Ming dynasty. A majority of the grievances dealt with conflicts against Yehe, and Ming favouritism of Yehe.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci led many successful engagements against the Ming dynasty, the Northern Yuan dynasty, the Joseon dynasty, and other Jurchen clans, greatly enlarging the territory under his control.


title: Nurhaci

text: The first capitals of the Later Jin dynasty established by Nurhaci were Fe Ala and Hetu Ala. Many ethnic Han participated in the construction of Hetu Ala.


title: Nurhaci

text: Defectors from the Ming side played a massive role in the Qing conquest of the Ming. Ming generals who defected to the Manchus were often married to women from the Aisin Gioro clan while lower-ranked defectors were given non-imperial Manchu women as wives. Nurhaci arranged for a marriage between one of his granddaughters and the Ming general Li Yongfang (李永芳) after Li surrendered Fushun in Liaoning to the Manchus in 1618 as the result of the Battle of Fushun. His son Abatai's daughter was married to Li Yongfang. The offspring of Li received the "Third Class Viscount" () title. Li Yongfang was the great-great-great-grandfather of Li Shiyao (李侍堯).


title: Nurhaci

text: The Han prisoner of war Gong Zhenglu (Onoi) was appointed to instruct Nurhaci's sons and received gifts of slaves, wives, and a domicile from Nurhaci after Nurhaci rejected offers of payment to release him back to his relatives.


title: Nurhaci

text: Nurhaci had treated Han in Liaodong differently according to how much grain they had, those with less than 5 to 7 sin were treated poorly while those with more than that amount were rewarded with property. Due to a revolt by Han in Liaodong in 1623, Nurhachi, who previously gave concessions to conquered Han subjects in Liaodong, turned against them and ordered that they no longer be trusted and enacted discriminatory policies and killings against them, while ordering that Han who assimilated to the Jurchen (in Jilin) before 1619 be treated equally as Jurchens were and not like the conquered Han in Liaodong.


title: Nurhaci

text: By May 1621, Nurhaci had conquered the cities of Liaoyang and Shenyang. In April 1625, he designated Shenyang the new capital city, which would hold that status until the Qing conquest of the Ming in 1644.


title: Nurhaci

text: In 1626, Nurhaci was defeated by Ming general Yuan Chonghuan at the Battle of Ningyuan, in what was the first serious military defeat of his life. During this battle, Nurhaci was wounded by Portuguese-manufactured cannons in Yuan's army. Unable to recover either physically or mentally, Nurhaci died of his wounds two days later in Aijipu (靉雞堡; present-day Da'aijinpu Village, Dijia Township, Yuhong District, Shenyang) on 30 September 1626, at the age of 67. His tomb, Fu Mausoleum (), is located east of Shenyang.


title: Nurhaci

text: Among the most lasting contributions Nurhaci left his descendants was the establishment of the Eight Banners, which would eventually form the backbone of the military that dominated the Qing Empire. The status of Banners did not change much over the course of Nurhaci's lifetime, nor in subsequent reigns, remaining mostly under the control of the royal family. The two elite Yellow Banners were consistently under Nurhaci's control. The two Blue Banners were controlled by Nurhaci's brother Šurhaci until he died, at which point the Blue Banners were given to Šurhaci's two sons, Chiurhala and Amin. Nurhaci's eldest son, Cuyen, controlled the White Banner for most of his father's reign until he rebelled. Then the Bordered White Banner was given to Nurhaci's grandson and the Plain White was given to his eighth son and heir, Hong Taiji. However, by the end of Nurhaci's reign, Hong Taiji controlled both White Banners. Finally, the Red Banner was run by Nurhaci's second son Daišan. Later in Nurhaci's reign, the Bordered Red Banner was handed down to his son. Daišan and his son would continue holding the two Red Banners well into the end of Hong Taiji's reign.


title: Nurhaci

text: The details of Hong Taiji's succession as the Khan of the Later Jin dynasty are unclear. When he died in late 1626, Nurhaci did not designate an heir; instead he encouraged his sons to rule collegially. Three of his sons and a nephew were the "four senior beiles": Daišan (43 years old), Amin (son of Nurhaci's brother Šurhaci; 40 or 41), Manggūltai (38 or 39), and Hong Taiji himself (33). On the day after Nurhaci's death, they coerced his primary consort Lady Abahai (1590–1626) – who had borne him three sons: Ajige, Dorgon, and Dodo – to commit suicide to accompany him in death. This gesture has made some historians suspect that Nurhaci had in fact named the fifteen-year-old Dorgon as a successor, with Daišan as regent. By forcing Dorgon's mother to kill herself, the princes removed a strong base of support for Dorgon. The reason such intrigue was necessary is that Nurhaci had left the two elite Yellow Banners to Dorgon and Dodo, who were the sons of Lady Abahai. Hong Taiji exchanged control of his two White Banners for that of the two Yellow Banners, shifting their influence and power from his young brothers onto himself.


title: Nurhaci

text: According to Hong Taiji's later recollections, Amin and the other "beile" were willing to accept Hong Taiji as Khan, but Amin then would have wanted to leave with his Bordered Blue Banner, threatening to dissolve Nurhaci's unification of the Jurchens. Eventually the older Daišan worked out a compromise that allowed Hong Taiji as the Khan, but almost equal to the other three senior beiles. Hong Taiji would eventually find ways to become the undisputed leader.


title: Nurhaci

text: The change of the name from Jurchen to Manchu by Hong Taiji was made to hide the fact that the ancestors of the Manchus, the Jianzhou Jurchens, were ruled by the Chinese. The Qing dynasty carefully hid the two original editions of the books of ""Qing Taizu Wu Huangdi Shilu"" and the ""Manzhou Shilu Tu"" (Taizu Shihlu Tu) in the Qing palace, forbidden from public view because they showed that the Manchu Aisin Gioro family had been ruled by the Ming dynasty. In the Ming period, the Koreans of Joseon referred to the Jurchen-inhabited lands north of the Korean peninsula, above the rivers Yalu and Tumen, as part of Ming China, which they called the "superior country" (sangguk).


title: Nurhaci

text: The first Manchu translations of Chinese works were the "Six Secret Teachings" (), "Sushu" 素書, and "Three Strategies of Huang Shigong" (), all Chinese military texts dedicated to the arts of war due to the Manchu interests in the topic, like Sun-Tzu's work The Art of War. The military related texts which were translated into Manchu from Chinese were translated by Dahai.


title: Nurhaci

text: Manchu translations of Chinese texts included the Ming penal code and military texts were performed by Dahai. These translations were requested of Dahai by Nurhaci. The military text "Wuzi" was translated into Manchu along with "The Art of War".


title: Nurhaci

text: Chinese history, Chinese law, and Chinese military theory classical texts were translated into Manchu during the rule of Hong Taiji in Mukden (now Shenyang), with the Manchus placing significance upon military and governance related Chinese texts. A Manchu translation was made of the military-themed novel "Romance of the Three Kingdoms". Chinese literature, military theory and legal texts were translated into Manchu by Dahai and Erdeni. The translations were ordered in 1629.


title: Nurhaci

text: The translation of the military texts "Sushu" and "Three Strategies of Huang Shigong", and the Da Ming Huidian () done by Dahai was ordered by Nurhaci. While it was mainly administrative and ethical guidance which made up most of the "Three Strategies of Huang Shigong" and the "Sushu", military science was indeed found in the "Six Secret Teachings" and Chinese military manuals were eagerly translated by the Manchus. They were also attracted to the military content in "Romance of the Three Kingdoms", which is why it was translated. "The Art of War" was translated into Manchu as Abkai: qoohai baita be gisurengge, Möllendorff: coohai baita be gisurengge, Discourse on the art of War. Another later Manchu translation was made by Aisin Gioro Qiying.


title: Nurhaci

text: Information concerning Nurhaci can be found in later, propagandistic works such as the "Manchu Veritable Records" (; Manchu:, Möllendorff: manju-i yargiyan kooli). Good contemporary sources are also available. For instance, much material concerning Nurhaci's rise is preserved within Korean sources such as the "Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty" (), especially the "Seonjo Sillok" and the "Gwanghaegun Ilgi". Indeed, the record of Sin Chung-il's trip to Jianzhou is preserved in the "Seonjo Sillok".


title: Nurhaci

text: The "Jiu Manzhou Dang" from Nurhaci's reign also survives. A revised transcription of these records (with the dots and circles added to the script) was commissioned by the Qianlong Emperor. This has been translated into Japanese under the title "Manbun roto", and Chinese, under the title "Manwen Laodang" (). A project is currently under way at Harvard University to translate them into English, as "The Old Manchu Chronicles".


title: Nurhaci

text: According to the account of Korean ambassadors, Nurhaci was a physically strong man with a long and stern-looking face and a big, straight nose. Like most of the other Manchu men, he shaved most of his facial hair and kept only his moustache.


title: Magatama

text: first appeared in Japan in the Final Jōmon period (1000–300 BCE), and in this period were made from relatively simple, naturally occurring materials, including clay, talc, slate, quartz, gneiss, jadeite, nephrite, and serpentinite. from the Jōmon period were irregularly shaped, lacked continuity in form from region to region, and have been called "Stone Age " for this reason. are thought to be an imitation of the teeth of large animals, pierced with a hole, which are found in earlier Jōmon remains. These resemble , but more recent scholarship indicates that these early Jōmon may have simply had a decorative function, and have no relationship to . in the Jōmon period appear to have moved from the purely decorative to having a status and ceremonial function by the end of the period. A "middle Jōmon exchange network" may have existed, whereby were produced in regions where materials for their manufacture were readily plentiful. Jade and talc examples produced in bead-making villages located in present-day Itoigawa, Niigata have been found at a large number of sites along the northern coast, in the central mountains, and in Kantō region.


title: Magatama

text: Examples of from the Jōmon period have been discovered in large numbers at the Kamegaoka site in Tsugaru, Aomori Prefecture. The Kamegaoka remains are among the largest known Jōmon settlement in Japan, and the , among other decorative objects found, may be an indicator of the high social status of the settlement.


title: Magatama

text: Other sites associated with the Kamegaoka settlement have yielded , including the Ōboriya shell mound, in the northwest corner of Ōfunato Bay, which yielded a huge number of beads, as well as the Korekawa site, near Hachinohe, Aomori Prefecture. Remains from the Korekawa site can be seen at the Korekawa Archaeological Museum in Hachinohe. Stone and clay and -like beads have also been discovered at the Amataki site, Ninohe, Iwate Prefecture, Osagata site, Ibaraki Prefecture, and the Kou site, Fujiidera, Osaka Prefecture. Numerous at the Ōishi site, Bungo-ōno, Ōita Prefecture, Kyushu show signs of being used for ceremonial, rather than decorative, purposes.


title: Magatama

text: The Sannai-Maruyama Site, excavated 1992 in Aomori, Aomori Prefecture, yielded three large jade beads measuring .


title: Magatama

text: in the Yayoi period (300 BCE – 300 CE) are notably different from Jōmon-period . The jewels moved from a primitive, non-standard form towards more polished and uniform form in this period. The technology to cut large gemstones and polish jewels notably advanced in the Yayoi period. Refined materials such as jadeite, serpentinite, and glass replaced the less sophisticated materials of the Jōmon period. Yayoi period are noted for their reverse C-shaped form, which by the end of the period had become an almost squared shape. From the Yayoi period onwards, uniformly feature a bored hole that allowed the jewels to be held on a string.


title: Magatama

text: The Yayoi period is marked by specific geographic centers specializing in and the widespread trade of . The period is marked by the formation of power centers that came to be individual states. The development of weapons increased in this period to protect increasingly developed rice fields and fishing rights. Trade greatly increased in this period, as did the specialization of production of certain items, including . producing areas exchanged their product with other products, specifically rice, leading to the widespread distribution of across Japan. were commonly used to create necklaces and bracelets worn on the wrists or ankles. The necklace was typically constructed of jadeite separated by cylindrical bored-holed pieces of jasper. Small beads of dark-blue glass are also not uncommon on the necklace. The bracelet typically also used shells from the coastal areas of Shikoku and the Inland Sea, wood, and bronze. In this period the use of the mirror, sword, and jewels as status symbols for village, and later regional leaders of all kinds, emerged in the Yayoi period, and point to the origin of the mirror, sword, and as the Imperial Regalia of Japan.


title: Magatama

text: The "Records of the Three Kingdoms", the earliest historical document with a reference to Japan, describes the Wa people, an ancient country of Yamatai, and its queen, Himiko. The "Record" indicates that when Himiko died, her relative Iyo, a girl of 13, was made queen and sent a delegation of twenty officials under Yazuku, an imperial general, to offer tribute to the Northern Wei court. "The delegation visited the capital and offered to the court five thousand white gems and two pieces of carved jade, as well as twenty pieces of brocade with variegated designs." The carved jade in the "Record" likely describes a tribute of two jade .


title: Magatama

text: The large-scale Yayoi period remains at the Yoshinogari site, Yoshinogari and Kanzaki in Saga Prefecture revealed examples of lead glass typical of the Yayoi period. In 2003, the excavation of a large Yayoi period settlement in Tawaramoto, Nara also revealed two large jade , one , the second in length. The larger Tawaramoto is the 10th-largest example found to date in Japan. Both jade from the site are of unusually high-quality brilliant green jade.


title: Magatama

text: One known center of Yayoi production was in the area of the Tamatsukuri Inari Shrine in Osaka. literally means "jewel making", and a guild, the Tamatsukuri-be, was active from the Yayoi period. An existing jewel at the shrine is said to have great spiritual power. appear on all sorts of implements of the present-day temple, including amulets, roof tiles, and lanterns. The inari female fox at the gate of a subshrine of Tamatsukuri Inari Shrine wears a necklace of . The shrine has an exhibit on the history and production of .


title: Magatama

text: became very common in the Kofun period (250–538 CE), and by the end of the period almost all tumuli contained . In the early Kofun period, were made from jadeite as in earlier periods, but by the middle of the period were made from jasper, and by the end of the period, almost exclusively of agate and jade. capped by silver or gold also appear towards the end of the period. Large made of talc, imitations of smaller ones made of more precious materials, were used as grave goods. are found in tumuli across Japan from the period. Their use went from merely decorative to sacred and ceremonial grave goods. are with inscriptions that look like flowers of the clove tree and have a hole suitable to attach to a string. These first appear in the Kofun period. Also in the Kofun period, appear on necklaces, with several set between bored cylinders. Archeological remains show evidence of similar ankle bracelets, but they are less common. Clay funerary objects of the Kofun period commonly depict people wearing the necklaces and ankle bracelets.


title: Magatama

text: Examples of stone from the Kofun period are especially numerous. An excavation of the Kamegaoka , Kishiwada, Osaka, revealed a local who had been buried with a jade, jasper, and alabaster necklace, as well as placed near the feet. A bronze mirror imported from China accompanying the burial was dated to 239 CE. The is a Designated Historical Spot of the city of Kishiwada. Ceremonial offerings from a burial from the Kisami-Araida area of Shimoda, Shizuoka also revealed clay reproductions of used as effigies. The excavation of the Ubusuna in Kyōtango, Kyoto yielded two fully intact necklaces of jade and agate, with segments between in length.


title: Magatama

text: The large Muro Miyayama of Katsuragi, Nara, on the Yamato Plain, in length, was plundered long before its excavation, but revealed 600 talc ceremonial among other funerary objects, which also included 10 bronze Han Chinese mirrors. The Hiraide remains of Shiojiri, Nagano, one of the three largest prehistoric sites in Japan, and far from any regional power center, includes typical Kofun period remains, but also objects associated with modern Shinto ceremonial practice. Nevertheless, in Hiraide reveal both plain and elaborate among other funerary objects.


title: Magatama

text: The Sakurai in Sakurai, Nara, excavated in 1949, represents a from the final phase of the Kofun period, and is possibly from a ruler associated with the imperial family. The is high and shows evidence of being surrounded by a moat. Among the very large number of funerary objects were high-quality weapons, including swords, 10 mirrors, and a necklace of jadeite , agate cylinders, and glass beads used to make a -style necklace.


title: Magatama

text: Archaeologists and historians are unable yet to explain what the origins of forms are, or whether these forms can be traced back to one convergent source. A number of explanations have been suggested, including:


title: Magatama

text: The and , completed in the 8th century, have numerous references to . They appear in the first chapter of the , which largely describes the mythology of Japan. Susanoo, god of the sea and storms, received five hundred from Tamanoya no mikoto, or Ame-no-Futodama-no-mikoto, the jewel-making deity. Susanoo went to heaven and presented them to his sister, the sun goddess Amaterasu, who bit off successive parts of the , and blew them away to create other deities. Tamanoya no mikoto remains the god of , glasses, and cameras. In the legend Amaterasu later shuts herself in a cave. Ama-no-Koyane-no-mikoto hung , among other objects, on a five hundred-branch tree, to successfully lure Amaterasu from the cave. In the year 58, in the reign of the Emperor Suinin, the records that a dog killed and disemboweled a , a type of badger, and a was discovered in its stomach. This was presented to Suinin, who enshrined it at Isonokami Shrine, where it is said to presently reside. A similar practice is described again in the during the reign of the Emperor Chūai. Chūai made an inspection trip to the Tsukushi, or Kyūshū, and was presented with an enormous tree hung with as well as other sacred objects.


title: Magatama

text: A noted is the , one of the three Imperial Regalia of Japan. Swords, mirrors, and jewels were common objects of status for regional rulers in Japan as early as the Yayoi period, and were further widespread in the Kofun period, as shown by their ubiquitous presence in kofun tumuli. The is stored at the , the central shrine of the Three Palace Sanctuaries at the Tokyo Imperial Palace, and is used in the enthronement ceremony of the Emperor of Japan.


title: Magatama

text: Daniel Clarence Holtom stated in 1928 in "Japanese enthronement ceremonies; with an account of the imperial regalia" that the is the only one of the three regalia that exists in its original form; post-World War II scholarship supports the claim. Replicas of the sword and mirror were made as early as the 9th century, and the originals were entrusted to other shrines.


title: Magatama

text: D. C. Holtom stated that priestesses (Okinawan: ) of the Ryukyu Kingdom wore necklaces early in the 20th century for ceremonial purposes, but provides no other details.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Northern Virginia, locally referred to as NOVA or NoVA, comprises several counties and independent cities in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. It is a widespread region radiating westward and southward from Washington, D.C. With 3,197,076 people according to the 2020 Census (37.04 percent of Virginia's total population), it is the most populous region of Virginia and the Washington metropolitan area.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Communities in the region form the Virginia portion of the Washington metropolitan area and the larger Washington–Baltimore metropolitan area. Northern Virginia has a significantly larger job base than either Washington or the Maryland portion of its suburbs, and is the highest-income region of Virginia, having several of the highest-income counties in the nation, including 3 of the richest 10 counties by median household income according to the 2019 American Community Survey.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Northern Virginia's transportation infrastructure includes major airports Ronald Reagan Washington National and Washington Dulles International, several lines of the Washington Metro subway system, the Virginia Railway Express suburban commuter rail system, transit bus services, bicycle sharing and bicycle lanes and trails, and an extensive network of Interstate highways and expressways.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Notable features of the region include the Pentagon, headquarters of the United States Department of Defense, the Central Intelligence Agency, the United States Patent and Trademark Office, and the many companies which serve them and the rest of the U.S. federal government. The area's tourist attractions include various memorials, museums, and Colonial and Civil War–era sites including Arlington National Cemetery, Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania National Military Park, Manassas National Battlefield Park, Mount Vernon Estate, the National Museum of the Marine Corps, the Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum, United States Marine Corps War Memorial. Other attractions include portions of the Appalachian Trail, Great Falls Park, Old Town Alexandria, Prince William Forest Park, and portions of Shenandoah National Park.


title: Northern Virginia

text: The region is often spelled "northern Virginia", although according to the USGS Correspondence Handbook the 'n' in Northern Virginia should be capitalized since it is a place name rather than a direction or general area; e.g. Eastern United States vs. western Massachusetts.


title: Northern Virginia

text: The name "Northern Virginia" does not seem to have been used in the early history of the area. According to Johnston, some early documents and land grants refer to the "Northern Neck of Virginia" (see Northern Neck Proprietary), and they describe an area which began on the east at the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay and includes a territory that extended west, including all the land between the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers, with a western boundary called the Fairfax line. The Fairfax line, surveyed in 1746, ran from the first spring of the Potomac (still marked today by the Fairfax Stone) to the first spring of the Rappahannock, at the head of the Conway River. The Northern Neck was composed of , and was larger in area than five of the modern U.S. states.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Early development of the northern portion of Virginia was in the easternmost area of that early land grant, which encompasses the modern counties of Lancaster, Northumberland, Richmond, and Westmoreland. At some point, these eastern counties came to be called separately simply "the Northern Neck", and, for the remaining area west of them, the term was no longer used. (By some definitions, King George County is also included in the Northern Neck, which is now considered a separate region from Northern Virginia.)


title: Northern Virginia

text: One of the most prominent early mentions of "Northern Virginia" (sans the word "Neck") as a title was the naming of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia during the American Civil War (1861–1865).


title: Northern Virginia

text: The most common definition of Northern Virginia includes the independent cities and counties on the Virginia side of the Washington-Baltimore-Arlington, DC-MD-VA-WV-PA Combined Statistical Area as defined by the U.S. Office of Management and Budget within the Executive Office of the President of the United States.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Most narrowly defined, Northern Virginia consists of the counties of Arlington, Fairfax, Loudoun, Prince William, and Stafford as well as the independent cities of Alexandria, Fairfax, Falls Church, Fredericksburg, Manassas, and Manassas Park.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Businesses, governments and non-profit agencies may define the area considered "Northern Virginia" differently for various purposes. Many communities beyond the areas closest to Washington, DC also have close economic ties, as well as important functional ones, to Northern Virginia, especially regarding roads, railroads, airports, and other transportation.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Historically, in the British Colony of Virginia first permanently settled at Jamestown in 1607, the area now generally regarded as "Northern Virginia" was within a larger area defined by a land grant from King Charles II of England on September 18, 1649, while the monarch was in exile in France during the English Civil War. Eight of his loyal supporters were named, among them Thomas Culpeper.


title: Northern Virginia

text: On February 25, 1673, a new charter was given to Thomas Lord Culpeper and Henry Earl of Arlington. Lord Culpeper was named the Royal Governor of Virginia from 1677 to 1683. Culpeper County was later named for him when it was formed in 1749; however, history does not seem to record him as one of the better of Virginia's colonial governors. Although he became governor of Virginia in July 1677, he did not come to Virginia until 1679, and even then seemed more interested in maintaining his land in the "Northern Neck of Virginia" than governing. He soon returned to England. In 1682 rioting in the colony forced him to return, but by the time he arrived, the riots were already quelled. After apparently misappropriating £9,500 from the treasury of the colony, he returned to England and the King was forced to dismiss him. During this tumultuous time, Culpeper's erratic behavior meant that he had to rely increasingly on his cousin and Virginia agent, Col. Nicholas Spencer. Spencer succeeded Culpeper as acting Governor upon Lord Culpeper's departure from the colony. For many years, Lord Culpeper's descendants allowed men in Virginia (primarily Robert "King" Carter) to manage the properties.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Legal claim to the land was finally established by Lord Culpeper's grandson, Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who became well known in the colony as "Lord Fairfax", in a survey authorized by Governor William Gooch in 1736. The lands of Lord Fairfax (and Northern Virginia) were defined as that between the Rappahannock and Potomac rivers, and were officially called the "Northern Neck". In 1746 a back line was surveyed and established between the headwaters of the Potomac and Rappahannock rivers, defining the west end of the grants. According to documents held by the Handley Regional Library of the Winchester–Frederick County Historical Society, the grants contained . They included the 22 modern counties of Northumberland, Lancaster, Westmoreland, Stafford, King George, Prince William, Fairfax, Loudoun, Fauquier, Rappahannock, Culpeper, Madison, Clarke, Warren, Page, Shenandoah, and Frederick counties in Virginia, and Hardy, Hampshire, Morgan, Berkeley, and Jefferson counties in West Virginia.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Lord Fairfax was a lifelong bachelor, and became one of the more well-known persons of the late colonial era. In 1742 the new county formed from Prince William County was named Fairfax County in his honor, one of numerous place names in Northern Virginia and West Virginia's Eastern Panhandle which were named after him. Lord Fairfax established his residence first at his brother's home at "Belvoir" (now on the grounds of Fort Belvoir in Fairfax County).


title: Northern Virginia

text: Not long thereafter, he built a hunting lodge near the Blue Ridge Mountains he named "Greenway Court", which was located near White Post in Clarke County, and moved there. Around 1748 Lord Fairfax met a youth of 16 named George Washington, and, impressed with his energy and talents, employed him to survey his lands lying west of the Blue Ridge.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Lord Fairfax stayed neutral during the American Revolutionary War. Just a few weeks after the surrender of British troops under General Cornwallis at Yorktown, he died at his home at Greenway Court on December 9, 1781, at the age of 90. He was entombed on the east side of Christ Church in Winchester. While his plans for a large house at Greenway Court never materialized, and his stone lodge is now gone, a small limestone structure he had built still exists on the site.


title: Northern Virginia

text: Following the American Revolutionary War, when the thirteen colonies formed the United States of America, war hero and Virginian George Washington was the choice to become its first president. Washington had been a surveyor and developer of canals for transportation earlier in the 18th century. He was also a great proponent of the bustling port city of Alexandria, which was located on the Potomac River below the fall line, not far from his plantation at Mount Vernon in Fairfax County.