title: Beaver Wars

text: The French decided to become directly involved in the conflict. The Huron and the Iroquois had an estimated 25,000 to 30,000 members each. The Hurons and Susquehannocks formed an alliance to counter Iroquois aggression in 1647, and their warriors greatly outnumbered those of the Iroquois. The Hurons tried to break the Iroquois Confederacy by negotiating a separate peace with the Onondaga and Cayuga tribes, but the other tribes intercepted their messengers and ended the negotiations. During the summer of 1647, there were several small skirmishes between the tribes, but a more significant battle occurred in 1648 when the two Algonquin tribes passed a fur convoy through an Iroquois blockade. They succeeded and inflicted high casualties on the Iroquois. In the early 1650s, the Iroquois began attacking the French themselves, although some of the Iroquois tribes had peaceful relations with them, notably the Oneida and Onondaga tribes. They were under control of the Mohawks, however, who were the strongest tribe in the Confederation and had animosity towards the French presence. After a failed peace treaty negotiated by Chief Canaqueese, Iroquois moved north into New France along Lake Champlain and the Richelieu River, attacking and blockading Montreal. By 1650, they controlled the area from the Virginia Colony in the south up to the St. Lawrence. In the west, the Iroquois had driven the Algonquin-speaking Shawnee out of the Ohio Country and seized control of the Illinois Country as far west as the Mississippi River. In January 1666, the French invaded the Iroquois and took Chief Canaqueese prisoner. In September, they proceeded down the Richelieu but were unable to find an Iroquois army, so they burned their crops and homes. Many Iroquois died from starvation in the following winter. During the following years, the Iroquois strengthened their confederacy to work more closely and create an effective central leadership, and the five tribes ceased fighting among themselves by the 1660s. They also easily coordinated military and economic plans, and they increased their power as a result.


title: Beaver Wars

text: Indian raids were not constant, but they terrified the inhabitants of New France, and some of the heroes of French-Canadian folklore are individuals who stood up to such attacks. Dollard des Ormeaux, for example, died in May 1660 while resisting an Iroquois raiding force at the Battle of Long Sault, the confluence of the St. Lawrence and the Ottawa Rivers, but saved Montreal by his actions. In 1692, 14 year-old Marie-Madeleine Jarret successfully frustrated an Iroquois attack on Fort Verchères.


title: Beaver Wars

text: In 1648, the Dutch authorized selling guns directly to the Mohawks rather than through traders, and promptly sold 400 to the Iroquois. The Confederacy sent 1,000 newly armed warriors through the woods to Huron territory with the onset of winter, and they launched a devastating attack into the heart of Huron territory, destroying several key villages, killing many warriors, and taking thousands of people captive for later adoption into the tribe. Among those killed were Jesuit missionaries Jean Brebeuf, Charles Garnier, and Gabriel Lallemant, each of whom is considered a martyr of the Roman Catholic Church. The surviving Hurons fled and were dispersed from their territory, some taking refuge with the Jesuits at Quebec, some assimilated and adopted by the Iroquois, others joined the Petun or Tobacco nation, another Iroquoian people to become the Wyandot. The Ottawa tribe temporarily halted Iroquois expansion further northwest, but the Iroquois controlled a fur-rich region and had no more tribes blocking them from the French settlements in Canada.


title: Beaver Wars

text: Diseases had taken their toll on the Iroquois and neighbors in the years preceding the war, however, and their populations had drastically declined. To replace lost warriors, they worked to integrate many of their captured enemies by adoption into their own tribes. They invited Jesuits into their territory to teach those who had converted to Christianity. The Jesuits also reached out to the Iroquois, many of whom converted to Roman Catholicism or intermingled its teachings with their own traditional beliefs.


title: Beaver Wars

text: The Iroquois attacked the Neutrals in 1650, and they completely drove the tribe from traditional territory by the end of 1651, killing or assimilating thousands. The Neutrals had inhabited a territory ranging from the Niagara Peninsula westward to the Grand River valley.


title: Beaver Wars

text: In 1654, the Iroquois attacked the Erie tribe, but with less success. The war lasted for two years, and the Iroquois destroyed the Erie confederacy by 1656, whose members refused to flee to the west. The Erie territory was located on the southeastern shore of Lake Erie and was estimated to have 12,000 members in 1650. The Iroquois were greatly outnumbered by the tribes that they subdued, but they achieved their victories through the use of firearms purchased from the Dutch.


title: Beaver Wars

text: The Iroquois continued to control the countryside of New France, raiding to the edges of the walled settlements of Quebec and Montreal. In May 1660, an Iroquois force of 160 warriors attacked Montreal and captured 17 French colonists. The following year, 250 warriors attacked and took ten captives. In 1661 and 1662, the Iroquois made several raids against the Abenakis who were allied with the French. The French Crown ordered a change to the governing of Canada. They put together a small military force made up of Frenchmen, Hurons, and Algonquins to counter the Iroquois raids, but the Iroquois attacked them when they ventured into the countryside. Only 29 of the French survived and escaped; five were captured and tortured to death by the Iroquois. Despite their victory, the Iroquois also suffered a significant number of casualties, and their leaders began to consider negotiating for peace with the French.


title: Beaver Wars

text: The tide of war began to turn in the mid-1660s with the arrival of the Carignan-Salières Regiment, a small contingent of regular troops from France and the first group of uniformed professional soldiers in Canada. A change in administration led the New France government to authorize direct sale of arms and other military support to their Indian allies. In 1664, the Dutch allies of the Iroquois lost control of their colony of New Netherland to the English. In the immediate years after the Dutch defeat, European support waned for the Iroquois.


title: Beaver Wars

text: In January 1666, the French invaded the Iroquois homeland in New York. The first invasion force of 400 to 500 men was led by Daniel de Rémy de Courcelle. His men were greatly outnumbered by the Iroquois and were forced to withdraw before any significant action could take place, but they took Chief Canaqueese prisoner.


title: Beaver Wars

text: The second invasion force was led by Alexandre de Prouville, the "Marquis de Tracy" and viceroy of New France, from his base in Quebec City. The invasion force of about 1,300 men moved out in the fall of 1666. They found the Mohawk villages deserted, so they destroyed the villages and their crops. Prouville de Tracy seized all the Mohawk lands in the name of the king of France and forced the Mohawks to accept the Roman Catholic faith and to adopt the French language, as taught by Jesuit missionaries. The Iroquois sued for peace and France agreed.


title: Beaver Wars

text: Once peace was achieved with the French, the Iroquois returned to their westward conquest in their continued attempt to take control of all the land between the Algonquins and the French. Eastern tribes such as the Lakotas were pushed across the Mississippi onto the Great Plains in the early 18th century, where they adopted the horse culture and nomadic lifestyle for which they later became known. Other refugees flooded the Great Lakes area, resulting in a conflict with existing tribes in the region. In the Ohio Country, the Shawnee and Miami tribes were dominant. The Iroquois quickly overran Shawnee holdings in central Ohio, forcing them to flee into Miami territory. The Miamis were a powerful tribe and brought together a confederacy of their neighboring allies, including the Pottawatomie and the Illini confederation who inhabited Michigan and Illinois. The majority of the fighting was between the Anishinaabeg Confederacy and the Iroquois Confederacy.


title: Beaver Wars

text: The Iroquois improved on their warfare as they continued to attack even farther from their home. War parties often traveled by canoes at night, and they would sink their canoes and fill them with rocks to hold them on the river bottom. They would then move through the woods to a target and burst from the wood to cause the greatest panic. After the attack, they returned to their boats and left before any significant resistance could be put together. The lack of firearms caused the Algonquin tribes the greatest disadvantage. Despite their larger numbers, they were not centralized enough to mount a united defense and were unable to withstand the Iroquois. Several tribes ultimately moved west beyond the Mississippi River, leaving much of the Ohio Valley, southern Michigan, and southern Ontario depopulated. Several Anishinaabe forces numbering in the thousands remained to the north of Lakes Huron and Superior, and they were later decisive in rolling back the Iroquois advance. From west of the Mississippi, displaced groups continued to arm war parties and attempt to retake their land.


title: Beaver Wars

text: Beginning in the 1670s, the French began to explore and settle the Ohio and Illinois Country from the Mississippi and Ohio rivers, and they established the post of Tassinong to trade with the western tribes. The Iroquois destroyed it to retain control of the fur trade with the Europeans. The Iroquois also drove the Mannahoac tribe out of the northern Virginia Piedmont region in 1670, and they claimed the land by right of conquest as a hunting ground. The English acknowledged this claim in 1674 and again in 1684, but they acquired the land from the Iroquois by a 1722 treaty.


title: Beaver Wars

text: During a raid into the Illinois Country in 1689, the Iroquois captured numerous prisoners and destroyed a sizable Miami settlement. The Miami asked for aid from others in the Anishinaabeg Confederacy, and a large force gathered to track down the Iroquois. Using their new firearms, the Confederacy laid an ambush near South Bend, Indiana, and they attacked and destroyed most of the Iroquois party, and a large part of the region was left depopulated. The Iroquois were unable to establish a permanent presence, as their tribe was unable to colonize the large area, and the Iroquois' brief control over the region was lost. Many of the former inhabitants of the territory began to return.


title: Beaver Wars

text: With the tribes destroyed to the north and west, the Iroquois turned their attention southward to the Susquehannocks. They attained the peak of their influence in 1660, and they were able to use that to their advantage in the following decades. The Susquehannocks had become allied with the colony of Maryland in 1661, as the colonists had grown fearful of the Iroquois and hoped that an alliance would help block the northern tribes' advance on the colonies. In 1663, the Iroquois sent 800 warriors into the Susquehannock territory. The Susquehannocks repulsed them, but the unprovoked attack prompted the colony of Maryland to declare war on the Iroquois.


title: Beaver Wars

text: By supplying Susquehannock forts with artillery, the Maryland colonists turned the tables on the Iroquois. The Susquehannocks took the upper hand and began to invade Iroquois territory, where they caused significant damage. This warfare continued intermittently for 11 years. In 1674, the Maryland colonists changed their Indian policy, negotiated peace with the Iroquois, and terminated their alliance with the Susquehannocks. In 1675, the militias of Virginia and Maryland captured and executed the Susquehannock chiefs, whose growing power they feared. The Iroquois drove the warriors from traditional territory and absorbed the survivors in 1677.


title: Beaver Wars

text: English settlers began to move into the former Dutch territory of upper New York State, and the colonists began to form close ties with the Iroquois as an alliance in the face of French colonial expansion. They began to supply the Iroquois with firearms as the Dutch had. At the same time, New France's governor Louis de Buade tried to revive the western fur trade. His efforts competed with those of the Iroquois to control the traffic and they started attacking the French again. The war lasted ten years.


title: Beaver Wars

text: In 1681, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle negotiated a treaty with the Miami and Illinois tribes. France lifted the ban on the sale of firearms to the Indians, and colonists quickly armed the Algonquin tribes, evening the odds between the Iroquois and their enemies.


title: Beaver Wars

text: With the renewal of hostilities, the militia of New France was strengthened after 1683 by a small force of regular French navy troops in the Compagnies Franches de la Marine, who constituted the longest serving unit of French regular troops in New France. In June 1687, Governor Denonville and Pierre de Troyes set out with a well organized force to Fort Frontenac, where they met with the 50 sachems of the Iroquois Confederacy from their Onondaga council. These 50 chiefs constituted the top leaders of the Iroquois, and Denonville captured them and shipped them to Marseilles, France to be galley slaves. He then travelled down the shore of Lake Ontario and built Fort Denonville at the site where the Niagara River meets Lake Ontario. This site was previously used by La Salle for Fort Conti from 1678 to 1679, and was later used for Fort Niagara which still exists. The Iroquois retaliated by destroying farmsteads and slaughtering entire families. They burned Lachine to the ground on August 4, 1689. Frontenac replaced Denonville as governor for the next nine years (1689–1698), and he recognized the danger created by the imprisonment of the sachems. He located the 13 surviving leaders and returned with them to New France in October 1698.


title: Beaver Wars

text: During King William's War (1688–1697), the French formed raiding parties with Indian allies to attack English settlements, (as the English had allied themselves with the Iroquois against the French) perpetrating the Schenectady massacre in the colony of New York, the Raid on Salmon Falls in New Hampshire, and the Battle of Fort Loyal in Portland, Maine. The French and their allies killed settlers in the raids and kidnapped some and took them back to Canada. Settlers in New England raised money to redeem the captives, but some were adopted into the tribes. The French government generally did not intervene when the Indians kept the captives. Throughout the 1690s, the French and their allies also continued to raid deep into Iroquois territory, destroying Mohawk villages in 1692 and raiding Seneca, Oneida, and Onondaga villages. The English and Iroquois banded together for operations aimed against the French, but these were largely ineffective. The most successful incursion resulted in the 1691 Battle of La Prairie. The French offensive was not halted by the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick that brought peace between France and England, ending English participation in that conflict.


title: Beaver Wars

text: The Iroquois eventually began to see the emerging Thirteen Colonies as a greater threat than the French in 1698. The colony of Pennsylvania was founded in 1681, and the continued growth there began to encroach on the southern border of the Iroquois. The French policy began to change towards the Iroquois after nearly fifty years of warfare, and they decided that befriending them would be the easiest way to ensure their monopoly on the northern fur trade. The Thirteen Colonies heard of the treaty and immediately set about to prevent it from being agreed upon. These conflicts would result in the loss of Albany's fur trade with the Iroquois and, without their protection, the northern flank of the Thirteen Colonies would be open to French attack. Nevertheless, the French and Indians signed the treaty.


title: Beaver Wars

text: The French and 39 Indian chiefs signed the Great Peace of Montreal in 1701. The Iroquois agreed to stop marauding and to allow refugees from the Great Lakes to return east. The Shawnee eventually regained control of the Ohio Country and the lower Allegheny River. The Miami tribe returned to take control of Indiana and northwest Ohio. The Pottawatomie went to Michigan, and the Illinois tribe to Illinois. The peace lasted into the 1720s.


title: Beaver Wars

text: In 1768, several of the Thirteen Colonies purchased the "Iroquois claim" to the Ohio and Illinois Country and created the Indiana Land Company to hold the claim to all of the Northwest. It maintained a claim to the region using the Iroquois right of conquest until the company was dissolved in 1798 by the United States Supreme Court.


title: Beaver Wars

text: Many of the Iroquois people allied with the British during the American Revolutionary War, particularly warriors from the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga and Seneca nations. These nations had longstanding trade relations with the British and hoped they might stop American encroachment on their lands. After the Americans emerged triumphant, the British parliament agreed to cede control over much of its territory in North America to the newly formed United States and worked to resettle American loyalists in Canada and provide some compensation for lands the Loyalists and Native Americans had lost to the United States. Mohawk Chief Joseph Brant led a large group of Iroquois out of New York to what became the reserve of the Six Nations of the Grand River in Ontario. The new lands granted to Six Nations reserves were all near Canadian military outposts and placed along the border to prevent any American incursions.


title: Beaver Wars

text: The coalition of Native American tribes, known as the Western Confederacy, was forced to cede extensive territory, including much of present-day Ohio, in the Treaty of Greenville in 1795.


title: Varsham (2004 film)

text: Varsham () is a 2004 Indian Telugu-language romantic action film produced by M.S. Raju on his Sumanth Art Productions banner and directed by Sobhan, the film stars Prabhas, Trisha, and Gopichand and the music was composed by Devi Sri Prasad.


title: Varsham (2004 film)

text: Venkat, an unemployed youngster, meets Sailaja, a middle-class beauty, on a train journey, and they are immediately attracted to each other after dancing in a rain shower. At the same time, Sailaja catches the eye of Bhadranna, a dangerous, ruthless politician who also fell in love with her. Venkat keeps bumping into Sailaja every time it rains, and they fall in love. Ranga Rao, Sailaja's father, is a typical black sheep with many bad habits. Bhadranna approaches him with the marriage proposal, and Ranga Rao jumps on that and agrees. Later, a film producer Seenayya approaches Ranga Rao with an offer for Sailaja to act in a movie. Ranga Rao thinks that acting in films would be more lucrative than marrying her off to Bhadranna. He first successfully creates clashes between lovers, convinces Sailaja to act in a movie, and leaves with her to the city. Venkat also leaves for Vizag to his uncle's place. In Vizag, Sailaja becomes a leading lady in the movies, and Venkat works with his uncle in a quarry as a demolition expert. Months later, Bhadranna is cheated of some money by Ranga Rao, and he finds out where Sailaja now lives, kidnaps her, and tries to change her mind about marrying him. Seenayya gets tensed as the shooting was paused, and Ranga Rao advises him to approach Venkat, as he believes that Venkat still loves Sailaja. Venkat agrees and fights with Bhadranna for Sailaja. Gradually, Sailaja learns that she misunderstood Venkat and apologizes. They reconcile happily, and both start loving again. That night, Bhadranna kills his brother Kaasi for not bringing Sailaja. Bhadranna is coming back from Hyderabad to destroy Venkat and marry Sailaja. During the festival, Bhadranna stabs Venkat but is stopped by his uncle Sivayya. After the fight, Venkat defeats Bhadranna and embraces Sailaja and Venkat's friends. Suddenly, Bhadranna regains consciousness but dies when a statue covered in fire collapses on him. The movie ends with Venkat and Sailaja reuniting.


title: Varsham (2004 film)

text: Music was composed by Devi Sri Prasad and all lyrics were penned by Sirivennela Seetaaraama Saastry. Music was released on Aditya Music.


title: Varsham (2004 film)

text: A critic from "Sify" said that "The major drawback of Varsham is the second half, which has an overdose of violence and narration is marred by two dream songs. The director Shobhan loses grip on the story after the fast paced first half. Still "Varsham" is worth a look". Jeevi of "Idlebrain.com" opined that "It's a love story with good technical values. You may definitely watch this film".


title: Varsham (2004 film)

text: The film celebrated a 50-day run in 125 centers 100 days in 79 centers film did business. The film celebrated its silver jubilee (175 days) celebration with Chiranjeevi attending as the chief guest.


title: Varsham (2004 film)

text: This movie was re-released in 2022, November 11 with a 4K resolution. Sandhya 70mm and Sandhya 35mm theaters in RTC Cross Road, Hyderabad had two shows each (at 8.15 am and 9 pm), and the housefull run.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: Risen is a 2016 American biblical drama film directed by Kevin Reynolds and written by Reynolds and Paul Aiello. The film stars Joseph Fiennes, Tom Felton, Peter Firth, and Cliff Curtis, and details a Roman soldier's search for Yeshua's body following his resurrection. Columbia Pictures released the film to theaters in the United States on February 19, 2016. It received mixed reviews and grossed $46 million worldwide.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: After crushing a small scale Zealot revolt led by Barabbas, Clavius, a Roman Tribune, is sent by Pontius Pilate to expedite a crucifixion already in progress. Three days later he is appointed to investigate the rumors of a risen Jewish Messiah. Pilate orders him to locate the missing body of Yeshua, one of the crucified men. In doing so, Pilate seeks to quell an imminent uprising in Jerusalem before the Emperor arrives. Failing to secure Yeshua's body, Clavius, with the support of his loyal aide Lucius, attempts to locate and question the disciples of Yeshua and those involved in his crucifixion and burial for clues to his disappearance.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: Numerous leads are dug up, and their accounts soon become increasingly miraculous and difficult to believe. Some of the followers, such as Mary Magdalene and a man named Bartholomew, seemingly speak only in riddles and refuse to betray any others. Clavius' intense investigation begins to disturb both Romans and Hebrews alike, and Pilate, under pressure from many sides and fearful of Caesar's wrath, becomes increasingly distant and unsupportive. Running out of new leads, Clavius revisits a disgraced Roman soldier, assigned to guard Yeshua's cave tomb, now a drunkard, and vehemently shakes the drunken man out of a lie that he had previously stuck to. The soldier recounts a fantastic story that, on the morning Yeshua disappeared, a blinding flash had appeared, during which the stone and ropes sealing the tomb disintegrated, and a figure appeared, accompanied by a booming voice that sent him and a fellow soldier fleeing in fear. Clavius does not believe him.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: During a raid through a Jewish enclave, Clavius unexpectedly discovers a seemingly resurrected Yeshua with his apostles in a solitary abode. Stunned, he calls off the search, barring Lucius and his men from finding Yeshua and the apostles. That night, another Roman raid, led by Lucius and Pilate, attacks the building that Clavius had forbidden them from entering, and finds it empty, save a note from Clavius, who has decided to continue the investigation on his own. Having abandoned Roman polytheism and the god Mars, Clavius, at first distrustful of the group, soon joins Yeshua and his followers on a journey to determine the validity of his mortal rejuvenation, during which he talks to and befriends both Yeshua and the apostle Peter.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: Pilate deduces that Clavius has apparently betrayed him, and dispatches a contingent of Roman troops, led by a promoted Lucius, to pursue him and Yeshua. Clavius assists the disciples in evading the Roman search party, and, when caught personally by Lucius, Clavius disarms him, then convinces him to let them pass quietly. Consequently, Clavius witnesses Yeshua's miraculous healing of a leper, and then the ascension of Yeshua into Heaven; after which the Apostles split up to resume their journeys, and Clavius bids farewell to Peter. Later, communicating his travels to a stranger in a remote dwelling, Clavius acknowledges the strangeness of the tale and its veracity, feeling he will never be the same.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: The film held its world premiere on February 15, 2016, at the Highland Park Village Theatre in Dallas, Texas. Columbia Pictures then released it in the United States on February 19, 2016.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: "Risen" was released on digital media on May 10, 2016, and was followed by a DVD, Blu-ray and 4K Ultra HD release on May 24, 2016, from AFFIRM Films and Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. The film debuted in second place on home video sales charts behind "Deadpool" for the week ending May 29, 2016.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: "Risen" grossed $36.9 million in the United States and Canada, and $9.2 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $46.1 million, against a production budget of $20 million.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: In the United States and Canada, pre-release tracking suggested the film would gross $7–12 million from 2,915 theaters in its opening weekend, alongside "Race" and "The Witch". The film grossed $4 million on its first day and $11.8 million in its opening weekend, finishing third at the box office behind "Deadpool" ($56.5 million) and "Kung Fu Panda 3" ($12.5 million).


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 53% based on 132 reviews, with an average rating of 5.60/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Risen" benefits from a lighter tone than many faith-based productions, as well as a unique take on the Greatest Story Ever Told and a terrific turn from star Joseph Fiennes." On Metacritic it has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 28 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A−" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Risen (2016 film)

text: Richard Roeper of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film two out of four stars, praising the different take on the story as well as the supporting actors, but criticizing Fiennes' stoic performance. Megan Basham of WORLD applauded the film, writing, "It's undeniably one of the higher-quality faith-based films to hit theaters in recent years, with acting, writing, and production values to rival other mainstream releases." Michael Foust of The Christian Examiner gave it 4.5 out of 5 stars and called it "a detective-type story that is inspiring and moving." "Yes, "Risen" is historical fiction, but it's largely harmonious with the Gospel story, incredibly well done, and not much different from those Sunday School discussions many of us take part in week to week," Foust wrote.


title: Sansad TV

text: Sansad TV is an Indian government television channel, which broadcasts the programming of the two Houses of Indian Parliament and other public affairs programming. It was formed in March 2021 by amalgamating the existing house channels, Lok Sabha TV and the Rajya Sabha TV, although separate satellite channels are broadcast for each House.


title: Sansad TV

text: Provisionally, the channel will have about 35 themes on which programmes will be aired, and the programmes will be similar, but in two languages: Hindi and English. The channel was launched by the Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi, Vice President of India Venkaiah Naidu and Speaker of Lok Sabha Om Birla on 15 September 2021. The TV Channel has experts from diverse fields as guest anchors for some flagship programmes and include Bibek Debroy, Karan Singh, Amitabh Kant, Shashi Tharoor, Vikas Swarup, Priyanka Chaturvedi, Hemant Batra, Maroof Raza and Sanjeev Sanyal.


title: Sansad TV

text: Utpal Kumar Singh, IAS (Retd.) was given additional charge as the CEO of Sansad TV on 31 August 2022. "During the intersession period and beyond the working hours of Parliament, both will telecast common content to a large extent. The LSTV platform would telecast programmes in Hindi, while RSTV would do so in English. The two language variants, it was felt, enables better branding and increased viewership", a top official said. "The attempt is to go beyond the proceedings of the Houses and show the functioning of Parliament and parliamentarians when the House is not in session."


title: Egyptair

text: Egyptair (Egyptian Arabic: , "") is the state-owned flag carrier of Egypt. The airline is headquartered at Cairo International Airport, its main hub, operating scheduled passenger and freight services to 81 destinations in the Middle East, Europe, Africa, Asia,and The Americas. Egyptair is a member of Star Alliance.


title: Egyptair

text: Alan Muntz, chairman of Airwork, visited Egypt in 1931; at that time, he expressed his intention of starting up a new airline in the country. The new enterprise was named "Misr Airwork", with ″Misr″ being Arabic for Egypt. On 31 December 1931, the government granted the new company the exclusivity of air transport operations. A division of Misr Airwork named "Misr Airlines" was established on 7 June 1932, ″to promote the spirit of aviation among Egyptian youth″, becoming the seventh carrier in the world. The headquarters of Misr Airwork, S.A.E. was in Almaza Aerodrome, Heliopolis, Cairo.


title: Egyptair

text: The initial investment was £E20,000, with ownership split between the Misr Bank (85%), Airwork (10%), and Egyptian private investors (5%). Operations started in July 1933, initially linking Cairo with Alexandria and Mersa Matruh using de Havilland DH.84 Dragon equipment. By August that year, the frequency on the Cairo–Alexandria service had been boosted to twice-daily. In late 1933, a twice-weekly Cairo–Aswan flight that called at Asyut and Luxor was inaugurated. Via Port Said, a flight from Cairo that served Lydda, Haifa and Gaza was launched in 1934. On 3 August 1935, a test service via Lydda with a final destination in Nicosia began using de Havilland D.H.86 aircraft; the service was terminated on 20 October that year. The Alexandria–Port Said–Cairo–Minia–Assiut route was opened in late 1935. During 1935, the airline carried 6,990 passengers and of freight; for the year, these regular services flew .


title: Egyptair

text: The Alexandria–Assiut route, which called at Port Said, Cairo and Minia, and the Cairo–Cyprus–Haifa–Baghdad run were the two operative services the carrier had by 1936. Hadj flights commenced in 1937. Operations to Cyprus resumed in 1938 with a Cairo–Lydda–Haifa–Larnaka service. The carrier operated all-British aircraft in the early years, and by April 1939 the fleet comprised one D.H. Dragon, one D.H. Dragonfly, five D.H. Rapìdes, two D.H.86s and one D.H.86B that worked on the Alexandria–Cairo, Alexandria–Port Said–Cairo–Minia–Assiut, Cairo–Assiut–Luxor–Assuan, Cairo–Lydda–Haifa–Baghdad and Cairo–Port Said–Lydda–Haifa routes. The Egyptian government took over all the routes in September 1939. In 1940, a service to Beirut and Palestine was started. Three Avro 19s were incorporated into the fleet in 1944. Three accidents that took place in late 1945 prompted strikes for a fleet renewal and caused operations to come to a total halt since February 1946; services resumed in May, and by late 1946 the fleet included four Avro Ansons, one Beech AT-11, five Beech C-45s, four de Havilland D.H.89 Dragon Rapides and two North American AT-6 Texan. The carrier benefited from the Allies' regional aircraft disposal station that sold surplus military aircraft being located in Egypt. Two more Beech C-45s were delivered in 1947, and the Vickers Viking was incorporated in 1948. In May 1949, all the capital and the aircraft park was acquired by the government. After the Egyptian state became the sole shareholder, the company changed its name to "Misrair SAE".


title: Egyptair

text: Misrair continued to fly the same routes as its predecessor. In 1951, three Languedocs were acquired; these were intended for deployment on longer routes. The Languedocs replaced the Vikings on flights to Geneva, Khartoum, and Tehran.


title: Egyptair

text: On 1 December 1952 Misrair took over the domestic competitor Services Aériens Internationaux d'Égypte (SAIDE) and thus ended the flight operations of this airline. Only the successful route Cairo-Tunis was carried over to Misrair's own route network.


title: Egyptair

text: Three Vickers Viscounts were ordered in early 1954. During that year, the carrier transported 64,539 passengers. At March 1955, Misrair's fleet comprised one Beechcraft, three Languedocs and seven Vikings; the three Viscounts were still pending delivery. Douglas DC-3s were subsequently purchased and deployed on domestic routes, as well as to neighbouring Arab countries. Delivery of the first two Viscounts occurred in December 1955; they were put into service in March 1956. The number of passengers transported during 1955 had grown to . A number of aircraft were lost during the Suez crisis.


title: Egyptair

text: In February 1957, Misrair was renamed "United Arab Airlines". Late that year, two more Viscounts were ordered at a cost of £600,000–800,000, including spares. Prior to this, an aircraft of the type was lost while standing at Almaza Airport during an air raid.


title: Egyptair

text: Following the formation of the United Arab Republic by Egypt and Syria on , Misrair was renamed "United Arab Airlines (UAA)" in March that year. A Cairo–Athens–Rome–Zurich service was launched on 7 July; Syrian Airways merged into UAA on 23 December, with the latter absorbing both the routes and the equipment of the Syrian carrier. By March 1960, the airline had 579 employees. At that time, the fleet comprised one Beech D18S, four DC-3s, six Vikings and six Viscounts. One of the Viscounts crashed into the Mediterranean on 10 April, killing 17 passengers and a crew of three. With registration SU-ALC, the first of three Comet 4Cs was delivered on 9 June. Operations using two of these aircraft started on 16 July the same year. By October 1960, Misrair had Comets deployed on the Cairo–Belgrade–Prague, Cairo–Rome–London, Cairo–Jeddah and Cairo–Khartoum runs, DC-3s on the Cairo–Alexandria–Mersa Matruh, Cairo–Assiut–Luxor, Cairo–Luxor–Aswan and Cairo–Port Said–Alexandria services, and Viscounts were used for the non-stop flights that linked Cairo and Alexandria. An order for two more Comets was placed in November 1960. Syria's association with UAA ended in October 1961, when Syrian Arab Airways was established by the Syrian government in Damascus; the route network and fleet that had been taken over by UAA were returned to the new company.


title: Egyptair

text: Two more Comets, the and ones, were ordered in early 1961. Three ex-SAS DC-6s were purchased in April 1961. The Cairo–Lagos run was extended to Accra on 12 June and flights to Moscow commenced on 21 June. A contract with Boeing for the purchase of Boeing 707-320B with delivery dates between November 1961 and April 1964 was signed; the deal fell through when the airline could not find financing. On 1 November, a new flight to Karachi and Bombay was launched, and the sixth and seventh Comets were ordered in December; these were delivered in April 1962. Also in 1961, the Cairo–Nicosia run, suspended since the Suez crisis in 1956, was restored, flown with Viscount equipment. Routed via Bangkok and Hong Kong, the Bombay service was extended to Tokyo in May 1962. The three-strong crew of a DC-3 that crashed at Heliopolis on 16 May 1962 died, and 26 more people perished in an accident involving a Comet at Bangkok on 19 July the same year. Two more Comets were acquired in August, entering the fleet in September the same year and during 1963. On 15 February 1963, the route to Baghdad was resumed after a three-year hiatus, but the service was short-lived, as political tensions between Egypt, Iraq and Syria forced the disruption of flights to both this destination and to Damascus; on 1 April, a new service to Rhodesia was inaugurated. On 12 May 1963 a DC-3 crashed near Alexandria, killing 27 passengers and a crew of and on 28 July 1963, a Comet crashed into the ocean near Bombay, killing 62. Short of aircraft to serve Tokyo, the route was terminated. Also, another Comet, SU-ALM, resulted damaged in Benghazi on 12 September, the and final Comet was delivered in 1964. Also that year, three ex-Pan Am DC-6Bs were purchased, and another three were acquired from Northwest Orient; these aircraft were put on service on domestic routes and began replacing the Viscounts. Also aimed at operating domestic services, seven Antonov An-24s were ordered for  million.


title: Egyptair

text: By March 1965, seven Comet 4Cs and four Viscounts flew on routes across Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, along with a service to Lagos and Accra. On 1 August, a subsidiary airline named "Misrair" started operations. A contract worth  million for three Boeing 707-320Cs was signed with Boeing on 15 June 1966 and also included four additional machines on option. On 1 November, the airline suppressed the stop at Prague on the Cairo–Prague–Moscow service, and in January 1967 UAA started the Cairo–Frankfurt–Copenhagen run. On 22 June 1967, a Comet crashed in Kuwait while landing; there were no fatalities but the aircraft was written off. In August 1968, the airline took delivery of two Ilyushin Il-18s. The first Boeing 707 was handed over by the aircraft manufacturer on 21 October the same year; it was later put into service on the Cairo–London corridor. One of the Il-18s was involved in a deadly crash while attempting to land at Aswan Airport on 20 March 1969. That March, the carrier started services to East Berlin with Il-18 equipment and in June the route to Tokyo via Kuwait, Bombay, Bangkok and Hong Kong was resumed.


title: Egyptair

text: On 14 January 1970, a Comet 4C (SU-ANI) crashed on landing at Addis Ababa from Cairo; no one of the 14 people on board resulted seriously injured. On 30 January 1970 the landing gear of an Antonov An-24V, SU-AOK, collapsed on touchdown at Luxor. On 19 February SU-ALE, another Comet, aborted takeoff from Munich Riem Airport at , fell back to the runway, slid until the end of it and hit a fence. Another An-24V, SU-AOC, belly-landed at Cairo on 14 March. At March 1970, UAA had 7,810 employees; the fleet comprised seven An-24Bs, three Boeing 707-366Cs, six Comet 4Cs and three Il-18s. The fourth Boeing 707 was delivered in March 1970. An An-24V (SU-ANZ) was on a training flight and crashed near Cairo, killing the three occupants on 19 July. On 2 January 1971, a Comet (SU-ALC) hit sand dunes on approach to Tripoli, with the loss of lives of the passengers on board and the crew of . On 23 May 1971, the acquisition of two Ilyushin Il-62s was announced, scheduled for delivery in June the same year. June 1971 saw the airline using these aircraft on European routes, supplementing the services operated with the Boeing 707s. The Il-62s were introduced on Asian services on 9 July. The name of the airline was changed to "Egyptair" on 10 October 1971, following the country changing its name to Arab Republic of Egypt.


title: Egyptair

text: Egyptair inherited UAA's staff, equipment, assets and liabilities. On 19 March 1972, Egyptair Flight 763, a Douglas DC-9-32 carrying Yugoslav registration YU-AHR crashed into the Shamsan Mountains, southwest of Aden, killing all 30 occupants on board. On 16 Jun, an Ilyushin Il-62 (SU-ARN) was involved in a landing accident with no reported fatalities. In July, Tupolev Tu-154s were ordered for  million, with three of them slated for delivery in July 1973, three in November 1973 and two in March 1974. Before firming the transaction up Egyptair had also considered the Boeing 727, but financing for these US-manufactured aircraft could not be arranged. Under the terms of the contract, light maintenance was to be performed in Egypt, whereas airframe and engine overhauling was to be undertaken in the Soviet Union. In July 1972, the acquisition of four Boeing 707-320Cs valued at  million was announced. At this time, the airline had four Boeing 707s already in operation. The handover of the new aircraft had been arranged for March, May, June and September 1973. On 5 December 1972, one of the four 707s already in the fleet (SU-AOW) crashed near Cairo while on a training flight. The crew of perished in the accident. Reports indicating the airframe had been shot down were denied by the Egyptian government. An Ilyushin Il-18, registration SU-AOY, was involved in a deadly accident near Nicosia on 29 January 1973 when it crashed into mountainous terrain, killing all occupants on board. Delivery of the four new Boeing 707s took place during the year, with two more 707-320Cs being ordered in September. In October the three Il-62s were returned to Aeroflot because of elevated operational costs and technical issues. Also that month, the first Tu-154 entered the fleet and was used for pilot training. From Moscow, the handover of the Tu-154s was made through London-Heathrow, where these aircraft were fitted with British-made seats.


title: Egyptair

text: The outbreak of the Yom Kippur War in 1973 had forced the carrier to suspend the Tokyo service; it was resumed on 15 March 1974 via Bombay, Bangkok and Manila. During 1974, the flight to Khartoum was extended to Kinshasa. One of the brand new Tu-154 aircraft, SU-AXB, on 10 July 1974 after takeoff from Cairo International Airport during a training flight, killing a crew of on board. Following the crash Egyptair requested the return of its Tu-154 fleet to the Soviets and a refund for the price paid for them. The capacity shortage caused by the grounding of the Tu-154s was partly alleviated by the lease of aircraft. The airline had already been looking for other aircraft to replace them and an order for Douglas DC-9-50s was placed in November. On 9 December, an Il-18, registration YR-IMK, crashed into the Red Sea; there were fatalities. In January 1975, the government turned the order with Douglas down and moved to Boeing for the provision of new equipment. An agreement with the Soviets for the return of the Tu-154s was struck on 10 February; early in the year, the An-24s were traded back to the company that represented the Soviets as partial repayment for the loan taken to acquire the aft-engined Tu-154s. The Boeing order was finalised by March and consisted of Boeing 727-200s and Boeing 737-200s. There were plans to trade the first Boeing 707-320Cs in for the new aircraft as part of the deal with Boeing. Valued at  million, the transaction was partly financed by the United Arab Emirates. In May, the order was homogenised to Boeing 737-200s with deliveries slated for April and May 1976. Arrangements were made to sell the four Comets both to raise money to finance the new aircraft and to have an all-Boeing fleet.


title: Egyptair

text: A link between Cairo and Milan began in January 1976 and a new flight to Vienna started in April. Following allegations from the Egyptian parliament that airline officials had been bribed by Boeing to favour the 1975 order, the chairman Gamal Erfan resigned in February. On 22 April, a Boeing 737 flying from Cairo to Luxor was hijacked by Palestinians; an Egyptian commando team regained control of the aircraft with no damages to its structure. The Comets were sold to Dan-Air on 9 October. During the year, Boeing 737 Advanced entered the fleet. A serious accident involving a Boeing 707 took place on 25 Dec when a non-regular flight from Cairo to Tokyo crashed into a textile mill while on approach to Bangkok, killing all passengers and a crew of ; fatalities and injured people on the ground were also reported. Early in 1977, the first arrests related to the bribery case involving the Boeing order took place when a former pilot admitted he had been bribed for . In February, an agreement to lease Airbus A300B4 aircraft from Germanair and Trans European Airlines was signed. On 1 April, services to Abu Dhabi and Karachi were launched. The first A300 service flew the Cairo–Karachi route on 3 June. The lease conditions for the aircraft owned by Bavaria Germanair changed to a lease/purchase agreement. Egyptair eventually acquired the two leased A300B4 aircraft. On 21 February 1978, a Boeing 707 made an emergency landing at Sharjah Airport after hitting a flock of birds; the incident caused substantial damage to the fuselage and the engines. During 1979, A300B4-200s were ordered for  million with a delivery span between September 1980 and September 1981; the carrier took options on more aircraft of the type. Financing for the firmly ordered aircraft was partly provided by the Midland Bank and the Dresdner Bank.


title: Egyptair

text: At March 1980 the number of employees was 9,610 and the fleet consisted of two Airbus A300B4s, seven Boeing 707-320Cs, seven Boeing 737-200s and two Beech Barons. There was a major financial reorganisation in November 1980 when ownership of the company was shared by the National Bank of Egypt and the Misr Insurance Company. In 1981, options for two Airbus A300B4-200s were converted into a firm order. This took the count of A300 aircraft pending delivery to four. At November this year the airline had five aircraft of the type in the fleet, two of them leased. Another A300B4-200 was ordered in 1982. Overall, eight new Airbus A300B4s were introduced during the early 1980s. Three Boeing 767-200ERs (named "Nefertiti", "Nefertari" and "Tiye") were phased in during 1984. Two Boeing 767-300ERs (named "Tuthmosis III" and "Ramses II") were phased in during 1989. On 31 October 1999, "Tuthmosis III" crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, killing all 217 people on board.


title: Egyptair

text: Egyptair is a state-owned company with special legislation permitting the management to operate as if the company were privately owned without any interference from the government. The company is self-financing without any financial backing by the Egyptian government.


title: Egyptair

text: The airline underwent a major corporate re-engineering in 2002 when its structure was changed from a governmental organization into a holding company with subsidiaries. The move coincided with the establishment of the Egyptian Minister of Civil Aviation and the government's ambitious strategy to modernize and upgrade its airports and airline. The airline was given the right to operate without any interference from the government and the duty to do so without any financial backing


title: Egyptair

text: Egyptair wholly owns Egyptair Express and Air Sinai. The airline has stakes in Air Cairo (60%) and Smart Aviation Company (20%).


title: Egyptair

text: In May 2006, the airline launched a regional subsidiary called Egyptair Express with a fleet of new Embraer E-170 jets with services commencing in 2007. The carrier links Cairo with Sharm El Sheikh, Hurghada, Luxor, Aswan, Marsa Alam, Abu Simbel and Alexandria (Egypt) in addition to secondary destinations to complement the parent company's network. In June 2009 the subsidiary received the last of the 12 Embraer E-170 aircraft on order.


title: Egyptair

text: This is fortified by huge assets of more than US$3.8 billion. The airline's financial year is from July to June.


title: Egyptair

text: For the fiscal year ending 31 July 2007, Egyptair achieved a record total revenue of US$1.143 billion. Total group revenue grew by 14%, as compared with the previous year.


title: Egyptair

text: In early 2007, the airline partnered with the Egyptian Ministry of Civil Aviation and Egyptian Holding Company for Airports & Air Navigation to form a new corporate airline, Smart Aviation Company, based at Cairo Airport.


title: Egyptair

text: In 2009, Egyptair's operations at its Cairo International Airport hub (where it holds 61% of the airport's departure slots) were notably overhauled due to the inauguration of the new Terminal 3 in April 2009. The airline transferred all its operations (international and domestic) to the new terminal that has more than doubled the airport's capacity. Under the Star Alliance "Move Under One Roof" concept at Cairo Airport, all Star Alliance airlines serving Cairo have moved to Terminal 3. In 2010 the airline will overhaul operations at its Alexandria base by transferring operations from the older facilities at Alexandria International Airport to the new airport in Borg El Arab Airport. The airline's CEO also stated the company was evaluating whether to set up a low-cost carrier subsidiary for its Alexandria operations to address the growth of LCCs in the city.


title: Egyptair

text: During the 2009–2010 Paris Airshow, the airline announced a new venture with US lessor Aviation Capital Group (ACG) and other Egyptian private and public shareholders to establish a leasing joint venture focusing on the Middle East and Northern Africa region. The new joint venture – named Civil Aviation Finance and Operating Leases (CIAF-Leasing) will initially focus on narrowbody aircraft.


title: Egyptair

text: Following the revolution of 2011, Egyptair is reported to have suffered considerable losses. Egypt's civil aviation minister Wael El Maadawi said the airline lost an estimated 1.3 billion Egyptian pounds, or around $185 million, over the 2012/13 fiscal year, mainly due to an increase in fuel prices, the devaluation of the Egyptian currency and continuous strikes within the company. Losses for 2011/12 were apparently around double the 2012/13 figures. The carrier has reportedly suffered total losses of more than 7bn pounds, or nearly $1bn, since the 2011 uprising.


title: Egyptair

text: In the middle of 2012, a group of flight attendants asked for the right to wear hijabs as part of their work uniform. The company granted their request and hijab-wearing flight attendants first appeared in November 2012.


title: Egyptair

text: In November 2015, two weeks after the crash that brought down Metrojet Flight 9268 in the Sinai peninsula, Russian authorities banned Egyptair from flying to Russia, citing security concerns.


title: Egyptair

text: In January 2016, Egyptair was fined for leasing aircraft to Sudan Airways during 2010–11, breaking economic sanctions imposed on Sudan in 1997.


title: Egyptair

text: As part of a restructuring of Egyptair, Aviation Minister Air Marshall Younes Hamed announced the merger of Egyptair Express, Egyptair Cargo, and Egyptair Ground Services Company with the mainline airline. As of 4 November 2019, only Egyptair Express was officially merged with the rest of plan to be completed by the end of 2019.


title: Egyptair

text: Egyptair is a state-owned company, 100% owned by the Government of Egypt. The Egyptair Holding Company was created in 2002 with seven companies, with two further companies added at later dates.


title: Egyptair

text: There are three carriers, which operate under the same AOC but are managed separately and have their own profit and loss accounts:


title: Egyptair

text: Data for the Egyptair Holding Company and for its main subsidiary Egyptair Airlines, are shown below (for years ending 30 June):


title: Egyptair

text: Trends for Egyptair Express and Egyptair Cargo are shown on the relevant articles. Figures for the year ending 30 June 2011, and the lack of detailed accounts since then, reflect the disruption that occurred because of the Egyptian Revolution in early 2011.


title: Egyptair

text: EgyptAir is headquartered in the EgyptAir Administrative Complex on the grounds of Cairo International Airport in Cairo.


title: Egyptair

text: The airline's logo is Horus, the sky deity in ancient Egyptian mythology, chosen because of its ancient symbolism as a "winged god of the sun", and usually depicted as a falcon or a man with the head of a falcon.


title: Egyptair

text: The Horus made its first appearance in the early 1970s. It was originally painted with a red head and blue feathers in front of a golden backdrop. It was painted around the plane including the engine cases. This was due to EgyptAir wanting to keep a warm coloured livery in the early days of the airline.


title: Egyptair

text: In October 2007, the Chief Executive Board of Star Alliance voted to accept Egyptair as a future member, the first airline from an Arab country and the second African one – after South African Airways – to join the airline alliance. In a ceremony held at Cairo International Airport on 11 July 2008, the carrier became the member of this alliance, nine months after it started the joining process.


title: Egyptair

text: In October 2020, Egyptair reached an agreement with the government of Ghana to create a Ghanaian national aviation company with investment from both governments.


title: Egyptair

text: Due to the 2017 Qatar Diplomatic crisis, Egyptair (among other carriers from Bahrain, Egypt, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates) has suspended its flights to Doha's Hamad International Airport in Qatar as per the instructions from the Egyptian Government.


title: Egyptair

text: Egyptair became Airbus A330/340's customer in June 1995 when it ordered three Airbus A340s, scheduled for delivery in December 1996. The first, 260-seater aircraft entered the fleet in late 1996, and operated along a -300 version that was on lease from Gulf Air. Also in 1995, the carrier purchased three 308-seater Boeing 777-200s for  million. These GE-90 powered aircraft, along with the A340-200s, were ordered for replacement of the Airbus A300B4 and Boeing 767-200 fleet.


title: Egyptair

text: Aimed to replace the Airbus A300-600R fleet, the airline placed an order for seven Airbus A330-200 aircraft in early 2003, slated for delivery in June 2004, and cancelled two Airbus A340-600s it had previously ordered. In June 2003, Egyptair signed a deal worth  million with Rolls-Royce for the provision of Trent 700 engines to power these seven A330s. The Airbus A330-300 was incorporated into the fleet in August 2010.


title: Egyptair

text: Egyptair's commercial relationship with Boeing started in 1968 when a Boeing 707 was delivered. Six Boeing 737-800s were acquired in August 2005, with handovers starting in September the following year and a delivery span of three years. On lease from GECAS, Egyptair took delivery of its first 346-seater Boeing 777-300ER in March 2010.


title: Egyptair

text: In June 2011, the airframer delivered the airline's Boeing aircraft, a 737-800. In , Egyptair was identified as the carrier that ordered nine more aircraft of the type, in a deal worth  million. In October 2016 the airline placed a firm order for eight Boeing 737-800s with deliveries starting in February 2017.


title: Egyptair

text: In October and November 2017, it was announced that the airline intended to place an order for 6 Boeing 787-9s and 15 Airbus A320neos.


title: Egyptair

text: During the 2019 Dubai Airshow, the initial order of 15 Airbus A320neos was changed to 7 A321neos and 8 A320neos instead. Also, at the same time, 2 additional Boeing 787-9 were ordered after the 6th and last Boeing 787-9 had been delivered in August of the same year.


title: Jack Soo

text: Jack Soo (born Goro Suzuki, October 28, 1917 – January 11, 1979) was an American singer and actor. He was best known for his role as Detective Nick Yemana on the television sitcom "Barney Miller".


title: Jack Soo

text: Soo was born Goro Suzuki on a ship traveling in the Pacific Ocean from the United States to Japan in 1917. His parents lived in Oakland, California, and they decided that as he was the oldest boy, they wanted to have him born in Japan. He graduated from University of California, Berkeley with a degree in English. He lived in Oakland until ordered into internment along with other Japanese Americans during World War II and the signing of Executive Order 9066. He was sent to the Topaz War Relocation Center in Utah. His fellow internees recalled him as a "camp favorite," an entertainer singing at dances and numerous events.


title: Jack Soo

text: Soo's career as an entertainer began in earnest at the end of the war, first as a stand-up nightclub performer primarily in the Midwestern United States. He changed his name to Jack Soo while working at a Chinese night club called Chin's in Cleveland to avoid prejudice against him as a Japanese-American.


title: Jack Soo

text: During his years playing the nightclub circuit, he met and became friends with future "Barney Miller" producer Danny Arnold, who was also a performer at the time.


title: Jack Soo

text: Soo finally earned his big break in 1958 when he was cast in the Broadway musical hit "Flower Drum Song" in the role of the show master of ceremonies and comedian Frankie Wing ("Gliding through my memoree"). He was working in San Francisco at the Forbidden City, a Chinese nightclub and cabaret, where he was discovered by the dancer-director of "Flower Drum Song", Gene Kelly. He was offered the chance to go to Broadway on the condition that he change his name to something Chinese, as "Flower Drum Song" is set in San Francisco's Chinatown. At that time, he adopted the surname that he had used to leave the internment camp at Topaz, "Soo". Soo switched to the Sammy Fong role (Chinatown's "Nathan Detroit") during the run and played the role when the film version (1961) of the musical was made.


title: Jack Soo

text: Soo was first broadcast across America by Jack Benny on November 27, 1962, as the tough-talking, street-wise talent agent in "Jack Meets Japanese Agent". In 1964, Soo played a weekly supporting role as Rocky Sin, a poker-playing con artist in "Valentine's Day", a comedy television series starring Anthony Franciosa that lasted for one season. During the next decade, he appeared in films such "The Green Berets" as a colonel of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam and the 1967 musical "Thoroughly Modern Millie", as well as making guest appearances on TV shows such as "Hawaii Five-O", "The Odd Couple", and two episodes of "M*A*S*H".


title: Jack Soo

text: Soo joined Motown Records in 1965 as one of their first non-African-American artists. During his time there, he recorded a slow ballad version of "For Once in My Life" as the first male singer to do so. The record was never released and was shelved in the Motown archives. The song was soon after made famous by Stevie Wonder. Soo was cast in his most memorable role in 1975 on the ABC sitcom "Barney Miller" as the laid-back, but very wry, Detective Nick Yemana, who was responsible for making the dreadful coffee that, in one of the series' running jokes, his fellow detectives had to drink every day. Occasionally, his character played against stereotypes of Asian Americans by emphasizing Yemana's solidly American background. Soo also refused to perform in roles that were demeaning to Asian Americans. He often spoke out against negative ethnic portrayals, and was adamant about being a person who was seen as an American.


title: Jack Soo

text: Soo, a smoker, was diagnosed with esophageal cancer during "Barney Miller"s fourth season (1977–1978), missing the last five episodes. He returned for the opening of season five, but the cancer spread quickly, and Soo died on January 11, 1979, at age 61, at the University of California at Los Angeles Medical Center (now the Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center). His last appearance on the show was in the episode entitled "The Vandal", which aired on November 9, 1978.


title: Jack Soo

text: A running joke on the show was that Yemana made bad coffee. "It must have been my coffee," Soo joked when he was being wheeled into surgery. A retrospective episode showing clips of Soo aired at the end of the season, which concluded with the cast members raising their coffee cups in a final farewell toast to him.


title: Growth medium

text: A growth medium or culture medium is a solid, liquid, or semi-solid designed to support the growth of a population of microorganisms or cells via the process of cell proliferation or small plants like the moss "Physcomitrella patens". Different types of media are used for growing different types of cells.


title: Growth medium

text: The two major types of growth media are those used for cell culture, which use specific cell types derived from plants or animals, and those used for microbiological culture, which are used for growing microorganisms such as bacteria or fungi. The most common growth media for microorganisms are nutrient broths and agar plates; specialized media are sometimes required for microorganism and cell culture growth. Some organisms, termed fastidious organisms, require specialized environments due to complex nutritional requirements. Viruses, for example, are obligate intracellular parasites and require a growth medium containing living cells.


title: Growth medium

text: The most common growth media for microorganisms are nutrient broths (liquid nutrient medium) or lysogeny broth medium. Liquid media are often mixed with agar and poured via a sterile media dispenser into Petri dishes to solidify. These agar plates provide a solid medium on which microbes may be cultured. They remain solid, as very few bacteria are able to decompose agar (the exception being some species in the genera: "Cytophaga", "Flavobacterium", "Bacillus", "Pseudomonas", and "Alcaligenes"). Bacteria grown in liquid cultures often form colloidal suspensions.


title: Growth medium

text: The difference between growth media used for cell culture and those used for microbiological culture is that cells derived from whole organisms and grown in culture often cannot grow without the addition of, for instance, hormones or growth factors which usually occur "in vivo". In the case of animal cells, this difficulty is often addressed by the addition of blood serum or a synthetic serum replacement to the medium. In the case of microorganisms, no such limitations exist, as they are often unicellular organisms. One other major difference is that animal cells in culture are often grown on a flat surface to which they attach, and the medium is provided in a liquid form, which covers the cells. In contrast, bacteria such as "Escherichia coli" may be grown on solid or in liquid media.


title: Growth medium

text: An important distinction between growth media types is that of defined versus undefined media. A defined medium will have known quantities of all ingredients. For microorganisms, they consist of providing trace elements and vitamins required by the microbe and especially defined carbon and nitrogen sources. Glucose or glycerol are often used as carbon sources, and ammonium salts or nitrates as inorganic nitrogen sources. An undefined medium has some complex ingredients, such as yeast extract or casein hydrolysate, which consist of a mixture of many chemical species in unknown proportions. Undefined media are sometimes chosen based on price and sometimes by necessity – some microorganisms have never been cultured on defined media.


title: Growth medium

text: A good example of a growth medium is the wort used to make beer. The wort contains all the nutrients required for yeast growth, and under anaerobic conditions, alcohol is produced. When the fermentation process is complete, the combination of medium and dormant microbes, now beer, is ready for consumption.


title: Growth medium

text: Culture media contain all the elements that most bacteria need for growth and are not selective, so they are used for the general cultivation and maintenance of bacteria kept in laboratory culture collections.


title: Growth medium

text: This is an undefined medium because the amino-acid source contains a variety of compounds; the exact composition is unknown.


title: Growth medium

text: A defined medium that has just enough ingredients to support growth is called a "minimal medium". The number of ingredients that must be added to a minimal medium varies enormously depending on which microorganism is being grown. Minimal media are those that contain the minimum nutrients possible for colony growth, generally without the presence of amino acids, and are often used by microbiologists and geneticists to grow "wild-type" microorganisms. Minimal media can also be used to select for or against recombinants or exconjugants.


title: Growth medium

text: Supplementary minimal media are minimal media that also contains a single selected agent, usually an amino acid or a sugar. This supplementation allows for the culturing of specific lines of auxotrophic recombinants.


title: Growth medium

text: Selective media are used for the growth of only selected microorganisms. For example, if a microorganism is resistant to a certain antibiotic, such as ampicillin or tetracycline, then that antibiotic can be added to the medium to prevent other cells, which do not possess the resistance, from growing. Media lacking an amino acid such as proline in conjunction with "E. coli" unable to synthesize it were commonly used by geneticists before the emergence of genomics to map bacterial chromosomes.


title: Growth medium

text: Selective growth media are also used in cell culture to ensure the survival or proliferation of cells with certain properties, such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to synthesize a certain metabolite. Normally, the presence of a specific gene or an allele of a gene confers upon the cell the ability to grow in the selective medium. In such cases, the gene is termed a marker.


title: Growth medium

text: Selective growth media for eukaryotic cells commonly contain neomycin to select cells that have been successfully transfected with a plasmid carrying the neomycin resistance gene as a marker. Gancyclovir is an exception to the rule, as it is used to specifically kill cells that carry its respective marker, the Herpes simplex virus thymidine kinase.


title: Growth medium

text: Differential or indicator media distinguish one microorganism type from another growing on the same medium. This type of media uses the biochemical characteristics of a microorganism growing in the presence of specific nutrients or indicators (such as neutral red, phenol red, eosin y, or methylene blue) added to the medium to visibly indicate the defining characteristics of a microorganism. These media are used for the detection of microorganisms and by molecular biologists to detect recombinant strains of bacteria.


title: Growth medium

text: Enriched media contain the nutrients required to support the growth of a wide variety of organisms, including some of the more fastidious ones. They are commonly used to harvest as many different types of microbes as are present in the specimen. Blood agar is an enriched medium in which nutritionally rich whole blood supplements the basic nutrients. Chocolate agar is enriched with heat-treated blood (), which turns brown and gives the medium the color for which it is named.


title: Growth medium

text: The choice of culture medium might affect the physiological relevance of findings from tissue culture experiments, especially for metabolic studies. In addition, the dependence of a cell line on a metabolic gene was shown to be affected by the media type. When performing a study involving several cell lines, utilizing a uniform culture media for all cell lines might reduce the bias in the generated datasets. Using a growth medium that better represents the physiological levels of nutrients can improve the physiological relevance of in vitro studies and recently such media types, as Plasmax and human plasma-like medium (HPLM), were developed.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Ajatasattu (Pāli ) or Ajatashatru (Sanskrit ) in Buddhist tradition, or Kunika () and Kuniya () in the Jain histories, (c. 492 to 460 BCE or early 5th century BCE) was one of the most important kings of the Haryanka dynasty of Magadha in East India. He was the son of King Bimbisara and was a contemporary of both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha. He forcefully took over the kingdom of Magadha from his father and imprisoned him. He fought a war against the Vajjika League, led by the Licchavis, and conquered the republic of Vaishali. The city of Pataliputra was formed by fortification of a village by Ajatashatru.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Ajatashatru followed policies of conquest and expansion. He defeated his neighbours including the king of Kosala; his brothers, at odds with him, went to Kashi, which had been given to Bimbisara as dowry and led to a war between Magadha and Kosala.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Ajatashatru occupied Kashi and captured the smaller kingdoms. Magadha under Ajatashatru became the most powerful kingdom in North India.


title: Ajatashatru

text: He is the presumed inventor of two weapons used in war: the "rathamusala" (scythed chariot) and the "mahashilakantaka" (engine to eject big stones).


title: Ajatashatru

text: Based on correlation with dates in the "Mahavamsa" and concluding that the Buddha died in 483 BC, A. L. Basham dated the accession of Ajatashatru to 491 BC. He estimates the first campaign of Ajatashatru to have taken place in 485 BC, and his second campaign against the Vajjis in 481–480 BC. The "Samannaphala Sutta" states that Ajatashatru visited the six teachers to hear their doctrines and at last visited the Buddha, an event Basham estimated to have taken place in 491 BC.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Ajatashatru, also known as "Kunika", was the son of Bimbisara. The ancient inscription in Government Museum, Mathura refers to him as "vaidehi putra Ajatashatru Kunika" "Ajatashatru Kunika, the son of Vaidehi." The story of Ajatashatru is found in the "Tripiṭaka" of Buddhism and Jain Agamas. The account of Ajatashatru's birth is more or less similar in both the traditions. According to Jainism, Ajatashatru was born to King Bimbisara and Queen Chellana; Buddhist tradition records Ajatashatru being born to Bimbisara and Kosala Devi. It is worthwhile to note that both the queens were called "Vaidehi" in both traditions.


title: Ajatashatru

text: According to the Jain "Nirayavalika Sutra", during her pregnancy, Queen Chellana had a strong desire to eat the fried flesh of her husband's heart and drink liquor. Meanwhile, the very intelligent Prince Abhayakumara, son of King Bimbisara and Queen Nanda, fried a wild fruit that resembled a heart and gave it to the queen. The queen ate it and later felt ashamed for having such a demonic desire and she feared that the child might grow up and prove fatal for the family, thus after a few months of the child being born, the queen had him thrown out of the palace. When the child was lying near the garbage dump, a cock bit his little finger. King Bimbisara, learning about the child being thrown out, ran outside and picked up the child and put its bleeding little finger in his mouth and sucked it until it stopped bleeding and continued this for days until it was healed. As the little finger of the child was sore, he was nicknamed "Kunika" "Sore Finger". Later he was named "Asokacanda".


title: Ajatashatru

text: In the Buddhist "Atthakatha", the above story is almost the same, except that Kosaladevi desired to drink blood from Bimbisara's arm; the king obliged her and, later, when the child was thrown near the garbage dump, due to an infection he got a boil on his little finger and the king sucked it and once while sucking it the boil burst inside the king's mouth, but due to affection for his child he did not spit the pus out, rather swallowed it.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Once Queen Padmavati, wife of Ajatashatru, was sitting in her balcony in the evening. She saw Halla and Vihalla kumaras with their wives sitting on "Sechanaka" elephant and one of the wives wearing the 18 fold divine necklace. Then she heard one of the maidservants making from the garden below "It's Halla and Vihalla kumaras and not the king who enjoy the real pleasures of the kingdom" and she thought "what's the use of the kingdom if I do not have both the jewels in my possession?"


title: Ajatashatru

text: So, she shared this thought with Ajatashatru the same night and became excessively insistent in her demand. Ajatashatru, at last, agreed and sent a request to both his brothers to give the elephant and the necklace to him, which both his brothers denied saying that these gifts were given by their dear father so why should they part from them? Ajatashatru sent the request thrice but got the same reply all three times. This greatly annoyed him, so he sent his men to arrest them. Meanwhile, Halla and the Vihalla kumaras availed a chance and escaped to their maternal grandfather "Chetaka" who was the king of the great kingdom of the Vaishali republic (Vajjis/Licchavis). Ajatashatru sent notice thrice to Chetaka to surrender them but was denied by Chetaka.


title: Ajatashatru

text: This was enough for Ajatashatru. He called his half brothers, Kalakumaras "(10 kalakumaras, those born to King Bimbisara and 10 Kali Queens Kali, Sukali, Mahakali, etc.)" to merge their army with his, since it was well known to Ajatashatru that Vaishali republic had always been invincible in the past and he alone would not be able to defeat it. Each Kalakumara brought 3000 horses, 3000 elephants, 3000 chariots and 30000 infantrymen each. On the other hand, Chetaka invited his own allies "9 Mallas, 9 Lichhvis and 18 kings of Kasi-Kosala" to fight his grandson Ajatashatru. All these kings came with 3000 horses, 3000 elephants, 3000 chariots and 30000 infantrymen each. Thus all together there were 57000 elephants, 57000 chariots, 57000 horses, and 570000 infantrymen.


title: Ajatashatru

text: The war began. King Chetaka was a devout follower of Mahavira and had a vow to not shoot more than one arrow per day in a war. It was known to all that Chetaka's aim was perfect and his arrows were infallible. His first arrow killed one Kalakumara, commander of Ajatashatru. On the consecutive nine days the rest of the nine Kalakumaras were killed by Chetaka. Deeply sorrowed by the death of their sons, the Kali queens were initiated as nuns in the holy order of Mahavira.


title: Ajatashatru

text: As Ajatashatru was moving towards defeat he practised penance for three days and offered prayers to Sakrendra and Charmendra (Indra of different heavens) who then helped him in the war. They protected him from the infallible arrow of Chetaka. The war became very severe and by the divine influence of the Indras even the pebbles, straws, leaves hurled by Ajatashatru's men were said to have fell like rocks on the army of Chetaka. This weapon was thus named "Mahasilakantaka", i.e. the weapon through which more than a lakh (1,00,000) people died.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Next, the Indras granted a huge, automatically moving chariot with swinging spiked maces on each side, and said to have been driven by Charmendra himself, to Ajatashatru. The chariot moved about in the battlefield crushing lakhs of soldiers. This war-chariot was named "Ratha-Musala".


title: Ajatashatru

text: In this battle, Chetaka was defeated. But, Chetaka and others immediately took shelter inside the city walls of Vaishali and closed the main gate. The walls around Vaishali were so strong that Ajatashatru was unable to break through them. Many days passed, Ajatashatru became furious and again prayed to Indra, but this time Indra refused to help him. But Ajatashatru was informed by an oracle of a demi-goddess "Vaishali can be conquered if "Sramana (monk) Kulvalaka" gets married to a courtesan."


title: Ajatashatru

text: Ajatashatru inquired about the monk Kulvalaka and sent for the prostitute "Magadhika" disguised as a devout follower. The fallen woman attracted the monk towards herself and finally, the monk gave up his monkhood and married her. Later Magadhika on Ajatashatru's orders brainwashed Kulvalaka to enter Vaishali disguised as an astrologer. With great difficulty, he did enter Vaishali and learned that the city was saved by a "Chaitya" (altar) dedicated to "Munisuvrata". Kulvalaka then started telling people that this altar is the reason why the city is suffering through a bad period. The people uprooted the altar from its very foundation. Kulvalaka gave a signal and Ajatashatru proceeded as per prior arrangement. This was the last attack. Vaishali was conquered by Ajatashatru.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Sechanaka the elephant died after it fell in a pit with iron rods and fire made by Ajatashatru's soldiers. Later "Halla and Vihalla kumaras" got initiated as monks in the holy order of Mahavira. Chetaka courted "Sallekahna" (fasted unto death). Ajatashatru not only conquered Vaishali but also Kasi-Kosala.


title: Ajatashatru

text: There was a diamond mine near a village on the river Ganges. There was an agreement between Ajatashatru and the Licchavi of Vajji that they would have an equal share of the diamonds. However, because of sheer lethargy, Ajatashatru failed to collect his own share, and most of diamonds were carried away by the Lichhavis. Over time, finally, Ajatashatru became annoyed and decided to do something about it. Since he thought that it might be almost impossible to fight against the whole confederacy of Vaishali, he decided instead to uproot the powerful Vajjis and exterminate them. He sent his chief minister Vassakara to the Buddha to ask him why the Vaishali should be so invincible; to which Buddha gave seven reasons, including: That the Vajjis are always punctual to meetings, their disciplined behavior, their respect for elders, respect for women, that they do not marry their daughters forcefully, that they give spiritual protection to the Arhats, and finally, the main reason was the Chaityas (altar), which was inside the town.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Thus, with the help of his chief minister Vassakara, Ajatashatru managed to split the Vajjis and also broke the chaityas inside. During this battle, Ajatashatru used a scythed chariot, featuring a swinging mace and blades on both sides and attacked the town with it and conquered it.


title: Ajatashatru

text: According to the "Nirayāvaliyā Suttā" Ajatashatru was born to King Bimbisara and Queen kosala Devi, who was the daughter of "Chetaka" the king of Vaishali, who was the brother of "Queen Triśalá", mother of Mahavira. Ajatashatru had eight wives.


title: Ajatashatru

text: According to "Dīgha nikāya," Ajatashatru was born to King Bimbisara and Queen Kosala Devi, who was the daughter of "Maha-Kosala", the king of Kosala and sister of "Pasenadi" who later succeeded to the throne. Ajatashatru had 500 wives but the principal consort was Princess Vajira. The City of Kasi was given to Bimbisara as dowry by Maha-Kosala. After the murder of Bimbisara, Prasenajit took the city back. This resulted in a war between Ajatashatru and Prasenajit. The war ended in a peace treaty in which Prasenajit married his daughter Vajira to him. Ajatashatru later had a son named "Udayabhadda or Udayabhadra".


title: Ajatashatru

text: The account of Ajatashatru's death recorded by historians is . The account of his death differs widely between Jain and Buddhist traditions. Other accounts point towards as the year of his death.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Mahavira replied that "A Chakravartin, if dying while in the office goes to the seventh hell called "Mahā-Tamahprabhā", and if dying as a monk attains Nirvana."


title: Ajatashatru

text: This made Ajatashatru anxious to become a world-monarch. He created 12 artificial jewels and set out for the conquest of the six regions of the world. But when he reached the "Timisra Caves" he was stopped by a guardian Deva called "Krutamāl" who said, "Only a Chakravartin can pass through this cave, there can be not more than 12 Chakravartin in the half cycle of a "Kalchakra", and already there have been 12." On this, Ajatashatru said arrogantly, "Then count me as the thirteenth and let me go or else my mace is strong enough to reach you to Yama." The Deva became enraged at Ajatashatru's arrogance and by his power, he reduced him to ashes right on the spot. Ajatashatru was then reborn in the sixth hell called "Tamahprabhā".


title: Ajatashatru

text: Ajatashatru was brutally murdered by his own son, Udayabhadra, who was greedy of his kingdom. Ajatashatru was reborn in the hell called "Lohakumbhiya", and would suffer there for sixty thousand years.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Although the account of Ajatashatru's death differs in these traditions, both believe that after passing through many rebirths, Ajatashatru will be born as a wise prince, and later become a monk and attain Nirvana.


title: Ajatashatru

text: The "Uvavai/Aupapātika sutta," which is the first "Upānga" (see Jain Agamas) of the Jains throws light on the relation between Mahavira and Ajatashatru. It accounts that Ajatashatru held Mahavira in the highest esteem. The same text also states that Ajatashatru had an officer to report to him about the daily routine of Mahavira. He was paid lavishly. The officer had a vast network and supporting field staff through whom he collected all the information about Mahavira and reported to the king. The "Uvavai Sutta" has detailed and illuminating discussion on Mahavira's arrival at the city of Champa, the honor was shown to him by Ajatashatru, the sermon given by Mahavira in Ardhamagadhi language, etc.


title: Ajatashatru

text: According to Buddhist tradition, the "Samaññaphala Sutta" deals with his first meeting with the Buddha, where he realized his mistakes with his association to Devadatta and plan to killing his own father. According to the same text, during this meeting, Ajatashatru took protection of the Buddha, the Dhamma and the Sangha. He was mentioned more than once in several other Sutta as an example of strong devotee to the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha. He erected a vast "Stupa" on the bones and ashes of the Buddha after the funeral, and Ajatashatru also was present in the first Buddhist council at the Sattapanni (Saptparni) caves Rajgriha.


title: Ajatashatru

text: In Mahayana Buddhism, Ajatashatru plays a significant soteriological role. He appears in the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra as a being completely overtaken by evil and suffering, and as such the prototype of an ordinary, sinful person who can only be saved by the Buddha's compassion; the Buddha even declares in this sutra that he will "remain in the world for the sake of Ajatashatru". This episode, along with the broader theme of the Age of Dharma Decline, informed several Mahayana schools' emphasis on faith rather than accumulating merit.


title: Ajatashatru

text: Whether Ajatashatru was a Jain or Buddhist, both texts accounted for him as a devotee of the respective religions.


title: Pepa (rapper)

text: Sandra Jacqueline Denton (born 9 November 1964 or 1969), better known by her stage name Pepa or Pep, is a Jamaican-American rapper, best known for her work as a member of the female rap trio Salt-N-Pepa. Denton starred in "The Salt-N-Pepa Show", a reality TV series focusing on reforming the group which aired on the VH1 network in 2008. Since January 2016, Denton has appeared as a supporting cast member on the music reality television show "Growing Up Hip Hop" which airs on We TV.


title: Pepa (rapper)

text: Sandra Jacqueline Denton was born in Kingston, Jamaica to Charles and Enid Denton (née Hyacinth), the youngest of eight children. Denton lived on a farm in Jamaica with her grandmother until she was six years old. Denton's family moved to Queens, New York, when she was three; and she later joined them. Denton has been a performer since childhood. Denton was molested as a child. Denton released a book about her life in 2008 entitled "Let's Talk About Pep" in which she talked about being molested, her many abusive relationships, and how Salt-N-Pepa formed.


title: Pepa (rapper)

text: In 1979, 15-year-old Denton was sent to live with her elder sister Patsy in Logan, Utah, when her family home in Queens caught fire and so she could have a better life. According to Denton, she was the only Black student attending Logan High School during that time. Denton became inspired by rock music; citing AC/DC and Led Zeppelin as her inspirations during her time in Utah. After a year in Utah, Denton returned to New York, later graduating from Springfield Gardens High School. After high school, Denton enrolled at Queensborough Community College to study nursing. While attending college, Denton met fellow nursing student Cheryl James.


title: Pepa (rapper)

text: With the production by Hurby "Luv Bug" Azor whom she and James met while working as customer service representatives at Sears, James and Denton released a single called "The Showstopper" which became a moderate R&B hit in late 1985. They were joined with Latoya Hanson who was the original DJ of the group. Shortly after in 1986, Deidra "Spinderella" Roper joined as the group's DJ as a full-length debut album, "Hot, Cool & Vicious", was being released. The trio released a total of five studio albums: "Hot, Cool, and Vicious" (1986), "A Salt with a Deadly Pepa" (1988), "Blacks' Magic" (1990), "Very Necessary" (1993), and "Brand New" (1997), plus several greatest hits albums. Salt-N-Pepa disbanded in 2002, several months after their "Brand New" album was released on Red Ant Records. Denton's co-group member Cheryl James had stated she was ready to leave the music industry. The trio reunited for a performance on VH1's "Hip Hop Honors" program on 22 September 2005. In 2005, Denton was a cast member of VH1's "The Surreal Life" (season 5).


title: Pepa (rapper)

text: Denton's acting credits also include the motion picture "Joe's Apartment", an appearance in the HBO movie "First Time Felon", and a stint as Officer Andrea Phelan on the HBO drama, "Oz". She starred on "". Salt-N-Pepa reformed in 2008, and are still in the process of releasing an album since reforming as they work out past issues. Denton teamed up with James for VH1's "The Salt-N-Pepa Show". She starred in her own reality show on the network entitled "Let's Talk About Pep", word-play on the group's hit song "Let's Talk About Sex". She can be heard speaking Jamaican Patois in the song "Need U Bad" by Jazmine Sullivan. In August 2008, Denton released her autobiography, which was also entitled "Let's Talk About Pep". It was co-written by Karen Hunter, and it offered a look behind the fame, family, failures, and successes of her life in one of hip-hop's most successful groups. It features an introduction by Queen Latifah, and an epilogue by Missy Elliott. To accommodate the book, Pepa launched her own social network for her fans. On 23 October 2008, Salt-N-Pepa performed at the BET Hip Hop Awards. In January 2011, Denton appeared in an episode of the TBS sitcom "Are We There Yet?" as Tammy, a woman who falls for the Terry Crews character of Nick. Denton joined the reality television show "Growing Up Hip Hop" as a supporting cast member in January 2016 along with her daughter Egypt (a main cast member) and niece Tahira Francis.


title: Pepa (rapper)

text: Denton once dated and was engaged to rapper Prince Markie Dee sometime during the mid-1980s. On 6 July 1990, Denton gave birth to her first child, a son she had with New York rapper Tyran "Tah-Tah" Moore whom she named Tyran Jr. Denton. She made a guest appearance on "Ricki Lake" in 1994, teaching teenage girls the responsibilities of being a mother. Denton was the owner of HollyHood, a retail clothing store in the Buckhead section of Atlanta, Georgia, which opened in November 1995. On 2 April 1999, Denton married Treach (whose real name is Anthony Criss) of the rap group Naughty by Nature at a Kansas City tattoo parlor after dating on and off for seven years. Their wedding ceremony was held at their home in Morristown, New Jersey, on 24 July 1999. Denton and Treach had one daughter, Egypt Jahnari Criss (born 2 September 1998). After allegations of physical abuse inflicted by Treach, they divorced in 2001.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: Several species of humans have intermittently occupied Great Britain for almost a million years. The earliest evidence of human occupation around 900,000 years ago is at Happisburgh on the Norfolk coast, with stone tools and footprints probably made by "Homo antecessor". The oldest human fossils, around 500,000 years old, are of "Homo heidelbergensis" at Boxgrove in Sussex. Until this time Britain had been permanently connected to the Continent by a chalk ridge between South East England and northern France called the Weald-Artois Anticline, but during the Anglian Glaciation around 425,000 years ago a megaflood broke through the ridge, and Britain became an island when sea levels rose during the following Hoxnian interglacial.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: Fossils of very early Neanderthals dating to around 400,000 years ago have been found at Swanscombe in Kent, and of classic Neanderthals about 225,000 years old at Pontnewydd in Wales. Britain was unoccupied by humans between 180,000 and 60,000 years ago, when Neanderthals returned. By 40,000 years ago they had become extinct and modern humans had reached Britain. But even their occupations were brief and intermittent due to a climate which swung between low temperatures with a tundra habitat and severe ice ages which made Britain uninhabitable for long periods. The last of these, the Younger Dryas, ended around 11,700 years ago, and since then Britain has been continuously occupied.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: Traditionally it was claimed by academics that a post-glacial land bridge existed between Britain and Ireland, however this conjecture began to be refuted by a consensus within the academic community starting in 1983, and since 2006 the idea of a land bridge has been disproven based upon conclusive marine geological evidence. It is now concluded that an ice bridge existed between Britain and Ireland up until 16,000 years ago, but this had melted by around 14,000 years ago. Britain was at this time still joined to the Continent by a land bridge known as Doggerland, but due to rising sea levels this causeway of dry land would have become a series of estuaries, inlets and islands by 7000 BC, and by 6200 BC, it would have become completely submerged.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: Located at the fringes of Europe, Britain received European technological and cultural developments much later than Southern Europe and the Mediterranean region did during prehistory. By around 4000 BC, the island was populated by people with a Neolithic culture. This neolithic population had significant ancestry from the earliest farming communities in Anatolia, indicating that a major migration accompanied farming. The beginning of the Bronze Age and the Bell Beaker culture was marked by an even greater population turnover, this time displacing more than 90% of Britain's neolithic ancestry in the process. This is documented by recent ancient DNA studies which demonstrate that the immigrants had large amounts of Bronze-Age Eurasian Steppe ancestry, associated with the spread of Indo-European languages and the Yamnaya culture.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: No written language of the pre-Roman inhabitants of Britain is known; therefore, the history, culture and way of life of pre-Roman Britain are known mainly through archaeological finds. Archaeological evidence demonstrates that ancient Britons were involved in extensive maritime trade and cultural links with the rest of Europe from the Neolithic onwards, especially by exporting tin that was in abundant supply. Although the main evidence for the period is archaeological, available genetic evidence is increasing, and views of British prehistory are evolving accordingly. Julius Caesar's first invasion of Britain in 55 BC is regarded as the start of recorded protohistory although some historical information is available from before then.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age) Britain is the period of the earliest known occupation of Britain by humans. This huge period saw many changes in the environment, encompassing several glacial and interglacial episodes greatly affecting human settlement in the region. Providing dating for this distant period is difficult and contentious. The inhabitants of the region at this time were bands of hunter-gatherers who roamed Northern Europe following herds of animals, or who supported themselves by fishing.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: There is evidence from bones and flint tools found in coastal deposits near Happisburgh in Norfolk and Pakefield in Suffolk that a species of "Homo" was present in what is now Britain at least 814,000 years ago. At this time, Southern and Eastern Britain were linked to continental Europe by a wide land bridge (Doggerland) allowing humans to move freely. The species itself lived before the ancestors of Neanderthals split from the ancestors of "Homo sapiens" 600,000 years ago. The current position of the English Channel was a large river flowing westwards and fed by tributaries that later became the Thames and Seine. Reconstructing this ancient environment has provided clues to the route first visitors took to arrive at what was then a peninsula of the Eurasian continent. Archaeologists have found a string of early sites located close to the route of a now lost watercourse named the Bytham River which indicate that it was exploited as the earliest route west into Britain.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: Sites such as Boxgrove in Sussex illustrate the later arrival in the archaeological record of an archaic "Homo" species called "Homo heidelbergensis" around 500,000 years ago. These early peoples made Acheulean flint tools (hand axes) and hunted the large native mammals of the period. One hypothesis is that they drove elephants, rhinoceroses and hippopotamuses over the tops of cliffs or into bogs to more easily kill them.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: The extreme cold of the following Anglian Stage is likely to have driven humans out of Britain altogether and the region does not appear to have been occupied again until the ice receded during the Hoxnian Stage. This warmer time period lasted from around 424,000 until 374,000 years ago and saw the Clactonian flint tool industry develop at sites such as Swanscombe in Kent. The period has produced a rich and widespread distribution of sites by Palaeolithic standards, although uncertainty over the relationship between the Clactonian and Acheulean industries is still unresolved.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: Britain was populated only intermittently, and even during periods of occupation may have reproduced below replacement level and needed immigration from elsewhere to maintain numbers. According to Paul Pettitt and Mark White:


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: This period also saw Levallois flint tools introduced, possibly by humans arriving from Africa. However, finds from Swanscombe and Botany Pit in Purfleet support Levallois technology being a European rather than African introduction. The more advanced flint technology permitted more efficient hunting and therefore made Britain a more worthwhile place to remain until the following period of cooling known as the Wolstonian Stage, 352,000–130,000 years ago. Britain first became an island about 350,000 years ago. Early Neanderthal remains discovered at the Pontnewydd Cave in Wales have been dated to 230,000 BP, and are the most north westerly Neanderthal remains found anywhere in the world.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: From c.180,000 to c.60,000 years ago there is no evidence of human occupation in Britain, probably due to inhospitable cold in some periods, Britain being cut off as an island in others, and the neighbouring areas of north-west Europe being unoccupied by hominins at times when Britain was both accessible and hospitable.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: This period is often divided into three subperiods: the Early Upper Palaeolithic (before the main glacial period), the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic (the main glacial period) and the Late Upper Palaeolithic (after the main glacial period). There was limited Neanderthal occupation of Britain in marine isotope stage 3 between about 60,000 and 42,000 years BP. Britain had its own unique variety of late Neanderthal handaxe, the bout-coupé, so seasonal migration between Britain and the continent is unlikely, but the main occupation may have been in the now submerged area of Doggerland, with summer migrations to Britain in warmer periods. La Cotte de St Brelade in Jersey is the only site in the British Isles to have produced late Neanderthal fossils.


title: Prehistoric Britain

text: The earliest evidence for modern humans in North West Europe is a jawbone discovered in England at Kents Cavern in 1927, which was re-dated in 2011 to between 41,000 and 44,000 years old. The most famous example from this period is the burial of the "Red Lady of Paviland" (actually now known to be a man) in modern-day coastal South Wales, which was dated in 2009 to be 33,000 years old. The distribution of finds shows that humans in this period preferred the uplands of Wales and northern and western England to the flatter areas of eastern England. Their stone tools are similar to those of the same age found in Belgium and far north-east France, and very different from those in north-west France. At a time when Britain was not an island, hunter gatherers may have followed migrating herds of reindeer from Belgium and north-east France across the giant Channel River.