title: Spiny dogfish

text: While these common names may apply to several species, "Squalus acanthias" is distinguished by two spines (one anterior to each dorsal fin) and no anal fin. It lives in shallow waters and further offshore in most parts of the world, especially in temperate waters. Those in the northern Pacific Ocean were reevaluated in 2010 and found to constitute a separate species, now called the Pacific spiny dogfish ("Squalus suckleyi").


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The spiny dogfish has dorsal fins, no anal fin, and white spots along its back. The caudal fin has asymmetrical lobes, forming a heterocercal tail.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The species name "acanthias" refers to the shark's two spines. These are used defensively. If captured, the shark can arch its back to pierce its captor with spines near the dorsal fins that secrete a mild venom into its predator.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: This shark is known to hunt in packs that can range up into the thousands. They are aggressive hunters and have a sizable diet that can range from squid, fish, crab, jellyfish, sea cucumber, shrimp and other invertebrates.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Dogfish sharks experience one of the longest gestation periods of any organism, which can last from around 18 to 24 months. During spawning season, which occurs during the colder months of winter, females can lay anywhere from 2 to 12 eggs, which develop ovoviviparously and the pups are birthed as live young, with about 5 to 6 in each litter of pups, mainly depending on the size of the female. Reproduction occurs in the winter in offshore waters, while pups are normally born in the warmer and deeper offshore waters where it is harder for humans and predators to reach them. The reproductive cycle begins when females produce several large eggs of yellow coloring, which become fertilized once they pass through the shell gland and are wrapped in what is called a "candle", or a kind of reproductive capsule. One can determine if an egg is fertilized when the blastoderm is visible. The candle passes through the rest of the reproductive tract until it reaches the uterus. Attached to the gill region of the pup is a yolk sac which provides nutrients for them as they develop, which they absorb as they grow. Even after fully absorbing the yolk sac, the pups may live in the uterus for a period of time afterwards during the gestation period. Both sexes are greyish brown in color and are countershaded. Males are identified by a pair of pelvic fins modified as sperm-transfer organs, or "claspers". The male inserts one clasper into the female cloaca during copulation.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: In females the size of ova and the state of uteri determines whether sexual maturity has been reached, while in males, clasper length and calcification is the determination factor. Many of the growth patterns show a isometric growth pattern, as the pups have very similar features to the adults. Sexual maturity does not match body size development, they mature quite earlier than one would expect. Most males reach sexual maturity at an earlier ages of around 10 years, growing to be about 60–65 cm in length. Females take a longer period of time, around 16 years, to reach sexual maturity, and can grow to about at that time. Some dogfish have been seen to live nearly 70 years, but the average lifespan is around 30–40 years. Male Spiny dogfish use their claspers to impregnate females, which take time to develop properly, and before reaching sexual maturity, tend to be longer than their pelvic fins. During this time, the testes develop, but no sperm will exist inside until later stages are reached, and genital ducts are deformed compared to adult ducts. Once the adult stage is reached, claspers have elongated, and are now hardened with calcium and are still slightly longer than their pelvic fin. At this point testes are fully developed, and sperm exist within the seminal vesicles, and genital ducts conform to a twisted shape we commonly see in adults.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Spiny dogfish are bottom-dwellers. They are commonly found at depths of around , but have been found deeper than .


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Life span estimates based on analysis of vertebral centra and annuli in the dorsal spines range from 35 to 54 years.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Spiny dogfish are sold as food in Europe, the United States, Canada, New Zealand, Venezuela and Chile. The meat is primarily eaten in England, France, Italy, the Benelux countries, Germany, and as an unwitting houndshark in Greece. The fins and tails are processed into fin needles for cheaper versions of shark fin soup in Chinese cuisine. In England, dogfish are bought in fish and chip shops as "huss", and previously as "rock salmon" until the term was outlawed. In France, they are sold as "small salmon" ("saumonette") and in Belgium and Germany as "sea eel" ("zeepaling" and "Seeaal", respectively). In Greece, all small dogfish are commercially called "galéos", after the critically endangered Galeorhinus galeus that produces a seasonal dish; other small sharks as the spiny dogfish substitute it.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Spiny dogfish bodies are ground into fertilizer, liver oil and pet food. Because of their availability, cartilaginous skulls and small sizes, they are popular vertebrate dissection specimens in high schools and universities.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Reported catches varied between 31,700 tonnes in 2000 and 13,800 tonnes in 2008. Bottom trawlers and sink gillnets are the primary tools. In Mid-Atlantic and Southern New England fisheries, they are often caught with larger groundfish, classified as bycatch, and discarded. Recreational fishing accounts for an insignificant portion of the spiny dogfish catch.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: The Cape Cod Commercial Fishermen's Alliance promotes sustainable use of the dogfish in restaurants and fish markets in the Cape Cod area of Massachusetts, as of 2017, paid for by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. It aims to persuade diners to buy less-popular fish.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: Once the most abundant shark species in the world, populations of "Squalus acanthias" have declined significantly. They are classified in the IUCN Red List of threatened species as Vulnerable globally and Critically endangered in the Northeast Atlantic, meaning stocks around Europe have decreased by at least 95%. This is a direct result of overfishing to supply northern Europe's taste for rock salmon, saumonette, and zeepaling. Despite these alarming figures, very few management or conservation measures are in place for "Squalus acanthias". In EU waters, a Total Allowable Catch (TAC) has been in place since 1999, but until 2007 it only applied to ICES Areas IIa and IV. It was also set well above the actual weight of fish being caught until 2005, rendering it meaningless. Since 2009 a maximum landing size of has been imposed in order to protect the most valuable mature females. The TAC for 2011 was set at 0 tons, ending targeted fishing for the species in EU waters. It remains to be seen if populations will be able to recover.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: In the recent past the European market for spiny dogfish has increased dramatically, which led to the overfishing and decline of the species. This drastic increase led to the creation and implementation of many fishery management policies placing restrictions on the fishing of spiny dogfish. However, since the species is a late-maturing fish, it takes a while to rebuild the population.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: In 2010, Greenpeace International added the spiny dogfish to its seafood red list. "The Greenpeace International seafood red list is a list of fish that are commonly sold in supermarkets around the world, and which have a very high risk of being sourced from unsustainable fisheries." In the same year, the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS; also known as the Bonn Convention) listed the species (Northern Hemisphere populations) under Annex I of its Migratory Shark Memorandum of Understanding.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: In recent years, however, the US has implemented fishing controls and The proposed quota for 2011 was with a trip limit of , an increase over past years in which the quota has ranged from , with trip limits from . In 2010, NOAA announced the Eastern US Atlantic spiny dogfish stocks to be rebuilt, and in 2011, concerns about dogfish posing a serious predatory threat to other stocks resulted in an emergency amendment of the quota with nearly being added.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: In June 2018, the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified "Squalus acanthias" Linnaeus as "Not Threatened" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System.


title: Spiny dogfish

text: "Squalus acanthias" fossils are known from the Miocene of Denmark and the Netherlands, dating from approximately 11 million years ago. As with other cartilaginous fish, the fossil record of "Squalus acanthias" consists predominantly of dental material, as cartilage does not fossilize well. The teeth of "S. acanthus" can be hard to differentiate from those of other squaliforme sharks, making identification difficult.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: The Schengen Agreement ( , ) is a treaty which led to the creation of Europe's Schengen Area, in which internal border checks have largely been abolished. It was signed on 14 June 1985, near the town of Schengen, Luxembourg, by five of the ten member states of the then European Economic Community. It proposed measures intended to gradually abolish border checks at the signatories' common borders, including reduced-speed vehicle checks which allowed vehicles to cross borders without stopping, allowing residents in border areas freedom to cross borders away from fixed checkpoints, and the harmonisation of visa policies.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: In 1990, the Agreement was supplemented by the Schengen Convention which proposed the complete abolition of systematic internal border controls and a common visa policy. The Schengen Area operates very much like a single state for international travel purposes with external border controls for travellers entering and exiting the area, and common visas, but with no internal border controls. It currently consists of 26 European countries covering a population of over 400 million people and an area of 4,312,099 square kilometres (1,664,911 sq mi).


title: Schengen Agreement

text: Originally, the Schengen treaties and the rules adopted under them operated independently from the European Union. However, in 1999 they were incorporated into European Union law by the Amsterdam Treaty, while providing opt-outs for the only two EU member states that had remained outside the Area: Ireland and the United Kingdom (which subsequently withdrew from the EU in 2020). Schengen is now a core part of EU law, and all EU member states without an opt-out which have not already joined the Schengen Area are legally obliged to do so when technical requirements have been met. Several non-EU countries are included in the area through special association agreements.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: Free movement of people was a core part of the original Treaty of Rome and, from the early days of the European Economic Community, nationals of EEC member states could travel freely from one member state to another on production of their passports or national identity cards. However, systematic identity controls were still in place at the border between most member states.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: Disagreement between member states led to an impasse on the abolition of border controls within the Community, but in 1985 five of the then ten member states – Belgium, France, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and West Germany – signed an agreement on the gradual abolition of common border controls. The agreement was signed on the "Princess Marie-Astrid" boat on the river Moselle near the town of Schengen, Luxembourg, where the territories of France, Germany and Luxembourg meet. Three of the signatories, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands, had already abolished common border controls as part of the Benelux Economic Union.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: The Schengen Agreement was signed independently of the European Union, in part owing to the lack of consensus amongst EU member states over whether or not the EU had the jurisdiction to abolish border controls, and in part because those ready to implement the idea did not wish to wait for others (at this time there was no enhanced co-operation mechanism). The Agreement provided for harmonisation of visa policies, allowing residents in border areas the freedom to cross borders away from fixed checkpoints, the replacement of passport checks with visual surveillance of vehicles at reduced speed, and vehicle checks that allowed vehicles to cross borders without stopping.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: In 1990, the Agreement was supplemented by the Schengen Convention which proposed the abolition of internal border controls and a common visa policy. It was this Convention that created the Schengen Area through the complete abolition of border controls between Schengen member states, common rules on visas, and police and judicial cooperation.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: The Schengen Agreement and its implementing Convention were enacted in 1995 only for some signatories, but just over two years later during the Amsterdam Intergovernmental Conference, all European Union member states except the United Kingdom and Ireland had signed the Agreement. It was during those negotiations, which led to the Amsterdam Treaty, that the incorporation of the "Schengen acquis" into the main body of European Union law was agreed along with opt-outs for Ireland and the United Kingdom (which subsequently withdrew from the EU in 2020), which were to remain outside of the Schengen Area.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: In December 1996 two non-EU member states, Norway and Iceland, signed an association agreement with the signatories of the Agreement to become part of the Schengen Area. While this agreement never came into force, both countries did become part of the Schengen Area after concluding similar agreements with the EU. The Schengen Convention itself was not open for signature by non-EU member states. In 2009, Switzerland finalised its official entry to the Schengen Area with the acceptance of an association agreement by popular referendum in 2005.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: Now that the Schengen Agreement is part of the "acquis communautaire", it has, for EU members, lost the status of a treaty, which could only be amended according to its terms. Instead, amendments are made according to the legislative procedure of the EU under EU treaties. Ratification by the former agreement signatory states is not required for altering or repealing some or all of the former Schengen "acquis". Legal acts setting out the conditions for entry into the Schengen Area are now made by majority vote in the EU's legislative bodies. New EU member states do not sign the Schengen Agreement as such, instead being bound to implement the Schengen rules as part of the pre-existing body of EU law, which every new entrant is required to accept.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: This situation means that non-EU Schengen member states have few formally binding options to influence the shaping and evolution of Schengen rules; their options are effectively reduced to agreeing or withdrawing from the agreement. However, consultations with affected countries are conducted prior to the adoption of particular new legislation.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: In 2016, border controls were temporarily reintroduced in seven Schengen countries (Austria, Denmark, France, Germany, Norway, Poland, and Sweden) in response to the European migrant crisis.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: Portugal has since reintroduced checks several times along its border with Spain, during the UEFA Euro 2004 championships and when Portugal hosted the NATO 2010 Lisbon summit. Portugal also reintroduced on the border from 10 May 2017 to 14 May 2017, during Pope Francis's visit to Fátima, Portugal.


title: Schengen Agreement

text: On December 8, 2022 the Justice and Home Affairs Council voted to add Croatia to the Schengen Area but rejected Romania and Bulgaria. Austria and the Netherlands voted against the inclusion of Romania and Bulgaria with Austria claiming that there has been a rapid increase in the number of migrants using the West Balkan route to enter the EU illegally.


title: Moral hazard

text: In economics, a moral hazard is a situation where an economic actor has an incentive to increase its exposure to risk because it does not bear the full costs of that risk. For example, when a corporation is insured, it may take on higher risk knowing that its insurance will pay the associated costs. A moral hazard may occur where the actions of the risk-taking party change to the detriment of the cost-bearing party after a financial transaction has taken place.


title: Moral hazard

text: Moral hazard can occur under a type of information asymmetry where the risk-taking party to a transaction knows more about its intentions than the party paying the consequences of the risk and has a tendency or incentive to take on too much risk from the perspective of the party with less information. One example is a principal–agent problem, where one party, called an agent, acts on behalf of another party, called the principal. If the agent has more information about his or her actions or intentions than the principal then the agent may have an incentive to act too riskily (from the viewpoint of the principal) if the interests of the agent and the principal are not aligned.


title: Moral hazard

text: According to research by Dembe and Boden, the term dates back to the 17th century and was widely used by English insurance companies by the late 19th century. Early usage of the term carried negative connotations, implying fraud or immoral behavior (usually on the part of an insured party). Dembe and Boden point out, however, that prominent mathematicians who studied decision-making in the 18th century used "moral" to mean "subjective", which may cloud the true ethical significance in the term.


title: Moral hazard

text: The concept of moral hazard was the subject of renewed study by economists in the 1960s, beginning with economist Ken Arrow, and did not imply immoral behavior or fraud. Economists use this term to describe inefficiencies that can occur when risks are displaced or cannot be fully evaluated, rather than a description of the ethics or morals of the involved parties.


title: Moral hazard

text: Rowell and Connelly offer a detailed description of the genesis of the term moral hazard, by identifying salient changes in economic thought, which are identified within the medieval theological and probability literature. Their paper compares and contrasts the predominantly normative conception of moral hazard found within the insurance-industry literature with the largely positive interpretations found within the economic literature. Often what is described as "moral hazard[s]" in the insurance literature is upon closer reading, a description of the closely related concept, adverse selection.


title: Moral hazard

text: In 1998, William J. McDonough, head of the New York Federal Reserve, helped the counter-parties of Long-Term Capital Management avoid losses by taking over the firm. This move was criticized by former Fed Chair, Paul Volcker and others as increasing moral hazard. Tyler Cowen concludes that "creditors came to believe that their loans to unsound financial institutions would be made good by the Fed – as long as the collapse of those institutions would threaten the global credit system." Fed Chair, Alan Greenspan, while conceding the risk of moral hazard, defended the policy to orderly unwind Long-Term Capital by saying the world economy is at stake. Greenspan had himself been accused of creating wider moral hazard in markets by using the Greenspan put.


title: Moral hazard

text: Economist Paul Krugman described moral hazard as "any situation in which one person makes the decision about how much risk to take, while someone else bears the cost if things go badly." Financial bailouts of lending institutions by governments, central banks or other institutions can encourage risky lending in the future if those that take the risks come to believe that they will not have to carry the full burden of potential losses. Lending institutions need to take risks by making loans, and the riskiest loans usually have the potential for making the highest return.


title: Moral hazard

text: Taxpayers, depositors, and other creditors often have to shoulder at least part of the burden of risky financial decisions made by lending institutions.


title: Moral hazard

text: Many have argued that certain types of mortgage securitization contribute to moral hazard. Mortgage securitization enables mortgage originators to pass on the risk that the mortgages they originate might default and not hold the mortgages on their balance sheets and assume the risk. In one kind of mortgage securitization, known as "agency securitizations," default risk is retained by the securitizing agency that buys the mortgages from originators. These agencies thus have an incentive to monitor originators and check loan quality. "Agency securitizations" refer to securitizations by either Ginnie Mae, a government agency, or by Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, both for-profit government-sponsored enterprises. They are similar to the "covered bonds" that are commonly used in Western Europe in that the securitizing agency retains default risk. Under both models, investors take on only interest-rate risk, not default risk.


title: Moral hazard

text: In another type of securitization, known as "private label" securitization, default risk is generally not retained by the securitizing entity. Instead, the securitizing entity passes on default risk to investors. The securitizing entity, therefore, has relatively little incentive to monitor originators and maintain loan quality. "Private label" securitization refers to securitizations structured by financial institutions such as investment banks, commercial banks, and non-bank mortgage lenders.


title: Moral hazard

text: During the years leading up to the subprime mortgage crisis, private label securitizations grew as a share of overall mortgage securitization by purchasing and securitizing low-quality, high-risk mortgages. Agency Securitizations appear to have somewhat lowered their standards, but Agency mortgages remained considerably safer than mortgages in private-label securitizations and performed far better in terms of default rates.


title: Moral hazard

text: Economist Mark Zandi of Moody's Analytics described moral hazard as a root cause of the subprime mortgage crisis. He wrote that "the risks inherent in mortgage lending became so widely dispersed that no one was forced to worry about the quality of any single loan. As shaky mortgages were combined, diluting any problems into a larger pool, the incentive for responsibility was undermined." He also wrote, "Finance companies weren't subject to the same regulatory oversight as banks. Taxpayers weren't on the hook if they went belly up [pre-crisis], only their shareholders and other creditors were. Finance companies thus had little to discourage them from growing as aggressively as possible, even if that meant lowering or winking at traditional lending standards."


title: Moral hazard

text: Moral hazard can also occur with borrowers. Borrowers may not act prudently (in the view of the lender) when they invest or spend funds recklessly. For example, credit card companies often limit the amount borrowers can spend with their cards because without such limits, borrowers may spend borrowed funds recklessly, leading to default.


title: Moral hazard

text: Securitization of mortgages in America started in 1983 at Salomon Brothers and where the risk of each mortgage passed to the next purchaser instead of remaining with the original mortgaging institution. These mortgages and other debt instruments were put into a large pool of debt, and then shares in the pool were sold to many creditors.


title: Moral hazard

text: Thus, there is no one person responsible for verifying that any one particular loan is sound, that the assets securing that one particular loan are worth what they are supposed to be worth, that the borrower responsible for making payments on the loan can read and write the language in which the papers that he/she signed were written, or even that the paperwork exists and is in good order. It has been suggested that this may have caused the subprime mortgage crisis.


title: Moral hazard

text: Brokers, who were not lending their own money, pushed risk onto the lenders. Lenders, who sold mortgages soon after underwriting them, pushed risk onto investors. Investment banks bought mortgages and chopped up mortgage-backed securities into slices, some riskier than others. Investors bought securities and hedged against the risk of default and prepayment, pushing those risks further along. In a purely capitalist scenario, the last one holding the risk (like a game of musical chairs) is the one who faces the potential losses. In the sub-prime crisis, however, national credit authorities (the Federal Reserve in the US) assumed the ultimate risk on behalf of the citizenry at large.


title: Moral hazard

text: Others believe that financial bailouts of lending institutions do not encourage risky lending behavior since there is no guarantee to lending institutions that a bailout will occur. Decreased valuation of a corporation before any bailout would prevent risky, speculative business decisions by executives who fail to conduct proper due diligence in their business transactions. The risk and the burdens of loss became apparent to Lehman Brothers, which did not benefit from a bailout, and other financial institutions and mortgage companies such as Citibank and Countrywide Financial Corporation, whose valuation plunged during the subprime mortgage crisis.


title: Moral hazard

text: A 2017 report by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, an international regulator for the banking sector, noted that the accounting rules (IFRS # 9 and 13 in particular) leave entities significant discretion in determining financial instrument fair value and identified this discretion as a potential source of moral hazard: “The evidence consistent with accounting discretion as contributing to moral hazard behavior indicates that (additional) prudential valuation requirements may be justified.”


title: Moral hazard

text: Banking regulators have taken actions to limit discretion and reduce valuation risk, i.e. the risk to banks' balance sheets arising from financial instrument valuation uncertainties. A row of regulatory documents has been issued, providing detailed prudential requirements that have many points of contact with the accounting rules and have the indirect effect of curbing the incentives for moral hazard by limiting the discretion left to banks in valuating financial instruments.


title: Moral hazard

text: Many scholars and journalists have argued that moral hazard played a role in the 2008 financial crisis, since numerous actors in the financial market may have had an incentive to increase their exposure to risk. In general, there are three ways in which moral hazard may have manifested itself in the lead up to the financial crisis.


title: Moral hazard

text: Notably, the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC), tasked by Congress with investigating the causes of the financial crisis, cited moral hazard as a component of the crisis, arguing that many factors, including deregulation in the derivatives market in 2000, reduced federal oversight, and the potential for government bailout of "too big to fail" institutions all played a role in increasing moral hazard in the years leading up to the collapse.


title: Moral hazard

text: Others have argued that moral hazard could not have played a role in the financial crisis for three main reasons. First, in the event of a catastrophic failure, a government bailout would only come after major losses for the company. So even if a bailout was expected it wouldn't prevent the firm from taking losses. Second, there is some evidence that big banks were not expecting the crisis and thus were not expecting government bailouts, though the FCIC tried hard to contest this idea. Third, some have argued that negative externalities from corporate governance were a more important cause, since some risky investments may have had positive expected payoff for the firm but negative expected payoff to society.


title: Moral hazard

text: Moral hazard has been studied by insurers and academics; such as in the work of Kenneth Arrow, Tom Baker, and John Nyman.


title: Moral hazard

text: The name comes originally from the insurance industry. Insurance companies worried that protecting their clients from risks (like fire, or car accidents) might encourage those clients to behave in riskier ways (like smoking in bed or not wearing seatbelts). This problem may inefficiently discourage those companies from protecting their clients as much as the clients would like to be protected.


title: Moral hazard

text: Economists argue that the inefficiency results from information asymmetry. If insurance companies could perfectly observe the actions of their clients, they could deny coverage to clients choosing risky actions (like smoking in bed or not wearing seat belts), allowing them to provide thorough protection against risk (fire or accidents) without encouraging risky behavior. However, since insurance companies cannot perfectly observe their clients' actions, they are discouraged from providing the amount of protection that would be provided in a world with perfect information.


title: Moral hazard

text: Economists distinguish moral hazard from adverse selection, another problem that arises in the insurance industry, which is caused by "hidden information", rather than "hidden actions".


title: Moral hazard

text: The same underlying problem of non-observable actions also affects other contexts besides the insurance industry. It also arises in banking and finance: if a financial institution knows it is protected by a lender of last resort, it may make riskier investments than it would in the absence of the protection.


title: Moral hazard

text: In insurance markets, moral hazard occurs when the behavior of the insured party changes in a way that raises costs for the insurer since the insured party no longer bears the full costs of that behavior. Because individuals no longer bear the cost of medical services, they have an added incentive to ask for pricier and more elaborate medical service, which would otherwise not be necessary. In those instances, individuals have an incentive to over consume, simply because they no longer bear the full cost of medical services.


title: Moral hazard

text: Two types of behavior can change. One type is the risky behavior itself, resulting in a "before the event" moral hazard. Insured parties then behave in a more risky manner, resulting in more negative consequences that the insurer must pay for. For example, after purchasing automobile insurance, some may tend to be less careful about locking the automobile or choose to drive more, thereby increasing the risk of theft or an accident for the insurer. After purchasing fire insurance, some may tend to be less careful about preventing fires (say, by smoking in bed or neglecting to replace the batteries in fire alarms). A further example has been identified in flood risk management in which it is proposed that the possession of insurance undermines efforts to encourage people to integrate flood protection and resilience measures in properties exposed to flooding.


title: Moral hazard

text: A second type of behavior that may change is the reaction to the negative consequences of risk once they have occurred and insurance is provided to cover their costs. That may be called "ex post" (after the event) moral hazard. Insured parties then do not behave in a more risky manner that results in more negative consequences, but they ask an insurer to pay for more of the negative consequences from risk as insurance coverage increases. For example, without medical insurance, some may forgo medical treatment due to its costs and simply deal with substandard health. However, after medical insurance becomes available, some may ask an insurance provider to pay for the cost of medical treatment that would not have occurred otherwise.


title: Moral hazard

text: Sometimes moral hazard is so severe that it makes insurance policies impossible. Coinsurance, co-payments, and deductibles reduce the risk of moral hazard by increasing the out-of-pocket spending of consumers, which decreases their incentive to consume. Thus, the insured have a financial incentive to avoid making a claim.


title: Moral hazard

text: Consider a potential case of moral hazard in the health care market caused by the purchase of health insurance. Assume health care has constant marginal cost of $10 per unit and the individual's demand is given by "Q" = 20 − "P". Assuming a perfectly competitive market, at equilibrium, the price will be $10 per unit and the individual will consume 10 units of health care. Now, consider the same individual with health insurance. Assume this health insurance makes health care free for the individual. In this case, the individual will have a price of $0 for the health care and thus will consume 20 units. The price will still be $10, but the insurance company would be the one bearing the costs.


title: Moral hazard

text: This example shows numerically how moral hazard could occur with health insurance. The individual consumes more health care than the equilibrium quantity because they don't bear the cost of the additional care.


title: Moral hazard

text: In economic theory, moral hazard is a situation in which the behavior of one party may change to the detriment of another after the transaction has taken place. For example, a person with insurance against automobile theft may be less cautious about locking their car because the negative consequences of vehicle theft are now (partially) the responsibility of the insurance company. A party makes a decision about how much risk to take, while another party bears the costs if things go badly, and the party insulated from risk behaves differently from how it would if it were fully exposed to the risk.


title: Moral hazard

text: According to contract theory, moral hazard results from a situation in which a hidden action occurs. Bengt Holmström said this:


title: Moral hazard

text: Moral hazard can be divided into two types when it involves asymmetric information (or lack of verifiability) of the outcome of a random event. An "ex ante" moral hazard is a change in behavior prior to the outcome of the random event, whereas "ex post" involves behavior after the outcome. For example, in the case of a health insurance company insuring an individual during a specific time period, the final health of the individual can be thought of as the outcome. The individual taking greater risks during the period would be ex-ante moral hazard whereas lying about a fictitious health problem to defraud the insurance company would be ex post moral hazard. A second example is the case of a bank making a loan to an entrepreneur for a risky business venture. The entrepreneur becoming overly risky would be ex ante moral hazard, but willful default (wrongly claiming the venture failed when it was profitable) is ex post moral hazard.


title: Moral hazard

text: According to Hart and Holmström (1987), moral hazard models can be subdivided in models with hidden action and models with hidden information. In the former case, after the contract has been signed the agent chooses an action (such as an effort level) that cannot be observed by the principal. In the latter case, after the contract has been signed there is a random draw by nature that determines the agent's type (such as his valuation for a good or his costs of effort). In the literature, two reasons have been discussed why moral hazard may imply that the first-best solution (the solution that would be attained under complete information) is not achieved.


title: Moral hazard

text: Firstly, the agent may be risk-averse, so there is a trade-off between providing the agent with incentives and insuring the agent. Secondly, the agent may be risk-neutral but wealth-constrained and so the agent cannot make a payment to the principal and there is a trade-off between providing incentives and minimizing the agent's limited-liability rent. Among the early contributors to the contract-theoretic literature on moral hazard were Oliver Hart and Sanford J. Grossman. In the meantime, the moral hazard model has been extended to the cases of multiple periods and multiple tasks, both with risk-averse and risk-neutral agents.


title: Moral hazard

text: There are also models that combine hidden action and hidden information. Since there is no data on unobservable variables, the contract-theoretic moral hazard model is difficult to test directly, but there have been some successful indirect tests with field data. Direct tests of moral hazard theory are feasible in laboratory settings, using the tools of experimental economics. In such a setup, Hoppe and Schmitz (2018) have corroborated central insights of moral hazard theory.


title: Nine Perfect Strangers

text: Nine Perfect Strangers is a 2018 novel by Australian author Liane Moriarty. It was published on September 18, 2018 by Macmillan Australia. It is a "New York Times" Bestseller.


title: Nine Perfect Strangers

text: Nine people from different walks of life attend a pricey 10-day "Mind and Body Total Transformation Retreat" at a place called the Tranquillum House run by a mysterious Russian woman named Masha. Throughout the course of their retreat they realize that each of them are battling their own demons and all of them are subjects of an experiment.


title: Nine Perfect Strangers

text: The book received mixed reviews. Patty Rhule of "USA Today" gave the book two out of four stars, and said that it "does not match up to her captivating previous books." Specifically, she criticized the book for spending too many pages on character development. In contrast, Lisa Scottoline of the "New York Times" said that all the characters are "fully realized, with compelling lives, relationships and motivations" and that the novel is "thought-provoking, but never pedantic" as it "raises fascinating questions about our relentless quest for self-improvement."


title: Nine Perfect Strangers

text: In January 2020, it was announced that the novel would be adapted into a television series, which premiered on Hulu in 2021. The series was co-written by David E. Kelley, John-Henry Butterworth, and Samantha Strauss and starred Nicole Kidman as Masha and Melissa McCarthy as Frances. On 27 May 2020, Manny Jacinto was cast in the role of Yao. The cast also includes Luke Evans as Lars, Melvin Gregg as Ben, Samara Weaving as Jessica, Asher Keddie as Heather, Grace Van Patten as Zoe, Tiffany Boone as Delilah, Michael Shannon as Napoleon, Regina Hall as Carmel, Hal Cumpston as Zachary and Bobby Cannavale as Tony. The series was directed by Jonathan Levine. Filming began in August 2020, in Byron Bay, Australia.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Kevin Darwin Greene (July 31, 1962December 21, 2020) was an American professional football player who was a defensive end and outside linebacker for the Los Angeles Rams, Pittsburgh Steelers, Carolina Panthers, and San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League (NFL) from 1985 through 1999. He had 160 sacks in his career, which ranks third among NFL career sack leaders, and he was voted to the NFL 1990s All-Decade Team. He was elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2016.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene played college football for the Auburn Tigers. He was a three-time All-Pro during his NFL playing career and was twice the league leader in sacks. He was later an outside linebackers coach for the Green Bay Packers from 2009 through 2013 and the New York Jets from 2017 through 2018.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene was born on July 31, 1962, in Schenectady, New York. His father was a colonel in the army, making Greene an army brat. He began playing football on military bases. The Greene family moved to different bases and spent three years in Mannheim, Germany before they settled in Granite City, Illinois, in 1976.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene played football, basketball, and was a high jumper for the track team at Granite City High School. He graduated in 1980 and was inducted into the Granite City Sports Hall of Fame in 1998.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: After graduating from high school, Greene enrolled at Auburn University and entered into the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) basic training for the United States National Guard at Fort McClellan in Anniston, Alabama. He attempted to walk-on to the Auburn Tigers in college football as a punter in 1980. He tried out again in 1983, and made the team. In 1984 he won the Zeke Smith Award as Defensive Player of the Year. He had 69 career tackles as an outside linebacker and 11 sacks his senior year where he led the Southeastern Conference and won the Defensive Player of the Year Award in 1984.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene earned a degree in criminal justice at Auburn. He completed ROTC while at Auburn and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the Alabama Army National Guard. After playing his first year in the NFL, during the off season, he graduated from the RC-1-86 Armor Officer Basic Course at Fort Knox. During his military career, he earned the rank of captain and completed airborne training at Fort Benning to become a paratrooper.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: The Birmingham Stallions selected Greene in the 1985 United States Football League Territorial Draft. He was later selected by the Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League in the fifth round (113th overall) of the 1985 NFL Draft. From 1985 through 1987, Greene played on left defensive end in the Rams nickel defense and was second on the team in sacks in both 1986 and 1987. His first sack came in 1985, in a playoff game against the Dallas Cowboys, and it was in the defensive end role that the sack came. In 1988, Greene became the starting left outside linebacker in the Rams base defense that was enhanced by defensive coordinator Fritz Shurmur's Eagle 5-Linebacker defense which he used extensively from 1988 to 1990.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: In 1988, Greene led the Rams with sacks which was second overall in the NFL behind Reggie White. That total included sacks against the San Francisco 49ers' Joe Montana in a key late-season game that the Rams had to win in order to make the playoffs, which they did.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: In 1989, Greene made both the First and Second All-Pro Team and was named to the Pro Bowl for the first time with his second consecutive season of 16 sacks (4th in the NFL). Greene signed a three-year $2.5 million contract with the Rams prior to the 1990 season. His 13 sacks (tied for sixth in the NFL) in 1990 gave him 46 sacks for that three-year period, the most of any player in the NFL for that span.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: In 1991, the Rams changed defenses and defensive coordinators. Jeff Fisher became the new defensive coordinator and switched the Rams to a 4–3 defense, a system Greene was unfamiliar with, after playing in a 3–4 defense since 1983. Although he had compiled 46 sacks during the previous three seasons, Greene was moved from left outside linebacker in a 3–4 to right defensive end in a 4–3. Although he was a pure outside linebacker in a 3–4 scheme, he attempted the transition. After five games Greene was moved to left linebacker for a month and a half and then due to injuries he was moved to left defensive end for the remainder of the seasons. In all, he started five games at right defensive end, five games at left linebacker and six games at left defensive end and even though he had a career-high in tackles for loss (8) he ended the year with only 3 sacks—his lowest total, by far, since his rookie season. The entire Rams' coaching staff was released after the 1991 season.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: In 1992, the Rams hired Chuck Knox as head coach. The Rams remained a 4–3 defensive team under defensive coordinator George Dyer, and Greene continued to play left outside linebacker. His production returned as he led his team in both tackles and sacks. Greene accepted his new role saying, "On third downs I am still rushing the passer, but I would like to rush the passer more often, from more downs and distances, but I can't because of the role I am now asked to play". He finished the 1992 season with 10 sacks and Sports Illustrated's Paul Zimmerman picked Greene for his annual All-Pro team, citing Greene's coverage ability, "The OLB spot opposite Cox came down to the Eagles' Seth Joyner, my Player of the Year in last year, versus the Rams' Kevin Greene. I picked Greene. He had more coverage responsibility than ever before, and he did just fine. He was a consistent pass rusher. Dick Selcer, his linebacker coach added, "Kevin's a more complete player than he is given credit for, people only seem to notice the home run, but not seem to see the singles.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: In 1993, Greene sought out teams that employed a 3–4 system in the first year of free agency. He visited the Green Bay Packers where his former defensive coordinator Fritz Shurmur was employed as the defensive coordinator, but they were a 4–3 team. He then visited the Pittsburgh Steelers, a 3–4 team. Dom Capers was the defensive coordinator. Greene signed a three-year, $5.35 million free-agent contract with the Pittsburgh Steelers. Returning to his left outside linebacker position, he had a solid season with 12 sacks which tied him for seventh in the league. The following season, Greene was a consensus All-Pro choice in 1994 as he led the NFL in sacks (14) and made another appearance in the Pro Bowl. Additionally, Greene was voted the NFLPA AFC Linebacker of the Year (tied with Junior Seau) for the first time in his career. In 1995, he went to his third Pro Bowl, where he finished with nine sacks and played in Super Bowl XXX, a loss to the Dallas Cowboys. During Greene's three years with the Steelers, the defense allowed only 3.48 yards per rush, best in the NFL. As part of that defense, a Steelers team that also led the NFL in sacks with 139 over the same three season period, Dick LeBeau said, "Kevin Greene is a great player against the run, and one of the best pass rushers in NFL history. Greene is almost unblockable."


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene later stated that he had the "time of his life" playing for the Steelers and decided to receive his Hall of Fame ring from the team despite only playing three of his 15 years in Pittsburgh. His departure from Pittsburgh was due to the salary cap and the Steelers wanting to focus on younger players; Greene, though understanding of the business decision, felt hurt from the organization but continued to hold them in high regard.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: On May 21, 1996, Greene signed with the Carolina Panthers (a two-year, $2 million deal) following their 1995 inaugural season and helped them reach the NFC Championship Game, where the team lost to the eventual Super Bowl XXXI champion Green Bay Packers. In 1996, he was named the NFC Linebacker of the Year and received the NEA Defensive Player of the Year Award. In addition, the NFL Alumni voted Greene the NFL Linebacker of the Year Award. He was also voted the NFC Player of the Year by the Washington D.C. Touchdown Club. Additionally, Greene set an NFL record with five consecutive multi-sack games and finished leading the NFL in sacks for the second time in three years with 14. Along the way he was a consensus All-Pro in 1996 for the second time in three years. Greene was selected to his fourth Pro Bowl. Said by Panther teammate Dwight Stone to be, along with Sam Mills, the most "professional guy" on the 1996 Panther team.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: After one season with the Panthers and a dispute with the organization, he was cut by the team and signed a six-year, $13 million contract with the San Francisco 49ers that included a $750,000 signing bonus on August 26, 1997. With the 49ers, Greene had 10.5 sacks. Greene was called on to play the "elephant" role with the 49ers, the player to rush the passer and come in the games on likely passing downs. While doing so, he chipped in on the run game as the 49ers allowed 3.5 yards a rush and Greene had 10.5 of the 49ers 54 sacks.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: After the 1997 holdout and a year with the 49ers, Greene re-signed with the Panthers on February 28, 1998. In December 1998, he attacked Kevin Steele, Carolina's linebacker coach, during a game; he received a one-game suspension from the team. After the season, Greene was named the NFC Linebacker of the year by the National Football League Players Association (NFLPA). Greene was also named to the Pro Bowl after the 1998 season, bringing his Pro Bowl total to five. Greene was tied for third in the NFL for sacks, after Michael Sinclair (16 sacks), Reggie White (16 sacks), and tied with Michael Strahan who also totaled 15 sacks. , Greene's 15.0 sacks in 1998 remains tied with Greg Hardy's 2013 season for the Panthers' franchise record.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene retired after registering 12 sacks (good for seventh in the NFL) playing as a 4–3 outside linebacker in 1999; he finished his career as a five-time Pro Bowler and the NFL's third all-time sack leader with 160, behind only Bruce Smith and Reggie White. He also finished as the NFL's all-time leader in sacks by a linebacker, ahead of players such as Lawrence Taylor, Derrick Thomas, Rickey Jackson, and Andre Tippett; Greene is also one of only four players to lead the NFL in sacks in multiple seasons ('94 with the Steelers and '96 with the Panthers). He is also tied for second in career safeties with three and third all-time in fumble recoveries with 26 (which he returned for 136 yards and two touchdowns). During his career, Greene recorded five interceptions, returning them for 53 yards and a touchdown, and he is one of three players to record 10 or more sacks in at least 10 different seasons; he averaged over 10 sacks a year for 15 seasons. Greene ended his career with 160 sacks, 62.5 tackles of running backs behind the line of scrimmage, 23 forced fumbles, 26 recovered fumbles, and three defensive touchdowns, and three safeties. Greene opted for retirement while still playing at a high level rather than becoming a "designated pass rusher".


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene played in 228 games in his 15-year career; in the modern era (since 1970), only four other linebackers (Clay Matthews Jr., Bill Romanowski, Ray Lewis, & James Harrison) had longer careers. He was among the NFL's top 10 in sacks eight times, leading the NFL twice. For 11 out of his 15 years, he led his club in sacks. He also played in six conference championships in his 15 seasons. Greene is considered to be one of the greatest pass rushers of all time. He was quoted as saying of his career, "I was an outside linebacker in a 3–4, so I actually had coverage responsibilities. So my rush was more limited. But, still, I think my numbers match up pretty good, even with those that rushed the passer every passing down."


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: After being a finalist for five consecutive years, Greene was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 2016 and his bust was sculpted by Scott Myers.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene made several appearances with the professional wrestling promotion World Championship Wrestling (WCW) during the late-1990s. He was one of several celebrities brought in by WCW president Eric Bischoff to help generate mainstream publicity for the company.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene made his first appearance with WCW at the TBS television special Clash of the Champions XXXII in January 1996, accompanying Hulk Hogan and Randy Savage to ringside for their match against Ric Flair and The Giant. Following the match, Greene helped Hogan fight off an attempted ambush by Brian Pillman and The Zodiac.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: In June 1996, Greene wrestled his first match for WCW at its Great American Bash pay-per-view. Greene teamed with his fellow NFL alumnus Steve McMichael - who had joined WCW as a color commentator the prior year - to face Four Horsemen members Ric Flair and Arn Anderson, who in the storyline had incurred McMichael's ire after Flair repeatedly flirted with his wife Debra, leading McMichael to bring in Greene to help defend her honor. McMichael and Greene were accompanied to ringside by their wives along with wrestler Randy Savage, who was presented as their coach. The match ended when Debra and Tara Greene were chased backstage by Flair's valets Miss Elizabeth and Woman, only for Debra to return carrying a briefcase containing a large amount of money (implicitly a bribe from Flair) and a Four Horsemen t-shirt. After Debra showed McMichael the contents of the briefcase, he took the briefcase and hit Greene with it, enabling Flair to pin Greene. McMichael then donned the t-shirt, marking the beginning of his membership in the Four Horsemen.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene returned to World Championship Wrestling in May the following year, teaming with Ric Flair and Roddy Piper to face the villainous New World Order (Kevin Nash, Scott Hall, and Syxx) in the main event of the Slamboree pay-per-view. The match ended when Greene pinned Syxx after giving him a running powerslam. The following month, at that year's Great American Bash, Greene faced Steve McMichael in a match resulting from McMichael's betrayal of him at the prior year's event. The match ended when Jeff Jarrett attempted to hit Greene with a briefcase, only to accidentally hit McMichael, enabling Greene to pin him.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene returned to World Championship Wrestling for a third and final time in 1998. On the June 22, 1998, episode of "WCW Monday Nitro", Greene made a surprise return; as he gave an interview, he was confronted by Curt Hennig and Rick Rude, who distracted him while The Giant attacked him from behind. The altercation led to Greene facing The Giant in the main event of "Nitro". Greene won the resultant match by disqualification after Hennig and Rude interfered, after which they attacked Greene until his former Los Angeles Rams teammate Bill Goldberg came to his assistance. Greene faced The Giant in a rematch at the following month's Bash at the Beach pay-per-view, with The Giant pinning him following a chokeslam.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: In Greene's contract for 1997, the 49ers included a stipulation prohibiting him from wrestling, as did the Panthers the following year. As a result, his professional wrestling career came to an end in 1998. Greene wrestled a total of five matches between June 16, 1996, and July 12, 1998, four of them on pay-per-view. During his brief career, he "share[d] the ring with some of the biggest names in sports-entertainment." Professional wrestling pundit R. D. Reynolds described him as "a pretty decent wrestler given his level of experience". WCW president Eric Bischoff praised Greene's performances, stating that Greene "poured himself into the training for our show, trying to be as good as he could possibly be". Following Greene's death in 2020, multiple wrestlers paid tribute to him, including Ric Flair, Mick Foley, and Sean "Syxx" Waltman. In addition to wrestling himself, Greene encouraged former teammate Bill Goldberg to pursue a career in professional wrestling.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: During the 2008 season Greene, along with former Steeler Jason Gildon, served an internship for the Pittsburgh Steelers as an assistant linebackers coach during training camp. On January 26, 2009, Greene was hired as an outside linebackers coach for the Green Bay Packers by Dom Capers. The Packers were transitioning into a 3–4 base defense from their traditional 4–3 base. Greene played for Capers for two years as a Steeler, and then followed Capers to Carolina when Capers was named the first head coach of the Panthers. On February 6, 2011, the Packers won Super Bowl XLV, the first time Greene had ever been part of an NFL championship team. He left the Packers in 2013 to coach high school football where his son played at Niceville High School. On January 17, 2014, it was announced that he would be stepping away from coaching "in order to spend more time with (his) wife, Tara, and (his) children, Gavin and Gabrielle". He hoped to return to coaching after his children went to college.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: In January 2017, the New York Jets hired Greene as their outside linebackers coach. Greene replaced Mark Collins, who was one of five assistants not brought back by head coach Todd Bowles for the 2017 season. After Adam Gase was hired in 2019, Greene was not included in the new coaching staff.


title: Kevin Greene (American football)

text: Greene died of a heart attack at age 58 at his home in Destin, Florida, on the morning of December 21, 2020.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan () is a 2015 Indian Tamil-language action comedy film written and directed by Vignesh Shivan, produced by actor Dhanush under his banner Wunderbar Films, and distributed by Lyca Productions. The film stars Vijay Sethupathi and Nayanthara, with Parthiepan, Raadhika Sarathkumar, RJ Balaji, and Anandaraj in supporting roles. The soundtrack album and background score was composed by Anirudh Ravichander. The cinematography was handled by George C. Williams, and editing was done by A. Sreekar Prasad.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: The film follows Pondy Paandi (Vijay Sethupathi), the son of a police inspector, who becomes involved in illegal activities. He falls in love with Kadhambari (Nayanthara), a deaf woman on a quest to get revenge against ruthless gangster Killivalavan (Parthiban).


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Vignesh Shivan announced the project in April 2013, with composer Anirudh being initially cast as the protagonist. However, Anirudh opted out of the project and Gautham Karthik and Lavanya Tripathi were cast, with Gautham Vasudev Menon financing the project. In a turn of events, the project failed to materialise and in August 2014, Dhanush came on board to produce the film, while Sethupathi and Nayanthara were confirmed as the lead cast members.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Principal photography commenced in December 2014 and ended in June 2015. The film was shot in Puducherry and Chennai over 75 days. It was released worldwide on 21 October 2015.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Pandiyan, aka Pondy Pandi, is the son of Puducherry police inspector P. Meena Kumari. Despite being an inspector's son, he grows up being friendly with criminals and upon reaching adulthood, unbeknownst to his mother, he becomes a thug, though an incompetent one. Pandi and his friends come across a deaf woman, Kadhambari, and Pandi immediately falls in love with her. Kadhambari is the daughter of an honest police officer, Ravikumar.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Fifteen years before, then-sub-inspector Ravikumar was in pursuit of Killivallavan, aka Killi, a dreaded gangster. Killi had been arrested in public by Ravi, and in retaliation, he slapped Ravi when the officer was shopping with Kathambari. Later, Ravi arrested almost all of Killi's gang members. Feeling angered, Killi sent Ravi a bomb as a gift. The bomb killed Ravi's wife and caused his daughter Kadhambari to lose her hearing.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Afterward, Ravi and his daughter moved to another part of the country and didn't return until his last year of service. Kadhambari seeks Pandi's help to find her father, who has not spoken to her for the past two days. Pandi soon learns that Ravikumar was killed by Killi the same night he met Kadhambari, but hides the fact from her so as not to upset her. A week later, Kadhambari learns about her father's death and is determined to avenge him by going after Killi.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Pandi agrees to help her, with the promise that he will restrain Killi while she stabs him. Pandi and his gang, along with Kadhambari, hatch a plan to murder Killi while he is travelling. However, this is foiled as their plan gets mixed up with that of Mansoor, Killi's political rival, who wants to contest an upcoming election in place of Killi's mistress, Baby. Pandi's gang is enraged and despite Pandi's reassurances, they decide not to help Kadhambari further.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: She then determines to go ahead on her own, as she does not want Pandi and his friends to split up over her. She reaches Killi's hideout, but on attempting to kill him, he knocks her out. Pandi soon arrives at the hideout and he and Kadhambari try to kill the gangster, but they are unsuccessful. At this juncture, Mansoor arrives at the hideout; he and Killi stab each other to death. Pandi falsely takes credit for their deaths in order to impress Kadhambari. Ultimately, Pandi, disillusioned with the thug lifestyle, becomes a police officer, as per his mother's wishes.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: In April 2013, Vignesh Shivan, who had directed "Podaa Podi" (2012), announced that he was set to make a film featuring composer Anirudh Ravichander in the leading role. The project, titled "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan", was described as an "urban flick", and the team tried to rope in Samantha Akkineni for the female lead role. The film was titled after a dialogue spoken by Vadivelu in "Thalai Nagaram" (2006). In a turn of events in the following month, Anirudh chose not to make an acting debut and the film was briefly shelved as the team looked for a replacement lead actor.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: The project was subsequently officially announced by Gautham Vasudev Menon in November 2013, who revealed that he would produce the film and that they had signed Gautham Karthik to feature in the leading role, while Anirudh would retain his position as composer. George C. Williams was signed as the cinematographer after being acclaimed for his work in "Raja Rani", while Dhilip Subbarayan was announced as the film's action director. Vignesh Shivan revealed that the film would be based on a 19-year-old youngster caught in the midst of a gangster setting and noted he hoped to shoot the film in Mumbai, Chennai, and Puducherry. Lavanya Tripathi was signed to play the female lead role of a deaf girl and noted that she was impressed by Vignesh Shivan's narration of the script. However, the project failed to take off, and Shivan continued to discuss it with different actors including Ashok Selvan, as he looked for a producer. In a turn of events, Dhanush announced via Twitter that he would be producing the film under his Wunderbar Films banner and also posted details about the cast and crew and the title design on 29 August 2014, coinciding with Vinayagar Chathurthi. While the principal crew was retained, the lead roles went to Vijay Sethupathi and Nayanthara.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: The team began to shoot on 3 December 2014, with the first leg of the venture held in Puducherry for a span of forty days. Scenes were shot at the Thirukameeswarar Temple in Villianur. On 6 December 2014, RJ Balaji joined the cast during the first schedule. Actor Vijay Sethupathi stated that he had put on weight for some of his recent roles, so he worked hard for two months to shed those pounds. He worked out and went on an extensive diet regime as well —even forgoing food at times.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: On 2 January 2015, Anandaraj joined as an addition to the film's cast and shot for the film in Puducherry. The first schedule of the film was completed in the first week of January 2015 and soon after, the team began filming the second schedule. It was reported that Nayanthara would play a hearing-impaired girl in the production. On 10 February 2015, actor Parthiepan was reported to have been cast in the film. As per sources, Rajkiran was rumoured to play the cop role and Nayanthara's father, but the part went to Azhagam Perumal instead. As of mid-May 2015, major portions of the film had been completed. The final schedule of the film was kickstarted in Puducherry on 19 May 2015. Principal photography was completed on 25 June 2015, after sixty-five days. On 10 October 2015, Nayanthara dubbed herself for her character in the first time in Tamil.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: A scene from the movie, where Nayanthara is seen buying beer from a liquor store, went viral on social media before the film's release. The Hindu Makkal Katchi (HMK) political party opposed the scene and demanded that it be deleted, otherwise during its launch they would protest the film and Nayanthara. In Chennai, HMK put up signs showing portraits of Nayanthara draped with a beer-bottle garland. After Nayanthara released a statement saying it was just a scene in a movie, her effigy was publicly burned by Hindu Munnani in February 2015.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: The soundtrack album and background score for "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan" were composed by Anirudh Ravichander, in his first collaboration with Vignesh Shivan, who previously worked with Dharan Kumar on his debut film, "Podaa Podi" (2012). Vignesh chose Anirudh to compose the film's music owing to their friendship. The soundtrack features six tracks, five of which were penned by Shivan himself, and the sixth one was written by Thamarai. Four of the songs featured Anirudh's voice. Other singers on the album include Neeti Mohan, Benny Dayal, Sid Sriram, and Sean Roldan. In August 2015, Anirudh tweeted that the songs were expected to be released soon. The composer planned to release the songs as individual singles instead of opting for a promotional audio launch. The first single was "Thangamey". The full soundtrack album was launched on 23 September 2015.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: The album received positive reviews from critics as well as listeners. Writing for "The Times of India", Sharanya CR gave it four out of five stars and wrote, "Anirudh is totally upping his game through this album, which sounds fresh, unlike his last few albums". A critic from BollywoodLife.com also gave the album four out of five stars and noted that it was "one of the best soundtracks of the year", while praising the composer for his versatility balancing between melodious songs and "fun feel good numbers". "Behindwoods" rated the album 3.25 out of 5 and called it "a musical treat from Anirudh". Karthik Srinivasan of "Milliblog" reviewed it with the words "After a series of so-so soundtracks, Anirudh comes back with a bang in Naanum Rowdy Dhaan!" Vipin Nair of "Music Aloud" gave the album 8.5 out of 10 and called it "One of Anirudh Ravichander's best soundtracks to date!" "Moviecrow" gave the release 3.75 out of 5 and stated that "the songs are engaging without any shades of Anirudh's previous compositions".


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Lyca Productions announced that they had bought the distribution rights for "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan", along with Wunderbar Films' other project, "Visaranai", directed by Vetrimaaran. The filmmakers announced that the film would be released on 2 October 2015, coinciding with Gandhi Jayanti. However, to avoid clashing with the release of "Puli", they instead decided to postpone the release until 21 October 2015, which coincided with Dusshera. The film received a U/A certificate from the Central Board of Film Certification. It opened across 475 screens in Tamil Nadu, while facing competition from "10 Endrathukulla".


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: The filmmakers unveiled the first-look poster for the film on 12 August 2015, featuring Vijay Sethupathi looking fierce. The official teaser was unveiled on 27 September 2015, and the trailer was launched on 7 October 2015. Satellite rights for the film were sold to Sun TV. The film was published to audiences outside India by Herotalkies on 15 November 2015, through their online movie streaming portal.


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan" received mostly positive reviews. Writing for "The Times of India", M. Suganth gave it four out of five stars and wrote, "The plot might come across as a serious revenge drama, but Vignesh Shivan displays a lightness of touch throughout that makes the film so much fun. And, he keeps things breezy even when situations get serious". Sify wrote, "Vignesh Sivan's Naanum Rowdy Dhaan (NRD) is a feel-good laugh riot, a perfect movie to hang out with friends. You are guaranteed loads of fun and sure to come out with a big smile on your face". "Behindwoods" rated the film three out of five and noted, "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan is sure to entertain you and your family this festival season. This is a film that you can just relax, sit back and enjoy with a tub of butter popcorn!" S. Saraswathi of Rediff.com gave it 3.5 out of 5 and stated, "Simple, sweet and uncomplicated, "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan" is a refreshing romantic comedy that deserves a watch". Sudhir Srinivasan of "The Hindu" reviewed it with the words "Almost all the jokes, both subtle and loud, work. And they're everywhere, and often admirably, without heed to political correctness". "The Guardian" gave it 3 out of 5 stars and wrote, "Despite some rough edges and missed opportunities, Vignesh Shivan delivers a well-written, likably played film where every element feels integrated and thought through". "Indiaglitz" gave the film three out of five stars and stated, "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan' is a fulfilling commercial entertainer that will be liked by all in the family". Kaushik LM reviewed it with "Naanum Rowdy Dhaan, it is a winning recipe of fabulous music, well-cast lead actors and comedy which works for the most part. But the feeling of tedium and restlessness, at experiencing the same pattern, is unmistakable".


title: Naanum Rowdy Dhaan

text: Nayanthara's dialogue, "Ongala Podanum Sir", spoken within the film, inspired a movie of the same name.


title: Sal Magluta

text: Salvador "Sal" Magluta is a Cuban American former drug kingpin and powerboat racer who, along with his partner Willy Falcon, operated one of the most significant cocaine trafficking organizations in South Florida history. The duo became known as "Los Muchachos", Spanish for "the boys".


title: Sal Magluta

text: Salvador Magluta was born into a Jewish Cuban family who owned a bakery in the Little Havana neighborhood of Miami, Florida. He and Willy Falcon both dropped out of Miami Senior High School, where they were small-time marijuana dealers before becoming involved in the burgeoning cocaine trade.


title: Sal Magluta

text: Magluta, along with his partner Falcon, was indicted by a federal grand jury in April 1991 for a plethora of drug trafficking crimes, including operating a continuing criminal enterprise accused of importing and distributing over 75 tons of cocaine. Magluta was represented by Roy Black, Martin Weinberg, and Richard Martinez who was Magluta's brother in law. His partner Falcon was represented by Albert Krieger, Susan Van Dusen, and D. Robert "Bobby" Wells. Both Magluta and Falcon were found not guilty after a lengthy trial before Judge Federico Moreno.


title: Sal Magluta

text: Following the 1996 trial, the United States Attorney's Office directed an investigation into Magluta and Falcon's finances that ultimately revealed that members of their jury - including the jury foreman - had been bribed. Magluta, Falcon, several of the jurors, their associates and even some of their lawyers were ultimately charged with various criminal offenses arising from the conduct. In 2003, Magluta's father and son pled guilty to stashing illegal drug money which was used to bribe jurors and intimidate witnesses.


title: Sal Magluta

text: In 2002, Magluta was tried for bribing jurors, money laundering and obstruction of justice including killing witnesses. He was found guilty on 12 of the 39 counts against him.


title: Sal Magluta

text: Magluta was eventually sentenced to 205 years in federal prison. His sentence was later reduced to 195 years on appeal. He was initially transferred to the supermax federal prison facility in Florence, Colorado. Magluta was later represented by Paul Petruzzi and Richard Klugh and sought a new trial claiming over 40 legal violations.


title: Susanna Kaysen

text: Susanna Kaysen (born November 11, 1948) is an American author, best known for her 1993 memoir "Girl, Interrupted".


title: Susanna Kaysen

text: Kaysen was born and raised in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She is the daughter of Annette (Neutra) and economist Carl Kaysen, a professor at MIT and former advisor to President John F. Kennedy. Her family is Jewish.


title: Susanna Kaysen

text: Kaysen attended high school at the Commonwealth School in Boston, and The Cambridge School of Weston, before being sent to McLean Hospital in 1967 to undergo psychiatric treatment for depression. While there, she was diagnosed with borderline personality disorder. She was released after 18 months. She drew on this experience for her memoir "Girl, Interrupted" in 1993, which was adapted into a film; she was portrayed by actress Winona Ryder.


title: Susanna Kaysen

text: Kaysen has one sister and is divorced. She lived for a time in the Faroe Islands, upon which experience her novel "Far Afield" is based.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Settler colonialism is a structure that perpetuates the elimination of Indigenous people and cultures to replace them with a settler society. Some, but not all, scholars argue that settler colonialism is inherently genocidal. It may be enacted by a variety of means ranging from violent depopulation of the previous inhabitants to less deadly means such as assimilation or recognition of Indigenous identity within a colonial framework.


title: Settler colonialism

text: As with all forms of colonialism, it is based on exogenous domination, typically organized or supported by an imperial authority. Settler colonialism contrasts with exploitation colonialism, which entails a economic policy of conquering territory to exploit its population as cheap or free labor and its natural resources as raw material. In this way, settler colonialism lasts indefinitely, except in the rare event of complete evacuation or settler decolonization. Political theorist Mahmoud Mamdani suggested that settlers could never succeed in their effort to become native, and therefore the only way to end settler colonialism was to erase the political significance of the settler–native dichotomy.


title: Settler colonialism

text: During the 1960s, settlement and colonization were perceived as separate phenomena from colonialism. Settlement endeavors were seen as taking place in empty areas, downplaying the Indigenous inhabitants. Later on in the 1970s and 1980s, settler colonialism was seen as bringing high living standards in contrast to the failed political systems associated with classical colonialism. Beginning in the mid-1990s, the field of settler colonial studies was established distinct but connected to Indigenous studies. Patrick Wolfe theorized settler colonialism as a structure (rather than an event) premised on the elimination rather than exploitation of the native population, thus distinguishing it from classical colonialism. Wolfe also argued that settler colonialism was centered on the control of land and that it continued after the closing of the frontier. His approach was defining for the field, but has been challenged by other scholars on the basis that many situations involve a combination of elimination and exploitation.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Settler colonial studies has often focused on British colonies in North America, Australia, and Zealandia, which are close to the complete, prototypical form of settler colonialism, but is also applied to other cases including Kashmir, the Canary Islands, Latin America, Liberia, South Africa, Rhodesia, French Algeria, British Kenya, Italian Libya and East Africa, Northern Ireland, Hokkaido, Japanese Korea, Manchukuo, German South West Africa, Posen and West Prussia, Generalplan Ost and Israel/Palestine.


title: Settler colonialism

text: During the early modern period, some European nation-states and their agents adopted policies of colonialism, competing with each other to establish colonies outside of Europe, at first in Macaronesia, then the Americas, and later in Asia, Africa, and Oceania.


title: Settler colonialism

text: During the fifteenth century, the Kingdom of Castile sponsored expeditions by conquistadors to subjugate under Castilian rule the Macaronesian archipelago of the Canary Islands, located off the coast of Morocco and inhabited by the Indigenous Guanche people. Beginning with the start of the conquest of the island of Lanzarote on 1 May 1402 and ending with the surrender of the last Guanche resistance on Tenerife on 29 September 1496 to the now-unified Spanish crown, the archipelago was subject to a settler colonial process involving systematic enslavement, mass murder, and deportation of the Guanches, who were replaced with Spanish settlers, in a process foreshadowing the Iberian colonisation of the Americas that followed shortly thereafter. Also like in the Americas, Spanish colonialists in the Canaries quickly turned to the importation of slaves from mainland Africa as a source of labour due to the decimation of the already small Guanche population by a combination of war, disease, and brutal forced labour. Historian Mohamed Adhikari has labelled the conquest of the Canary Islands as the first overseas European settler colonial genocide.


title: Settler colonialism

text: European colonization of the Americas began as early as the 10th century, when Norse sailors explored and settled limited areas on the shores of present-day Greenland and Canada. According to Norse folklore, violent conflicts with the Indigenous population ultimately made the Norse abandon those settlements.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Extensive European colonization began in 1492, when a Spanish expedition headed by Genoese Christopher Columbus sailed west attempting to find a new trade route to the Far East, but inadvertently landed in the Americas. European conquest, large-scale exploration, colonization and industrial development soon followed. Columbus's first two voyages (1492–93) reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba.


title: Settler colonialism

text: As the sponsor of Christopher Columbus's voyages, Spain was the first European power to settle and colonize the largest areas; and as a result of the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, Spain claimed dominion over everything west of a meridian 370 leagues west of Cabo Verde. Unbeknownst at the time, this included all of North and South America, except eastern present-day Greenland, and the easternmost tip of what is today Brazil. Several extant Spanish colonies were established in the following years, including Santo Domingo, the capital of the Dominican Republic, which was founded as early as 1496, Nombre de Dios, the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in Panama, founded in 1510, Baracoa, the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in Cuba—and former capital of Cuba—Veracruz, the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in Mexico, and Panama City, the first European city on the Pacific Coast of the Americas—both founded in 1519. The oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in Puerto Rico, and in the United States is San Juan, which was founded in 1521. San Juan is also the oldest continuously inhabited state or territorial capital in the United States, nearly a century older than Santa Fe, New Mexico, the oldest continuously inhabited state or territorial capital in the continental United States, founded in 1610. St. Augustine, Florida is the oldest continuously inhabited European settlement in the continental United States, having been founded in 1565.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Before long, several western european empires began colonizing the so-called New World far from the Caribbean, Spain's initial focus. In 1497, the year before Columbus's third voyage reached the South American coast, John Cabot landed on the northeast North American coast, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England. Based on the terms defined in the Treaty of Tordesillas, the Portuguese Crown claimed it had territorial rights in the aforementioned area visited by John Cabot. As a result, in 1499 and 1500, Portuguese mariner João Fernandes Lavrador visited Greenland and the northeast coast of North America, naming Labrador in the process, and in 1501 and 1502, the Corte-Real brothers explored and charted Greenland, as well as what is today the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador, claiming these lands as part of the Portuguese Empire. The Portuguese Empire also began exploring and colonizing present-day Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina at this time. Permanent habitation in Brazil did not begin until São Vicente was founded in 1532 by Martim Afonso de Sousa, although temporary trading posts were established earlier to collect brazilwood, used as a dye. In 1534, Francis I of France sent Jacques Cartier on the first of three voyages to explore the coast of Newfoundland and the St. Lawrence River. This was the beginning of a dramatic territorial expansion for several European countries. Europe had been preoccupied with internal wars, and was only slowly recovering from the loss of population caused by the bubonic plague; thus the rapid rate at which it grew in wealth and power was unforeseeable in the early 15th century.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Eventually, the nearly entire Western Hemisphere came under the ostensible control of European governments, leading to profound changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life. In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas. The post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange, a widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including forced laborers, free laborers, and indentured laborers), communicable disease, and ideas between the Americas and Afro-Eurasia following Columbus's voyages to the Americas.


title: Settler colonialism

text: In the context of the United States, early colonial powers generally respected the territorial and political sovereignty of the Indigenous tribes, due to the need to forge local alliances with these tribes against other European colonial powers (i.e. British attempts to check French influence, etc.). The Euro-American colonial powers created economic dependency and imbalance of trade, incorporating Indigenous nations into spheres of influence and controlling them indirectly with the use of Christian missionaries and alcohol. However, with the emergence of an independent United States, desire for land and the perceived threat of permanent Indigenous political and spatial structures led to violent relocation of many Indigenous tribes to the American West, including the notable example of the Cherokee in what is known as the Trail of Tears. Frederick Jackson Turner, the father of the "frontier thesis" of American history, noted in 1901: "Our colonial system did not start with Spanish War; the U.S. had had a colonial history from the beginning...hidden under the phraseology of 'interstate migration' and territorial organization'". While the United States government and local state governments directly aided this dispossession through the use of military forces, ultimately this came about through agitation by settler society in order to gain access to Indigenous land. Especially in the US South, such land acquisition built plantation society and expanded the practice of slavery. Settler colonialism participated in the formation of US cultures and lasted past the conquest, removal, or extermination of Indigenous people. The practice of writing the Indigenous out of history perpetrated a forgetting of the full dimensions and significance of colonialism at both the national and local levels.


title: Settler colonialism

text: This forcible relocation of tribes came about in part through the mentality of "Manifest Destiny", the mentality that it was the right and destiny of the United States to expand its territory and its rule across the North American continent, to the Pacific coast. Through various armed conflicts between Indigenous tribes on one side, with settler society backed by American military power on the other side, along with an increasing number of treaties centering around land cessation, Native American tribes were slowly pushed onto a system of reservations, where they traded territory for protection and support from the United States government. However, this system could be disadvantageous for tribes, as they often were forced to relocate to reservations far from their traditional homelands, or had trouble obtaining goods and annuity payments that were promised by the government, leading to further armed revolts and conflicts such as the Dakota War of 1862 in Minnesota. Cases of genocide that were carried out as policy include the Jacksonian era of forced removal and the California gold rush in Northern California. An example from 1873, General William T. Sherman wrote, "We must act with vindictive earnestness against the Sioux, even to their extermination, men, women, and children..."


title: Settler colonialism

text: Following the conclusion of U.S./Native American conflicts in the late 1800s, displacement of Indigenous peoples and identities switched to a more legal basis. Attempts were made to assimilate them into American society while stripping away territory; legislation like the Dawes Act of 1887 led to the division of previously communally held Indigenous lands into individually owned pieces of land that were to be held by tribal members. While 'allotment' was as mentioned held up as a way to help Indigenous people become 'civilized' and further assimilated into settler society, other motives included the erosion of tribal culture and social unity, along with allowing for more land for European-American settlement and economic ventures to make use of Indigenous lands. In the educational sphere, a system of boarding schools for Native children (Col. Richard Pratt's Carlisle School being a notable example) worked to strip Indigenous languages, religions and cultures away from children in order for them to better assimilate into American culture, in schools that were often geographically distant from their home communities.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Further developments such as the Federal policies of termination and relocation in the 1950s and 1960s reinforced the aims of settler society to eliminate Indigenous identity and occupation of space, through the disestablishment of Federal treaty/trust obligations to tribes, the transfer of civil and criminal jurisdiction over many reservations to the individual states, and the encouragement of Native Americans to leave their reservations and relocate to cities such as New York City, Minneapolis, Denver and Portland; it was hoped that this relocation would further erode tribal identity and speed up the process of assimilation. In the wake of the 1950s termination and relocation policies, a pan-Indigenous movement arose in tandem to the African American civil rights movement and broad-based social justice and antiwar movements of 1960s. While both policies were officially (in the case of termination) and unofficially (relocation) ended by the early 1970s, they had the effect of creating a large population of Native American urban populations, and the unintended side effect of giving rise to increased political awareness among Native Americans, leading to the creation of organizations such as the American Indian Movement.


title: Settler colonialism

text: In the present day, the legacy of settler colonialism in the United States has created a complicated relationship between Indigenous tribes and the United States, especially in the area of treaty rights and sovereignty. Much contemporary literature written by Indigenous scholars and scholars within the field of American Indian Studies/Native Studies centers around recognizing the disruptive effects that settler colonialism has had on Native American tribes, including land loss, destruction of tribal languages and cultures, and tribal efforts to maintain recognition of rights they have gained via treaties with the United States government. Anishinaabe (Ojibwe) historian Jean O'Brien names the practice of writing Indians out of existence "firsting and lasting". The national narrative tells of the "last" Indians or last tribes as well as the story of "first" settlement: the founder(s), the first school, first everything and the "last of Mohicans", "Ishi, the last Indian", and "End of the Trail ("sculpture by James Earle Fraser). Elizabeth Cook-Lynn defines the effects of "American colonialism" within towns that sit outside of the Navajo Nation's boundaries. Indigenous scholars, including Linda Tuhiwai Smith, have developed methodologies of Indigenous decolonization that center Indigenous knowledge and cultural practices.


title: Settler colonialism

text: In the nineteenth-century period known as the Chuang Guandong, "Crashing into Guandong/Manchuria", the ethnically Manchu rulers of Qing dynasty China allowed rapid settlement by the ethnic-majority Han Chinese of the historical homeland of the Manchu and other Tungusic peoples in Northeast China, which had previously been strictly controlled and closed to habitation by most non-Indigenous Chinese.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Near the end of their rule the Qing tried to colonize Xinjiang along with other parts of the imperial frontier. To accomplish this goal they began a policy of settler colonialism by which Han Chinese were resettled on the frontier. This policy was renewed under the Xi Jinping Administration, led by General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party Xi Jinping.


title: Settler colonialism

text: In the 19th century, the Russian Empire adopted the policy of Russification of areas in Asia and the Caucasus. In the case of the Circassian genocide, the local Circassian population was exterminated and replaced by Russian Cossack settlements. Between 1800 and 1914, 5.5 million European Russians and other Slavs moved to Siberia and the Far East, outnumbering the local Asian populace, except in Yakutia and Kamchatka, were they stayed in a minority. This colonization continued even during the Soviet Union in the 20th century. In one instance, the Soviet occupation of the Baltics gradually developed into colonial rule. Around 700,000 immigrants, mostly Russians, settled in Latvia, changing the share of Latvians from 84% in 1945 to 52% in 1989. Almost 180,000 Russians settled in Estonia, changing the share of Estonians from 94% in 1945 to 62% in 1989. Similar colonizations occurred elsewhere. Between 1926 and 1959, the number of migrants rose from 57% to 80% in Buryatia, and from 36% to 53% in Yakutia. By 1959, Russians made up 75% of all migrants in Buryatia; 44% of migrants in Yakutia; and 76% of migrants in Khakassia. Soviet show that the goals of the gulag included colonization of sparsely populated remote areas and exploiting its resources using forced labor. In 1929, OGPU was given the task to colonize these areas. To this end, the notion of "free settlement" was introduced. On 12 April 1930 Genrikh Yagoda wrote to the OGPU Commission:


title: Settler colonialism

text: The island of Hokkaido was inhabited by the Indigenous Ainu people until the Japanese invasion and annexation of the island in the 19th century and Japanese mass migration.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Europeans explored and settled Australia, displacing Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The Indigenous Australian population was estimated at about 795,000 at the time of European settlement. The population declined steeply for 150 years following settlement from 1788, due to casualties from the Australian frontier wars, infectious disease including the use of disease as biological warfare, and forced re-settlement and cultural disintegration.


title: Settler colonialism

text: New Zealand's European population is the result of migration by Europeans since the beginning of the 19th century. The Indigenous Māori population are a significant minority population in the 21st century. The Maori Language Act accords official status to the Māori language. The Treaty of Waitangi is a document of central importance to the history and political constitution of the state of New Zealand, and is widely regarded as the founding document of New Zealand.


title: Settler colonialism

text: The Caldoche are the descendants of European—in the majority French—settlers in New Caledonia, who often displaced the Indigenous Kanak population from the mid-19th century onwards.


title: Settler colonialism

text: In 1652, the arrival of Europeans sparked the beginning of settler colonialism in South Africa. The Dutch East India Company was set up at the Cape, and imported large numbers of slaves from Africa and Asia during the mid-seventeenth century. The Dutch East India Company established a refreshment station for ships sailing between Europe and the east. The initial plan by Dutch East India Company officer Jan van Riebeeck was to maintain a small community around the new fort, but the community continued to spread and colonize further than originally planned. There was a historic struggle to achieve the intended British sovereignty that was achieved in other parts of the Commonwealth. State sovereignty belonged to the Union of South Africa (1910–61), followed by the Republic of South Africa (1961–1994) and finally the modern day Republic of South Africa (1994–Present day). As of 2014, the South African government has re-opened the period for land claims under the Restitution of Land Rights Amendment Act.


title: Settler colonialism

text: For decades, Saddam Hussein 'Arabized' northern Iraq, an act often referred as "internal colonialism". The policy of Saddam Hussein in North Iraq during the Ba'athist rule was described by Dr. Francis Kofi Abiew as a "Colonial 'Arabization'" program, including large-scale Kurdish deportations and forced Arab settlement in the region.


title: Settler colonialism

text: Following the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus, the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe stated that the demographics of the island are continuously modified as a result of the deliberate policies of the Turks. Some suggest that over 120,000 Turkish settlers were brought to the island from mainland Turkey, in violation of article 49 of the Geneva convention.


title: Settler colonialism

text: According to the UN resolution 1987/19, adopted on 2 September 1987, the UN expressed "its concern also at the policy and practice of the implantation of settlers in the occupied territories of Cyprus, which constitute a form of colonialism and attempt to change illegally the demographic structure of Cyprus".


title: Settler colonialism

text: According to Ilan Pappe, the Zionist movement leaders were publicly talking of a compulsory transfer of the Arab population in Mandatory Palestine since the 1930s; David Ben-Gurion wrote to the Jewish Agency Executive in June 1938 “...I support compulsory transfer. I don’t see anything immoral in it.” The first major wave of depopulation of Palestinian Arabs happened during the 1947–1949 Palestine war, when 700,000 Palestinians were led to leave their villages and towns in today's Israel. Historians such as Ilan Pappe and Benny Morris, who analysed unclassified IDF archives, concluded that the major reasons behind the Palestinians exodus were expulsion, intimidation, and fear of massacres and rape.


title: Settler colonialism

text: In 1967, the French historian Maxime Rodinson wrote an article later translated and published in English as "Israel: A Colonial Settler-State?" Lorenzo Veracini describes Israel as a colonial state and writes that Jewish settlers could expel the British in 1948 only because they had their own colonial relationships inside and outside Israel's new borders. Veracini believes the possibility of an Israeli disengagement is always latent and this relationship could be severed, through an "accommodation of a Palestinian Israeli autonomy within the institutions of the Israeli state". Other commentators, such as Daiva Stasiulis, Nira Yuval-Davis, and Joseph Massad in the "Post Colonial Colony: time, space and bodies in Palestine/ Israel in the persistence of the Palestinian Question" have included Israel in their global analysis of settler societies. Ilan Pappé describes Zionism and Israel in similar terms. Scholar Amal Jamal, from Tel Aviv University, has stated, "Israel was created by a settler-colonial movement of Jewish immigrants".


title: Settler colonialism

text: Some Palestinians express similar opinions - writer and sociologist Jamil Hilal, member of the Palestinian National Council, describes the place he lives in as "the heavily-colonised West Bank", and draws parallels between South African and Israeli settler colonialism: "as in Southern Africa, stretches of land were acquired by the Zionist settlers [...] and their Arab tenants thrown out". Former Palestinian Foreign Minister Dr. Nasser al-Qidwa opposes the policy of Israeli settlements and has described those efforts as colonialism.