title: Dunfermline

text: The city is a major service centre for west Fife. Dunfermline retains much of its historic significance, as well as providing facilities for leisure. Employment is focused in the service sector, with the largest employer being Sky UK. Other large employers in the area include Amazon (on-line retailer), Best Western (hotels), CR Smith (windows manufacturing), FMC Technologies (offshore energy), Lloyds and Nationwide (both financial services).


title: Dunfermline

text: As part of the Platinum Jubilee Civic Honours, it was announced on 20 May 2022 that Dunfermline would be awarded city status. It would be formally awarded the status through Letters Patent later in 2022.


title: Dunfermline

text: There have been various interpretations of the name, ""Dunfermline"". The first element, ""dun"" translated from Gaelic, has been accepted as a (fortified) hill, and is assumed to be referring to the rocky outcrop at the site of Malcolm Canmore's tower in Pittencrieff Glen (now Pittencrieff Park). The rest of the name is problematic. The second element, ""the ferm"" may have been an alternative name for the Tower Burn according to a medieval record published in 1455 which, together with the Lyne Burn to the south, suggests the site of a fortification between these two watercourses.


title: Dunfermline

text: The first record of a settlement in the Dunfermline area was in the Neolithic period. This evidence includes finds of a stone axe, some flint arrowheads and a carved stone ball near the town. A cropmark which is understood to have been used as a possible mortuary enclosure has been found at Deanpark House, also near the town. By the time of the Bronze Age, the area was beginning to show some importance. Important finds included a bronze axe in Wellwood and a gold torc from the Parish Churchyard. Cist burials from the Bronze Age have also been discovered at both Crossford and Masterton, the latter of which contains a pair of armlets, a bronze dagger and a set necklace believed to have complemented a double burial.


title: Dunfermline

text: The first historic record for Dunfermline was made in the 11th century. According to the fourteenth-century chronicler, John of Fordun, Malcolm III married his second bride, the Anglo-Hungarian princess Saint Margaret, at the church in Dunfermline between 1068 and 1070; the ceremony was performed by Fothad, the last Celtic bishop of St Andrews. Malcolm III established Dunfermline as a new seat for royal power in the mid-11th century and initiated changes that eventually made the township the de facto capital of Scotland for much of the period until the assassination of James I in 1437. Following her marriage to King Malcolm III, Queen Margaret encouraged her husband to convert the small culdee chapel into a church for Benedictine monks. The existing culdee church was no longer able to meet the demand for its growing congregation because of a large increase in the population of Dunfermline from the arrival of English nobility coming into Scotland. The founding of this new church of Dunfermline was inaugurated around 1072, but was not recorded in the town's records.


title: Dunfermline

text: King David I of Scotland (reigned 1124–53) would later grant this church, dedicated to the Holy Trinity, to ""unam mansuram in burgo meo de Dunfermlyn"" which translates into ""a house or dwelling place in my burgh of Dunfermline"". The foundations of the church evolved into an Abbey in 1128, under the reign of their son, David I. Dunfermline Abbey would play a major role in the general romanisation of religion throughout the kingdom. At the peak of its power the abbey controlled four burghs, three courts of regality and a large portfolio of lands from Moray in the north down into Berwickshire. From the time of Alexander I (reign 1104–28), the Abbey would also become firmly established as a prosperous royal mausoleum of the Scottish Crown. A total of eighteen royals, including seven Kings, were buried here from Queen Margaret in 1093 to Robert Stewart, Duke of Albany in 1420. During the fight for Scottish Independence from English rule, between 1296 and 1329, Robert The Bruce had


title: Dunfermline

text: insisted as early as 1314, he wanted to be buried in the royal mausoleum in Dunfermline. This was so he could maintain the legacy of previous Scottish Kings interred here, referring to them as our ‘predecessors’. Robert The Bruce (reigned 1306–29) would ultimately become the last of the seven Scottish Kings to be given this honour in 1329, although his heart was taken to Melrose Abbey.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline had become a burgh between 1124 and 1127, if not before this time. Dunfermline Palace was also connected to the abbey and the first known documentation of the Auld Alliance was signed there on 23 October 1295.


title: Dunfermline

text: Although the second son of King James VI of Scotland and Anne of Denmark, Prince Charles (later Charles I) was born in Dunfermline Palace, Fife, on 19 November 1600, the Union of the Crowns ended the town's royal connections when James VI relocated the Scottish Court to London in 1603. King Charles thus became the last monarch to be born in Scotland.


title: Dunfermline

text: The Reformation of 1560 had previously meant a loss of the Dunfermline's ecclesiastical importance. David Ferguson was the town's first reformed minister. On 25 May 1624, a fire engulfed around three-quarters of the medieval-renaissance burgh. Some of the surviving buildings of the fire were the palace, the abbey and the Abbot's House.


title: Dunfermline

text: The decline in the fortunes of Dunfermline lasted until the introduction of a linen industry in the early 18th century. One reason for which the town became a centre for linen was there was enough water to power the mills and nearby ports along the Fife Coast. These ports also did trade with the Baltic and Low Countries. Another reason was through an act of industrial espionage in 1709 by a weaver known as James Blake who gained access to the workshops of a damask linen factory in Edinburgh by pretending to act like a simpleton in order to find out and memorise the formula. On his return to his home town in 1718, Blake established a damask linen industry in the town. The largest of these factories was St Leonard's Mill which was established by Erskine Beveridge in 1851. A warehouse and office block was later added around 1869. Other linen factories were built on land to both the north and south ends of the burgh. During the mid-19th century, power loom weaving started to replace linen damask. The latter did not survive, going into decline straight after the end of First World War. In 1909 the Royal Navy established Scotland's only Royal Naval Dockyard at nearby Rosyth.


title: Dunfermline

text: Post-war housing began in the late 1940s with the construction of temporary prefabs and Swedish timber houses around areas such as Kingseat and Townhill. Additional provisions were made for electricity, water and sewage systems. Council housing was focused towards Abbeyview, on a site on Aberdour Road; Touch, to the south of Garvock Hill; Bellyeoman and Baldridgeburn. Private housing became focused to the north of Garvock Hill and on the site of West Pitcorthie Farm.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline has experienced significant expansion since 1999, especially in an expansion corridor on the eastern side of the town. This growth has edged the population centre towards the town's boundary with the M90 road corridor; it is planned to continue until 2022. Major developments include the creation of the Duloch and Masterton neighbourhoods with over 6,000 homes, three new primary schools, new community infrastructure, employment land and the Fife Leisure Park. With the expansion there has been a dramatic rise in the town's population; more than 20% over a 15-year period. Fife Council have begun drafting plans for an expansion of a similar scale on Dunfermline's south-west, west and north sides, which will see the creation of 4,000 homes, a new high school and three new primary schools in the first phase.


title: Dunfermline

text: Today, Dunfermline is the main centre for the West Fife area, and is also considered to be a dormitory town for Edinburgh. The town has shopping facilities, a major public park, a main college campus at Halbeath and an-out-of-town leisure park with a multiplex cinema and a number of restaurants. The online retailer Amazon.com has opened a major distribution centre in the Duloch Park area of Dunfermline.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline attained royal burgh status until this was abolished in 1975, under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 in favour of a three-tier regions and districts. The royal burgh merged into Dunfermline District, which was one of three districts within the Fife region serving the town and West Fife from Kincardine to Aberdour. The district council was abolished in 1996, under the Local Government etc (Scotland) Act 1994, when the region became a unitary council area. The new unitary Fife Council adopted the areas of the former districts as council management areas, and created area committees to represent each.


title: Dunfermline

text: Today, Dunfermline is represented by several tiers of elected government. Abbeyview, Bellyeoman, Carnock and Gowkhall, Central Dunfermline, Izatt Avenue & Nethertown and Touch and Garvock Community Councils form the lowest tier of governance, whose statutory role is to communicate local opinion to local and central government. Fife Council, the unitary local authority for Dunfermline, are the executive, deliberative and legislative body responsible for local governance. Dunfermline has retained some importance as an administrative centre with the council's principal west Fife office based at New City House. Councillor meetings, including the City of Dunfermline Area Committee, take place in the Dunfermline City Chambers.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline forms part of the county constituency of Dunfermline and West Fife. The Dunfermline and West Fife UK (or "Westminster") constituency, created in 2005 when the previous seats Dunfermline East and Dunfermline West were abolished, elects a Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by the first-past-the-post system. The seat is currently held by Douglas Chapman MP for the Scottish National Party. For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament, Dunfermline forms part of the Dunfermline constituency. The Dunfermline Scottish Parliament (or "Holyrood") constituency created in 2011, following a review of Scottish Parliament constituency boundaries is one of nine within the Mid Scotland and Fife electoral region. Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the first-past-the-post system of election. The seat was won at 2016 Scottish Parliament elections by Shirley-Anne Somerville of the Scottish National Party.


title: Dunfermline

text: Prior to Brexit in 2020, Dunfermline was part of the pan-Scotland European Parliament constituency which elected seven Members of the European Parliament (MEPs) using the d'Hondt method of party-list proportional representation.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline is at on the coastal fringe of Fife. The medieval town rose from approximately above sea level in the south, where Nethertown Broad Street can now be found; west to east along what is now Priory Lane; to up the High Street, from west to east; to between Bruce Street and Queen Anne Street from south to north.


title: Dunfermline

text: Temperatures in Dunfermline, much like the rest of Scotland, are relatively moderate given its northern latitude. Fife is a peninsula, between the Firth of Tay to the north, Firth of Forth to the south and the North Sea to the east. Summers are relatively cool and the warming of the water over the summer, results in warm winters. Average annual temperatures in Dunfermline range from a maximum of to a minimum of .


title: Dunfermline

text: According to the 2001 census, Dunfermline had a total population of 39,229 representing 11.2% of Fife's total population. According to the 2011 Census, the population of Dunfermline had risen considerably to 49,706 and has again increased up to 50,380 in 2012. There are 21,620 households in Dunfermline, 70.7% of which were owned. The demographic make-up of the population is much in line with the rest of Scotland. The age group from 30 to 44 forms the largest portion of the population (23.7%). The total population in the Dunfermline area was estimated at 55,451 in 2016, with a projected increase of 29% expected by 2026. The number of households in the Dunfermline area in 2016 was recorded at 24,607; 77% of which were owner occupied, 18% social rented and 4% private rented. 30.6% of people live alone and 10.9% are in low income. The median weekly income is calculated at £363 for the area.


title: Dunfermline

text: Recent Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD) figures indicate that the most deprived datazone in Dunfermline is Abbeyview North which is ranked as being one of the 5% most deprived areas in Scotland. The Headwell, Touch and Woodmill areas in Dunfermline fall within the 5–10% banding. Baldridgeburn, Brucefield and Halbeath areas are identified as being within the 10–15%, 15–20% banding of most deprived communities in Scotland.


title: Dunfermline

text: At June 2017 there was a recorded 539 Jobseekers Allowance (JSA) claimants in the Dunfermline area representing a 1.4% rate which was lower than the Fife and Scottish averages.


title: Dunfermline

text: From about the fifteenth century coal and limestone had been extracted in the area around Dunfermline, at first on a very small and localised scale. As the agricultural revolution gathered pace the demand for lime (for improving land) increased the requirement for coal to burn it. Salt panning too required coal in large quantities, and the early outcrops near the Firth of Forth became exhausted, forcing the extraction to take place further inland. Many of the sites were within the present day limits of Dunfermline.


title: Dunfermline

text: The increasing distance of the pits from the Forth made transport of the minerals an issue, and Dunfermline was a pioneer in the construction of wooden waggonways for the purpose. By the eighteenth century a complex network had developed, and in time many of the lines were converted to railways: the Halbeath Railway, the Fordell Railway, the Elgin Railway and the Townhill Tramway being the most prominent. They generally ran from north to south, still conveying the mineral to the harbours at Charlestown, Limekilns, Inverkeithing and St David's. From 1848 more modern railways entered Dunfermline, at first on a west to east axis, intersecting the mineral lines. In time the latter were converted to make through running on to the main line network possible.


title: Dunfermline

text: During the industrial revolution and victorian period industry in Dunfermline was concentrated to the north of the town centre around Pilmuir Street and to the south along sections of the Lynn Burn at Elgin and Bothwell Streets with textiles being particularly important to the town's economy. After the end of the Second World War traditional industries, particularly linen and coal mining, declined and eventually became obsolete in the town with many factories ceasing production. Manufacturing in the town rejuvenated by the early 1960s when Monotype Corporation opened a new factory on Halbeath Road. The completion of the Pitreavie Industrial Estate (now known as the Pitreavie Business Park) opened in the mid-1970s, following the arrival of Philips and the re-location of the offices of the Dunfermline Press. Smaller industrial estates were focused on Elgin Street, Halbeath Drive and Primrose Lane.


title: Dunfermline

text: The Dunfermline area has Fife's largest concentration of employment providing approximately 26,600 jobs in 2009; approximately 16% of the 163,000 jobs in Fife. Wholesale and Retail (over 18% of local jobs) Health and Social Work (over 15% of local jobs) and Information and Communication (over 10% of local jobs) are the predominant sectors in the local economy. There are also moderate instances of employment in finance, manufacturing, food services and accommodation.


title: Dunfermline

text: Key local employers include Best Western (hotels), Sky UK (home entertainment and communications), CR Smith (windows manufacturing), FMC Technologies (offshore energy), Lloyds and Nationwide (both financial services). In November 2011 online retailer Amazon.com opened a fulfilment warehouse in the east of the town adjacent to the M90 motorway. This development has created over 750 jobs and is the company's largest warehouse in the UK. The Newcastle based, Shepherd Offshore Group also plan to erect a renewables hub near the Halbeath Interchange, off the M90 on a former Hyundai/Motorola 'white elephant' factory. The demolition of the factory began in early 2011 with an expected date for completion at the end of the year. A masterplan is being created for the site identifying significant investment and development opportunities with the potential to create a substantial number of new jobs.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline is the principal shopping centre serving the western area of Fife and is the region's second largest town centre by floorspace. Retailing accounts for 18% of the total number of jobs in the town. A BID (Business Improvement District) scheme for the town centre has been in operation since 2009. The majority of shops and retail services in Dunfermline are concentrated in the town centre along a high street. The Kingsgate Shopping Centre is located on the pedestrianised section of the High Street giving Dunfermline a mix of modern and traditional shops. A major extension of the Kingsgate Shopping Centre was completed in 2008 improving and expanding the retail offer in the town by attracting a major department store brand and range of other smaller retailers. Other retail areas in Dunfermline exist at Carnegie Drive Retail Park to the north of the town centre and Halbeath Retail Park to the east of the town. A large neighbourhood centre with one of the towns major supermarkets was also built as part of the eastern expansion area of Dunfermline. The Fife Leisure Park, constructed in 1999 is adjacent to the M90 at Halbeath on the eastern outskirts of Dunfermline. The leisure park has a large cinema, a health club, bowling alley and a number of restaurants.


title: Dunfermline

text: The Category A listed Dunfermline Abbey on the Kirkgate is one of the best examples of Scoto-Norman monastic architecture. The Abbey, built between 1128 and 1150 under David I, was a reconstruction of the Benedictine chapel dedicated to the Holy Trinity, founded by his mother, Queen Margaret. Despite much of the monastic buildings being destroyed by the troops of Edward I in 1303, there are substantial remains, with the lower stories of the dormitory and latrine blocks on the east side of the cloister being the earliest surviving parts, dating back to the early 13th century. The Abbey parish church, designed by the architect William Burn, was built between 1818 and 1821 on the site of the medieval choir and transepts which had been the eastern part of the abbey.


title: Dunfermline

text: The main Dunfermline War Memorial on Monastery Street was unveiled by the Lord Lieutenant of Fife, Sir Ralph Anstruther, in 1925. A Second World War Memorial and garden of remembrance were added in 1958 on a site assumed to have been home to the Apiaries of the Monastery. The memorial lists 632 of those killed in the First World War and another 275 in the Second World War.


title: Dunfermline

text: To the north of the abbey, on the corner of Maygate and Abbot Street, is the Category A listed Abbot House. This is the oldest secular building still standing in Dunfermline. The house was originally built in the mid-fifteenth century as a residence for Abbot Richard Bothwell and this role continued until Commendator George Durie left to move into new apartments at the Palace in 1540. Along Abbot Street is the Category B listed Dunfermline Carnegie Library which was built between 1881 and 1883. This library was the first in the world to be funded via donations by steel magnate and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie. A total of 2,811 free public libraries were eventually built altogether. At the top of Moodie Street is the Category B listed handloom weavers' cottage, the birthplace of Andrew Carnegie, which dates from the early 18th century. An adjacent memorial hall was added to the birthplace in 1928. Just off East Port between Carnegie Hall and the High Street is Viewfield House, a large square stone Palladian three storey villa, built in about 1808 for James Blackwood, Provost of Dunfermline, and now a listed building. It served as home to the Carnegie Trust's Craft School from 1920 to 1940.


title: Dunfermline

text: The Category A listed Guildhall on the High Street was erected in 1807 by the guilds of the local merchants who were ambitious for Dunfermline to become the county town of Fife. Lack of funds forced the building to be sold, but in 1811 funds were available to add the steeple. At the west end of the High Street is the Category A listed City Chambers with its high central clock tower and turrets, designed by James Campbell Walker and built between 1876 and 1879 .


title: Dunfermline

text: In the car park between Bruce Street and Chambers Street is St Margaret's Cave, a place where she would retreat to pray in peace and quiet. The cave was re-opened in 1993 to celebrate the 900th anniversary of her death. Forming the main entrance to Pittencrieff Park at the junction of Bridge Street and Chalmers Street are the Category A listed Louise Carnegie Memorial Gates, otherwise known as the "Glen Gates". The gates, which opened in 1929, were paid for by the Dunfermline Carnegie Trust and named after Louise Carnegie, the wife of Andrew Carnegie. They lead up a path to a bronze statue of Andrew Carnegie which was unveiled in 1914.


title: Dunfermline

text: In the subsequent development of the modern park, the Category A listed Pittencrieff House, built around 1610 for Sir William Clerk of Penicuik, was designed as a centre piece. Two of the bedrooms were converted to create two long galleries for museum and art exhibition space in a restoration programme undertaken by Sir Robert Lorimer between 1911 and 1913. Work on the building was completed in 2010 to repair and reharl the property, restoring the original ochre-coloured limewash exterior. The project was funded through the £1.7 million Dunfermline Conservation Area Regeneration Scheme (CARS) under a partnership between Fife Council and Historic Scotland.


title: Dunfermline

text: A number of stately homes also exist on the outskirts of the town. The Category A listed Pitfirrane Castle, to the west of Dunfermline, was once the seat of the Halkett family. The castle, which dates from the 16th century, was purchased by the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust in 1951 for the use as a clubhouse for Dunfermline Golf Club. To the south of Dunfermline is the Category A listed Hill House and Pitreavie Castle. Both dating from the mid-17th century, Hill House was built as a residence for William Monteith of Randford and Pitreavie Castle as a manor house by Sir Hendry Wardlaw. To the south-west of Dunfermline is the Category A listed Logie House, built as an Edwardian residence and seat for the Hunt family.


title: Dunfermline

text: Further Carnegie funded buildings include the Carnegie Leisure Centre, designed by Hippolyte Blanc in 1905, and the Carnegie Clinic by H & D Barclay from 1909 to 1912.


title: Dunfermline

text: Pittencrieff Park forms the western boundary of the town centre covering . It was given to the people of Dunfermline in 1903 by Andrew Carnegie. The park is known locally as "the Glen" and was created from the estate of Pittencrieff and the lands of the house, owned by the Lairds of Pittencrieff. A £1.4 million project to regenerate, restore and re-establish the park began in 2009 and is ongoing. In December 2011 Pittencrieff Park was awarded £710,000 through the Heritage Lottery Fund's "Parks for People" programme for essential maintenance work. A previous award of £27,000 was made under this scheme in 2010. The work included the restoration of historic buildings and bridges; new lighting and the refurbishment of the greenhouse to create a classroom. A separate £1 million project finished in 2012, extending the Glen Pavilion to provide a new 120 seat cafe and linking corridor to the rear of the building.


title: Dunfermline

text: The Bruce Festival is an annual attraction held in Pittencrieff Park every August. The festival which promotes Robert The Bruce's links to Dunfermline centres on a medieval village and is home to a food fayre, battle reenactments and displays of arts and crafts.


title: Dunfermline

text: The Andrew Carnegie birthplace museum at the corner of Moodie Street and Priory Lane is dedicated to the well-known businessman and philanthropist. The museum is made up of two buildings; the weaver's cottage, his birthplace and the memorial hall which tells his life story. Annual heritage walks organised by the museum take place each summer. The Abbot House on Maygate is the oldest building in the town.


title: Dunfermline

text: In 2017, Dunfermline Carnegie Library & Galleries opened, an extension of the former Carnegie library building. This provides the town with museum, art gallery, archive, library, cafe and garden spaces. Funders included Fife Council (£6.8 million) and the Heritage Lottery Fund (£2.8 million). The building has won architectural awards: EAA Building of the Year and Royal Incorporation of Architects in Scotland's (RIAS) Andrew Doolan prize.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline has two theatres, Carnegie Hall on East Port and the Alhambra on Canmore Street. Carnegie Hall hosts a range of theatrical and musical productions including an annual Christmas show. The Music Institute, adjacent to the Hall also provides workshops, classes and children's groups. The Alhambra, which opened in 1922, originally served as a dual-purpose role hosting both theatrical productions and films. In 2008, the theatre re-opened as a theatre and live music venue. Since 1938, Dunfermline has also been home to the 'Kinema Ballroom' a ballroom/dancehall which has evolved into a famous live music performance venue and nightclub which has hosted many internationally acclaimed artists.


title: Dunfermline

text: Local groups include the Dunfermline Folk Club, Dunfermline Abbey Choir and Dunfermline district pipe band. The venue is now a world buffet restaurant.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline is home to a professional football team, as well as rugby and cricket teams. The senior football team, Dunfermline Athletic play their games at East End Park in the Scottish Championship. The team have become famous for winning the Scottish Cup twice in the 1960s (1961 and 1968) gaining a reputation as a side for competitive football in both England and mainland Europe. The senior rugby team, Dunfermline RFC play their games at McKane Park in Caledonia League Division 1. Dunfermline Reign are a basketball team that competes in the Scottish Men's National League Division 1. The team reached the playoffs for the first time in 2017. Dunfermline Tennis Club plays at Bothwell Street, competing in East of Scotland and national competitions. The club's ladies team has won the Scottish Cup a record 18 times since 1988.


title: Dunfermline

text: There is also a cricket club based at Carnegie Cricket Ground, an athletics ground at Pitreavie and three golf courses (Dunfermline, Canmore and Pitreavie). Carnegie Leisure Centre (originally Carnegie swimming baths) is the main sports centre. A £17.2 million major refurbishment and extension to the centre was completed in November 2011. The work has included the conversion of a Edwardian training pool into a modern 25-metre 6-lane deck-level pool with movable floor; an improved entrance and reception area with a new cafe and a new state-of-the-art gym with 80 stations.


title: Dunfermline

text: The town's competitive running clubs include Dunfermline Track and Field Club, Pitreavie AAC and PH Racing Club. There are also a number of local jogging groups.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline Cycling Club located in the towns Pittencrieff Park was formed in 1935 and is now one of the largest cycling clubs in Scotland. It has members who take part in competition and recreational events.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline has four secondary schools and fourteen primary schools. Other educational facilities include a private school and Calaiswood ASN School for children with learning difficulties and complex health needs. Dunfermline High School is the oldest secondary in the town, having originated in 1816 on what is now Queen Anne Street. The school which serves both the southern and western parts of the town as well as Rosyth and Kincardine has occupied a site on St Leonard's Street since 1939. A new £40 million Dunfermline High School opened in August 2012. The old school was demolished, allowing new playing fields for the school in 2013. Queen Anne High School is located in Wellwood towards the northwest area of the town. Woodmill High School, originally a junior secondary, was upgraded to a High School in 1972. The school was first established in Priory Lane before moving to a new building on Shields Road in 1960 and serves the eastern side of the town as well as the villages of Crombie, Limekilns and North Queensferry. St Columba's High, which opened in 1969 is one of two Roman Catholic secondary schools in Fife. The school caters for pupils living in West Fife from Kincardine in the west to Cowdenbeath in the east.


title: Dunfermline

text: Further education is provided by Fife College. It was founded as Lauder Technical School in 1899 and funded by Andrew Carnegie who named it after his uncle, George Lauder who had been a campaigner for free technical education. A textile school, founded in 1910 and also funded by Carnegie later merged with the technical school in 1927. The school became known as a technical college in 1951 and the name was then shortened to Lauder College in the late 20th century before becoming Carnegie College in 2007. In 2013 Carnegie became part of Fife College. It is a partner of the Dunfermline Business Centre and provides courses catering to over 10,000 students annually.


title: Dunfermline

text: Waste management is handled by the local authority, Fife Council. There is a kerbside recycling scheme in operation in the town. A four-bin collection is in place for the majority of residents living within Fife. Dunfermline has one recycling centre and several recycling points, all operated by the local authority, Fife Council. Non-hazardous waste is sent to landfill at Lochhead, near the town and Lower Melville Wood, near Ladybank.


title: Dunfermline

text: Healthcare is supplied by NHS Fife who have their headquarters at Hayfield House in Kirkcaldy. The main acute in-patient and accident & emergency services are provided by the Victoria Hospital, Kirkcaldy, to the east. The Queen Margaret Hospital provides some long-stay beds but is primarily for out-patient and day care services with a minor injuries unit.


title: Dunfermline

text: Statutory emergency fire and rescue service in the town is provided by the Scottish Fire and Rescue Service. The nearest station is at the Pitreavie Industrial Estate. Policing in Dunfermline is provided by Police Scotland. The headquarters of the Dunfermline area is on 2 Holyrood Place, close to the town centre. Dunfermline is also served under the East Central Region which covers Tayside, Forth Valley and the Kingdom of Fife of the Scottish Ambulance Service. There are two ambulance stations in the town; one on Keir Hardie Terrace and the other at the Queen Margaret Hospital on Whitefield Road.


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline is served by the A907 which meets the M90 and A92 to the east of the town at Halbeath Interchange. This connects the town to Perth to the north, Edinburgh to the south and Kirkcaldy to the east. The main routes through the town are Halbeath Road and Carnegie Drive (A907) from east to west.


title: Dunfermline

text: The main bus terminus is located on a site to the north of the town centre which provides seating, toilets and a cafe. In addition to this, there are also two Park and Ride schemes nearby at Ferrytoll, to the south of Inverkeithing, and Halbeath. There are plans to create a "park and choose" site at Rosyth. There was formerly a second bus station, called St. Margarets. It is now a car park.


title: Dunfermline

text: Two railway stations serve the town – Dunfermline City to the south of the town centre and Dunfermline Queen Margaret to the east of the town close to Queen Margaret Hospital, with a third proposed to serve Halbeath Park and Ride. Nearby stations also exist at Rosyth,


title: Dunfermline

text: The nearest major international airport to Dunfermline is Edinburgh Airport, south of Dunfermline. Smaller municipal airports are also located nearby at Glenrothes (), Cumbernauld () and Perth ().


title: Dunfermline

text: Dunfermline's most famous son is the entrepreneur and philanthropist Andrew Carnegie, who was born in the town in 1835. Among the gifts he gave to his home town are a free library and public swimming baths. Most important of all was the donation of the Pittencrieff Estate which he had purchased in 1903 to be converted into Pittencrieff Park.


title: Dunfermline

text: George Lauder, Andrew's "cousin-brother", a leading mechanical engineer, and his partner in the Carnegie Steel Company who would go on to be a board member of U.S. Steel.


title: Dunfermline

text: In 1888, two Dunfermline men, John Reid and Robert Lockhart, first demonstrated golf in the US by setting up a hole in an orchard, before Reid set up America's first golf club the same year, St. Andrews Golf Club in Yonkers, New York, with Andrew Carnegie one of the first members.


title: Dunfermline

text: A number of British monarchs were born in Dunfermline Palace. These include David II of Scotland (reign 1329–71), the son of Robert The Bruce in 1324; James I of Scotland (reign 1406–37) in late 1394 and Charles I, King of Scotland, England and Ireland (reign 1625–49) in 1600. James VI and I, the King of Scotland, England and Ireland and his wife, Anne of Denmark, the daughter of Frederick II of Denmark also lived at the Palace until the Union of the Crowns in 1603.


title: Dunfermline

text: The 15th-century poet Robert Henryson, one of Scotland's most important literary figures during the period of the Northern Renaissance, was based in the town.


title: Dunfermline

text: General John Forbes, who fought the French in the French and Indian War to capture Fort Duquesne and established the city of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, was brought up in his family's ancestral home of Pittencrieff House (now within Pittencrieff Park).


title: Dunfermline

text: Sir John Struthers, who dissected and drew the Tay Whale, was an anatomist and professor of medicine. He was born and brought up in Brucefield House, now demolished, which gives its name to a district of Dunfermline. The artist Sir Joseph Noel Paton was also born in the town.


title: Dunfermline

text: Ebenezer Henderson (1784–1858), a minister and missionary, was born at the Linn near Dunfermline. His nephew Ebenezer Henderson (1809–1879), a science writer and historian born in Dunfermline, wrote "The Annals of Dunfermline".


title: Dunfermline

text: In popular culture, the singer Barbara Dickson; actor Kenneth Cranham; Dan McCafferty and Pete Agnew from the Scottish rock band Nazareth; Ian Anderson, singer and flautist of the progressive rock band Jethro Tull and Moira Shearer, ballerina and actress were all born in the town. Manny Charlton the producer of Nazareth emigrated to the town with his family in the 1940s and Stuart Adamson, rock guitarist with the Skids and frontman with Big Country, was brought up in nearby Crossgates and moved into the town with his family as a teenager. Film director – and former Skids frontman – Richard Jobson, who grew up in nearby Ballingry, went to school in Dunfermline and during the early part of the Skids' career lived, for a time, in the Pitcorthie area. Big Country's co-founder Bruce Watson, though born in Timmins, Ontario, was also brought up in the town, a few streets away from Pete Agnew and Manny Charlton. Alan Darby, of Cado Belle, also grew up in the town and attended Dunfermline High School.


title: Dunfermline

text: In literature, the critically acclaimed author, Iain Banks; poet and novelist, John Burnside and Robert Gilfillan all have links to the town.


title: Dunfermline

text: In sport, Harry Lind of Dunfermline RFC who was capped sixteen times for the Scotland national rugby team and Jim Greenwood who played for Dunfermline RFC, Scotland and British and Irish Lions come from the town. Billy Liddell who played his entire career with Liverpool F.C. was born in nearby Townhill.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) is an expendable medium-lift launch vehicle designed and operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO). It was developed to allow India to launch its Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites into sun-synchronous orbits, a service that was, until the advent of the PSLV in 1993, only commercially available from Russia. PSLV can also launch small size satellites into Geostationary Transfer Orbit (GTO).


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: Some notable payloads launched by PSLV include India's first lunar probe Chandrayaan-1, India's first interplanetary mission, Mars Orbiter Mission (Mangalyaan) and India's first space observatory, Astrosat.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: PSLV has gained credibility as a leading provider of rideshare services for small satellites, owing to its numerous multi-satellite deployment campaigns with auxiliary payloads, usually ride-sharing along with an Indian primary payload. As of June 2022, PSLV has launched 345 foreign satellites from 36 countries. Most notable among these was the launch of PSLV-C37 on 15 February 2017, successfully deploying 104 satellites in sun-synchronous orbit, tripling the previous record held by Russia for the highest number of satellites sent to space on a single launch, until 24 January 2021, when SpaceX launched the Transporter-1 mission on a Falcon 9 rocket carrying 143 satellites into orbit.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: Payloads can be integrated in tandem configuration employing a Dual Launch Adapter. Smaller payloads are also placed on equipment deck and customized payload adapters.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: Studies by the PSLV Planning group under S Srinivasan to develop a vehicle capable of delivering a 600 kg payload to a 550 km sun-synchronous orbit from SHAR began in 1978. Among 35 proposed configurations, four were picked; by November 1980, a vehicle configuration with two strap-ons on a core booster (S80) with 80 tonne solid propellant loading each, a liquid stage with 30 tonne propellant load (L30), and an upper stage called the Perigee-Apogee System (PAS) was being considered.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: By 1981, confidence grew in remote sensing spacecraft development with the launch of Bhaskara-1, and the PSLV project objectives were upgraded to have the vehicle deliver a 1000 kg payload into a 900 km SSO. As technology transfer of Viking rocket engine firmed up, a new lighter configuration with the inclusion of a liquid powered stage was selected. Funding was approved in July 1982 for the finalized design, employing a single large S125 solid core as first stage with six 9 tonne strap-ons (S9) derived from the SLV-3 first stage, liquid fueled second stage (L33), and two solid upper stages (S7 and S2.) This configuration needed further improvement to meet the orbital injection accuracy requirements of IRS satellites, and hence, the solid terminal stage (S2) was replaced with a pressure fed liquid fueled stage (L1.8 or LUS) powered by twin engines derived from roll control engines of the first stage. Apart from increasing precision, liquid upper stage also absorbed any deviation in performance of solid third stage. The final configuration of PSLV-D1 to fly in 1993 was (6 × S9 + S125) + L37.5 + S7 + L2.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The inertial navigation systems are developed by ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) at Thiruvananthapuram. The liquid propulsion for the second and fourth stages of the PSLV as well as the Reaction control systems (RCS) are developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) at Valiamala near Thiruvananthapuram, kerala. The solid propellant motors are processed at Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SHAR) at Sriharikota, Andhra Pradesh, which also carries out launch operations.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The PSLV was first launched on 20 September 1993. The first and second stages performed as expected, but an attitude control problem led to the collision of the second and third stages at separation, and the payload failed to reach orbit. After this initial setback, the PSLV successfully completed its second mission in 1994. The fourth launch of PSLV suffered a partial failure in 1997, leaving its payload in a lower than planned orbit. In November 2014, the PSLV had launched 34 times with no further failures. (Although launch 41: August 2017 PSLV-C39 was unsuccessful.)


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: PSLV continues to support Indian and foreign satellite launches especially for low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites. It has undergone several improvements with each subsequent version, especially those involving thrust, efficiency as well as weight. In November 2013, it was used to launch the Mars Orbiter Mission, India's first interplanetary probe.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: In June 2018, the Union Cabinet approved for 30 operational flights of the PSLV scheduled to take place between 2019 and 2024.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: ISRO is working towards handing over the production and operation of PSLV to private industry through a joint venture. On 16 August 2019, NewSpace India Limited issued an invitation to tender for manufacturing PSLV entirely by private industries. On 5 September 2022, NewSpace India Limited signed a contract with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Larsen & Toubro led conglomerate for the production of five PSLV-XL launch vehicles after they won competitive bidding. Under this contract, they have to deliver their first PSLV-XL within 24 months and the remaining four vehicles every six months.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The first stage, one of the largest solid rocket boosters in the world, carries of hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene-bound (HTPB) propellant and develops a maximum thrust of about . The diameter motor case is made of maraging steel and has an empty mass of .


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: Pitch and yaw control during first stage flight is provided by the Secondary Injection Thrust Vector Control (SITVC) System, which injects an aqueous solution of strontium perchlorate into the S139 exhaust divergent from a ring of 24 injection ports to produce asymmetric thrust. The solution is stored in two cylindrical aluminium tanks strapped to the core solid rocket motor and pressurised with nitrogen. Underneath these two SITVC tanks, Roll Control Thruster (RCT) modules with small bi-propellant (MMH/MON) liquid engine are also attached.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: On the PSLV-G and PSLV-XL, first stage thrust is augmented by six strap-on solid boosters. Four boosters are ground-lit and the remaining two ignite 25 seconds after launch. The solid boosters carry or (for PSLV-XL configuration) propellant and produce and thrust respectively. Two strap-on boosters are equipped with SITVC for additional attitude control. The PSLV-CA uses no strap-on boosters.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: First stage separation is aided by four pairs of retro-rockets installed on inter-stage (1/2L). During staging, these eight rockets help push away the spent stage away from second stage.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The second stage is powered by a single Vikas engine and carries of Earth store-able liquid propellantunsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and nitrogen tetroxide (NO) as oxidiser in two tanks separated by a common bulkhead. It generates a maximum thrust of . The engine is gimbaled (±4°) in two planes to provide pitch and yaw control by two actuators, while roll control is provided by a Hot gas Reaction Control Motor (HRCM) that ejects hot gases diverted from gas generator of Vikas engine.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: On inter-stage (1/2U) of PS2 there are two pairs of ullage rockets to maintain positive acceleration during PS1/PS2 staging and also two pairs of retro-rockets to help push away spent stage during PS2/PS3 staging.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: Second stage also carries some quantity of water in a toroidal tank at its bottom. Water spray is used to cool hot gases from Vikas' gas generator to about 600 °C before entering turbopump. Propellant and water tanks of second stage are pressurized by Helium.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The third stage uses of HTPB solid propellant and produces a maximum thrust of . Its burn duration is 113.5 seconds. It has a Kevlar-polyamide fibre case and a submerged nozzle equipped with a flex-bearing-seal gimbaled nozzle with ±2° thrust vector for pitch and yaw control. Roll control is provided by the fourth stage reaction control system (RCS) during thrust phase as well as during combined-coasting phase under which burnt-out PS3 remains attached to PS4.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The fourth stage is powered by regeneratively cooled twin engines, burning monomethylhydrazine (MMH) and mixed oxides of nitrogen (MON). Each pressure fed engine generates thrust and is gimbaled (±3°) to provide pitch, yaw and roll control during powered flight. Coast phase attitude control is provided by six 50N RCS thrusters. The stage is pressurized by Helium and carries up to of propellant in the PSLV and PSLV-XL and in the PSLV-CA.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: On PSLV-C29/TeLEOS-1 mission, the fourth stage demonstrated re-ignition capability for the first time which was used in many subsequent flights to deploy payloads in multiple orbits on a single campaign.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: As a space debris mitigation measure, PSLV fourth stage gets passivated by venting pressurant and propellant vapour after achieving main mission objectives. Such passivation prevents any unintentional fragmentation or explosion due to stored internal energy.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8, Rubin 9.1/Rubin 9.2 on PSLV-C14 and mRESINS on PSLV-C21. But now, PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns, as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity. It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank. Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST, experimental AIS payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize. To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: On PSLV-C53 campaign the PS4-OP was referred as PSLV Orbital Experimental Module (POEM) and it hosted six payloads. POEM was first PSLV fourth stage based orbital platform to be actively stabilised using Helium based cold gas thrusters after the primary mission and stage passivization.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: Payload fairing of PSLV, also referred as its "Heatshield" consists of a conical upper section with spherical nose-cap, a cylindrical middle section and a lower boat-tail section. Weighing , it has 3.2 meter diameter and 8.3 meter height. It has Isogrid construction and is made out of 7075 aluminum alloy with a 3 mm thick steel nose-cap. The two halves of fairing are separated using a pyrotechnic device based jettisoning system consisting horizontal and lateral separation mechanisms. To protect spacecraft from damage due to excessive acoustic loads during launch, heatshield interior is lined with acoustic blankets.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: ISRO has envisaged a number of variants of PSLV to cater to different mission requirements. There are currently two operational versions of the PSLV — the core-alone (PSLV-CA) without strap-on motors, and the (PSLV-XL) version, with six extended length (XL) strap-on motors carrying 12 tonnes of HTPB based propellant each. These configurations provide wide variations in payload capabilities up to in LEO and in sun-synchronous orbit.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The standard or "Generic" version of the PSLV, PSLV-G had four stages using solid and liquid propulsion systems alternately and six strap-on motors (PSOM or S9) with 9 tonne propellant loading. It had capability to launch to into sun-synchronous orbit. PSLV-C35 was the last operational launch of PSLV-G before its discontinuation.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: The PSLV-CA, CA meaning "Core Alone", model premiered on 23 April 2007. The CA model does not include the six strap-on boosters used by the PSLV standard variant but two SITVC tanks with Roll Control Thruster modules are still attached to the side of the first stage with addition of two cylindrical aerodynamic stabilizers. The fourth stage of the CA variant has less propellant when compared to its standard version. It currently has capability to launch to Sun-synchronous orbit.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: PSLV-XL is the upgraded version of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle in its standard configuration boosted by more powerful, stretched strap-on boosters with 12 tonne propellant load. Weighing at lift-off, the vehicle uses larger strap-on motors (PSOM-XL or S12) to achieve higher payload capability. On 29 December 2005, ISRO successfully tested the improved version of strap-on booster for the PSLV. The first use of PSLV-XL was the launch of Chandrayaan-1 by PSLV-C11. The payload capability for this variant is to Sun-synchronous orbit.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: PSLV-DL variant has only two strap-on boosters with 12 tonne propellant load on them. PSLV-C44 on 24 January 2019 was the first flight to use PSLV-DL variant of Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle. It is capable of launching to Sun-synchronous orbit.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: PSLV-QL variant has four ground-lit strap-on boosters, each with 12 tonnes of propellant. PSLV-C45 on 1 April 2019 was the first flight of PSLV-QL. It has the capacity to launch to Sun-synchronous orbit.


title: Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

text: PSLV-3S was conceived as a three-staged version of PSLV with its six strap-on boosters and second liquid stage removed. The total lift-off mass of PSLV-3S was expected to be 175 tonnes with capacity to place 500 kg in 550 km low Earth orbit.


title: Flash Gordon (soundtrack)

text: Flash Gordon is the ninth studio album and first soundtrack album by the British rock band Queen, released on 8 December 1980 by EMI Records in the UK and on 27 January 1981 by Elektra Records in the US. It is one of two film soundtracks that they produced, along with "Highlander". It is the soundtrack to the science fiction film "Flash Gordon" and features lyrics on only two tracks. "Flash's Theme" was the only single to be released from the album, under the title "Flash". The album reached number 10 on the UK charts and number 23 in the US. The album was reissued worldwide on 27 June 2011 (excluding the US and Canada, where it was released on 27 September) as part of the band's 40th anniversary. The reissue adds an EP of related tracks.


title: Flash Gordon (soundtrack)

text: Unlike most soundtrack albums, audio from the film is prominently used in the theme song and the score selections of the album.


title: Stephanie Corneliussen

text: Stephanie Corneliussen (; born April 28, 1987) is a Danish actress and model, best known for her role as Joanna Wellick in "Mr. Robot".


title: Stephanie Corneliussen

text: Corneliussen was born in Copenhagen. She attended Johannesskolen in Frederiksberg and studied ballet in Copenhagen. She has a degree in graphic design.


title: Stephanie Corneliussen

text: She was discovered at age 13 and encouraged to enter the Supermodel of Scandinavia contest, which was orchestrated by Jacqueline Friis Mikkelsen, the CEO of Unique Models, an international modeling agency based in Copenhagen. She won the contest and subsequently began her international modeling career. While still expanding her modeling career, she began studying in the United Kingdom in 2007, and in 2011 she relocated to Los Angeles.


title: Stephanie Corneliussen

text: Corneliussen has been on the cover of and featured in many magazines, including "GQ", "Vanity Fair", "treats!", "Vs.", "Playboy", and "Vogue". She has also appeared in several ad campaigns and commercials for brands like bebe, Armani, Dasani, Lexus and Nikon.


title: Stephanie Corneliussen

text: She has had guest appearances on the USA Network medical drama series "Royal Pains", the NBC sitcom "Bad Judge" and the TV Land sitcom "The Exes". On July 30, 2012, Corneliussen appeared in Matchbox Twenty's official video for "She's So Mean" as the mayhem wielding girl.


title: Stephanie Corneliussen

text: For the American anthology horror television series "American Horror Story", Corneliussen portrayed the "White Nun", the face representing the second season, subtitled "". In 2013, she appeared in the film "", and the following year she portrayed Tatiana in HBO's Emmy Award nominated TV film "Hello Ladies".


title: Stephanie Corneliussen

text: In 2015, Corneliussen was cast in a recurring role in the USA Network drama–thriller television series "Mr. Robot", playing the character of Joanna Wellick. The pilot premiered on May 27, 2015. The show has received critical acclaim and has been nominated for multiple awards, winning the 2015 Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama. "Mr. Robot" was picked up for a second season. In September 2015, it was announced that Corneliussen had been cast as Valentina Vostok in the CW series "DC's Legends of Tomorrow", a spin-off of "Arrow" and "The Flash."


title: Stephanie Corneliussen

text: In March 2016, Corneliussen was promoted to series regular and added to the main cast of "Mr. Robot". In 2018, she was cast as the mysterious antagonist in the television series "Deception". In 2019, she appeared as Gabrielle Haller in Noah Hawley's "Legion".


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: A Walk in the Clouds is a 1995 American romantic drama film directed by Alfonso Arau and starring Keanu Reeves, Aitana Sánchez-Gijón, Giancarlo Giannini, and Anthony Quinn. Written by Robert Mark Kamen, Mark Miller, and Harvey Weitzman, it is about a young soldier returning home from World War II who is looking to settle down and start a family with the woman he impulsively married just before enlisting. After learning she is not what he imagined her to be, he heads north alone to Sacramento in search of work. Along the way he meets a beautiful young woman who is heading home from college to her family vineyard to help with the grape harvest. When he learns she is pregnant and was abandoned by her boyfriend, he offers to stand in as her husband so she can face her Old World domineering father. During his stay at the vineyard, they fall in love and face the angry rejection of her father together.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: The film is based on the 1942 Italian film "Four Steps in the Clouds", written by Piero Tellini, Cesare Zavattini, and Vittorio de Benedetti. "A Walk in the Clouds" was released in theaters on August 11, 1995, by Twentieth Century Fox and grossed $91 million against a $20 million budget. It received mixed reviews from critics.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: In 1945, after World War II, United States Army Sgt. Paul Sutton returns to San Francisco to reunite with his wife, Betty, whom he married, following a whirlwind courtship, the day before he departed for the Pacific. The war has left him with emotional scars, and he experiences flashbacks on a regular basis.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: Paul's reunion with Betty is strained, especially after he discovers that, although he has written her “almost every day,” she stopped reading his letters after the first few, and keeps the hundreds of unopened envelopes in a footlocker. He is determined to make a go of the marriage, however, and hopes to establish a new career for himself. She insists he continue to sell chocolates door-to-door, and he sets off to Sacramento. En route, he meets fellow train passenger Victoria Aragon, a graduate student whose Mexican-American family owns a vineyard in the Napa Valley. When Victoria is accosted by two men on their bus to Sacramento, Paul intervenes and ends up beating up the men in self-defense. After all three men are kicked off the bus as a result, Paul finds a crying Victoria alone, further down the road. When he learns she is pregnant by her professor, Paul offers to introduce himself to her very traditionalist family as her husband.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: Victoria's father, Alberto, is infuriated, not only that she married a man below her social standing, but without his permission as well. Paul's initial plan to quietly slip away and continue on his journey, leaving her family to believe he abandoned her, is derailed when her grandfather, Don Pedro, encourages him to stay and help with the harvest. During the harvest, Paul (an orphan) grows closer to the family and learns the joys that come with their tradition, roots, and way of life. He and Victoria try to ignore their growing attraction and feelings for each other, but with little success. After a couple of days together, she finds the courage to ultimately come clean and reveal the truth to her family, further angering her father.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: Paul’s honor prompts him to attempt to salvage his marriage and return home, but when he does he discovers Betty is involved with another man. She has applied for an annulment, to which he happily agrees, and he returns to the Aragon estate to ask Victoria to marry him.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: When Paul returns, an argument with an angry and drunk Alberto leads to a disastrous fire which destroys the vineyard. However, Paul remembers one plant that may still have its roots intact, races off to retrieve it, and carries it to the family. The disaster, as well as Paul's bravery and dedication during it, has led to Alberto realizing his errors, and accepting Paul as one of his own, saying the roots of the plant are now officially Paul’s “roots.” Victoria and Paul seal their fate in the presence of the entire Aragon family, and all set out to replant and rebuild with the help of their newest member.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: The screenplay for the film was written by Robert Mark Kamen, Mark Miller, and Harvey Weitzman. It was based on the 1942 Italian film "Four Steps in the Clouds", written by Piero Tellini, Cesare Zavattini, and Vittorio de Benedetti. The film had a budget of $20 million.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: Principal photography took place on location among the wineries of Napa Valley and in the towns of Napa, St. Helena, and Sonoma. The Napa wineries included Mayacamas Vineyards and Mount Veeder Winery. The St. Helena wineries included Beringer Vineyards, the Redwood Cellar of the Charles Krug Winery, and the Duckhorn Vineyards. In Sonoma, the Haywood Vineyards was also used.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: Additional filming outside the Napa Valley region took place in San Pedro, the harbor to the south of Los Angeles. The wine festival scene was actually staged in the Large Courtyard of Pasadena City Hall in Pasadena, east of Los Angeles.


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film four out of four stars, his highest rating, writing:


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: On the other hand, Hal Hinson of "The Washington Post" called it "a phenomenally atrocious movie—so bad, in fact, that you might actually manage to squeeze a few laughs out of it...The film has the syrupy, Kodak magic-moment look of a Bo Derek movie, and pretty much the same level of substance."


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: "Variety" described the film as "a glossy, fairy-tale romance that's longer on wishfulness than believability" and "a modest but sharply-mounted comedy/melodrama."


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: As of January 2022, "A Walk in the Clouds" holds a rating of 46% on Rotten Tomatoes from 28 reviews with the consensus: ""A Walk in the Clouds" aims for sweeping period romance, but quickly unravels thanks to a miscast leading man and a story that relies on cheap melodrama."


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: Maurice Jarre won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. Conversely, Reeves's performance in the film earned him a Golden Raspberry Award nomination for Worst Actor (also for "JM"), but lost to Pauly Shore for "Jury Duty".


title: A Walk in the Clouds

text: In recent interviews Debra Messing claimed she was tricked into signing a nudity waiver after being assured by the producers that no nudity scenes would be required because it was going to be a PG-13 movie, they couldn't show them anyway, nothing was going to happen and the director just had a big ego. She only learned on set that for the international release version those scenes nevertheless would be filmed. Asking the director about what angles would be shot since she wanted to be prepared, he told her that as an actress she had no right to ask about his shots and it was her job to get naked. Debra described this experience as sexual harassment which she only realized afterward since she thought it was part of the business at the time.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Personal lubricants (colloquially termed lube) are specialized lubricants used during sexual acts, such as intercourse and masturbation, to reduce friction to or between the penis and vagina, anus or other body parts or applied to sex toys to reduce friction or to ease penetration. Surgical or medical lubricants or gels, which are similar to personal lubricants but not usually referred to or labelled as "personal" lubricants, may be used for medical purposes such as speculum insertion or introduction of a catheter. The primary difference between personal and surgical lubricants is that surgical lubricants are thicker, sterile gels, typically containing a bacteriostatic agent. As of 2015 the personal lubricant market was estimated to be worth at least $400 million.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Water-based personal lubricants are water-soluble and are the most widely used personal lubricants. The earliest water-based lubricants were cellulose ether or glycerin solutions. Products available today may have various agents added for even dispersal, moisture retention, and resistance to contamination. The viscosity of these products can be altered by adjusting their water content and concentration of cellulose or other gel-forming hydrophilic ingredient. Because water-based personal lubricants absorb into the skin and evaporate, most water-based lubricants have a tendency to dry out during use, but reapplication of the lubricant or application of water or saliva is usually sufficient to reactivate them. When the lubricant eventually dries out, it may leave behind a residue derived from the other ingredients in the formulation. This may require reapplication during sex, and/or removal of the residue with water. Scientists are testing whether anti-retroviral lubricants or gels can be applied to aid in the prevention of transmission of HIV.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Typical water-based lubricants may be incompatible with sex acts that occur in water (such as in a bathtub, pool, or hot tub) as they can be dissolved or dispersed in water.


title: Personal lubricant

text: The Population Council, in a 2011 study, tested commercially available water-based sexual lubricants, and found that many damaged human rectal cells and that some of them – those containing polyquaternium-15 – appeared to actively increase HIV replication in cell cultures and therefore could raise one's risk of HIV transmission. Water-based 'lubes' have been recommended for use in safer sex because they do not weaken condoms like oil-based lubricants do. The researchers concluded: "Since it is the condom that is protecting users from HIV rather than the lube, condom users should still be encouraged to use water-based lubes because condoms are also more likely to break, and trauma to the rectal lining occur, with no lube". They also cited silicone-based lubricants as a potential alternative, although they did not test any silicone lubes in their study.


title: Personal lubricant

text: A later study has validated the findings of the Population Council for some water-based products' hyper-osmolality causing some human's cells damage, and better bio-compatibility with low-osmolality water-based products and silicone-based products but failed to corroborate polyquaternium 15 having a role that binds HIV to rectal cells or increase HIV replication.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Oil-based lubricants, for example petroleum-based lubricants (such as petroleum jelly), can increase the likelihood of breakage and slipping of latex condoms due to loss of elasticity caused by these lubricants. Oil-based lubricants may be considered desirable for people who are in relationships not requiring condom use and who wish to avoid certain additives and preservatives often found in other lubricants.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Silicone-based lubricants do not contain any water. They offer a different feel from water-based personal lubricants. Silicone-based lubricants are not absorbed by skin or mucous membranes and consequently last longer than water-based lubricants. Many different silicone lubricants are commercially available, with varying quality and performance. Not all silicone-based lubricants are "certified" latex-safe, but silicone-based lubricants have not been shown to increase the risk of HIV transmission during anal intercourse, as some water-based lubes have.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Silicone-based lubricants are not usually recommended for use with sex toys or other products that are made from silicone because the formula may dissolve the surface, making it sticky to the touch, and cause disintegration of the item over time. This damage may create a breeding ground for bacteria. In most cases, a warning is listed on the product label. Silicone-based lubricant is also used in the manufacture of pre-lubricated condoms, due to its long-lasting properties and superior latex compatibility.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Vaginal lubricants are used to reduce vaginal dryness and pain during intercourse, and by couples trying to conceive. During fertility interventions, the use of a lubricant eases sperm specimen collection by masturbation. Commonly used lubricants include saliva, oil (such as baby oil, olive oil, canola oil, or mineral oil) or commercially available lubricants that are either water-based or hydroxyethylcellulose-based.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Human saliva and olive oil have been found to be detrimental to sperm function. Certain commonly used commercial lubricants, although labeled as non-spermicidal or spermicidal agent-free, have been found to impair sperm function, with several of these lubricants being as toxic to sperm "in vitro" as contraceptive gels. Sperm motility and viability were found to be disrupted shortly after direct contact between sperm and those lubricants or in saliva. Sperm function could be compromised following lubricant contact, due to the specific ingredients in the lubricant or due to the chemical properties of the lubricant, such as highly raised osmolarity or low pH. Such lubricants are therefore unsafe for use during fertility procedures such as semen collection or by couples trying to conceive by natural or assisted reproduction.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Vaginal lubricants such as mineral oil, canola oil, or hydroxyethylcellulose-based lubricants are recommended for use by couples attempting conception by The Practice Committee of the American Society for Reproductive Medicine.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Many lubricants are safe for anal sex, but there are products that are specifically marketed or designed to enhance enjoyment of anal sex. Often, this is simply a thicker gel rather than a liquid. This thicker consistency is preferable because it helps the lubricant stay in place. Some anal lubricants contain numbing agents to relieve discomfort during anal sex, although it is generally inadvisable as a lack of sensation makes accidental injury more likely. Additionally, a commonly used numbing agent benzocaine can cause an allergic reaction in those with an allergy to PABA (4-aminobenzoic acid). Some lubricants are conveniently packaged for ease of application. Many of these products such as Astroglide Shooters have been pulled from the market due to FDA Medical Device Requirements. Products containing benzocaine can numb all body parts with which they come in contact.


title: Personal lubricant

text: In the United States, the first certified organic personal lubricant labeled with the USDA organic seal was Nude Personal Lubricant, which was created in 2004 by Applied Organics. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates lubricant as a medical device rather than as a cosmetic. Because of strict FDA guidelines for medical devices, organic personal lubricants were no longer allowed to carry a USDA seal, and they should be very careful about using the term "organic" anywhere on the label. Many of these types of lubricants also market themselves as "natural" and do not contain paraben, glycerin, diethanolamine (DEA) or animal-based ingredients. Some contain botanicals such as aloe vera or plant extracts.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Warming lubricants contain specific ingredients to cause a sensation of warmth. Breathing on these types of lubricants may increase the effect. "Cooling" or "tingling" lubricants may contain ingredients such as peppermint. Some lubricants are sold together, such as "hot and cold", or are marketed for a specific use or effect. Flavored lubricants contain flavorings, such as fruit flavors, to enhance oral contact. "Edible" lubricants may be flavored and/or may not contain any ingredients that are not advisable to eat.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Other products that have been used as personal lubricants include vegetable shortening, which is durable and inexpensive but damaging to latex. In a controversial scene in the movie "Last Tango in Paris", the character Paul, played by Marlon Brando, uses butter during anal sex with the character Jeanne, played by Maria Schneider.


title: Personal lubricant

text: A personal lubricant can be used to increase pleasure and reduce pain during sexual intercourse or other activities and may be used for lubricating the penis, vagina, anus, stroker or dildo or other sex toys before or during activity. Lubricant may be applied to any body part desired, to the inside and/or outside of condoms, or to the hands or fingers. Personal lubricants are particularly useful for intercourse when a partner experiences dryness or excessive contraction (tightness) of the vagina or anus. Anal sex generally requires more generous application of lubricant since the anus does not have natural lubrication sufficient for most sexual activity.


title: Personal lubricant

text: While most males and females produce varying amounts of their own lubrication, extra lubrication is sometimes sought when needed. There are specific lubricants which may be used in male masturbation, often called "masturbation creams," but are not suitable for vaginal or anal use or for use with condoms. Many men in Japan use lubricant created specifically for onaholes such as the Tenga Egg. Lubricant that is safe for sexual intercourse is also safe for masturbation.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Hand lotion is often used for recreational masturbation and popularly seen as an alternative to lubricants created specifically for sexual intercourse.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Enema and rectal thermometer tips should be lubricated before use to minimize friction while inserting through the tightly retentive anal sphincter.


title: Personal lubricant

text: As of December 2012, the U.S. Food & Drug Administration does not typically require testing of personal lubricants in humans. The agency classifies them as medical devices, so testing occurs on animals such as rabbits and guinea pigs. Rectal use of lubricants is viewed by the agency as an off-label application. In 2012 it was reported that participants who consistently used personal lubricants for rectal intercourse had a higher prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STI), such as chlamydia, than inconsistent users. Some warming lubricants have been shown to have an osmolality count more than 30 times the body's own fluid. Increased herpes transmission was more than ninefold when compared with animals not administered lubricant. In 2007 it was demonstrated that certain lubricants can cause significant damage to the rectal tissue of human study participants – major shedding of cells from tissue samples biopsied 60 to 90 minutes after lubricant application was observed. Certain lubricants containing the ingredient chlorhexidine, an antibacterial agent, has been shown to kill three species of "Lactobacillus" and has been shown to unbalance the natural flora in the vagina, which might lead to infections such as bacterial vaginosis. Lubricants with osmolalities closer to that of the body, such as agar-based lubes, did not damage the tissue samples or boost HIV infection rates.


title: Personal lubricant

text: Some may experience irritation from the use of certain lubricants. Some lubricants (as mentioned above under Water-based have been found to damage cells or even increase the replication of the HIV virus. Nonoxynol-9, a spermicide contained in some lubricants, can destroy vaginal and rectum cell membranes which may increase the rate of STI transmission. Spermicidally lubricated condoms do not contain enough spermicide to increase contraceptive effectiveness, but application of separate spermicide is thought to reduce pregnancy rates significantly.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Buenos Aires (), officially the Buenos Aires Province ("Provincia de Buenos Aires" ), is the largest and most populous Argentine province. It takes its name from the city of Buenos Aires, the capital of the country, which used to be part of the province and the province's capital until it was federalized in 1880. Since then, in spite of bearing the same name, the province does not include Buenos Aires proper, though it does include all other parts of the Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area. The capital of the province is the city of La Plata, founded in 1882.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: It is bordered by the provinces of Entre Ríos to the northeast, Santa Fe to the north, Córdoba to the northwest, La Pampa to the west, Río Negro to the south and west and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires to the northeast. Uruguay is just across the Rio de la Plata to the northeast, and both are on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean to the east. Almost the entire province is part of the Pampas geographical region, with the extreme south often considered part of the Patagonia region.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The province has a population of about 15.6 million people, which is 39% of Argentina's total population. Nearly 10 million people live in Greater Buenos Aires. The province covers an area of , which is about 11% of Argentina's total area and makes it the country's largest province.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The inhabitants of the province before the 16th-century advent of Spanish colonization were aboriginal peoples such as the Charrúas and the Querandíes. Their culture was lost over the next 350 years. They were subjected to Eurasian plagues from which few survived. The survivors joined other tribes or have been mostly absorbed by Argentina's European ethnic majority.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Pedro de Mendoza founded "Santa María del Buen Ayre" in 1536. Even though the first contact with the aboriginals was peaceful, it soon became hostile. The city was evacuated in 1541. Juan de Garay re-founded the settlement in 1580 as "Santísima Trinidad y Puerto Santa María de Los Buenos Aires".


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Amidst ongoing conflict with the aboriginals, the cattle farms extended from Buenos Aires, whose port was always the center of the economy of the territory. Following the creation of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata at the end of the 18th century, the export of meat, leather and their derivatives through the port of Buenos Aires was the basis of the economic development of the region.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Jesuits unsuccessfully tried to peacefully assimilate the aboriginals into the European culture brought by the Spanish conquistadores. A certain balance was found at the end of the 18th century when the Salado River became the limit between both civilizations, despite frequent "malones" (aboriginal attacks on border settlements). The end to this situation came in 1879 with the Conquest of the Desert ("Conquista del Desierto") in which the aboriginals were almost completely exterminated.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: After the independence from Spain in 1816, the city and province of Buenos Aires became the focus of an intermittent Argentine Civil War with other provinces. A Federal Pact secured by Governor Juan Manuel de Rosas in 1831 led to the establishment of the Argentine Confederation and to his gaining the sum of public power, which provided a tenuous unity. Ongoing disputes regarding the influence of Buenos Aires, between Federalists and Unitarians, and over the Port of Buenos Aires (the prime source of public revenue at the time) fueled periodic hostilities. The province was declared independent on 11 September 1852, as the State of Buenos Aires. Concessions gained in 1859 Pact of San José de Flores and a victory at the Battle of Pavón led to its reincorporation into the Argentine Republic on 17 December 1861. Intermittent conflicts with the nation did not truly cease until 1880, when the city of Buenos Aires was formally federalized and, thus, administratively separated from the province.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: La Plata was founded in 1882 by Governor Dardo Rocha for the purpose of becoming the provincial capital. The equivalent of a billion (1880s) dollars of British investment and pro-development, education and immigration policies pursued at the national level subsequently spurred dramatic economic growth. Driven by European immigration and improved health, the province's population, like Argentina's, nearly doubled to one million by 1895 and doubled again by 1914. Rail lines connected nearly every town and hamlet in the province by 1914; many developed around the new railway stations.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: This era of accelerated development was cut short by the Wall Street Crash of 1929, which caused a sharp drop in commodity prices (99% of Argentine exports were agricultural) and led to a halt in the flow of investment funds between nations. The new Concordance and Perón governments funded ambitious lending and public works programs, visible in Buenos Aires Province through the panoply of levees, power plants, water works, paved roads, municipal buildings, and (particularly during Perón's 1946-55 tenure) schools, clinics and massive regional hospitals.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The province's population, after 1930, began to grow disproportionately quickly in the suburban areas of Buenos Aires. These suburbs had grown to include 4 million out of the province's total 7 million people in 1960. Much of the area these new suburbs were developed on (particularly the poorer ones) consisted of wetlands and were prone to flooding. To address this, Governor Oscar Alende initiated the province's most important flood-control project to date, the Roggero Reservoir. Completed a decade later, in 1971, the reservoir and associated electric and water-treatment facilities encouraged still more, and more orderly, development of the Greater Buenos Aires region, which today includes around 10 million people ( of the provincial population). It did not address worsening pollution resulting from the area's industrial growth, which had made itself evident since around 1920. This problem has been at its worst along the Reconquista River west and north of the city of Buenos Aires; over 4 million people (one in 10 Argentines) today live on the Reconquista's basin. Of these, about a million still live with seriously compromised water quality, despite the province's (sometimes counterproductive) efforts to remedy the issue.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: In April 2013, the northeastern section of Buenos Aires Province, particularly its capital, La Plata, experienced several flash floods that claimed the lives of at least 59 people.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Alejandro Armendáriz, of the Radical Civic Union, was elected governor in 1983, when Raúl Alfonsín became president. Alfonsín lost the 1987 midterm elections, leading to the victory of Antonio Cafiero. From then to 2015, all governors have been Peronists. The high population of the province makes it highly influential in Argentine politics. With both ruling for two terms, the rivalry of the president Carlos Menem and governor Eduardo Duhalde dominated the Argentine politics during the nineties. A similar case took place with the president Cristina Fernández de Kirchner and governor Daniel Scioli. María Eugenia Vidal, from Republican Proposal, won the 2015 elections, and became the first female governor of the province.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: In February 2021, researchers lead by Dr. Nicolás Chimento from the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales announced the discovery of well-preserved skull find of the ground sloth Megatherium near San Eduardo del Mar in Buenos Aires province. According to paleontologists, the fossil belonged to a juvenile and dating back approximately 3.58 million years ago.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The provincial government is divided into three branches: the executive, headed by a popularly elected governor, who appoints the cabinet; the legislative (represented by the Legislature, which is split into the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate); and the judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: In Argentina, the most important law enforcement organization is the Argentine Federal Police, but the province is policed by its own Buenos Aires Provincial Police.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Buenos Aires Province, at , is slightly bigger than Italy. The landscape is mainly flat, with two low mountain ranges; "Sierra de la Ventana" (near Bahía Blanca) and "Sierra de Tandil" (Tandil). The highest point is "Cerro Tres Picos" ( amsl; ) and the longest river is "Río Salado" ( long).


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: As part of The Pampas, the weather of the province is strongly influenced by the ocean, with hot summers and temperate winters. Humidity is high and precipitation is abundant and distributed over the year. The Western and Southwestern regions are drier and are part of the Semi-arid Pampas ecoregion. The southernmost part of the province is often included in definitions of the Patagonia region.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The climate of the province of Buenos Aires is extremely benign for human activities: it is temperate, with four marked seasons and reliable rainfall on most regions. The province can be divided into four main climatic regions: the southwestern, drier region; the cool Atlantic region; the northern and eastern humid region, and the Delta region, with the warmest, wettest climate.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The northern region has warm, humid summers, with days between and nights between , pleasant falls, cool, drier winters with highs between and nights between , and windy, variable springs. Heat waves may bring days with temperatures over , but these do not usually last very long, as cold fronts bring thunderstorms and cooler days, with night temperatures often falling down to . Winter cold waves may bring days with highs about , and lows below , with extremes down to . Snow is uncommon, but there have been accumulations on several occasions in the past. Precipitation ranges from per year.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The Delta region is slightly warmer, especially at night, due to the presence of water and the northerly location. Summer nights tend to be stickier, and winters can be damp and foggy, with most nights between . Frost is still to be expected, but temperatures will almost never fall below , and snow has fallen only twice in the last century. Precipitation ranges from and falls throughout the year. The city of Buenos Aires is surrounded by a climate similar to the northern part of the province, but the city itself resembles more the Delta climate, with less frost.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The southwestern region is the driest region, and it experiences a more marked differences in temperatures. Summers are often hot, between , but nights are usually comfortable (). Thunderstorms are less frequent but can be very violent in nature. Frost can make an appearance as early as March, but usually first comes in April. Winters are cool and dry, with days between and nights between . Frost occurs on an almost daily basis, with temperatures below not uncommon, and down to recorded in some areas. Snowfall may occur every once in a while, but accumulations are usually small. Total precipitation ranges from , with slightly rainier springs and falls.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The Atlantic region sees very moderate weather: the ocean is cold ( in the summer) and sea breezes often bring chilly weather until midsummer. The hottest months average with nights between , providing a perfect relief for the inhabitants of the hotter interior. Fall is often rainy, and winters can be windy and chilly: temperatures average from , and nights from . There can be long periods of drizzly weather and constant temperatures of about . Frost is common but temperatures will rarely fall below , and snowfalls sometimes, but accumulations are only to be expected every few years. Precipitation ranges from . The Sierras de la Ventana (up to ) experience cooler weather, especially at night.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The geography of the province is crossed by occasional west Pampero winds. The southern "Sudestada" produces storms and temperature drops, most notably the "Santa Rosa" storm, which takes place every year almost exactly on August 30.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Unlike the other provinces of the country, in the province of Buenos Aires, the territorial divisions are called "partidos", instead of departments.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: These also constitute the municipal division of the province. The provincial Constitution does not recognize the municipal autonomy that was recognized for the whole country in the reform of the National Constitution of 1994. Each partido corresponds to a municipality and is governed by a mayor ("intendente") elected by popular vote. The process of creating a partido is much more dynamic than in the other provinces, with a total of six more partidos in 2000 than in 1990. Most of the newer partidos were created in the Greater Buenos Aires. There are 135 partidos, the last established by law is Lezama (2009).


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Buenos Aires Province is the most populated province of the country. The INDEC estimates that the population of Buenos Aires Province was 17,541,141 on 1 July 2020, a 12.26% increase since the 2010 national census. According to that census, there were 15 million inhabitants (38% of the national population), of which 12 million lived in Greater Buenos Aires and 3 million in the rest of the province. Around 33.8% of the inhabitants weren't born in the province, of whom 3,918,552 are migrants from other provinces and 758,640 were born abroad.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Most of its inhabitants are descendants from colonial-era settlers and immigrants from Europe who arrived within the 19th and 20th centuries, mostly Italians, Spaniards and to a lesser extent Germans, French and British. A number of suburbs in the province are also home to a large, predominantly mestizo population that began migrating from the country's northern provinces in the mid-20th century to take advantage of growing employment opportunities. These same communities are also home to considerable numbers of more recent migrants from Paraguay and Bolivia.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Tourists, mainly from Buenos Aires, visit the Atlantic coast. There are many cities and towns along the coastline, which starts some from Buenos Aires after the Samborombón Bay. Among them, the biggest and most important is Mar del Plata, followed by the La Costa Partido, Pinamar, Villa Gesell, Miramar, and Necochea. The most important summer-related event, the National Sea Festival, is held annually in the city of Mar del Plata. The city's Central Casino and Grand Provincial Hotel are among the nation's largest.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Other destinations include the Ventana Sierras, Tandil, Tigre, the Paraná Delta, Isla Martín García, Olavarria, the Chascomús and Gómez lagoons, Campos del Tuyú National Park, and La Plata.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Agritourism in "estancias" (plantations) has become increasingly popular for foreigners visiting the province in recent years. The province's wine district, centered on Médanos, has also become prominent for visitors touring the Argentina Wine Route.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: In Buenos Aires Province, as throughout Argentina, football is the predominant sport. The province has numerous professional football teams, with most of them concentrated in the Greater Buenos Aires area. Rivals Club Atlético Independiente and Racing Club de Avellaneda are the most successful, famous and followed beyond the province borders. Other notable teams in Greater Buenos Aires include Arsenal, Quilmes, Banfield, Lanús, Chacarita Juniors, Tigre and Defensa y Justicia. In the capital of the province, Estudiantes and Gimnasia y Esgrima stand out.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Other clubs in the rest of the province include Olimpo and Villa Mitre (Bahía Blanca), Huracán de Tres Arroyos (Tres Arroyos), Aldosivi and Alvarado (Mar del Plata), Sarmiento (Junín), Douglas Haig (Pergamino), Agropecuario (Carlos Casares), Santamarina (Tandil), Racing de Olavarría (Olavarría), Flandria, Club Luján and Villa Dálmine (Campana).


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The city of Mar del Plata hosted six matches of the 1978 FIFA World Cup and the 1995 Pan American Games, and annually holds the National Evita Games and the final stage of the Bonaerense Games, the last being the most important provincial sports event for young, the elderly and people with disabilities.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The province is represented in the Argentine Rugby Union (UAR) by four unions: the Rugby Union of Buenos Aires (URBA), includes teams of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires (CABA), the Rugby Union of Mar del Plata, the Western Rugby Union of the Province of Buenos Aires (UROBA) and the Southern Rugby Union. Some of the most prominent clubs are CASI and SIC of San Isidro.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Among others, some of the most important basketball teams in the province are: Peñarol de Mar del Plata, Quilmes de Mar del Plata, Bahía Basket, Estudiantes de Bahía Blanca, Olimpo de Bahía Blanca, Argentino de Junín, Club Ciclista Juninense, and Estudiantes de Olavarría, Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata, Club Atlético Platense and Lanús.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: There are numerous racetracks, including La Plata, Nueve de Julio, Olavarría, Mar de Ajó, Junín, Balcarce, San Nicolás de los Arroyos and Bahía Blanca. The San Isidro Racecourse was inaugurated in 1935 and hosts the Carlos Pellegrini Grand Prix. The Hipodromo de La Plata is the third-largest in Argentina.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The province's economy has long been the largest in Argentina, estimated in 2014 to have been US$407.6 billion (more than a third of the national total, which was around US$680.8 billion in 2016 according to Argentina's economical growing. It has a per capita income of $24,780 (around $27,300 in 2016). The province is the nation's chief exporter, generating nearly $107 billion in exports in 2016 (37% of the nation's total).


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Agriculture in the province is renowned around the world for its productivity. The province is Argentina's chief agricultural producer, and accounted for at least $8 billion in export earnings in 2014. This sector adds about 5% to the province's highly diversified economy, however. The province's ranching sector is diversified, and though cattle historically provided the main animal husbandry activity, Buenos Aires is also the top producer of sheep, pork, and chicken meat of the country. Equally important is the dairy industry. Crop harvests are the most diverse in the nation, and have grown to record levels in recent decades. The most important crops include soybean, maize, wheat, sunflower and other oilseeds, like flax. More recently, premium wines have been produced in the Buenos Aires wine region in the south of the province.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: Manufacturing accounts for a fourth of the province's output and is about 40% of the entire nation's. The industry of the province is diverse: chemical, pharmaceutical, metallurgic, motor vehicles, machinery, textiles and the food industry are the most notable. Excluding processed agricultural items, the province was responsible for over US$70 billion of industrial exports in 2016 and accounted for a third of all Argentine exports.


title: Buenos Aires Province

text: The province's services sector is well-diversified and differs little from national trends. The largest local bank is the public Bank of the Province of Buenos Aires. The institution, the second-largest in Argentina, holds nearly a tenth of the nation's bank deposits.


title: Bobsleigh

text: Bobsleigh or bobsled is a team winter sport that involves making timed runs down narrow, twisting, banked, iced tracks in a gravity-powered sleigh. International bobsleigh competitions are governed by the International Bobsleigh and Skeleton Federation, also known as FIBT from the French . National competitions are often governed by bodies such as the United States Bobsled and Skeleton Federation, Bobsleigh Canada Skeleton, and the German Bobsleigh, Luge, and Skeleton Federation.


title: Bobsleigh

text: The first bobsleds were built in the late 19th century in St. Moritz, Switzerland, by wealthy tourists from Victorian Britain who were staying at the Palace Hotel owned by Caspar Badrutt. The early sleds were adapted from boys' delivery sleds and toboggans. These eventually evolved into bobsleighs, luges and skeletons. Initially the tourists would race their hand-built contraptions down the narrow streets of St. Moritz; however, as collisions increased, growing opposition from St. Moritz residents led to bobsledding being eventually banned from public highways. In the winter of 1884, Badrutt had a purpose-built run constructed near the hamlet of Cresta. The Cresta Run remains the oldest in the world and is the home of the St. Moritz Tobogganing Club. It has hosted two Olympic Winter Games and as of 2022 was still in use.


title: Bobsleigh

text: Modern bobsleigh teams compete to complete a downhill route in the fastest times. An aggregate time from several runs is used to determine the winners. The four-man event has been featured since the first Winter Games in 1924 in Chamonix, France. The only exception was the 1960 games in Squaw Valley when the organizing committee decided not to build a track to reduce costs. The two-man event was introduced at the 1932 games and a two-woman event was first contested at the 2002 Winter Olympics. The women's monobob event was introduced in the 2022 games.


title: Bobsleigh

text: The name is derived from the action some early competitors adopted of bobbing back and forth inside their sleds to increase speed.