title: Pleasure

text: In the 12th century, Razi's "Treatise of the Self and the Spirit" ("Kitab al Nafs Wa’l Ruh") analyzed different types of pleasure- sensuous and intellectual, and explained their relations with one another. He concludes that human needs and desires are endless, and "their satisfaction is by definition impossible."


title: Pleasure

text: The 19th-century German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer understood pleasure as a negative sensation, one that negates the usual existential condition of suffering.


title: Pleasure

text: Pleasure is often regarded as a bipolar construct, meaning that the two ends of the spectrum from pleasure to suffering are mutually exclusive. That is part of the circumplex model of affect. Yet, some lines of research suggest that people do experience pleasure and suffering at the same time, giving rise to so-called mixed feelings. Pleasure is considered one of the core dimensions of emotion. It can be described as the positive evaluation that forms the basis for several more elaborate evaluations such as "agreeable" or "nice". As such, pleasure is an affect and not an emotion, as it forms one component of several different emotions. The clinical condition of being unable to experience pleasure from usually enjoyable activities is called anhedonia. An active aversion to obtaining pleasure is called hedonophobia.


title: Pleasure

text: The degree to which something or someone is experienced as pleasurable not only depends on its objective attributes (appearance, sound, taste, texture, etc.), but on beliefs about its history, about the circumstances of its creation, about its rarity, fame, or price, and on other non-intrinsic attributes, such as the social status or identity it conveys. For example, a sweater that has been worn by a celebrity is more desired than an otherwise identical sweater that has not, though considerably less so if it has been washed.


title: Pleasure

text: Pleasure-seeking "behavior" is a common phenomenon and may indeed dominate our conduct at times. The thesis of psychological hedonism generalizes this insight by holding that all our actions aim at increasing pleasure and avoiding pain. This is usually understood in combination with egoism, i.e. that each person only aims at her own happiness. Our actions rely on beliefs about what causes pleasure. False beliefs may mislead us and thus our actions may fail to result in pleasure, but even failed actions are "motivated" by considerations of pleasure, according to "psychological hedonism". The paradox of hedonism states that pleasure-seeking behavior commonly fails also in another way. It asserts that being motivated by pleasure is self-defeating in the sense that it leads to less actual pleasure than following other motives.


title: Pleasure

text: Sigmund Freud formulated his pleasure principle in order to account for the effect pleasure has on our behavior. It states that there is a strong, inborn tendency of our mental life to seek immediate gratification whenever an opportunity presents itself. This tendency is opposed by the reality principle, which constitutes a learned capacity to delay immediate gratification in order to take the real consequences of our actions into account. Freud also described the "pleasure principle" as a positive feedback mechanism that motivates the organism to recreate the situation it has just found pleasurable, and to avoid past situations that caused pain.


title: Pleasure

text: A "cognitive bias" is a systematic tendency of thinking and judging in a way that deviates from a normative criterion, especially from the demands of rationality. Cognitive biases in regard to "pleasure" include the "peak–end rule", the "focusing illusion", the "nearness bias" and the "future bias".


title: Pleasure

text: The "peak–end rule" affects how we remember the pleasantness or unpleasantness of experiences. It states that our overall impression of past events is determined for the most part not by the total pleasure and suffering it contained but by how it felt at its "peaks" and at its "end". For example, the memory of a painful colonoscopy is improved if the examination is extended by three minutes in which the scope is still inside but not moved anymore, resulting in a moderately uncomfortable sensation. This extended colonoscopy, despite involving more pain overall, is remembered less negatively due to the reduced pain at the end. This even increases the likelihood for the patient to return for subsequent procedures. Daniel Kahneman explains this distortion in terms of the difference between two selves: the "experiencing self", which is aware of pleasure and pain as they are happening, and the "remembering self", which shows the aggregate pleasure and pain over an extended period of time. The distortions due to the "peak–end rule" happen on the level of the "remembering self". Our tendency to rely on the "remembering self" can often lead us to pursue courses of action that are not in our best self-interest.


title: Pleasure

text: A closely related bias is the "focusing illusion". The "illusion" occurs when people consider the impact of one specific factor on their overall happiness. They tend to greatly exaggerate the importance of that factor, while overlooking the numerous other factors that would in most cases have a greater impact.


title: Pleasure

text: The "nearness bias" and the "future bias" are two different forms of violating the principle of "temporal neutrality". This principle states that the temporal location of a benefit or a harm is not important for its normative significance: a rational agent should care to the same extent about all parts of their life. The "nearness bias", also discussed under the labels "present bias" or "temporal discounting", refers to our tendency to violate "temporal neutrality" in regards to temporal distance from the present. On the positive side, we prefer pleasurable experiences to be near rather than distant. On the negative side, we prefer painful experiences to be distant rather than near. The "future bias" refers to our tendency to violate "temporal neutrality" in regards to the direction of time. On the positive side, we prefer pleasurable experiences to be in the future rather than in the past. On the negative side, we prefer painful experiences to be in the past rather than in the future.


title: Pleasure

text: While all pleasurable stimuli can be seen as rewards, some rewards do not evoke pleasure. Based upon the incentive salience model of reward – the attractive and motivational property of a stimulus that induces approach behavior and consummatory behavior – an intrinsic reward has two components: a "wanting" or desire component that is reflected in approach behavior, and a "liking" or pleasure component that is reflected in consummatory behavior. Some research indicates that similar mesocorticolimbic circuitry is activated by quite diverse pleasures, suggesting a common neural currency. Some commentators opine that our current understanding of how pleasure happens within us remains poor, but that scientific advance gives optimism for future progress.


title: Pleasure

text: In the past, there has been debate as to whether pleasure is experienced by other animals rather than being an exclusive property of humankind; however, it is now known that animals do experience pleasure, as measured by objective behavioral and neural hedonic responses to pleasurable stimuli.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The United States national cricket team is the team that represents the United States in international cricket. The team was formerly organised by the United States of America Cricket Association (USACA), which became an associate member of the International Cricket Council (ICC) in 1965. In June 2017, the USACA was expelled by the ICC due to governance and financing issues, with the U.S. team being temporarily overseen by ICC Americas until a new sanctioning body was established. In January 2019, associate membership was officially granted to USA Cricket.


title: United States national cricket team

text: A U.S. representative team participated in the first international cricket match, played against Canada in 1844. For a century and a half, the U.S. national team seldom played against other national teams. It played mostly against Canada (in the annual Auty Cup), or against visiting teams from other countries.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The United States made its international tournament debut at the 1979 ICC Trophy in England; it has since missed only two editions of the tournament (now known as the World Cup Qualifier). After winning the 2004 ICC Six Nations Challenge, the team qualified for the 2004 ICC Champions Trophy, playing its first two One Day International (ODI) matches. In April 2018, the ICC decided to grant full Twenty20 International (T20I) status to all its members. Therefore, all Twenty20 matches played between the United States and other ICC members after January 1, 2019, are a full T20I. The first ever T20I to be played by the United States was scheduled against the United Arab Emirates in March 2019.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In the World Cricket League, the US finished fourth in the 2019 Division Two tournament, losing a third place playoff to Papua New Guinea, a match which was designated as an ODI (and thus became the United States' third-ever ODI match, 15 years after their last). This fourth-place finish was sufficient to earn the country a place in 2019–22 ICC Cricket World Cup League 2, in which all the team's matches would carry ODI status. The team's first domestic ODI series began on September 13, 2019, hosting Papua New Guinea and Namibia.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The British brought cricket to the Thirteen Colonies in the early 18th century. Cricket further grew in the 18th century. It is understood from anecdotal evidence that George Washington was a strong supporter of cricket, participating on at least one occasion in a game of wicket with his troops at Valley Forge during the American Revolution. John Adams was recorded as saying in Congress that if leaders of cricket clubs could be called "presidents", there was no reason why the leader of the new nation could not be called the same.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In 1844, the United States participated in the first international cricket match. This was played against Canada at the St George's Cricket Club Ground, Bloomingdale Park, New York. This first international sporting event was attended by 20,000 people and established the longest international sporting rivalry in the modern era. Wagers of around $120,000 were placed on the outcome of the match. This is equivalent to around $1.5 million in 2007.


title: United States national cricket team

text: Sides from England toured North America (taking in both the US and Canada) following the English cricket seasons of 1859, 1868 and 1872. These were organized as purely commercial ventures. Most of the matches of these early touring teams were played "against odds", that is to say the home team was permitted to have more than eleven players (usually twenty-two) in order to make a more even contest.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In spite of cricket's popularity in the 18th and early 19th centuries, the game was supplanted by baseball in the 1850s and 1860s. As interest in baseball rose, the rules of that game were changed slightly to increase its popularity. For example, easily manufactured round bats were introduced to contrast the flat bats of cricket.


title: United States national cricket team

text: Another reason for cricket's decline in popularity may be that in the late 19th century American cricket remained an amateur sport reserved for the wealthy while England and Australia were developing a professional version of the game. As cricket standards improved with professionalism elsewhere in the world many North American cricket clubs stayed stubbornly elitist. Clubs such as Philadelphia CC and Merion abandoned cricket and converted their facilities to other sports. Some city cricket clubs unknowingly contributed to their own demise by sponsoring auxiliary baseball teams.


title: United States national cricket team

text: By 1900, baseball was dominant numerically and culturally in the US. In addition, when the first international body for the sport, the Imperial Cricket Conference (ICC) was formed in 1909, membership was restricted to countries in the British Empire. This undercut the popularity of cricket outside the empire and reduced momentum to professionalize cricket in the US. Whether a more open ICC would have maintained or increased the momentum remains an open question, however. Regardless of its cause, the game did not flourish in the United States the way it did in the British Empire. From the 1880s until the outbreak of World War I, cricket in the US was dominated not by a truly national team, but by the amateur Philadelphia cricket team, which was selected from clubs in cricket's American stronghold – the Philadelphia metropolitan area.


title: United States national cricket team

text: A tour of North America by the Australians in 1913 saw two first-class games (both won by the tourists) against a combined Canada–USA team.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The Philadelphian cricket team was a team that represented Philadelphia in first-class cricket between 1878 and 1913. Even though the United States had played the first ever international cricket match against Canada in 1844, the sport began a slow decline in the country. This decline was furthered by the rise in popularity of baseball. In Philadelphia, however, the sport remained very popular and from the end of the 19th century until the outbreak of World War I, the city produced a first class team that rivaled many others in the world. The team was composed of players from the four chief cricket clubs in Philadelphia–Germantown, Merion, Belmont, and Philadelphia. Players from smaller clubs, such as Tioga and Moorestown, and local colleges, such as Haverford and Penn, also played for the Philadelphians. Over its 35 years, the team played in 89 first-class cricket matches. Of those, 29 were won, 46 were lost, 13 were drawn and one game was abandoned before completion.


title: United States national cricket team

text: Arguably, the greatest American cricketer ever played for Philadelphia during this period. John Barton King was a very skilled batsman, but really proved his worth as a bowler. During his career, he set numerous records in North America and at least one first-class bowling record. He competed with and succeeded against the best cricketers in the world from England and Australia. King was the dominant bowler on his team when it toured England in 1897, 1903, and 1908. He dismissed batsmen with his unique delivery, which he called "the angler", and helped to perfect swing bowling in the sport. Many of the great bowlers of today still use the strategies and techniques that he developed. Sir Pelham Warner described Bart King as one of the finest bowlers of all time, and Donald Bradman called him "America's greatest cricketing son."


title: United States national cricket team

text: On June 28, 1913, the Philadelphians played the last first-class game on the mainland for more than 90 years. Games were played in the US Virgin Islands in the interim, which is considered as part of the West Indies by the ICC. The team had played an American national side 6 times between 1885 and 1894. The United States team won one of these matches, lost two, and earned a draw in three. Cricket remained a minor pastime in the United States until the mid-1960s, when ICC reforms allowed associate members to join.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In 1965, Clifford Severn made his USA debut at 39, alongside his young brother Winston, in a two-day match against Canada at Calgary's Riley Park as part of the longest running international rivalry in international cricket, now known as the Auty Cup. A year later in the return contest at the C. Aubrey Smith field in Los Angeles, USA won by 54 runs.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In 1965, the Imperial Cricket Conference changed its name to the International Cricket Conference. In addition, new rules were adopted to permit the election of countries from outside the Commonwealth. This led to the expansion of the Conference, with the admission of Associate Members, including the United States. Today cricket is played in all fifty states.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The USA have played in every edition of the ICC Trophy, though they didn't pass the first round until the 1990 tournament in the Netherlands. They reached the plate final of the 1994 tournament, but opted not to play due to prior travel arrangements. They finished twelfth in 1997.


title: United States national cricket team

text: USA finished sixth in the 2001 ICC Trophy, their best performance to date. They have also played in every edition of the ICC Americas Championship, winning in 2002.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In 2004, the United States cricket team played a first-class match as part of the first ICC Intercontinental Cup. The matches against Canada and Bermuda were the first in many years. The team won the ICC 6 Nations Challenge beating Scotland, Namibia, the Netherlands, and the UAE on net run rate by 0.028 of a run.


title: United States national cricket team

text: Winning the ICC Six Nations meant that they qualified for the ICC Champions Trophy 2004 in England. Here the USA played their first ever One Day International match against New Zealand at The Oval on September 10, 2004.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The 2005 ICC Trophy represented a chance for the US to re-establish themselves on the world stage and qualify for the 2007 World Cup. A poor showing saw them finish at the bottom of their group, with four losses and a match abandoned due to rain from their five group fixtures. This failure robbed the USA of the prize of full One Day International status on offer to the World Cup qualifiers. This failure was compounded on August 9, 2005, when the ICC removed the US from the 2005 ICC Intercontinental Cup after legal disputes prevented them from naming a squad.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The United States made their return to international cricket in August 2006 when they participated in Division One of the ICC Americas Championship in Canada. They finished second in the five team tournament.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In 2007 the United States were to visit Darwin, Australia to take part in Division Three of the ICC World Cricket League. A top two finish in this tournament would have qualified them for Division Two of the same tournament later in the year. However, amid internal disputes over the constitution of the USACA, the team was forced to withdraw after the ICC suspended the USACA in March 2007. The dispute was resolved in early 2008, and the suspension was lifted on April 1 of that year.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The team's reinstatement permitted them to enter the World Cricket League in Division Five for 2008 in Jersey. The team made it through the Group Stage tied for first in their division with a 4–0–0 record (one match abandoned), but lost both their semi-final match with Jersey and their third-place play-off with Nepal.


title: United States national cricket team

text: USA finished second in the 2010 Division Five after losing the final against Nepal and won promotion to 2010 Division Four. They continued their climb in more emphatic style by finishing first in 2010 Division Four, demolishing Italy in the final. They were promoted to 2011 Division Three where they took last place and were relegated to 2012 Division Four. There they finished in second place, and were promoted back to 2013 Division Three. They remained in Division Three after finishing in third place, but were relegated after finishing fifth in 2014 Division Three.


title: United States national cricket team

text: On June 26, 2015, the ICC again suspended USACA, this time because an ICC review "had expressed significant concerns about the governance, finance, reputation and cricketing activities of USACA". This suspension does not impact the National Team playing Matches, but instead cuts off ICC funding and stops USACA from being able to approve any events held in the USA (although the ICC can still approve events held in the United States). This suspension will be upheld until USACA can show the ICC that "conditions relating to governance, finance and its cricket activities" have improved.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In the 2016 Division Four the USA finished second, with a 3–2 record and was promoted to 2017 Division Three. In the 2017 Division Three competition, the USA finished fourth, with a 2–3 record. The third place match was rained out and finished with no result. The USA remained in Division Three.


title: United States national cricket team

text: On June 22, 2017, at the ICC Annual Conference in London, the ICC Full Council voted unanimously to expel the USACA, following a Board recommendation in April, and a recent Dispute Resolution Committee hearing before Michael Beloff, which concluded in June 2017. This included its refusal to ratify an ICC-approved constitution. In January 2019, a new sanctioning body known as USA Cricket was officially admitted by the ICC as a new associate member.


title: United States national cricket team

text: After beating Singapore in the final match of the 2018 ICC World Cricket League Division Three, the United States were promoted to the Division Two for the first time. In April 2019, after finishing in the top 4 of the 2019 Division Two tournament, the United States qualified for the 2019–22 ICC Cricket World Cup League 2—which offers an opportunity to advance to the 2022 Cricket World Cup Qualifier. All matches in the Cricket World Cup League 2 are played in the One Day International format.


title: United States national cricket team

text: As of 2019, all ICC members were granted Twenty20 International (T20I) status. The United States made its T20I debut on March 15, 2019, against the United Arab Emirates at the ICC Academy Ground in Dubai.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In November 2021, Ireland announced that it would play a five-match limited overs series against the United States in December 2021, leading into its ODI series against the West Indies in January 2022. This marked the first time that the United States had ever hosted a bilateral series with a Test nation. The series began with two T20Is; after a slow start, a high-scoring partnership of Sushant Modani and Gajanand Singh bolstered the team during the second half of its innings, contributing to a total haul of 188 runs. With Ireland falling short by 26 runs, the United States achieved its first-ever victory in an international match against a Test nation.


title: United States national cricket team

text: Ireland split the T20I series in the second match; batting first, the team was bowled out at 150, but the United States fell short in their innings by nine runs. The series was expected to continue on with ODI matches. However, on December 28, 2021, the entirety of the ODI series was cancelled after multiple postponements due to COVID-19 issues.


title: United States national cricket team

text: The only U.S. cricket stadiums to meet international standards and have ODI status are the Central Broward Regional Park in Lauderhill, Florida and Moosa Stadium in Pearland, Texas. Other established U.S. facilities include Church Street Park in Morrisville, North Carolina, the Prairie View Cricket Complex in Houston, Texas, and the Leo Magnus Cricket Complex in Los Angeles, California. The AirHogs Stadium, in which a lease was acquired for, is also currently under construction to build a world-class cricket stadium.


title: United States national cricket team

text: This lists all the active players who have been selected in the team's most recent squad. Updated as on 17 August 2022.


title: United States national cricket team

text: Eight players have represented the United States as captain. The first American captain was Anil Kashkari, who was reprised of his role in 1979.


title: United States national cricket team

text: Richard Staple was the first American captain to captain the side in a One Day International (ODI), which occurred in 2004. After Staple retired in 2005, Steve Massiah took over his role as captain. However, Sushil Nadkarni captained the American side during the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In October 2013, Neil McGarrell was named USA's captain in a 15-man squad for the 2013 ICC World Twenty20 Qualifier in the UAE. McGarrell had played four Tests and 17 ODIs for West Indies between 1998 and 2001. He made his debut for USA in 2012 against Canada and takes over from Steve Massiah who had captained for seven years.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In October 2018, Saurabh Netravalkar took over as captain of the team, after Ibrahim Khaleel was sacked. Khaleel was elected captain in 2017 and under his captainship USA won Auty Cup after a long gap.


title: United States national cricket team

text: In May 2019, the ICC announced the following schedule of Tri-Series involving The United States cricket team, as part of the 2019–22 ICC Cricket World Cup League 2. Each Tri-Series will have four scheduled One Day International matches for each team. This guarantees at least 36 scheduled ODI for each team before January 2022.


title: Strikebreaker

text: A strikebreaker (sometimes called a scab, blackleg, or knobstick) is a person who works despite a strike. Strikebreakers are usually individuals who were not employed by the company before the trade union dispute but hired after or during the strike to keep the organization running. Strikebreakers may also refer to workers (union members or not) who cross picket lines to work.


title: Strikebreaker

text: The use of strikebreakers is a worldwide phenomenon; many countries have passed laws outlawing their use to give more power to unionized workers. , strikebreakers were used far more frequently in the United States than in other industrialized countries.


title: Strikebreaker

text: The right to strike is not expressly mentioned in any convention of the International Labour Organization (ILO) the ILO's Freedom of Association Committee established principles on the right to strike through rulings. Among human rights treaties, only the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights contains a clause protecting the right to strike. Like the Social Charter of 1961, the Covenant permits each signatory country to abridge the right to strike.


title: Strikebreaker

text: The ILO Committee on Freedom of Association and other ILO bodies have interpreted all core ILO conventions as protecting the right to strike as an essential element of the freedom of association. For example, the ILO has ruled that "the right to strike is an intrinsic corollary of the right of association protected by Convention No. 87."


title: Strikebreaker

text: The ILO has also concluded striker replacement, while not in contravention of ILO agreements, carries with it significant risks for abuse and places trade union freedoms "in grave jeopardy."


title: Strikebreaker

text: The European Social Charter of 1961 was the first international agreement to expressly protect the right to strike. The European Union's Community Charter of the Fundamental Social Rights of Workers permits EU member states to regulate the right to strike.


title: Strikebreaker

text: In most European countries, strikebreakers are rarely used. Consequently, they are rarely if ever mentioned in most European national labor laws. As mentioned above, it is left to the European Union member states to determine their own policies.


title: Strikebreaker

text: Strikebreaking is also known as "black-legging" or "blacklegging". American lexicographer Stephanie Smith suggests that the word has to do with bootblacking or shoe polish, for an early occurrence of the word was in conjunction with an 1803 American bootmaker's strike. But British industrial relations expert J.G. Riddall notes that it may have a racist connotation, as it was used in this way in 1859 in the United Kingdom: "If you dare work we shall consider you as blacks..." Lexicographer Geoffrey Hughes, however, notes that "blackleg" and "scab" are both references to disease, as in the blackleg infectious bacterial disease of sheep and cattle caused by "Clostridium chauvoei". He dates the first use of the term "blackleg" in reference to strikebreaking to the United Kingdom in 1859. The use of the term blackleg for a strikebreaker was, however, previously recorded in 1832 during the trial of special constable George Weddell for killing and slaying Cuthbert Skipsey, a striking pitman, near Chirton, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. Hughes observes that the term was once generally used to indicate a scoundrel, a villain, or a disreputable person. However, the Northumbrian folk song "Blackleg Miner" is believed to originate from the 1844 strike, which would predate Hughes's reference. David John Douglass claims that the term "blackleg" has its origins in coal mining, as strikebreakers would often neglect to wash their legs, which would give away that they had been working whilst others had been on strike.


title: Strikebreaker

text: Hughes notes that the use of the term "scab" can be traced back to the Elizabethan era in England, and is much more clearly rooted in the concept of disease (e.g., a diseased person) and a sickened appearance. A traditional English proverb, which advises against gossip, is "He that is a blab is a scab".


title: Strikebreaker

text: John McIlroy has suggested that there is a distinction between a "blackleg" and a "scab". He defines a "scab" as an outsider who is recruited to replace a striking worker, whereas a "blackleg" is one already employed who goes against a democratic decision of their colleagues to strike, and instead continues to work. The fact that McIlroy specified that this should be a "democratic" decision has led the historian David Amos to question whether the Nottinghamshire miners in 1984–85 were true blacklegs, given the lack of a democratic vote on the strike.


title: Strikebreaker

text: Strikebreakers are also known as "knobsticks". The term appears derived from the word "knob", in the sense of something that sticks out, and from the card-playing term "nob", as someone who cheats.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: James Bradley Johnson (born September 13, 1968) is a former American football quarterback. During his 17-year career in the National Football League (NFL), Johnson played for the Minnesota Vikings, Washington Redskins, Tampa Bay Buccaneers, and Dallas Cowboys. He is best known for his time with the Buccaneers, whom he led to their Super Bowl XXXVII title over the Oakland Raiders.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson is also notable for being the first player in the NFL to complete a touchdown pass to himself, doing so in a 1997 game against the Carolina Panthers. He remained the only player to do so until Marcus Mariota repeated the feat in .


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Born in Marietta, Georgia, Brad Johnson attended Charles D. Owen High School in Black Mountain, North Carolina. At Owen High School, Johnson played football and basketball; he received All-American honors as quarterback on the football team and all-state honors as a member of the basketball team.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: After graduating from Owen High School in 1987, Johnson attended Florida State University. From 1987 to 1989, Johnson played on the Florida State Seminoles men's basketball team and started 11 games as a freshman. In 1988, Johnson joined the football team (under coach Bobby Bowden) at Florida State as a redshirt freshman and served as holder in every game and played two games as quarterback.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: In 1989 as a sophomore, Johnson was third-string quarterback behind Peter Tom Willis and Casey Weldon; Johnson completed 7 of 12 passes for 67 yards. Johnson won the 1990 Fiesta Bowl title with the Seminoles. As a junior in 1990, Johnson started the first six games of the season before being replaced by Weldon. With a 4-2 record starting those games, Johnson finished the 1990 season with 109-for-163 passing for a career-high 1,136 yards with 8 touchdowns and 5 interceptions. For the third consecutive season with Johnson, Florida State won a bowl game, the Blockbuster Bowl. Johnson would play nine games (with one start - a win) as a senior in 1991. On 37-for-61 passing for 462 yards, Johnson passed for 5 touchdowns and 3 interceptions, and Florida State won the Cotton Bowl Classic in 1992.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: In the 1992 NFL Draft, the Minnesota Vikings drafted Johnson in the 9th round as the 227th overall pick. As third-string quarterback behind starter Rich Gannon and backup Sean Salisbury, Johnson dressed only for one game as a rookie in 1992 but did not play. In 1993, Johnson continued to be the third-string quarterback for the first 10 games of the season and was inactive for the final six.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: In 1994, Johnson became backup to starter Warren Moon and played his first NFL regular season game in Week 3 (September 18). The Vikings won 42-14 over the Chicago Bears in that game, and Johnson completed 3 of 3 passes for 16 yards. Johnson would play in three more games in 1994. In Week 8 (October 30), a 36-13 win over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, Johnson completed 5 of 5 passes for 30 yards. Johnson had his first significant playing time in Week 15 (December 17), a 41-19 loss to the Detroit Lions. In that game, Johnson completed 14 of 29 passes for 104 yards.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: In the spring of 1995, Johnson joined the London Monarchs of the World League, an American football league based in Europe. With London, Johnson completed 194 of 328 passes for 2,227 yards, 13 touchdowns, and 14 interceptions. Johnson had the most completions of all World League quarterbacks in 1995. For his season with the Monarchs, Johnson earned £12,000. Back with the Minnesota Vikings in 1995, Johnson played five games that season. In a 44-24 victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers in Week 4 (September 24), Johnson completed one 36-yard pass. However, Minnesota lost 38-21 to the Green Bay Packers in Week 7 (October 22), a game in which Johnson completed 10 of 17 passes for 94 yards and one interception. In that game, Johnson also rushed once for 3 yards. In Week 11 (November 19), Johnson completed 5 of 7 passes for 70 yards in the Vikings' 43-24 win over the New Orleans Saints. Johnson had 9-for-11 passing for 72 yards but one interception in Week 14 (December 9), and Minnesota defeated the Cleveland Browns 27-11.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson started eight of twelve games in 1996. Twice, Johnson earned NFC Offensive Player of the Week honors, and he finished third in the NFC with an 89.4 passer rating. In the season opener against the Detroit Lions on September 1, Johnson played in the second half after starter Warren Moon suffered an ankle injury amid 5-for-14 passing. With 1:06 remaining in the fourth quarter, Johnson threw his first career touchdown pass, a 31-yard pass to Cris Carter that would clinch the 17-13 victory for Minnesota. Overall that game, Johnson completed 16 of 23 passes for 157 yards and rushed three times for 14 yards. Johnson started his first game of his career the following week on September 8 and led Minnesota to a 23-17 road win over the Atlanta Falcons. This victory marked the first time Minnesota started 2-0 since 1987. With 15-for-26 passing for 275 yards, Johnson threw for two touchdowns and one interception. Warren Moon would return as starter the following week. Johnson played again in Week 4 with one incomplete pass and saw significant playing time next in Week 8 (October 28), a 15-13 loss to the Chicago Bears. Again replacing an injured Warren Moon, Johnson completed 10 of 15 passes for 79 yards. In the final play of the game, Bryan Cox forced a fumble from Johnson. This was Johnson's only lost fumble of Johnson's five fumbles in 1996.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson started the next game in Week 9 (November 3), and the Vikings lost to the Kansas City Chiefs 21-6. With 22-for-42 passing, Johnson passed for 218 yards, 1 touchdown, and 2 interceptions and rushed three times for 12 yards. In a backup role in Week 10 (November 10), a 42-23 loss to the Seattle Seahawks, Johnson completed 8 of 12 passes for 123 yards and 1 touchdown and ran twice for 3 yards. Starting Week 11 (November 17), Johnson became the regular starter for the Vikings after Moon was again injured. Johnson led Minnesota to a 4-2 record to end the season. With a Week 15 (December 15) victory over the Tampa Bay Buccaneers 21-10, Minnesota clinched a playoff berth for the season. Johnson clinched the win for Minnesota with a 36-yard touchdown pass to Cris Carter, part of a 99-yard drive. Minnesota finished the regular season 9-7, second place in the NFC Central. Johnson made his postseason debut in the Vikings' game against the defending Super Bowl champion Dallas Cowboys on December 28, 1996. Minnesota lost to Dallas 40-15, as Johnson completed 15 of 27 passes for 208 yards, 1 touchdown, and 2 interceptions and rushed 14 yards on three carries for one touchdown.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Starting the first 12 games of 1997, Johnson led Minnesota to an 8-4 record, including a six-game winning streak from September 28 (Week 5) to November 9 (Week 10), before suffering a season-ending neck injury in Week 13. By Week 6, Johnson set a team record with 15 straight games with a touchdown pass. Johnson also had no interceptions in 109 consecutive passes in four consecutive games from October 12 to November 9. In the Vikings' 21-14 win over the Carolina Panthers on October 12 (Week 7), Johnson caught his own deflected pass and ran 3 yards for a touchdown. Johnson became the first player to complete a pass to himself for a touchdown in NFL history. This play won the ESPY award for NFL Play of the Year. In three games, Johnson led the Vikings to fourth-quarter comeback wins. Johnson finished 1997 fourth in the NFC with 20 touchdown passes and 3,036 passing yards.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: On the morning of the Week 13 "Monday Night Football" game, Johnson woke up with a sore neck and saw a chiropractor to be cleared to play. After Johnson passed only 15-for-30 for 117 yards and one interception and was sacked six times, coach Dennis Green benched Johnson and put in Randall Cunningham. The Vikings would lose to the Green Bay Packers 27-11. Cunningham would start the final three games of the season, and Minnesota finished the 1997 season 9-7, won the NFC Wild Card game, and lost the NFC Divisional round.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson started the first two games of 1998 for the Vikings, both victories. In the season opener, a 31-7 win over Tampa Bay, Johnson threw for 4 touchdowns and 1 interception over 189 yards and completed 15 of 25 passes. However, Johnson would complete only 18 of 31 passes the following game and throw for 1 touchdown and 2 interceptions before leaving the game during the fourth quarter with a sprained ankle. Randall Cunningham replaced Johnson, and Minnesota won Week 2 (September 13) over the St. Louis Rams 38-31. By Week 8, with Cunningham as starter, the Vikings had a perfect 7-0 record. Johnson returned to action in Week 9 (November 8), in a 31-24 win over the New Orleans Saints, after Cunningham injured his knee. With 28-for-38 passing over 316 yards, Johnson had one passing touchdown and 2 interceptions. However, Johnson broke his thumb on the first play of the third quarter. Cunningham returned as starter the following week, and Johnson next played in the Week 15 50-10 win over the Jacksonville Jaguars. Minnesota finished the 1998 season a franchise-best 15–1 and advanced to the NFC championship game, where they came a field goal short of the Super Bowl against the Atlanta Falcons. Following the season, Vikings coach Dennis Green formally named Randall Cunningham as starting quarterback and traded Brad Johnson to the Washington Redskins for a first, a future second, and a third-round draft pick.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: With 4,005 yards, 24 touchdowns, 13 interceptions, and a 90.0 passer rating, Johnson achieved career highs in passing yards, completions, touchdowns, and passer rating in 1999. His 316 completions set a Washington team record and his 4,005 passing yards ranks fifth all-time in Redskins history. He was also NFC Offensive Player of the Week twice that year again. One such Player of the Week honor came after Week 4 (October 3) after Johnson rallied the Redskins to a 38-36 win over the Carolina Panthers; the Panthers led 21-0 during the game.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: The following year in 2000 the Redskins went 8-8, Johnson threw more interceptions than touchdowns, and signed with Tampa Bay as a free agent during the offseason while Jeff George started in Washington for 2001. George would go on to have the worst stats in the league and was released for Tony Banks after the second game with a 0-2 start, while Johnson had a strong season in Tampa Bay and won a Super Bowl the following year.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: In 2001, Johnson was pursued by the Baltimore Ravens in the offseason (coached by Brian Billick, his former offensive coordinator with the Vikings) but he spurned them to join the Buccaneers. Johnson was reunited with former Vikings assistant-coach Tony Dungy for his first season with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers. That year, he broke the Buccaneers team records for passing yards with 3,406, completions with 340, and attempts with 540. In the 2002 season, he led the Buccaneers to their first Super Bowl championship and earned his second Pro Bowl appearance. He was helped in the Super Bowl by a defense that scored 21 of their 48 points. That year, Johnson also became the first Buccaneers QB to lead the NFC in passer rating at 92.9 and set new team records for passing touchdowns with 22, completion percentage with 62.3, consecutive passes without an interception with 187 and lowest interception percentage with 1.3%. He was NFC Offensive Player of the Week twice.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: On January 21, 2015, Johnson later admitted to bribing ball boys to alter the footballs used during the Super Bowl. According to Johnson: "I paid some guys off to get the balls right. I went and got all 100 footballs, and they took care of all of them." He also stated that he "did nothing wrong", and that he talked to opposing Oakland Raiders QB Rich Gannon beforehand and both agreed that they preferred not to use the slick, brand-new balls that the league provided for the game.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: In 2003, he won the NFL's "Quarterback Challenge" competition, in which he beat Pro Bowl QBs Tom Brady, Matt Hasselbeck, Jeff Garcia, Mark Brunell, Marc Bulger and others like Byron Leftwich and Joey Harrington in a skills competition with four parts involving accuracy, speed and mobility, long distance throw, and "No Huddle." Former teammate Sean Salisbury said that despite having big, strong arms and a great deep ball, Brad always played it safe and went for the fast and easy completion which earned him the nickname "Checkdown Charlie" among friends.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: After the Super Bowl, the Buccaneers ran into some problems. Although Johnson had good passing stats in 2003-2004 the year after the Super Bowl (3,811 yards, 26 touchdowns to break the Buccaneers' record again, 21 interceptions, and named 2003 Buccaneers MVP by the Tampa Sports Club) and 2004 (63% completion rate) they benched him the fourth game into the 2004 season because the team had gone 4–11 for the last 15 games Johnson started. When the backup quarterback, Chris Simms was injured they started third string quarterback Brian Griese instead of Johnson partly because of salary cap problems. Johnson asked out and was cut from the team at the end of the season. When he couldn't find a starting quarterback job, he signed with the Minnesota Vikings to be the backup quarterback.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: In 2005, Minnesota was struggling with now three-time Pro Bowler Daunte Culpepper starting at quarterback. Randy Moss had been traded in March of that year, and four-time Pro Bowl Center Matt Birk was injured so Culpepper was expected to carry the offense against the top defenses in the NFL. While playing without any offensive weapons, and falling behind early in games the Vikings began the season at 2–5 with Culpepper throwing twice as many interceptions – twelve – as touchdowns – six – and five fumbles (three lost) before tearing his MCL, ACL, and PCL in the seventh game.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson then took over as starting quarterback and the team then finished the season 7–2 with a six-game winning streak needing only one more win to go to the playoffs. Brad played very well and set a team record for lowest interception to attempt ratio (1.3% – same as his record in Tampa) which was the lowest in the NFL among starting QBs. While starting against teams that included the second (Bears), fourth (Ravens), fifth (Steelers), and seventh (Packers) ranked defenses in the NFL his passer rating was the third best in the NFC among starting quarterbacks, and was also better than three QBs selected to the Pro Bowl. But he struggled in those particular games with the exception of the Bears game in which the Bears had already clinched the division and played all of their 2nd and 3rd stringers. He also scored more touchdowns per game than four selected to the Pro Bowl. And despite his age he threw just as many 40+ yard passes as top 29 yr old QB Peyton Manning - six - in seven fewer games, which was the same amount as his Super Bowl year which had four more games.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson was named the starting quarterback for the Vikings 2006 season, and a few days before the second game he turned 38 which made him the oldest starting quarterback in the league. Many felt his quick-release style was a good fit for then-new coach Brad Childress's highly touted West Coast system. The knowledge he had acquired from going to the playoffs under four different coaching systems and having winning records with seven different head coaches seemed to be an asset for first time head coach Childress. In the preseason, Johnson had a passer rating of 110.7, one of the top 10 in the league out of more than 100 quarterbacks who performed.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: However, in the regular season, Johnson struggled worse than Daunte Culpepper did in 2005, throwing eight touchdowns to fifteen interceptions. Midway through the season, he had already set an NFL record for passes completed short of a first down on third down in a season. Many fans grew restless for the benching of Johnson because of his conservative checkdowns, immobility, and at the same time reckless decisions which plagued the Vikings offense. His quarterback-rating on 3rd downs, with a lead, from behind, and in the red zone were the worst in the entire league. 31 QBs threw more touchdown passes while only 10 threw more interceptions than Johnson in the 2006 NFL season.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: On March 5, 2007, Johnson signed a three-year deal with the Dallas Cowboys to back up Tony Romo. Johnson played little in the 2007 season. He played in week 17 against the Washington Redskins, going 7-for-11 for 79 yards in the 27–6 loss.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: During the 2008 season, Romo suffered a broken pinkie finger on his throwing hand in week 6 against the Arizona Cardinals. Johnson started for the Cowboys during the next three weeks until the injury healed. In Johnson's week 7 start against the St. Louis Rams, he completed 17 of 34 passes for 234 yards with one touchdown and three interceptions. He also had one fumble in the 34–14 loss. In week 8, in a 13–9 win against the Tampa Bay Buccaneers, he passed for 122 yards and one touchdown to Roy Williams, and the Cowboys had the lowest total offensive yards in a winning game: 172 yards. In the week 9 game against the New York Giants, he completed 5 of 11 passes for 71 yards and had two passes intercepted. He was replaced by third-string quarterback Brooks Bollinger at the start of the second half. After the Cowboys' bye week, Romo returned from the broken finger to reclaim the starting role.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson ranks 63rd in career passer rating in NFL history as of January 2022, above Troy Aikman and Warren Moon, who are 71st and 77th respectively. Johnson went 72-53 as a starter and completed over 60% of his passes for 13 straight seasons (1995–2007), the first quarterback in NFL history to do so.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson eclipsed the 3,000-yard passing mark five times. In 1999, he became only the second Washington Redskins quarterback in franchise history to eclipse 4,000 yards. He had the top passer rating in the NFC in 2002 and he has earned NFC Offensive Player of the Week honors seven times in his career. He has also broken almost every passer record at Tampa Bay. To date, Johnson and Marcus Mariota are the only NFL quarterbacks to have thrown touchdown passes to themselves (Mariota doing it in the 2018 NFL playoffs). Johnson accomplished this against the Carolina Panthers in 1997, catching his own deflected pass, juking, and running three yards for a touchdown.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson has two children with his wife, Nikki. His brother-in-law is Mark Richt, former head football coach at the University of Georgia and the University of Miami. Johnson's father is Rick Johnson, who helped establish the Winshape Camps after working several years at Ridgecrest Camps. He currently resides in Athens, Georgia. Johnson's son, Max, is a quarterback for the Texas A&M Aggies football team.


title: Brad Johnson (American football)

text: Johnson has also joined the popular social media platform, TikTok, where he is verified and has developed a sizable following under the username @bigbadbrad14. He regularly posts videos of himself performing various trick shots using footballs and basketballs. He starts nearly every video with the phrase “Big bad Brad here, back by popular demand…” and follows it with a humorous phrase followed by the trick shot.


title: The Public Enemy

text: The Public Enemy (Enemies of the Public in the UK) is a 1931 American all-talking pre-Code gangster film produced and distributed by Warner Bros. The film was directed by William A. Wellman and stars James Cagney, Jean Harlow, Edward Woods, Donald Cook and Joan Blondell. The film relates the story of a young man's rise in the criminal underworld in prohibition-era urban America. The supporting players include Beryl Mercer, Murray Kinnell, and Mae Clarke. The screenplay is based on an unpublished novel—"Beer and Blood" by two former newspapermen, John Bright and Kubec Glasmon—who had witnessed some of Al Capone's murderous gang rivalries in Chicago. In 1998, "The Public Enemy" was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".


title: The Public Enemy

text: As youngsters in 1900s Chicago, Irish-Americans Tom Powers and his lifelong friend Matt Doyle engage in petty theft, selling stolen items to "Putty Nose". Putty Nose persuades them to join his gang on a fur warehouse robbery, assuring them he will take care of them if anything goes wrong. When Tom is startled by a stuffed bear, he shoots it, alerting the police, who kill gang member Larry Dalton. Chased by a cop, Tom and Matt gun him down. However, when they go to Putty Nose for help, they find he has left town.


title: The Public Enemy

text: Tom's straitlaced older brother Mike Powers tries and fails to talk Tom into giving up crime. Tom keeps his activities secret from his doting mother. When America enters World War I in 1917, Mike enlists in the Marines.


title: The Public Enemy

text: In 1920, with Prohibition about to go into effect, Paddy Ryan recruits Tom and Matt as beer "salesmen" (enforcers) in his bootlegging business. He allies himself with noted gangster Samuel "Nails" Nathan. As the bootlegging business becomes ever more lucrative, Tom and Matt flaunt their wealth.


title: The Public Enemy

text: Mike finds out that his brother's money comes not from politics, as Tom claims, but from bootlegging, and declares that Tom's success is based on nothing more than "beer and blood". Tom retorts in disgust: "Your hands ain't so clean. You killed and liked it. You didn't get them medals for holding hands with them Germans."


title: The Public Enemy

text: Tom and Matt acquire girlfriends, Kitty and Mamie, respectively. Tom eventually tires of Kitty; when she complains once too often, he angrily pushes half a grapefruit into her face. He then drops her for Gwen Allen. At a restaurant on the night of Matt's wedding reception to Mamie, Tom and Matt recognize Putty Nose and follow him home. Begging for his life, Putty plays a song on the piano that he had entertained Tom and Matt with when they were children. Tom shoots him in the back.


title: The Public Enemy

text: Tom gives his mother a large wad of money, but Mike rejects the gift. Tom tears up the banknotes and throws them in his brother's face. "Nails" Nathan dies in a horse-riding accident, prompting Tom to find the horse and shoot it. A rival gang headed by "Schemer" Burns takes advantage of the disarray resulting from Nathan's death, precipitating a gang war.


title: The Public Enemy

text: Later, Matt is gunned down in public, with Tom narrowly escaping the same fate. Furious, Tom takes it upon himself to single-handedly settle scores with Burns and some of his men. Tom is seriously wounded in the shootout and ends up in the hospital. When his mother, brother, and Matt's sister Molly come to see him, he reconciles with Mike and agrees to reform. However, Paddy warns Mike that Tom has been kidnapped by the Burns mob from the hospital. Later, his dead body is returned to the Powers home.


title: The Public Enemy

text: The screenplay which was written by Harvey F. Thew was based on a novel which was never published called "Beer and Blood", by John Bright and Kubec Glasmon. Bright and Glasmon based their novel on actual people, having witnessed some of Al Capone's murderous gang rivalries in Chicago. Warner Bros. studio head Darryl F. Zanuck bought the rights to the novel and assigned director William A. Wellman to direct the film. Wellman, who had served in World War I like the brother of the main character, told Zanuck: "I'll bring you the toughest, most violent picture you ever did see".


title: The Public Enemy

text: Edward Woods was originally cast in the lead role of Tom Powers and James Cagney was cast as Tom's best friend Matt Doyle, until director Wellman decided Cagney would be more effective in the part and switched the two actors but never reshot the sequences with the characters as children, which is why the child playing Cagney's role looks like Woods while the one playing Woods' role looks like Cagney. Another reason for the switch is that the sound technology used in "The Public Enemy" was superior to that used in earlier films, making it no longer imperative to have an actor in the lead role who had impeccable enunciation.


title: The Public Enemy

text: Louise Brooks was the original choice for Gwen Allen, a woman with self-confessed weakness for bad men. She refused the role, which went to a younger actress, Jean Harlow. Brooks' name was in studio records/casting call lists playing "Bess" in this movie, but she and her character did not appear. Brooks later explained herself to Wellman (who had directed her in "Beggars of Life" (1928)) by saying that she hated making pictures because she simply "hated Hollywood". In the opinion of Brooks's biographer Barry Paris, "turning down "Public Enemy" marked the real end of Louise Brooks's film career".


title: The Public Enemy

text: Tom's first girlfriend Kitty was played by Mae Clarke, who was uncredited. Kitty is eventually dropped off by Tom for Gwen after he pushes half a grapefruit into her face, the most famous scene in the movie. Joan Blondell played Mamie, Matt's girlfriend. She had already worked with Cagney in "Sinners' Holiday" (1930) and would work with him on two films which also came out this year: "Other Men's Women" and "Blonde Crazy". Other films that they worked together on were "The Crowd Roars" (1932), "Footlight Parade" (1933) and "He Was Her Man" (1934). Cagney once said that Blondell was the only woman he loved besides his wife. Donald Cook played Tom's brother, Mike.


title: The Public Enemy

text: Filming took place in January and February 1931, with a small budget of $151,000. During filming, Cagney also made "Smart Money", co-starring Edward G. Robinson, who had finished his breakthrough film "Little Caesar".


title: The Public Enemy

text: In the scene where Mike Powers punches his brother Tom, Wellman privately took Donald Cook aside and, explaining his desire for authenticity in Tom's reaction, asked the actor to really hit Cagney. Cook played his part a bit too well, and he struck Cagney in the mouth with such force, he actually broke one of Cagney's teeth. Yet in spite of his genuine shock and pain, Cagney stayed in character and played out the rest of the scene. In another incident, live ammunition was used in a scene where Tom Powers ducks around the corner of a building to take cover from machine gun fire; the use of live ammunition was common practice at the time. The bullets struck the wall of the building at the position where Cagney's head had been just a moment before.


title: The Public Enemy

text: In a 1973 interview featured in the Turner Classic Movies documentary "The Men Who Made The Movies: William Wellman", Wellman said he added the grapefruit "hitting" to the scene, because when he and his wife at the time would get into fights, she would never talk or give any expression. Since she always had a grapefruit for breakfast, he always wanted to put the grapefruit into her face just to get a reaction out of her, so she would show some emotion; he felt that this scene gave him the opportunity to rid himself of that temptation.


title: The Public Enemy

text: Some, such as film critic Ben Mankiewicz, have asserted that Mae Clarke's surprised and seemingly somewhat angry reaction to the grapefruit was genuine, as she had not been told to expect the unscripted action. However, in her autobiography, Clarke stated that Cagney had told her prior to that take what he planned to do. She said that her only genuine surprise came later, when she saw the grapefruit take of the scene appear in the final film, as it had been her understanding that they were shooting it only as a joke to amuse the crew.


title: The Public Enemy

text: According to Cagney, Clarke's ex-husband had the grapefruit scene timed, and would buy a ticket just before that scene went onscreen, go enjoy the scene, leave, then come back during the next show just in time to see only that scene again. The grapefruit-to-the-face incident from "The Public Enemy" is parodied years later in the 1961 Cagney movie "One, Two, Three" when Cagney threatens Otto (Horst Buchholz) with a half grapefruit but then decides against doing so.


title: The Public Enemy

text: The film featured a prologue "apprising the audience that the hoodlums and terrorists of the underworld must be exposed and the glamour ripped from them" and an epilogue "pointing the moral that civilization is on her knees and inquiring loudly as to what is to be done." At the film's premiere in New York City, the film's prologue was preceded by a "brief stage tableau, with sinuous green lighting, which shows a puppet gangster shooting another puppet gangster in the back."


title: The Public Enemy

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film received a 100% "Fresh" rating based on 29 reviews, with a weighted average of 8.41/10.


title: The Public Enemy

text: Andre Sennwald, who reviewed the film for "The New York Times" upon its April 1931 release, called it "just another gangster film at the Strand, weaker than most in its story, stronger than most in its acting, and, like most, maintaining a certain level of interest through the last burst of machine-gun fire"; Woods and Cagney give "remarkably lifelike portraits of young hoodlums" and "Beryl Mercer as Tom's mother, Robert Emmett O'Connor as a gang chief, and Donald Cook as Tom's brother, do splendidly."


title: The Public Enemy

text: "Time" magazine called "The Public Enemy" "well-told" and noted "Unlike "City Streets", this is not a Hugoesque fable of gangsters fighting among themselves, but a documentary drama of the bandit standing against society. It carries to its ultimate absurdity the fashion for romanticizing gangsters, for even in defeat the public enemy is endowed with grandeur." "Variety" called it "low-brow material given such workmanship as to make it high-brow" which attempts to "square everything [with] a foreword and postscript moralizing on the gangster as a menace to the public welfare."


title: The Public Enemy

text: A theatre in Times Square ran "The Public Enemy" 24 hours a day during its initial release. At the 4th Academy Awards, the film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Story, losing to "The Dawn Patrol".


title: The Public Enemy

text: In 1989, an animatronics version of a scene from "The Public Enemy" was incorporated into The Great Movie Ride at the Disney-MGM Studios theme park in Orlando, Florida. In 1998, "The Public Enemy" was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". In 2001, the "Sopranos" episode "Proshai, Livushka" featured title character Tony Soprano watching scenes from the film, becoming overwhelmed with emotion. In 2003 the character of Tom Powers was among the AFI's 100 Years...100 Heroes and Villains, placing 42nd in the villain list. In 2008, the film appeared on one of the AFI's 10 Top 10 lists—the best ten films in ten "classic" American film genres. "The Public Enemy" was listed as the eighth best in the gangster film genre.


title: The Public Enemy

text: The film was re-released in 1941 after the Production Code was put into effect. Three scenes from the film were cut because of the Code. One is of a markedly effeminate tailor measuring Tom for a suit, another where Mamie serves Matt breakfast in bed, and the third showing Tom being taken advantage of by Paddy Ryan's girlfriend while hiding out in her apartment. These three scenes were later restored for all DVD and Blu-ray releases, and on Turner Classic Movies.


title: The Public Enemy

text: The film was also re-released in 1954, with a written prologue added before the opening credits, advising that gangsters such as Tom Powers and Caesar "Rico" Bandello, the title character in "Little Caesar" (played by Edward G. Robinson), are a menace that the public must confront.


title: Founder effect

text: In population genetics, the founder effect is the loss of genetic variation that occurs when a new population is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger population. It was first fully outlined by Ernst Mayr in 1942, using existing theoretical work by those such as Sewall Wright. As a result of the loss of genetic variation, the new population may be distinctively different, both genotypically and phenotypically, from the parent population from which it is derived. In extreme cases, the founder effect is thought to lead to the speciation and subsequent evolution of new species.


title: Founder effect

text: In the figure shown, the original population has nearly equal numbers of blue and red individuals. The three smaller founder populations show that one or the other color may predominate (founder effect), due to random sampling of the original population. A population bottleneck may also cause a founder effect, though it is not strictly a new population.


title: Founder effect

text: The founder effect occurs when a small group of migrants—not genetically representative of the population from which they came—establish in a new area. In addition to founder effects, the new population is often very small, so it shows increased sensitivity to genetic drift, an increase in inbreeding, and relatively low genetic variation.


title: Founder effect

text: In genetics, a Founder Mutation is a mutation that appears in the DNA of one or more individuals which are founders of a distinct population. Founder mutations initiate with changes that occur in the DNA and can be passed down to other generations. Any organism—from a simple virus to something complex like a mammal—whose progeny carry its mutation has the potential to express the founder effect, for instance a goat or a human.


title: Founder effect

text: Founder mutations originate in long stretches of DNA on a single chromosome; indeed, the original haplotype is the whole chromosome. As the generations progress, the proportion of the haplotype that is common to all carriers of the mutation is shortened (due to genetic recombination). This shortening allows scientists to roughly estimate the age of the mutation.


title: Founder effect

text: The founder effect is a special case of genetic drift, occurring when a small group in a population splinters off from the original population and forms a new one. The new colony may have less genetic variation than the original population, and through the random sampling of alleles during reproduction of subsequent generations, continue rapidly towards fixation. This consequence of inbreeding makes the colony more vulnerable to extinction.


title: Founder effect

text: When a newly formed colony is small, its founders can strongly affect the population's genetic makeup far into the future. In humans, who have a slow reproduction rate, the population will remain small for many generations, effectively amplifying the drift effect generation after generation until the population reaches a certain size. Alleles which were present but relatively rare in the original population can move to one of two extremes. The most common one is that the allele is soon lost altogether, but the other possibility is that the allele survives and within a few generations has become much more dispersed throughout the population. The new colony can experience an increase in the frequency of recessive alleles, as well, and as a result, an increased number who are homozygous for certain recessive traits.


title: Founder effect

text: The variation in gene frequency between the original population and colony may also trigger the two groups to diverge significantly over the course of many generations. As the variance, or genetic distance, increases, the two separated populations may become distinctively different, both genetically and phenotypically, although not only genetic drift, but also natural selection, gene flow and mutation all contribute to this divergence. This potential for relatively rapid changes in the colony's gene frequency led most scientists to consider the founder effect (and by extension, genetic drift) a significant driving force in the evolution of new species. Sewall Wright was the first to attach this significance to random drift and small, newly isolated populations with his shifting balance theory of speciation. Following behind Wright, Ernst Mayr created many persuasive models to show that the decline in genetic variation and small population size accompanying the founder effect were critically important for new species to develop. However, much less support for this view is shown today, since the hypothesis has been tested repeatedly through experimental research, and the results have been equivocal at best. Speciation by genetic drift is a specific case of peripatric speciation which in itself occurs in rare instances. It takes place when a random change in genetic frequency of population favours the survival of a few organisms of the species with rare genes which cause reproductive mutation. These surviving organisms then breed among themselves over a long period of time to create a whole new species whose reproductive systems or behaviors are no longer compatible with the original population.


title: Founder effect

text: Serial founder effects have occurred when populations migrate over long distances. Such long-distance migrations typically involve relatively rapid movements followed by periods of settlement. The populations in each migration carry only a subset of the genetic diversity carried from previous migrations. As a result, genetic differentiation tends to increase with geographic distance as described by the "isolation by distance" model. The migration of humans out of Africa is characterized by serial founder effects. Africa has the highest degree of human genetic diversity of any continent, which is consistent with an African origin of modern humans.


title: Founder effect

text: Founder populations are essential to the study of island biogeography and island ecology. A natural "blank slate" is not easily found, but a classic series of studies on founder population effects was done following the catastrophic 1883 eruption of Krakatoa, which erased all life on the island. Another continuing study has been following the biocolonization of Surtsey, Iceland, a new volcanic island that erupted offshore between 1963 and 1967. An earlier event, the Toba eruption in Sumatra about 73,000 years ago, covered some parts of India with of ash, and must have coated the Nicobar Islands and Andaman Islands, much nearer in the ash fallout cone, with life-smothering layers, forcing the restart of their biodiversity.


title: Founder effect

text: However, not all founder effect studies are initiated after a natural disaster; some scientists study the reinstatement of a species that became locally extinct or hadn't existed there before. A study has been in place since 1958 studying the wolf/moose interaction on Isle Royale in Lake Superior after those animals naturally migrated there, perhaps on winter ice. Hajji and others, and Hundertmark & Van Daele, studied the current population statuses of past founder effects in Corsican red deer and Alaskan elk, respectively. Corsican red deer are still listed as an endangered species, decades after a severe bottleneck. They inhabit the Tyrrhenian islands and surrounding mainlands currently, and before the bottleneck, but Hajji and others wanted to know how the deer originally got to the islands, and from what parent population or species they were derived. Through molecular analysis, they were able to determine a possible lineage, with red deer from the islands of Corsica and Sardinia being the most related to one another. These results are promising, as the island of Corsica was repopulated with red deer from the Sardinian island after the original Corsican red deer population became extinct, and the deer now inhabiting the island of Corsica are diverging from those inhabiting Sardinia.


title: Founder effect

text: Kolbe and others set up a pair of genetically sequenced and morphologically examined lizards on seven small islands to watch each new population's growth and adaptation to its new environment. Specifically, they were looking at the effects on limb length and perch width, both widely varying phenotypic ranges in the parent population. Unfortunately, immigration did occur, but the founder effect and adaptive differentiation, which could eventually lead to peripatric speciation, were statistically and biologically significant between the island populations after a few years. The authors also point out that although adaptive differentiation is significant, the differences between island populations best reflect the differences between founders and their genetic diversity that has been passed down through the generations.


title: Founder effect

text: Founder effects can affect complex traits, such as song diversity. In the Common Myna ("Acridotheres tristis"), the percentage of unique songs within a repertoire and within‐song complexity were significantly lower in birds from founder populations.


title: Founder effect

text: Due to various migrations throughout human history, founder effects are somewhat common among humans in different times and places. The French Canadians of Quebec are a classical example of founder population. Over 150 years of French colonization, between 1608 and 1760, an estimated 8,500 pioneers married and left at least one descendant on the territory. Following the takeover of the colony by the British crown in 1760, immigration from France effectively stopped, but descendants of French settlers continued to grow in number mainly due to their high fertility rate. Intermarriage occurred mostly with the deported Acadians and migrants coming from the British Isles. Since the 20th century, immigration in Quebec and mixing of French Canadians involve people from all over the world. While the French Canadians of Quebec today may be partly of other ancestries, the genetic contribution of the original French founders is predominant, explaining about 90% of regional gene pools, while Acadian (descended from other French settlers in eastern Canada) admixtures contributing 4% and British 2%, with Native American and other groups contributing less.


title: Founder effect

text: In humans, founder effects can arise from cultural isolation, and inevitably, endogamy. For example, the Amish populations in the United States exhibit founder effects because they have grown from a very few founders, have not recruited newcomers, and tend to marry within the community. Though still rare, phenomena such as polydactyly (extra fingers and toes, a symptom of a condition such as Weyers acrodental dysostosis or Ellis–Van Creveld syndrome) are more common in Amish communities than in the American population at large. Maple syrup urine disease affects about one out of 180,000 infants in the general population. Due in part to the founder effect, however, the disease has a much higher prevalence in children of Amish, Mennonite, and Jewish descent. Similarly, a high frequency of fumarase deficiency exists among the 10,000 members of the Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, a community which practices both endogamy and polygyny, where an estimated 75-80% of the community are blood relatives of just two men—founders John Y. Barlow and Joseph Smith Jessop. In South Asia, castes like the Gujjars, the Baniyas and the Pattapu Kapu have estimated founder effects about 10 times as strong as those of Finns and Ashkenazi Jews.


title: Founder effect

text: The island of Pingelap also suffered a population bottleneck in 1775 following a typhoon that had reduced the population to only 20 people. As a result, complete achromatopsia has a current rate of occurrence of roughly 10%, with an additional 30% being carriers of this recessive condition.


title: Founder effect

text: Around 1814, a small group of British colonists founded a settlement on Tristan da Cunha, a group of small islands in the Atlantic Ocean, midway between Africa and South America. One of the early colonists apparently carried a rare, recessive allele for retinitis pigmentosa, a progressive form of blindness that afflicts homozygous individuals. As late as 1961, the majority of the genes in the gene pool on Tristan were still derived from 15 original ancestors; as a consequence of the inbreeding, of 232 people tested in 1961, four were suffering from retinitis pigmentosa. This represents a prevalence of 1 in 58, compared with a worldwide prevalence of around 1 in 4,000.


title: Ecumenical council

text: An ecumenical council, also called general council, is a meeting of bishops and other church authorities to consider and rule on questions of Christian doctrine, administration, discipline, and other matters in which those entitled to vote are convoked from the whole world (oikoumene) and which secures the approbation of the whole Church.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The word "ecumenical" derives from the Late Latin "oecumenicus" "general, universal", from Greek "oikoumenikos" "from the whole world", from "he oikoumene ge" "the inhabited world" (as known to the ancient Greeks); the Greeks and their neighbors, considered as developed human society (as opposed to barbarian lands); in later use "the Roman world" and in the Christian sense in ecclesiastical Greek, from "oikoumenos", present passive participle of "oikein" ("inhabit"), from "oikos" ("house, habitation"). The first seven ecumenical councils, recognised by both the eastern and western denominations comprising Chalcedonian Christianity, were convoked by Roman Emperors, who also enforced the decisions of those councils within the state church of the Roman Empire.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Starting with the third ecumenical council, noteworthy schisms led to non-participation by some members of what had previously been considered a single Christian Church. Thus, some parts of Christianity did not attend later councils, or attended but did not accept the results. Bishops belonging to what became known as the Eastern Orthodox Church accept seven ecumenical councils, as described below. Bishops belonging to what became known as the Church of the East participated in the first two councils. Bishops belonging to what became known as Oriental Orthodoxy participated in the first four councils, but rejected the decisions of the fourth and did not attend any subsequent ecumenical councils.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Acceptance of councils as ecumenical and authoritative varies between different Christian denominations. Disputes over Christological and other questions have led certain branches to reject some councils that others accept.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Church of the East (accused by others of adhering to Nestorianism) accepts as ecumenical the first two councils. Oriental Orthodox Churches accept the first three.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Both the Eastern Orthodox Church and Catholic Church recognize as ecumenical the first seven councils, held from the 4th to the 9th centuries. While some Eastern Orthodox accept one later council as ecumenical (which was later repudiated by the Catholic Church), the Catholic Church continues to hold general councils of the bishops in full communion with the Pope, reckoning them as ecumenical. In all, the Catholic Church recognizes twenty-one councils as ecumenical.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The first four ecumenical councils are recognized by some Lutheran Churches, Anglican Communion and Reformed Churches—though they are "considered subordinate to Scripture". Lutheran Churches which are a part of the Lutheran World Federation recognize the first seven Ecumenical Councils as "exercises of apostolic authority" and recognizes their decisions as authoritative.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The doctrine of the "infallibility of ecumenical councils" states that solemn definitions of ecumenical councils, which concern faith or morals, and to which the whole Church must adhere, are infallible. Such decrees are often labeled as 'Canons' and they often have an attached anathema, a penalty of excommunication, against those who refuse to believe the teaching. The doctrine does not claim that every aspect of every ecumenical council is dogmatic, but that every aspect of an ecumenical council is free of errors or impeccable.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Both the Eastern Orthodox and the Catholic churches uphold versions of this doctrine. However, the Catholic Church holds that solemn definitions of ecumenical councils meet the conditions of infallibility only when approved by the Pope, while the Eastern Orthodox Church holds that an ecumenical council is itself infallible when pronouncing on a specific matter.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Protestant churches would generally view ecumenical councils as fallible human institutions that have no more than a derived authority to the extent that they correctly expound Scripture (as most would generally consider occurred with the first four councils in regard to their dogmatic decisions).


title: Ecumenical council

text: Church councils were, from the beginning, bureaucratic exercises. Written documents were circulated, speeches made and responded to, votes taken, and final documents published and distributed. A large part of what is known about the beliefs of heresies comes from the documents quoted in councils in order to be refuted, or indeed only from the deductions based on the refutations.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Most councils dealt not only with doctrinal but also with disciplinary matters, which were decided in "canons" ("laws"). Study of the canons of church councils is the foundation of the development of canon law, especially the reconciling of seemingly contradictory canons or the determination of priority between them. Canons consist of doctrinal statements and disciplinary measures—most Church councils and local synods dealt with immediate disciplinary concerns as well as major difficulties of doctrine. Eastern Orthodoxy typically views the purely doctrinal canons as dogmatic and applicable to the entire church at all times, while the disciplinary canons apply to a particular time and place and may or may not be applicable in other situations.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Of the seven councils recognised in whole or in part by both the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church as ecumenical, all were called by a Roman emperor. The emperor gave them legal status within the entire Roman Empire. All were held in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. The bishop of Rome (self-styled as "pope" since the end of the fourth century) did not attend, although he sent legates to some of them.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Church councils were traditional and the ecumenical councils were a continuation of earlier councils (also known as synods) held in the Empire before Christianity was made legal. These include the Council of Jerusalem (c. 50), the Council of Rome (155), the Second Council of Rome (193), the Council of Ephesus (193), the Council of Carthage (251), the Council of Iconium (258), the Council of Antioch (264), the Councils of Arabia (246–247), the Council of Elvira (306), the Council of Carthage (311), the Synod of Neo-Caesarea (c. 314), the Council of Ancyra (314) and the Council of Arles (314).


title: Ecumenical council

text: The first seven councils recognised in both East and West as ecumenical and several others to which such recognition is refused were called by the Byzantine emperors. In the first millennium, various theological and political differences such as Nestorianism or Dyophysitism caused parts of the Church to separate after councils such as those of Ephesus and Chalcedon, but councils recognised as ecumenical continued to be held.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Council of Hieria of 754, held at the imperial palace of that name close to Chalcedon in Anatolia, was summoned by Byzantine Emperor Constantine V and was attended by 338 bishops, who regarded it as the seventh ecumenical council. The Second Council of Nicaea, which annulled that of Hieria, was itself annulled at the synod held in 815 in Constantinople under Emperor Leo V. This synod, presided over by Patriarch Theodotus I of Constantinople, declared the Council of Hieria to be the seventh ecumenical council, but, although the Council of Hieria was called by an emperor and confirmed by another, and although it was held in the East, it later ceased to be considered ecumenical.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Similarly, the Second Council of Ephesus of 449, also held in Anatolia, was called by the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II and, though annulled by the Council of Chalcedon, was confirmed by Emperor Basiliscus, who annulled the Council of Chalcedon. This too ceased to be considered an ecumenical council.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Catholic Church does not consider the validity of an ecumenical council's teaching to be in any way dependent on where it is held or on the granting or withholding of prior authorization or legal status by any state, in line with the attitude of the 5th-century bishops who "saw the definition of the church's faith and canons as supremely their affair, with or without the leave of the Emperor" and who "needed no one to remind them that Synodical process pre-dated the Christianisation of the royal court by several centuries".


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Catholic Church recognizes as ecumenical various councils held later than the First Council of Ephesus (after which churches out of communion with the Holy See because of the Nestorian Schism did not participate), later than the Council of Chalcedon (after which there was no participation by churches that rejected Dyophysitism), later than the Second Council of Nicaea (after which there was no participation by the Eastern Orthodox Church), and later than the Fifth Council of the Lateran (after which groups that adhered to Protestantism did not participate).


title: Ecumenical council

text: Of the twenty-one ecumenical councils recognised by the Catholic Church, some gained recognition as ecumenical only later. Thus the Eastern First Council of Constantinople became ecumenical only when its decrees were accepted in the West also.


title: Ecumenical council

text: In the history of Christianity, the first seven ecumenical councils, from the First Council of Nicaea (325) to the Second Council of Nicaea (787), represent an attempt to reach an orthodox consensus and to unify Christendom.


title: Ecumenical council

text: All of the original seven ecumenical councils as recognized in whole or in part were called by an emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire and all were held in the Eastern Roman Empire, a recognition denied to other councils similarly called by an Eastern Roman emperor and held in his territory, in particular the Council of Serdica (343), the Second Council of Ephesus (449) and the Council of Hieria (754), which saw themselves as ecumenical or were intended as such.


title: Ecumenical council

text: As late as the 11th century, seven councils were recognised as ecumenical in the Catholic Church. Then, in the time of Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085), canonists who in the Investiture Controversy quoted the prohibition in canon 22 of the Council of Constantinople of 869–870 against laymen influencing the appointment of prelates elevated this council to the rank of ecumenical council. Only in the 16th century was recognition as ecumenical granted by Catholic scholars to the Councils of the Lateran, of Lyon and those that followed. The following is a list of further councils generally recognised as ecumenical by Catholic theologians:


title: Ecumenical council

text: Eastern Orthodox catechisms teach that there are seven ecumenical councils and there are feast days for seven ecumenical councils. Nonetheless, some Eastern Orthodox consider events like the Council of Constantinople of 879–880, that of Constantinople in 1341–1351 and that of Jerusalem in 1672 to be ecumenical:


title: Ecumenical council

text: It is unlikely that formal ecumenical recognition will be granted to these councils, despite the acknowledged orthodoxy of their decisions, so that seven are universally recognized among the Eastern Orthodox as ecumenical.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The 2016 Pan-Orthodox Council was sometimes referred to as a potential "Eighth Ecumenical Council" following debates on several issues facing Eastern Orthodoxy, however not all autocephalous churches were represented.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Although some Protestants reject the concept of an ecumenical council establishing doctrine for the entire Christian faith, Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox all accept the authority of ecumenical councils in principle. Where they differ is in which councils they accept and what the conditions are for a council to be considered "ecumenical". The relationship of the Papacy to the validity of ecumenical councils is a ground of controversy between Catholicism and the Eastern Orthodox Churches. The Catholic Church holds that recognition by the Pope is an essential element in qualifying a council as ecumenical; Eastern Orthodox view approval by the Bishop of Rome (the Pope) as being roughly equivalent to that of other patriarchs.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Some have held that a council is ecumenical only when all five patriarchs of the Pentarchy are represented at it. Others reject this theory in part because there were no patriarchs of Constantinople and Jerusalem at the time of the first ecumenical council.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches recognize seven councils in the early centuries of the church, but Catholics also recognize fourteen councils in later times called or confirmed by the Pope. At the urging of German King Sigismund, who was to become Holy Roman Emperor in 1433, the Council of Constance was convoked in 1414 by Antipope John XXIII, one of three claimants to the papal throne, and was reconvened in 1415 by the Roman Pope Gregory XII. The Council of Florence is an example of a council accepted as ecumenical in spite of being rejected by the East, as the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon are accepted in spite of being rejected respectively by the Church of the East and Oriental Orthodoxy.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Catholic Church teaches that an ecumenical council is a gathering of the College of Bishops (of which the Bishop of Rome is an essential part) to exercise in a solemn manner its supreme and full power over the whole Church. It holds that "there never is an ecumenical council which is not confirmed or at least recognized as such by Peter's successor". Its present canon law requires that an ecumenical council be convoked and presided over, either personally or through a delegate, by the Pope, who is also to decide the agenda; but the church makes no claim that all past ecumenical councils observed these present rules, declaring only that the Pope's confirmation or at least recognition has always been required, and saying that the version of the Nicene Creed adopted at the First Council of Constantinople (381) was accepted by the Church of Rome only seventy years later, in 451.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Eastern Orthodox Church accepts seven ecumenical councils, with the disputed Council in Trullo—rejected by Catholics—being incorporated into, and considered as a continuation of, the Third Council of Constantinople.


title: Ecumenical council

text: To be considered ecumenical, Orthodox accept a council that meets the condition that it was accepted by the whole church. That it was called together legally is also an important factor. A case in point is the Third Ecumenical Council, where two groups met as duly called for by the emperor, each claiming to be the legitimate council. The Emperor had called for bishops to assemble in the city of Ephesus. Theodosius did not attend but sent his representative Candidian to preside. However, Cyril managed to open the council over Candidian's insistent demands that the bishops disperse until the delegation from Syria could arrive. Cyril was able to completely control the proceedings, completely neutralizing Candidian, who favored Cyril's antagonist, Nestorius. When the pro-Nestorius Antiochene delegation finally arrived, they decided to convene their own council, over which Candidian presided. The proceedings of both councils were reported to the emperor, who decided ultimately to depose Cyril, Memnon and Nestorius. Nonetheless, the Orthodox accept Cyril's group as being the legitimate council because it maintained the same teaching that the church has always taught.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Orthodox believe that councils could over-rule or even depose popes. At the Sixth Ecumenical Council, Pope Honorius and Patriarch Sergius were declared heretics. The council anathematized them and declared them tools of the devil and cast them out of the church.


title: Ecumenical council

text: It is their position that, since the Seventh Ecumenical Council, there has been no synod or council of the same scope. Local meetings of hierarchs have been called "pan-Orthodox", but these have invariably been simply meetings of local hierarchs of whatever Eastern Orthodox jurisdictions are party to a specific local matter. From this point of view, there has been no fully "pan-Orthodox" (Ecumenical) council since 787. The use of the term "pan-Orthodox" is confusing to those not within Eastern Orthodoxy, and it leads to mistaken impressions that these are "ersatz" ecumenical councils rather than purely local councils to which nearby Orthodox hierarchs, regardless of jurisdiction, are invited.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Others, including 20th-century theologians Metropolitan Hierotheos (Vlachos) of Naupactus, Fr. John S. Romanides, and Fr. George Metallinos (all of whom refer repeatedly to the "Eighth and Ninth Ecumenical Councils"), Fr. George Dragas, and the 1848 Encyclical of the Eastern Patriarchs (which refers explicitly to the "Eighth Ecumenical Council" and was signed by the patriarchs of Constantinople, Jerusalem, Antioch, and Alexandria as well as the Holy Synods of the first three), regard other synods beyond the Seventh Ecumenical Council as being ecumenical.


title: Ecumenical council

text: From the Eastern Orthodox perspective, a council is accepted as being ecumenical if it is accepted by the Eastern Orthodox church at large—clergy, monks and assembly of believers. Teachings from councils that purport to be ecumenical, but which lack this acceptance by the church at large, are, therefore, not considered ecumenical.


title: Ecumenical council

text: Oriental Orthodoxy accepts three ecumenical councils, the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople, and the Council of Ephesus. The formulation of the Chalcedonian Creed caused a schism in the Alexandrian and Syriac churches. Reconciliatory efforts between Oriental Orthodox with the Eastern Orthodox and the Catholic Church in the mid- and late 20th century have led to common Christological declarations. The Oriental and Eastern Churches have also been working toward reconciliation as a consequence of the ecumenical movement.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Oriental Orthodox hold that the Dyophysite formula of two natures formulated at the Council of Chalcedon is inferior to the Miaphysite formula of "One Incarnate Nature of God the Word" (Byzantine Greek: "Mia physis tou theou logou sarkousomene") and that the proceedings of Chalcedon themselves were motivated by imperial politics. The Alexandrian Church, the main Oriental Orthodox body, also felt unfairly underrepresented at the council following the deposition of their Pope, Dioscorus of Alexandria at the council.


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Church of the East accepts two ecumenical councils, the First Council of Nicaea and the First Council of Constantinople. It was the formulation of Mary as the Theotokos which caused a schism with the Church of the East, now divided between the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East, while the Chaldean Catholic Church entered into full communion with Rome in the 16th century. Meetings between Pope John Paul II and the Assyrian Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV led to a common Christological declaration on 11 November 1994 that "the humanity to which the Blessed Virgin Mary gave birth always was that of the Son of God himself". Both sides recognised the legitimacy and rightness, as expressions of the same faith, of the Assyrian Church's liturgical invocation of Mary as "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour" and the Catholic Church's use of "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ".


title: Ecumenical council

text: The Lutheran World Federation, in ecumenical dialogues with the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, has affirmed all of the first seven councils as ecumenical and authoritative. It teaches:


title: Ecumenical council

text: Article XXI of the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion of Anglicanism teaches: "General Councils ... when they be gathered together, forasmuch as they be an assembly of men, whereof all be not governed with the Spirit and word of God, they may err and sometime have erred, even in things pertaining to God. Wherefore things ordained by them as necessary to salvation have neither strength nor authority, unless it may be declared that they be taken out of Holy Scripture."


title: Ecumenical council

text: The 19th Canon of 1571 asserted the authority of the Councils in this manner: "Let preachers take care that they never teach anything ... except what is agreeable to the doctrine of the Old and New Testament, and what the Catholic Fathers and ancient Bishops have collected from the same doctrine." This remains the Church of England's teaching on the subject. A modern version of this appeal to catholic consensus is found in the Canon Law of the Church of England and also in the liturgy published in "Common Worship":


title: Ecumenical council

text: The 1559 Act of Supremacy made a distinction between the decisions of the first four ecumenical councils, which were to be used as sufficient proof that something was heresy, as opposed to those of later councils, which could only be used to that purpose if "the same was declared heresy by the express and plain words of the ... canonical Scriptures". As such, the Anglican tradition accepts the first four ecumenical councils, though they "considered subordinate to Scripture".