Quiet NaNs, or qNaNs, do not raise any additional exceptions as they propagate through most operations. The exceptions are where the NaN cannot simply be passed through unchanged to the output, such as in format conversions or certain comparison operations.


Signaling NaNs, or sNaNs, are special forms of a NaN that, when consumed by most operations, should raise the invalid operation exception and then, if appropriate, be "quieted" into a qNaN that may then propagate. They were introduced in IEEE 754. There have been several ideas for how these might be used:


When encountered, a trap handler could decode the sNaN and return an index to the computed result. In practice, this approach is faced with many complications. The treatment of the sign bit of NaNs for some simple operations (such as absolute value) is different from that for arithmetic operations. Traps are not required by the standard. There are other approaches to this sort of problem that would be more portable.


IEEE 754-2019 recommends the operations "getPayload", "setPayload", and "setPayloadSignaling" be implemented, standardizing the access to payloads to streamline application use. According to the IEEE 754-2019 background document, this recommendation should be interpreted as "required for new implementations, with reservation for backward compatibility".


In IEEE 754 standard-conforming floating-point storage formats, NaNs are identified by specific, pre-defined bit patterns unique to NaNs. The sign bit does not matter. Binary format NaNs are represented with the exponential field filled with ones (like infinity values), and some non-zero number in the significand field (to make them distinct from infinity values). The original IEEE 754 standard from 1985 (IEEE 754-1985) only described binary floating-point formats, and did not specify how the signaling/quiet state was to be tagged. In practice, the most significant bit of the significand field determined whether a NaN is signaling or quiet. Two different implementations, with reversed meanings, resulted:


The former choice has been preferred as it allows the implementation to quiet a signaling NaN by just setting the signaling/quiet bit to 1. The reverse is not possible with the latter choice because setting the signaling/quiet bit to 0 could yield an infinity.


The 2008 and 2019 revisions of the IEEE 754 standard make formal requirements and recommendations for the encoding of the signaling/quiet state.


For IEEE 754-2008 conformance, the meaning of the signaling/quiet bit in recent MIPS processors is now configurable via the NAN2008 field of the FCSR register. This support is optional in MIPS Release 3 and required in Release 5.


The state/value of the remaining bits of the significand field are not defined by the standard. This value is called the 'payload' of the NaN. If an operation has a single NaN input and propagates it to the output, the result NaN's payload should be that of the input NaN (this is not always possible for binary formats when the signaling/quiet state is encoded by an flag, as explained above). If there are multiple NaN inputs, the result NaN's payload should be from one of the input NaNs; the standard does not specify which.


There are differences of opinion about the proper definition for the result of a numeric function that receives a quiet NaN as input. One view is that the NaN should propagate to the output of the function in all cases to propagate the indication of an error. Another view, and the one taken by the ISO C99 and IEEE 754-2008 standards in general, is that if the function has multiple arguments and the output is uniquely determined by all the non-NaN inputs (including infinity), then that value should be the result. Thus for example the value returned by and is +∞.


The problem is particularly acute for the exponentiation function The expressions 0, ∞ and 1 are considered indeterminate forms when they occur as limits (just like ∞ × 0), and the question of whether zero to the zero power should be defined as 1 has divided opinion.


If the output is considered as undefined when a parameter is undefined, then should produce a qNaN. However, math libraries have typically returned 1 for for any real number "y", and even when "y" is an infinity. Similarly, they produce 1 for even when "x" is 0 or an infinity. The 2008 version of the IEEE 754 standard says that and should both return 1 since they return 1 whatever else is used instead of quiet NaN. Moreover, ISO C99, and later IEEE 754-2008, chose to specify instead of qNaN; the reason of this choice is given in the C rationale: "Generally, C99 eschews a NaN result where a numerical value is useful. ... The result of is +∞, because all large positive floating-point values are even integers."


To satisfy those wishing a more strict interpretation of how the power function should act, the 2008 standard defines two additional power functions: where the exponent must be an integer, and which returns a NaN whenever a parameter is a NaN or the exponentiation would give an indeterminate form.


Most fixed-size integer formats cannot explicitly indicate invalid data. In such a case, when converting NaN to an integer type, the IEEE 754 standard requires that an invalid operation be signaled. For example in Java, such operations throw instances of . In C, they lead to undefined behavior, but if annex F is supported, the operation yields an "invalid" floating-point exception (as required by the IEEE standard) and an unspecified value.


Different operating systems and programming languages may have different string representations of NaN.


Since, in practice, encoded NaNs have a sign, a quiet/signaling bit and optional 'diagnostic information' (sometimes called a "payload"), these will occasionally be found in string representations of NaNs, too. Some examples are:


Not all languages admit the existence of multiple NaNs. For example, ECMAScript only uses one NaN value throughout.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The Lost Battalion is the name given to the nine companies of the US 77th Division, roughly 554 men, isolated by German forces during World War I after an American attack in the Argonne Forest in October 1918. Roughly 197 were killed in action and approximately 150 missing or taken prisoner before the 194 remaining men were rescued. They were led by Major Charles W. Whittlesey. On 2 October, the 77th launched an attack into the Argonne, under the belief that French forces were supporting their left flank and two American units including the 92nd Infantry Division were supporting their right. Within the 77th sector some units including Whittlesey's 1-308th Infantry were making significant headway. Unknown to Whittlesey's unit, the units to their left and right had been stalled. Without this knowledge, the units that would become known as the Lost Battalion moved beyond the rest of the Allied line and found themselves surrounded by German forces. For the next six days, suffering heavy losses, the men of the Lost Battalion and the American units desperate to relieve them would fight an intense battle in the Argonne Forest.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The battalion suffered many hardships. Food was scarce and water was available only by crawling, under fire, to a nearby stream. Ammunition ran low. Communications were also a problem, and at times they would be bombarded by shells from their own artillery. Attempts to resupply the battalion by airdrop failed, with all the supplies going off target, either getting lost in the woods or falling into German hands. As every runner dispatched by Whittlesey either became lost or ran into German patrols, carrier pigeons became the only method of communicating with headquarters. In an infamous incident on 4 October, inaccurate coordinates were delivered by one of the pigeons and the unit was subjected to friendly fire. The unit was saved by another pigeon, Cher Ami, delivering the following message:


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: We are along the road 276.4. our artillery is dropping a barrage directly on us. For heavens sake stop it.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: Despite this, they held their ground and caused enough of a distraction for other Allied units to break through the German lines, which forced the Germans to retreat.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The men of the 77th Division, who held the Charlevaux ravine, which became known as the "pocket", were mostly from New York City. The 77th Division is known as the "liberty" division due to the Statue of Liberty patch they wore, but in WWI they were usually referred to as the "Metropolitan" division because of where most of the men hailed from. Most of the enlisted men were recent immigrants or were poor working class from the streets of New York City fighting from a young age for food. These attributes acquired on the streets are seen by some historians as one of the reasons that this group survived in the Argonne.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The 77th Division was trained at what became a prestigious camp called Camp Upton, located in Suffolk County on Long Island. Charles Whittlesey, an east coast lawyer, was assigned as a battalion commander in the 77th upon completion of his officer's training. The camp was located a half mile from the town of Yaphank, New York. "Yaphank, where the hell is Yaphank?" was a common expression heard among the new recruits of Camp Upton.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: While universally known as the "Lost Battalion", this force actually consisted of companies from 4 different battalions – A, B, C Companies of the 1st Battalion 308th Infantry Regiment (1-308th Inf); E,G, H companies of the 2nd Battalion 308th Infantry (2-308th Inf); K Company of the 3rd Battalion of the 307th Infantry Regiment (3-307th Inf); and C, D Companies of the 306th Machine Gun Battalion. All of these companies belonged to the 154th Infantry Brigade of the 77th Division and with a strength of approximately 545 men was a battalion-sized force. Major Whittlesey was the battalion commander of 1-308th Inf, the senior officer present, and he assumed command of the entire force once he realized it was surrounded.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The Argonne Forest was seized by the Germans at the early stages of the war. They had set up defensive positions throughout the forest, using a string of networked trenches. These defences started with a roughly deep front line which "served as not much more than an advanced warning system". Beyond the first line, which consisted of trenches, shell holes, and listening posts, the Allies would have to push through the dense forest to the main battle lines. The next battle line, which was about in depth, had turned back all Allied attacks over the last four years. This battle line, which consisted of wired trenches that were firmly held, was referred to by the Germans as ""Hagen Stellung"" ("Hagen position"). The next German battle line, referred to as the ""Hagen Stellung-Nord"" ("Hagen position-North"), was "basically a machine-gun-covered, pre-sighted artillery target." This was a very well entrenched location utilizing both natural and man-made barriers. Together, these two battle lines formed what was known as ""Etzel Stellungen"" ("Etzel positions").


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The "Hagen Stellung-Nord" formed the most difficult problem. Over the years, the Germans had pre-sighted every square inch of the area in case of a hostile takeover. Should attackers take the "Hagen Stellung-Nord", they came immediately into danger of annihilation by German artillery. No occupier could remain there for long.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The Germans also spread barbed wire for hundreds of miles. At various points, it was higher than a man's head and several, even many, yards deep. The Germans also placed barbed wire at the bottom of rivers and small streams to prevent any troop movement across these areas.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The Meus-Argonne Offensive began on the morning of September 26, 1918. General Evan Johnson, the commander in charge of the Argonne part of the offensive, had a "no retreat" command for his divisions:


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: On 1 October, Whittlesey was given his orders: first, he was to advance north up the Ravine d’Argonne until it ended, at the Ravin de Charlevaux. Upon reaching it they were to continue across the brook and take the Charlevaux Mill. Behind this mill was the Binarville-La Viergette road. The securing of the mill was imperative to seize control of the road and a rail line that ran parallel to the north of it. This road was crucial because it allowed for the movement of supplies to the Allied soldiers. The railway was crucial because it would cut off one of the Germans’ major supply routes. The plan was to have the first battalion lead the assault, led personally by Whittlesey. They would be supported by the second battalion, led by Captain McMurtry. Just after 5:00 pm on that evening the attack came to a halt and the men dug in for the night.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: On the morning of 2 October, the final orders came at around 05:00. The main objective was still the Binarville-La Viergette road. The attack was to start at 07:00, to give time for the fog to lift and the men to eat. Whittlesey and McMurtry ordered Companies D and F to remain along the western ridge to become a containing force. The rest of the first and second battalions would continue along a prominence known as "Hill 198" to complete a flanking maneuver on the enemy. The problem was that on the hill there was a double trench line of German soldiers. The plan was that once the two battalions took the hill they would then send back companies E and H to create a line to Companies D and F.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: By the night of 2 October, after a long day of fighting, Major Whittlesey received information that the men had found a way up the right of Hill 198. At around this same moment the French experienced a massive counterattack by the Germans and were forced to fall back, exposing the left flank of the 308th. The same occurred on the right flank with the other American Division, causing the 308th to be outflanked on both sides. However, they did not discover this until shortly after they reached the peak of Hill 198. The hill was now in their control; however, it was too quiet for Whittlesey. He realized that he could hear nothing of the 307th that was supposed to be on their flank. "Either they had broken through the line as well and reached their objective over there, or they had been licked and fallen back. The former would be good news for the 308th ... The latter, however, was unthinkable; orders forbade it..."


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: While this was happening, to the rear of the main action George W. Quinn, a runner with the battalion, was killed while attempting to reach Major Whittlesey with a message from Whittlesey's adjutant, Lieutenant Arthur McKeogh. Whittlesey earlier in the day had sent McKeogh back about with 15 men with light machine guns to silence German machine gunners who had cut communications between Whittlesey's battalion and the American rear during the night. The Germans were taking ground from which they could surround Whittlesey's men. McKeogh's undelivered message asked for a mortar to use against the strong German position. Quinn was found four months later to have killed three German soldiers who had mortally wounded him before he could reach Whittlesey.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The men dug in on Hill 198 and created what is known as "the pocket" in what was a fairly good defensive position. The two best companies were on the flanks, with support from the weaker companies. A single company took up the front of the pocket. The rear was the least protected from attack and was defended by only a few riflemen and several machine guns. The hill sloped steeply from the front of the pocket, making it difficult for Germans to bomb the battalion from that direction. The biggest flaw in their position was that their holes were dug too close together, and too many men were occupying the holes at the same time. This created easy targets for mortars and snipers. By about 22:30, Whittlesey realized that Hill 205 was still occupied by the Germans on the left, and the ravine to the right was also full of enemy soldiers.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The morning of 3 October was spent trying to re-establish contact with the flanks and with the companies that were left behind. Whittlesey sent out runners to the French and American units that were supposed to be on his flanks. None of the runners returned, neither from the flanks nor from trying to connect with the companies that Whittlesey had left behind. All were killed or captured by the enemy. The more time that passed without any messages the more Whittlesey was coming to the conclusion that they were actually surrounded. However, the Germans were not attacking; the German forces within the ravine believed that they were outnumbered by the Americans.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: That afternoon, the Germans attacked from all sides. "A single one up front might not have been so bad, but there were others on the flanks, and sniper fire ringing out as well." At this time, Captain Holderman, an officer working with Whittlesey, realized the predicament that the men were in. The German forces had nearly doubled and were closing in on them. Their communication line was cut and so they could not receive supplies of food or ammunition. Holderman tried to lead an assault out through the back of the pocket, but failed to break out, incurring heavy casualties in the process. This infuriated Whittlesey, but seeing that there was nothing he could do he simply sent the survivors back to their defensive positions. Next came a grenade assault followed by mortars raining in on them, but the Americans did not stagger. Another attack came a little after 17:00, and it lasted for about 45 minutes. After this attack was over, the Germans began to settle down for the day. The Americans had suffered many casualties, but inflicted similarly heavy losses on the attacking Germans.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: On the morning of 4 October, patrols were sent out on their morning routes, and Whittlesey was unsure that any of the carrier pigeons had actually made it through. He was unsure if command actually knew of the desperate situation that was unfolding. Whittlesey believed that his orders to hold this position still applied, because the position was the key to breaking through the German lines. There has been much controversy among different historians regarding how it occurred, but Whittlesey and his men were shelled by their own artillery. Some believe that Whittlesey had relayed the wrong coordinates, while others believe that Whittlesey had gotten the coordinates right and the artillery's aim was off; the truth was that they had advanced to the North slope of the Charlevaux Ravine while the artillery thought he was on the South slope. Whittlesey released his final carrier pigeon, named Cher Ami, to call off the barrage. "A shell exploded directly below the bird, killing five of our men and stunning the pigeon so that it fluttered to the ground midway between the spring...and the bridge we crossed to get into the Pocket."


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The pigeon managed to take flight again and despite being severely wounded, successfully delivered the message: "We are along the road parallel to 276.4. Our own artillery is dropping a barrage directly on us. For heavens sake stop it." Cher Ami had been shot through the breast, blinded in one eye, and had a leg hanging only by a tendon. The pigeon was tended to by army medics, and was considered a hero of the 77th Division for helping to save the lives of the 194 survivors.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: As soon as the Allied shelling had stopped, the Germans launched an attack. After many losses and much hand-to-hand combat, the German forces were driven back once again. Although many had been killed or captured, the unit still remained intact, but morale was low and sickness was setting in. Many men only had a few bullets left and no food. Bandages were being taken off of the dead and reused on the wounded. A package was reported to have been dropped in for the men to resupply, but all reports point to it falling into German territory. Water was accessible, but getting to it required exposing oneself to German fire.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: From 5–8 October, the Germans continued to attack. They also sent messengers asking for the 308th to surrender. Whittlesey did not respond. There were many controversies at the time as to what he had done, but records indicate that he said and did nothing. At least one surrender demand carried by an 18-year-old soldier, captured by the Germans and then released to carry the message, said "the suffering of your wounded men can be heard over here in German lines, and we are appealing to your humane sentiments to stop...please treat (the messenger) as an honorable man. He is quite a soldier. We envy you." The same memoir states that Whittlesey wrote in his official Operations Report in capital letters, "No reply to the demand to surrender seemed necessary."


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: While Whittlesey and his men tenaciously defended their position, their parent 154th Brigade and the entire 77th Division launched a ferocious series of attacks to get to them. But with each attack, these efforts grew weaker and weaker as the combat power of the 77th ebbed. In the first 4 days of these attacks, the rest of the 308th infantry alone lost 766 men.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: The news of the Lost Battalion's dilemma reached the highest levels of AEF command. While the 77th's power ground down, a powerful U.S. force under General Hunter Liggett's I Corps (United States) was being put together. The veteran 28th Infantry Division was oriented to reach Whittlesey and the fresh 82nd Infantry Division was moved to reinforce the 28th's flank. Meanwhile, Pershing ordered Liggett reinforced by the 1st Infantry Division "The Big Red One" which had received some replacements and some rest after St Mihiel.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: Observing the movement of the 1st Division, the Germans ordered a Prussian Guards Division to reinforce their forces in the sector. (p343) The Germans also sent an elite battalion of "Storm Troopers" reinforced with flamethrowers to aid the German Infantry attacking Whittlesey.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: For the next few days, the Pocket held firm and the powerful American attacks started to push the Germans back and the 77th Division was now trying to infiltrate troops into the pocket.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: Whittlesey, meanwhile, asked for a volunteer to sneak through the lines and lead back help. Private Abraham Krotoshinsky undertook this mission and skillfully left the pocket by a circuitous route to the north which ultimately led to an infiltrating company of the 307th Infantry.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: Krotoshinsky acted as a guide to lead this group to help rescue the trapped company and establish a route for further fresh troops to come into the pocket. So on 8 October, the 77th relief force had linked up with Whittlesey's men. Immediately upon their relief, Whittlesey was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: Of the over 500 soldiers who entered the Argonne Forest, only 194 walked out unscathed. The rest were killed, missing, captured, or wounded. Major Charles W. Whittlesey, Captain George G. McMurtry, and Captain Nelson M. Holderman received the Medal of Honor for their valiant actions. Whittlesey was also recognized by being a pallbearer at the ceremony interring the remains of the Unknown Soldier.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: Former Major League Baseball player, and Captain in the 77th Division, Eddie Grant, was killed in one of the subsequent missions in search of the battalion. A large plaque was placed in the center-field wall at the Polo Grounds New York in his honor.


title: Lost Battalion (World War I)

text: Brigadier General Billy Mitchell wrote after the rescue that the Germans had managed to prevent supplies being air-dropped to the battalion. He ordered:


title: Bee sting

text: A bee sting is the wound and pain caused by the stinger of a female bee puncturing skin. Bee stings differ from insect bites, with the venom of stinging insects having considerable chemical variation. The reaction of a person to a bee sting may vary according to the bee species. While bee stinger venom is slightly acidic and causes only mild pain in most people, allergic reactions may occur in people with allergies to venom components.


title: Bee sting

text: A honey bee that is away from the hive foraging for nectar or pollen will rarely sting, except when stepped on or roughly handled. Honey bees will actively seek out and sting when they perceive the hive to be threatened, often being alerted to this by the release of attack pheromones (below).


title: Bee sting

text: Although it is widely believed that a worker honey bee can sting only once, this is a partial misconception: although the stinger is in fact barbed so that it lodges in the victim's skin, tearing loose from the bee's abdomen and leading to its death in minutes, this only happens if the skin of the victim is sufficiently thick, such as a mammal's. Honey bees are the only hymenoptera with a strongly barbed sting, though yellow jackets and some other wasps have small barbs.


title: Bee sting

text: The venom of the honeybee contains histamine, mast cell degranulating peptide, melittin, phospholipase A2, hyaluronidase and acid phosphatase. The three proteins in honeybee venom which are important allergens are phospholipase A2, hyaluronidase and acid phosphatase. In addition, the polypeptide melittin is also antigenic. Bumblebee venom appears to be chemically and antigenically related to honeybee venom.


title: Bee sting

text: Bees with barbed stingers can often sting other insects without harming themselves. Queen honeybees and bees of many other species, including bumblebees and many solitary bees, have smoother stingers with smaller barbs, and can sting mammals repeatedly.


title: Bee sting

text: The sting's injection of apitoxin into the victim is accompanied by the release of alarm pheromones, a process which is accelerated if the bee is fatally injured. The release of alarm pheromones near a hive may attract other bees to the location, where they will likewise exhibit defensive behaviors until there is no longer a threat, typically because the victim has either fled or been killed. (Note: A bee swarm, seen as a mass of bees flying or clumped together, is generally not hostile; it has deserted its hive and has no comb or young to defend.) These pheromones do not dissipate or wash off quickly, and if their target enters water, bees will resume their attack as soon as it leaves the water. The alarm pheromone emitted when a bee stings another animal smells like a banana.


title: Bee sting

text: Drone bees, the males, are larger and do not have stingers. The female bees (worker bees and queens) are the only ones that can sting, and their stinger is a modified ovipositor. The queen bee has a barbed but smoother stinger and can, if need be, sting skin-bearing creatures multiple times, but the queen does not leave the hive under normal conditions. Her sting is not for defense of the hive; she only uses it for dispatching rival queens, ideally before they can emerge from their cells. Queen breeders who handle multiple queens and have the queen odor on their hands are sometimes stung by a queen.


title: Bee sting

text: The stinger consists of three parts: a stylus and two barbed slides (or lancets), one on either side of the stylus. The bee does not push the stinger in but it is drawn in by the barbed slides. The slides move alternately up and down the stylus so when the barb of one slide has caught and retracts, it pulls the stylus and the other barbed slide into the wound. When the other barb has caught, it also retracts up the stylus pulling the sting further in. This process is repeated until the sting is fully in and even continues after the sting and its mechanism is detached from the bee's abdomen. When a female honey bee stings a person, it cannot pull the barbed stinger back out, but rather leaves behind not only the stinger, but also part of its abdomen and digestive tract, plus muscles and nerves. This massive abdominal rupture kills the honey bee. Honey bees are the only bees to die after stinging.


title: Bee sting

text: The main component of bee venom responsible for pain in vertebrates is the toxin melittin; histamine and other biogenic amines may also contribute to pain and itching. In one of the alternative medical uses of honey bee products, apitherapy, bee venom has been used to treat arthritis and other painful conditions. All currently available evidence supporting this practice is either anecdotal, animal studies, or preliminary evidence, most of which has poor methodology. Apitherapy is not currently accepted as a viable medical treatment for any condition or disease; the risk of allergic reaction and anaphylaxis outweighs any benefits. According to the American Cancer Society, there is no scientific evidence that apitherapy or bee venom therapy can treat or change the course of cancer or any other disease. Clinical trials have shown that apitherapy is ineffective in treating multiple sclerosis or any other disease, and can exacerbate multiple sclerosis symptoms.


title: Bee sting

text: The first step in treatment following a honey bee sting is removal of the stinger itself. The stinger should be removed as quickly as possible without regard to method: a study has shown the amount of venom delivered does not differ whether the sting is pinched or scraped off and even a delay of a few seconds leads to more venom being injected. Once the stinger is removed, pain and swelling should be reduced with a cold compress. A topical anesthetic containing benzocaine will relieve pain quickly and menthol is an effective anti-itch treatment. Itching can also be relieved by antihistamine or by a topical steroid cream.


title: Bee sting

text: Many traditional remedies have been suggested for bee stings. No interventions have been proven to be effective in scientific studies and a randomized trial of aspirin paste and topical ice packs showed that aspirin was not effective in reducing the duration of swelling or pain in bee and wasp stings, and significantly increased the duration of redness. The study concluded that ice alone is a better treatment for bee and wasp stings than aspirin.


title: Bee sting

text: For about 2 percent of people, a hypersensitivity can develop after being stung, creating a more severe reaction. This sensitisation may happen after a single sting, or after a series of stings. An allergic person may suffer anaphylactic shock from certain proteins in the venom, which can be life-threatening and requires emergency treatment. People known to be highly allergic may carry around epinephrine (adrenaline) in the form of a self-injectable EpiPen for the treatment of an anaphylactic shock. For people who experience severe or life-threatening reactions to insect stings, allergy injections composed of increasing concentrations of naturally occurring venom may provide protection against future insect stings.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: The Ministry of Railways is a ministry in the Government of India, responsible for the country's rail transport. The ministry operates the statutory body Indian Railways, an organisation that operates as a monopoly in rail transport and is headed by the Chairman and CEO of Railway Board. The Ministry of Railways along with the Railway Board is housed inside Rail Bhawan in New Delhi.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: The ministry has a Union Minister and Minister of State. A number of directorates report to the Railway Board. Most of the officers posted in Ministry of Railways are either from organised "Group A Railway services" or the Railway Board Secretariat Service.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: The statutory body known as the Indian Railways, which reports to parliament and is under the ownership of "Ministry of Railways" of the Government of India. The Indian Railway Board comprises one Chairman, seven "members of the Railway Board", and a Financial Commissioner (who is the representative of the Ministry of Finance in the Railway Board). It also includes a Director-General (Railway Health Services), Director-General (personnel) and a Director-General (Railway Protection Force).


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: In 1901, on the recommendations of Sir Thomas Robertson Committee regarding the administration and working of the railways, an early version of the railway board was constituted. It initially had three members.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: In 1905, its powers were formalised by Lord Curzon's government. Its membership consisted of a Government Railway official, who was the chairman of the board, a railway manager from England and an agent of a Company Railway. The board was placed under the Department of Commerce and Industry of the Indian Government.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: In 1921, a reorganisation of the Railway Board was carried out, and a Chief Commissioner of Railways was appointed, who was solely responsible to the Government for decisions on technical matters and for advising the Government on matters of policy. Pursuant to the Acworth Committee's recommendations in 1921, the Railway Board was reconstituted with effect from 1 April 1924. The reconstituted board consisted of the Chief Commissioner, a Financial Commissioner and two members. One was responsible for ways and works, and projects and stores. The other was responsible for general administration, staff and traffic.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: In 1929, an additional post at the member level was added to the board. It was given responsibility for staff, so that the member in charge of traffic could focus solely on transport and commercial matters. During this time, Frank D'Souza became the first Indian member of the board.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: In April, 1951 the post of Chief Commissioner was abolished and the senior-most functional member was appointed the chairman of the board, resulting in a membership of four.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: In October 1954, the chairman of the board was made responsible for decisions on technical and policy matters, with the status of a Principal Secretary to Government in the Ministry of Railways. One more Member was also added and the strength of the Board again became five.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: In 1988, a new member with responsibility for signals, telecommunication and electrical matters was added to the board. On 16 April 2019 two more members, one with responsibility for signals and telecommunications, and another for material management, joined the board. At this point, the Railway Board had a strength of eight—a Chairman, and seven members. The Chairman is assisted by officers of Railway Board Secretariat Service.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: On 24 December 2019, the Union Cabinet decided to reduce the size of the board from eight to five. It also decided to merge its different cadres into a single Railway Management Service. The newly constituted Board will have Members for "Operation, Business Development, Human Resources, Infrastructure and Finance".


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: The East India Railway Committee, chaired by Sir William Acworth reported that there was a need for unified management of the entire railway system. On the recommendations of this committee and ratification of a resolution to do so in 1921, the government took over the actual management of all the railways, and also separated the railway finances from the general governmental finances. It also began to present the Railway Budget separately from the general budget of India every year. The Railway Board was expanded to have a Financial Commissioner, a member in charge of ways, works, stores and projects, and a member in charge of administration, staff, and traffic. Accordingly, from 1 April 1929, the responsibility for the compilation of accounts for the Railways was taken over by the Financial Commissioner, Railways from the Auditor General.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: The last Railway Budget was presented on 25 February 2016 by Mr. Suresh Prabhu. The Modi government on 21 September 2016 approved merger of the rail and general budgets from 2017, ending a 92-year-old colonial era practice of a separate budget.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: On 14 February 2008, Westinghouse Air Brake Technologies Corporation, listed on the New York Stock Exchange, admitted to violating Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA) regulations by making improper payments from its subsidiary Pioneer Friction Limited, based in Kolkata, to government officials of the Indian railway board. Payments were made in order to obtain and retain business with the Railway Board and curb taxes.


title: Ministry of Railways (India)

text: On 3 May 2013, the CBI arrested then Minister of Railways Pawan Kumar Bansal's nephew, Vijay Singla for accepting an alleged bribe of , which was part of a larger sum of Rs. 100 million (US$16.2 million) from a middleman on behalf of Mahesh Kumar, in return for his appointment as Member (Electrical) of the Railway Board. Mahesh Kumar was suspended, although the Railway Board clarified that no rules had been broken during the appointment of Mahesh Kumar.


title: MO3 (rapper)

text: Melvin “Come Outside” Noble Jr. (May 31, 1992 – November 11, 2020), better known by his stage name MO3, was an American rapper and singer best known for his 2019 collaboration "Errybody" with Boosie Badazz. His joint album with longtime associate Boosie Badazz (BadAzz Mo3) peaked at number 136 on the US "Billboard" 200. His posthumous album "Shottaz 4Eva" reached number 36 on the US "Billboard" 200 in April 2021, while his single "Outside" debuted at number 16 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 the same week, later reaching number 92 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: MO3 (rapper)

text: MO3 was born in McKinney, Texas. Later on he moved to North Dallas, where he would be raised. His debut mixtape, "Shottaz", was released in 2014. The same year, Mo3 released his single Hold Ya Tongue a remix of infamous Texas rapper Mr. Lucci and resulted in him gaining buzz throughout the region. In 2016 Mo3 released Shottaz Reloaded a project with numerous hits that gain the attention of Boosie Badazz who at the time wanted to sign the artist.


title: MO3 (rapper)

text: Noble was shot and killed on November 11, 2020, at the age of 28. While being pursued by another vehicle as he was driving on Interstate 35 in Dallas, he stopped the car in front of a semi on the center lane. Kewon Dontrell White stopped his car as well and approached Noble while he was in the car. Noble tried to retrieve a weapon but was unable to and ran south on the highway. White chased him and shot Noble multiple times with an rifle before returning to his dark-colored vehicle. White fled in the car, believed to be a 2015 Chevrolet Camaro. Noble was transported to a local hospital where he was pronounced dead.


title: MO3 (rapper)

text: Two suspects were arrested for his murder: the gunman Kewon Dontrell White on December 9, 2020, and Devin Maurice Brown on April 23, 2021. Noble was the father of three children.


title: Pitta Kathalu

text: Pitta Kathalu () is a 2021 Indian Telugu-language anthology drama film consisting of four short film segments, directed by Nag Ashwin, B. V. Nandini Reddy, Tharun Bhascker and Sankalp Reddy. The film features an ensemble cast of Amala Paul, Ashwin Kakumanu, Eesha Rebba, Jagapati Babu, Lakshmi Manchu, Ashima Narwal, Saanve Megghana, Sanjith Hegde and Shruti Haasan, amongst others. The film was produced by RSVP Movies and Flying Unicorn Entertainment. The film premiered on Netflix on 19 February 2021. It is Netflix's first Telugu original film.


title: Pitta Kathalu

text: Ramula is the narrative of a modest community Telangana young lady named Ramula (Saanve Megghana) and her fit-in vain boyfriend (Abhay Bethiganti). How a nearby lawmaker called Swaroop Akka (Lakshmi Manchu) utilizes the couple for her political reason for existing is the essential subject.


title: Pitta Kathalu

text: This story is about a youthful spouse named Meera (Amala Paul), who goes through a difficult stretch as a result of her dubious and insane husband Vishwa Mohan (Jagapathi Babu), who is 18 years older than her.


title: Pitta Kathalu

text: xLife is the story of Vik (Sanjith Hegde), a youngster who assumes control over the world with his advanced innovation called X-Life, which has billions of clients.


title: Pitta Kathalu

text: Pinky is about a trying writer Vivek (Satyadev Kancharana), who is hitched but has an unsanctioned romance with his ex Pinky (Eesha Rebba).


title: Pitta Kathalu

text: Hemanth Kumar of "Firstpost" wrote that "On the whole, "Pitta Kathalu" is a mixed bag and not all short stories find their rhythm and clarity of thought to say what they want to. But it’s also a step in the right direction in many ways. "Pitta Kathalu" exists in a Telugu cinematic universe and in this world, women are largely in control of their own lives and more than anything, they hate to be mansplained. Thank God, they aren’t treated like deities with pure thoughts and leading pious lives. Their shades of grey is what adds colour to "Pitta Kathalu."" and gave 3 out of 5 stars. Neeshita Nyayapati of "The Times of India" wrote about the film that "While one has to search hard to find imperfection in Tharun’s rural tale, Nandini, Nag Ashwin and Sankalp’s urban stories in "Pitta Kathalu" are not without flaws. Predictability haunts all the stories to a certain extent, but what matters is how the directors manage to pull it off. It is definitely refreshing to see Telugu cinema tell tales of real, damaged relationships (and women) on screen without judgement. Give this one a try this weekend!" Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion South wrote "Two films work. Two don’t. And the standout is Tharun Bhascker Dhaassyam’s ‘Ramula’, which takes big risks with form."


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: The oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve, also called the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve or oxygen dissociation curve (ODC), is a curve that plots the proportion of hemoglobin in its saturated (oxygen-laden) form on the vertical axis against the prevailing oxygen tension on the horizontal axis. This curve is an important tool for understanding how our blood carries and releases oxygen. Specifically, the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve relates oxygen saturation (S) and partial pressure of oxygen in the blood (P), and is determined by what is called "hemoglobin affinity for oxygen"; that is, how readily hemoglobin acquires and releases oxygen molecules into the fluid that surrounds it.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Hemoglobin (Hb) is the primary vehicle for transporting oxygen in the blood. Each hemoglobin molecule has the capacity to carry four oxygen molecules. These molecules of oxygen bind to the iron of the heme prosthetic group.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: When hemoglobin has no bound oxygen, nor bound carbon dioxide, it has the unbound conformation (shape). The binding of the first oxygen molecule induces change in the shape of the hemoglobin that increases its ability to bind to the other three oxygen molecules.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: In the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide, the pH of the blood changes; this causes another change in the shape of hemoglobin, which increases its ability to bind carbon dioxide and decreases its ability to bind oxygen. With the loss of the first oxygen molecule, and the binding of the first carbon dioxide molecule, yet another change in shape occurs, which further decreases the ability to bind oxygen, and increases the ability to bind carbon dioxide. The oxygen bound to the hemoglobin is released into the blood's plasma and absorbed into the tissues, and the carbon dioxide in the tissues is bound to the hemoglobin.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: In the lungs the reverse of this process takes place. With the loss of the first carbon dioxide molecule the shape again changes and makes it easier to release the other three carbon dioxides.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Oxygen is also carried dissolved in the blood's plasma, but to a much lesser degree. Hemoglobin is contained in red blood cells. Hemoglobin releases the bound oxygen when carbonic acid is present, as it is in the tissues. In the capillaries, where carbon dioxide is produced, oxygen bound to the hemoglobin is released into the blood's plasma and absorbed into the tissues.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: How much of that capacity is filled by oxygen at any time is called the oxygen saturation. Expressed as a percentage, the oxygen saturation is the ratio of the amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin, to the oxygen-carrying capacity of the hemoglobin. The oxygen-carrying capacity of hemoglobin is determined by the type of hemoglobin present in the blood. The amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin at any time is related, in large part, to the partial pressure of oxygen to which the hemoglobin is exposed. In the lungs, at the alveolar–capillary interface, the partial pressure of oxygen is typically high, and therefore the oxygen binds readily to hemoglobin that is present. As the blood circulates to other body tissue in which the partial pressure of oxygen is less, the hemoglobin releases the oxygen into the tissue because the hemoglobin cannot maintain its full bound capacity of oxygen in the presence of lower oxygen partial pressures.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: The shape of the curve results from the interaction of bound oxygen molecules with incoming molecules. The binding of the first molecule is difficult. However, this facilitates the binding of the second, third and fourth, this is due to the induced conformational change in the structure of the hemoglobin molecule induced by the binding of an oxygen molecule.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: In its most simple form, the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve describes the relation between the partial pressure of oxygen (x axis) and the oxygen saturation (y axis). Hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen increases as successive molecules of oxygen bind. More molecules bind as the oxygen partial pressure increases until the maximum amount that can be bound is reached. As this limit is approached, very little additional binding occurs and the curve levels out as the hemoglobin becomes saturated with oxygen. Hence the curve has a sigmoidal or S-shape. At pressures above about 60 mmHg, the standard dissociation curve is relatively flat, which means that the oxygen content of the blood does not change significantly even with large increases in the oxygen partial pressure. To get more oxygen to the tissue would require blood transfusions to increase the hemoglobin count (and hence the oxygen-carrying capacity), or supplemental oxygen that would increase the oxygen dissolved in plasma.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Although binding of oxygen to hemoglobin continues to some extent for pressures about 50 mmHg, as oxygen partial pressures decrease in this steep area of the curve, the oxygen is unloaded to peripheral tissue readily as the hemoglobin's affinity diminishes.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: The partial pressure of oxygen in the blood at which the hemoglobin is 50% saturated, typically about 26.6 mmHg (3.5 kPa) for a healthy person, is known as the P. The P is a conventional measure of hemoglobin affinity for oxygen. In the presence of disease or other conditions that change the hemoglobin oxygen affinity and, consequently, shift the curve to the right or left, the P changes accordingly. An increased P indicates a rightward shift of the standard curve, which means that a larger partial pressure is necessary to maintain a 50% oxygen saturation. This indicates a decreased affinity. Conversely, a lower P indicates a leftward shift and a higher affinity.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: The 'plateau' portion of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is the range that exists at the pulmonary capillaries (minimal reduction of oxygen transported until the p(O) falls 50 mmHg).


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: The 'steep' portion of the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve is the range that exists at the systemic capillaries (a small drop in systemic capillary p(O) can result in the release of large amounts of oxygen for the metabolically active cells).


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: To see the relative affinities of each successive oxygen as you remove/add oxygen from/to the hemoglobin from the curve compare the relative increase/decrease in p(O) needed for the corresponding increase/decrease in s(O). 69


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: The strength with which oxygen binds to hemoglobin is affected by several factors. These factors shift or reshape the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve. A rightward shift indicates that the hemoglobin under study has a decreased affinity for oxygen. This makes it more difficult for hemoglobin to bind to oxygen (requiring a higher partial pressure of oxygen to achieve the same oxygen saturation), but it makes it easier for the hemoglobin to release oxygen bound to it. The effect of this rightward shift of the curve increases the partial pressure of oxygen in the tissues when it is most needed, such as during exercise, or hemorrhagic shock. In contrast, the curve is shifted to the left by the opposite of these conditions. This leftward shift indicates that the hemoglobin under study has an increased affinity for oxygen so that hemoglobin binds oxygen more easily, but unloads it more reluctantly.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Left shift of the curve is a sign of hemoglobin's increased affinity for oxygen (e.g. at the lungs). Similarly, right shift shows decreased affinity, as would appear with an increase in either body temperature, hydrogen ions, 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG) concentration or carbon dioxide concentration.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: The causes of shift to right can be remembered using the mnemonic, "CADET, face Right!" for CO, Acid, 2,3-DPG, Exercise and Temperature. Factors that move the oxygen dissociation curve to the right are those physiological states where tissues need more oxygen. For example, during exercise, muscles have a higher metabolic rate, and consequently need more oxygen, produce more carbon dioxide and lactic acid, and their temperature rises.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: A decrease in pH (increase in ion concentration) shifts the standard curve to the right, while an increase shifts it to the left. This occurs because at greater ion concentration, various amino acid residues, such as Histidine 146 exist predominantly in their protonated form allowing them to form ion pairs that stabilize deoxyhemoglobin in the T state. The T state has a lower affinity for oxygen than the R state, so with increased acidity, the hemoglobin binds less O for a given P (and more H). This is known as the Bohr effect. A reduction in the total binding capacity of hemoglobin to oxygen (i.e. shifting the curve down, not just to the right) due to reduced pH is called the root effect. This is seen in bony fish. The binding affinity of hemoglobin to O is greatest under a relatively high pH.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Carbon dioxide affects the curve in two ways. First, CO accumulation causes carbamino compounds to be generated through chemical interactions, which bind to hemoglobin forming carbaminohemoglobin . CO is considered an Allosteric regulation as the inhibition happens not at the binding site of hemoglobin. Second, it influences intracellular pH due to formation of bicarbonate ion. Formation of carbaminohemoglobin stabilizes T state hemoglobin by formation of ion pairs. Only about 5–10% of the total CO content of blood is transported as carbamino compounds, whereas (80–90%) is transported as bicarbonate ions and a small amount is dissolved in the plasma. The formation of a bicarbonate ion will release a proton into the plasma, decreasing pH (increased acidity), which also shifts the curve to the right as discussed above; low CO levels in the blood stream results in a high pH, and thus provides more optimal binding conditions for hemoglobin and O. This is a physiologically favored mechanism, since hemoglobin will drop off more oxygen as the concentration of carbon dioxide increases dramatically where tissue respiration is happening rapidly and oxygen is in need.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: 2,3-Bisphosphoglycerate or 2,3-BPG (formerly named 2,3-diphosphoglycerate or 2,3-DPG - reference?) is an organophosphate formed in red blood cells during glycolysis and is the conjugate base of 2,3-bisphosphoglyceric acid. The production of 2,3-BPG is likely an important adaptive mechanism, because the production increases for several conditions in the presence of diminished peripheral tissue O availability, such as hypoxemia, chronic lung disease, anemia, and congestive heart failure, among others. High levels of 2,3-BPG shift the curve to the right (as in childhood), while low levels of 2,3-BPG cause a leftward shift, seen in states such as septic shock, and hypophosphataemia. In the absence of 2,3-BPG, hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen increases. 2,3-BPG acts as a heteroallosteric effector of hemoglobin, lowering hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen by binding preferentially to deoxyhemoglobin. An increased concentration of BPG in red blood cells favours formation of the T (taut or tense), low-affinity state of hemoglobin and so the oxygen-binding curve will shift to the right.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Increase in temperature shifts the ODC to the right. If temperature is increased keeping the <chem title="Oxygen concentration">[O2]</chem> the same, then the oxygen saturation decreases because the bond between iron in the <chem title="hemoglobin">Hb</chem> and <chem title="Oxygen">O2</chem> gets denatured. Similarly, with increase in temperature, partial pressure of oxygen also increases. So, one will have a lesser hemoglobin saturation percentage for the same <chem title="Concentration of oxygen">[O2]</chem> or a higher partial pressure of oxygen. Thus, any point in the curve will shift rightwards (due to increased partial pressure of oxygen) and downwards (due to weakened <chem>Hb-O2</chem>bond). Hence, the rightward shift of the curve.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Hemoglobin binds with carbon monoxide 210 times more readily than with oxygen. Because of this higher affinity of hemoglobin for carbon monoxide than for oxygen, carbon monoxide is a highly successful competitor that will displace oxygen even at minuscule partial pressures. The reaction HbO + CO → HbCO + O almost irreversibly displaces the oxygen molecules forming carboxyhemoglobin; the binding of the carbon monoxide to the iron centre of hemoglobin is much stronger than that of oxygen, and the binding site remains blocked for the remainder of the life cycle of that affected red blood cell. With an increased level of carbon monoxide, a person can suffer from severe tissue hypoxia while maintaining a normal pO because carboxyhemoglobin does not carry oxygen to the tissues.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Methemoglobinaemia is a form of abnormal hemoglobin where the iron centre has been oxidised from the ferrous +2 oxidation state (the normal form) to the ferric +3 state. This causes a leftward shift in the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve, as any residual heme with oxygenated ferrous iron (+2 state) is unable to unload its bound oxygen into tissues (because 3+ iron impairs hemoglobin's cooperativity), thereby increasing its affinity with oxygen. However, methemoglobin has increased affinity for cyanide, and is therefore useful in the treatment of cyanide poisoning. In cases of accidental ingestion, administration of a nitrite (such as amyl nitrite) can be used to deliberately oxidise hemoglobin and raise methemoglobin levels, restoring the functioning of cytochrome oxidase. The nitrite also acts as a vasodilator, promoting the cellular supply of oxygen, and the addition of an iron salt provides for competitive binding of the free cyanide as the biochemically inert hexacyanoferrate(III) ion, [Fe(CN)]. An alternative approach involves administering thiosulfate, thereby converting cyanide to thiocyanate, SCN, which is excreted "via" the kidneys. Methemoglobin is also formed in small quantities when the dissociation of oxyhemoglobin results in the formation of methemoglobin and superoxide, O, instead of the usual products. Superoxide is a free radical and causes biochemical damage, but is neutralised by the action of the enzyme superoxide dismutase.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Myo-inositol trispyrophosphate (ITPP), also known as OXY111A, is an inositol phosphate that causes a rightward shift in the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve through allosteric modulation of hemoglobin within red blood cells. It is an experimental drug intended to reduce tissue hypoxia. The effects appear to last roughly as long as the affected red blood cells remain in circulation.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Fetal hemoglobin (HbF) is structurally different from normal adult hemoglobin (HbA), giving HbF a higher affinity for oxygen than HbA. HbF is composed of two alpha and two gamma chains whereas HbA is composed of two alpha and two beta chains. The fetal dissociation curve is shifted to the left relative to the curve for the normal adult because of these structural differences.


title: Oxygen–hemoglobin dissociation curve

text: Typically, fetal arterial oxygen pressures are lower than adult arterial oxygen pressures. Hence higher affinity to bind oxygen is required at lower levels of partial pressure in the fetus to allow diffusion of oxygen across the placenta. At the placenta, there is a higher concentration of 2,3-BPG formed, and 2,3-BPG binds readily to beta chains rather than to alpha chains. As a result, 2,3-BPG binds more strongly to adult hemoglobin, causing HbA to release more oxygen for uptake by the fetus, whose HbF is unaffected by the 2,3-BPG. HbF then delivers that bound oxygen to tissues that have even lower partial pressures where it can be released.


title: Graphics

text: Graphics () are visual images or designs on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, screen, paper, or stone, to inform, illustrate, or entertain. In contemporary usage, it includes a pictorial representation of data, as in design and manufacture, in typesetting and the graphic arts, and in educational and recreational software. Images that are generated by a computer are called computer graphics.


title: Graphics

text: Examples are photographs, drawings, line art, mathematical graphs, line graphs, charts, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flyer, poster, web site, or book without any other element. The objective can be clarity or effective communication, association with other cultural elements, or merely the creation of a distinctive style.


title: Graphics

text: Graphics can be functional or artistic. The latter can be a recorded version, such as a photograph, or interpretation by a scientist to highlight essential features, or an artist, in which case the distinction with imaginary graphics may become blurred. It can also be used for architecture.


title: Graphics

text: The earliest graphics known to anthropologists studying prehistoric periods are cave paintings and markings on boulders, bone, ivory, and antlers, which were created during the Upper Palaeolithic period from 40,000–10,000 B.C. or earlier. Many of these were found to record astronomical, seasonal, and chronological details. Some of the earliest graphics and drawings are known to the modern world, from almost 6,000 years ago, are that of engraved stone tablets and ceramic cylinder seals, marking the beginning of the historical periods and the keeping of records for accounting and inventory purposes. Records from Egypt predate these and papyrus was used by the Egyptians as a material on which to plan the building of pyramids; they also used slabs of limestone and wood. From 600–250 BC, the Greeks played a major role in geometry. They used graphics to represent their mathematical theories such as the Circle Theorem and the Pythagorean theorem.


title: Graphics

text: In art, "graphics" is often used to distinguish work in a monotone and made up of lines, as opposed to painting.


title: Graphics

text: Drawing generally involves making marks on a surface by applying pressure from a tool or moving a tool across a surface. In which a tool is always used as if there were no tools it would be art. Graphical drawing is an instrumental guided drawing.


title: Graphics

text: Woodblock printing, including images is first seen in China after paper was invented (about A.D. 105). In the West, the main techniques have been woodcut, engraving and etching, but there are many others.


title: Graphics

text: Etching is an intaglio method of printmaking in which the image is incised into the surface of a metal plate using an acid. The acid eats the metal, leaving behind roughened areas, or, if the surface exposed to the acid is very thin, burning a line into the plate. The use of the process in printmaking is believed to have been invented by Daniel Hopfer (c. 1470–1536) of Augsburg, Germany, who decorated armour in this way.


title: Graphics

text: Line art is a rather non-specific term sometimes used for any image that consists of distinct straight and curved lines placed against a (usually plain) background, without gradations in shade (darkness) or hue (color) to represent two-dimensional or three-dimensional objects. Line art is usually monochromatic, although lines may be of different colors.


title: Graphics

text: An illustration is a visual representation such as a drawing, painting, photograph or other work of art that stresses subject more than form. The aim of an illustration is to elucidate or decorate a story, poem or piece of textual information (such as a newspaper article), traditionally by providing a visual representation of something described in the text. The editorial cartoon, also known as a political cartoon, is an illustration containing a political or social message.


title: Graphics

text: Illustrations can be used to display a wide range of subject matter and serve a variety of functions, such as:


title: Graphics

text: A "graph" or "chart" is an graphic that represents tabular or numeric data. Charts are often used to make it easier to understand large quantities of data and the relationships between different parts of the data.


title: Graphics

text: A diagram is a simplified and structured visual representation of concepts, ideas, constructions, relations, statistical data, etc., used to visualize and clarify the topic.


title: Graphics

text: A symbol, in its basic sense, is a representation of a concept or quantity; i.e., an idea, object, concept, quality, etc. In more psychological and philosophical terms, all concepts are symbolic in nature, and representations for these concepts are simply token artifacts that are allegorical to (but do not directly codify) a symbolic meaning, or symbolism.


title: Graphics

text: A map is a simplified depiction of a space, a navigational aid which highlights relations between objects within that space. Usually, a map is a two-dimensional, geometrically accurate representation of a three-dimensional space.


title: Graphics

text: One difference between photography and other forms of graphics is that a photographer, in principle, just records a single moment in reality, with seemingly no interpretation. However, a photographer can choose the field of view and angle, and may also use other techniques, such as various lenses to choose the view or filters to change the colors. In recent times, digital photography has opened the way to an infinite number of fast, but strong, manipulations. Even in the early days of photography, there was controversy over photographs of enacted scenes that were presented as 'real life' (especially in war photography, where it can be very difficult to record the original events). Shifting the viewer's eyes ever so slightly with simple pinpricks in the negative could have a dramatic effect.


title: Graphics

text: The choice of the field of view can have a strong effect, effectively 'censoring out' other parts of the scene, accomplished by cropping them out or simply not including them in the photograph. This even touches on the philosophical question of what reality is. The human brain processes information based on previous experience, making us see what we want to see or what we were taught to see. Photography does the same, although the photographer interprets the scene for their viewer.


title: Graphics

text: An engineering drawing is a type of drawing and is technical in nature, used to fully and clearly define requirements for engineered items. It is usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.


title: Graphics

text: There are two types of computer graphics: raster graphics, where each pixel is separately defined (as in a digital photograph), and vector graphics, where mathematical formulas are used to draw lines and shapes, which are then interpreted at the viewer's end to produce the graphic. Using vectors results in infinitely sharp graphics and often smaller files, but, when complex, like vectors take time to render and may have larger file sizes than a raster equivalent.


title: Graphics

text: In 1950, the first computer-driven display was attached to MIT's Whirlwind I computer to generate simple pictures. This was followed by MIT's TX-0 and TX-2, interactive computing which increased interest in computer graphics during the late 1950s. In 1962, Ivan Sutherland invented Sketchpad, an innovative program that influenced alternative forms of interaction with computers.


title: Graphics

text: In the mid-1960s, large computer graphics research projects were begun at MIT, General Motors, Bell Labs, and Lockheed Corporation. Douglas T. Ross of MIT developed an advanced compiler language for graphics programming. S.A.Coons, also at MIT, and J. C. Ferguson at Boeing, began work in sculptured surfaces. GM developed their DAC-1 system, and other companies, such as Douglas, Lockheed, and McDonnell, also made significant developments. In 1968, ray tracing was first described by Arthur Appel of the IBM Research Center, Yorktown Heights, N.Y.


title: Graphics

text: During the late 1970s, personal computers became more powerful, capable of drawing both basic and complex shapes and designs. In the 1980s, artists and graphic designers began to see the personal computer, particularly the Commodore Amiga and Macintosh, as a serious design tool, one that could save time and draw more accurately than other methods. 3D computer graphics became possible in the late 1980s with the powerful SGI computers, which were later used to create some of the first fully computer-generated short films at Pixar. The Macintosh remains one of the most popular tools for computer graphics in graphic design studios and businesses.


title: Graphics

text: Modern computer systems, dating from the 1980s and onwards, often use a graphical user interface (GUI) to present data and information with symbols, icons, and pictures, rather than text. Graphics are one of the five key elements of multimedia technology.


title: Graphics

text: 3D graphics became more popular in the 1990s in gaming, multimedia and animation. In 1996, Quake, one of the first fully 3D games, was released. In 1995, Toy Story, the first full-length computer-generated animation film, was released in cinemas. Since then, computer graphics have become more accurate and detailed, due to more advanced computers and better 3D modeling software applications, such as Maya, 3D Studio Max, and Cinema 4D.


title: Graphics

text: Another use of computer graphics is screensavers, originally intended to prevent the layout of much-used GUIs from 'burning into' the computer screen. They have since evolved into true pieces of art, their practical purpose obsolete; modern screens are not susceptible to such artifacts.


title: Graphics

text: In the 1990s, Internet speeds increased, and Internet browsers capable of viewing images were released, the first being Mosaic. Websites began to use the GIF format to display small graphics, such as banners, advertisements, and navigation buttons, on web pages. Modern web browsers can now display JPEG, PNG and increasingly, SVG images in addition to GIFs on web pages. SVG, and to some extent VML, support in some modern web browsers have made it possible to display vector graphics that are clear at any size. Plugins expand the web browser functions to display animated, interactive and 3-D graphics contained within file formats such as SWF and X3D.


title: Graphics

text: Modern web graphics can be made with software such as Adobe Photoshop, the GIMP, or Corel Paint Shop Pro. Users of Microsoft Windows have MS Paint, which many find to be lacking in features. This is because MS Paint is a drawing package and not a graphics package.


title: Graphics

text: Numerous platforms and websites have been created to cater to web graphics artists and to host their communities. A growing number of people use create internet forum signatures—generally, appearing after a user's post—and other digital artwork, such as photo manipulations and large graphics. With computer games' developers creating their own communities around their products, many more websites are being developed to offer graphics for the fans and to enable them to show their appreciation of such games in their own gaming profiles.


title: Graphics

text: Graphics are visual elements often used to point readers and viewers to particular information. They are also used to supplement text in an effort to aid readers in their understanding of a particular concept or make the concept more clear or interesting. Popular magazines, such as "Time", "Wired" and "Newsweek", usually contain graphic material in abundance to attract readers, unlike the majority of scholarly journals. In computing, they are used to create a graphical interface for the user; and graphics are one of the five key elements of multimedia technology. Graphics are among the primary ways of advertising the sale of goods or services.


title: Graphics

text: Graphics are commonly used in business and economics to create financial charts and tables. The term "business graphics" came into use in the late 1970s, when personal computers became capable of drawing graphs and charts instead of using a tabular format. Business graphics can be used to highlight changes over time.


title: Graphics

text: Advertising is one of the most profitable uses of graphics; artists often do advertising work or take advertising potential into account when creating art, to increase the chances of selling the artwork.


title: Graphics

text: Most importantly, graphics give a good look to artwork whenever it is applied. Graphics contribute to the general outlook of a designed artwork, this, in turn, lure interested members of the public to look at the work of art or purchasing it.


title: Graphics

text: Any graphical work (especially advertisement) or any work of art that is poorly designed will not persuade the audience. therefore, for an advertisement to persuade and convince readers or viewers, it must be well designed with needed graphical tools so as to bring profit to the designer or advertiser.


title: Graphics

text: The use of graphics for overtly political purposes—cartoons, graffiti, poster art, flag design, etc.—is a centuries-old practice which thrives today in every part of the world. The Northern Irish murals are one such example. A more recent example is Shepard Fairey's 2008 U.S. Presidential election Barack Obama "Hope" poster. It was first published on the web, but soon found its way onto streets throughout the United States.


title: Graphics

text: Graphics are heavily used in textbooks, especially those concerning subjects such as geography, science, and mathematics, in order to illustrate theories and concepts, such as the human anatomy. Diagrams are also used to label photographs and pictures.


title: Graphics

text: Educational animation is an important emerging field of graphics. Animated graphics have obvious advantages over static graphics when explaining subject matter that changes over time.


title: Graphics

text: The "Oxford Illustrated Dictionary" uses graphics and technical illustrations to make reading material more interesting and easier to understand. In an encyclopedia, graphics are used to illustrate concepts and show examples of the particular topic being discussed.


title: Graphics

text: In order for a graphic to function effectively as an educational aid, the learner must be able to interpret it successfully. This interpretative capacity is one aspect of graphicacy.


title: Graphics

text: Computer graphics are often used in the majority of new feature films, especially those with a large budget. Films that heavily use computer graphics include "The Lord of the Rings" film trilogy, the "Harry Potter" films, "Spider-Man" and "War of the Worlds".


title: Graphics

text: The majority of schools, colleges, and universities around the world educate students on the subject of graphic design and art.


title: Graphics

text: The subject is taught in a broad variety of ways, each course teaching its own distinctive balance of craft skills and intellectual response to the client's needs.


title: Graphics

text: Some graphics courses prioritize traditional craft skills—drawing, printmaking, and typography—over modern craft skills. Other courses may place an emphasis on teaching digital craft skills. Still, other courses may downplay the crafts entirely, concentrating on training students to generate novel intellectual responses that engage with the brief. Despite these apparent differences in training and curriculum, the staff and students on any of these courses will generally consider themselves to be graphic designers.


title: Graphics

text: The typical pedagogy of a graphic design (or graphic communication, visual communication, graphic arts or any number of synonymous course titles) will be broadly based on the teaching models developed in the Bauhaus school in Germany or Vkhutemas in Russia. The teaching model will tend to expose students to a variety of craft skills (currently everything from drawing to motion capture), combined with an effort to engage the student with the world of visual culture.


title: Graphics

text: Aldus Manutius designed the first italic type style which is often used in desktop publishing and graphic design. April Greiman is known for her influential poster design. Paul Rand is well known as a design pioneer for designing many popular corporate logos, including the logo for IBM, NeXT and UPS. William Caslon, during the mid-18th century, designed many typefaces, including "ITC Founder's Caslon", "ITC Founder's Caslon Ornaments", "Caslon Graphique", "ITC Caslon No. 224", "Caslon Old Face" and "Big Caslon".


title: Kayky

text: Kayky da Silva Chagas (born 11 June 2003), known as Kayky, is a Brazilian professional footballer who plays as a forward for Premier League club Manchester City who is currently on loan at Brazilian club Bahia.


title: Kayky

text: Born in Rio de Janeiro, Kayky was initially rejected a place in the Fluminense academy, as the club had filled their spaces, and instead joined local side Mangueira. In his first game, he scored a hattrick in a 5–3 win over Fluminense, prompting Flu to immediately sign him. He initially joined up with their under-9 futsal squad. He transitioned to football during his development, and was an important unit of the under-17 squad which won the 2020 Campeonato Brasileiro Sub-17.


title: Kayky

text: Promoted to the main squad for the 2021 campaign, Kayky made his professional debut on 4 March of that year, coming on as a first-half substitute for fellow youth graduate Miguel Silveira in a 1–2 Campeonato Carioca away loss against Resende. He scored his first professional goal on 6 April, netting the opener in a 4–0 away routing of Macaé. On 11 April, Kayky scored "Flu"s opener in a 3–1 home win against Nova Iguaçu through an individual effort, after dribbling past four opponents. On 6 May, he became the youngest player to score in the Copa Libertadores for Fluminense, at age 17, in the 1–1 draw with Junior.


title: Kayky

text: In April 2021, several media sources reported that Kayky and teammate Metinho (who signed for City's partner club Troyes) had both agreed to a move to Manchester City for a combined fee of €15 million; Kayky's deal alone would cost €10 million, with another 15 in variables. On 23 April, the agreement was officially confirmed, with the transfer set to go through in January 2022. However in August, it was announced that Kayky would join immediately instead of January. Fluminense would retain a percentage of any future sale and add-ons. On 7 January 2022, Kayky made his City debut as a substitute for Cole Palmer, in a 4–1 away win over League Two side Swindon Town in the FA Cup. On 12 February 2022, he made his Premier League debut as a substitute for Riyad Mahrez, in a 4–0 away win over Norwich City.


title: Kayky

text: Constantly called up to trainings with the Brazil under-15 and under-17 squads, Kayky featured in two friendlies for the under-16 side in 2019.


title: Kayky

text: A left-footed right-sided forward, Kayky is often compared to Neymar due to his dribbling ability. He celebrates his goals by doing a moustache with his hand, as an honour to his father.


title: Shira Piven

text: Shira Piven (born October 8, 1961) is an American director, actress and producer. She directed the 2014 film "Welcome to Me" starring Kristen Wiig.


title: Shira Piven

text: Piven was raised in Evanston, Illinois, a city just north of Chicago on Lake Michigan. Her parents, Joyce Piven and Byrne Piven, founded the Piven Theater Workshop in Evanston. Piven performed with the theater company during her adolescence and started teaching and directing theater in her 20s. She studied drama and music at Bennington College, and graduated in 1983. Piven grew up in a Jewish family


title: Shira Piven

text: Piven has directed more than 20 plays in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and Washington, D.C., including "Fully Loaded" in 2006, actor Patrick McCartney's one person show "Sinister Kid" in 2013, and "Victims of Duty" in 2018. In 1999, she founded the Water Theater Company in New York, and led the improv theater group Burn Manhattan.


title: Shira Piven

text: Piven directed her first feature film, "Fully Loaded" in 2011, an adaptation of the stage play she co-wrote and directed, about two single mothers on a night out in Los Angeles.


title: Shira Piven

text: In 2014, her second feature, "Welcome to Me", was co-produced by Will Ferrell and Adam McKay and stars Kristen Wiig as a woman with borderline personality disorder who wins the lottery and launches her own talk show.


title: Shira Piven

text: Piven has also directed television episodes for "Transparent, Claws, Divorce, Sweetbitter," and "One Mississippi."


title: Shira Piven

text: Piven married writer and director Adam McKay in 1999. She and McKay reside in Los Angeles with their daughters Lili Rose and Pearl. Her younger brother is actor Jeremy Piven.


title: Shira Piven

text: Piven has taught theater to prison inmates and gang members. Piven and McKay both serve as board members of Jail Guitar Doors USA, a non-profit founded by Wayne Kramer that provides musical instruments to inmates.


title: Tino Livramento

text: Valentino "Tino" Francisco Livramento (born 12 November 2002) is an English footballer who plays as a right-back for Southampton.


title: Tino Livramento

text: Born in Croydon, Livramento joined Chelsea at under-9 level from local club Roundshaw. At Roundshaw he played as a striker. Growing up, he supported Chelsea. His father's side of the family comes from Portugal and his mother is Scottish.


title: Tino Livramento

text: He was named Chelsea academy player of the year for the 2020–21 season. Towards the end of the season, Livramento featured on the bench in Premier League fixtures against Manchester City and Arsenal.


title: Tino Livramento

text: In July 2021, contract talks between Chelsea and Livramento stalled, with rumours that the wing-back was set to leave the club. He was reportedly subject to interest from a host of English clubs, including South Coast rivals Southampton and Brighton & Hove Albion, as well as A.C. Milan and RB Leipzig.


title: Tino Livramento

text: Having failed to reach an agreement with Chelsea, Livramento signed for fellow Premier League side Southampton in August 2021, with a reported buy-back clause of £25 million included. On 14 August 2021, Livramento made his first Premier League appearance for Southampton in a 3–1 defeat to Everton. On 23 October 2021, Livramento scored his first professional goal in Southampton's 2–2 draw with Burnley.


title: Tino Livramento

text: Despite Livramento representing England through the youth ranks up to Under-21 level, he is also eligible to play for the Scotland and Portugal national teams through his mother being Scottish and his father being Portuguese.


title: Tino Livramento

text: On 27 August 2021, Livramento received his first call up for the England U21s. On 7 September 2021, he made his England U21 debut during the 2–0 2023 UEFA European Under-21 Championship qualification win over Kosovo U21s at Stadium MK.


title: Tom of Finland

text: Touko Valio Laaksonen (8 May 1920 – 7 November 1991), pseudonym Tom of Finland, was a Finnish artist who made stylized highly masculinized homoerotic art, and influenced late 20th-century gay culture. He has been called the "most influential creator of gay pornographic images" by cultural historian Joseph W. Slade. Over the course of four decades, he produced some 3,500 illustrations, mostly featuring men with exaggerated primary and secondary sex traits, wearing tight or partially removed clothing.


title: Tom of Finland

text: Laaksonen was born on 8 May 1920 and raised by a middle-class family in Kaarina, a town in southwestern Finland, near the city of Turku. Both of his parents Suoma and Edwin Laaksonen were schoolteachers at the grammar school that served Kaarina. The family lived in the school building's attached living quarters.


title: Tom of Finland

text: He went to school in Turku and in 1939, at the age of 19, he moved to Helsinki to study advertising. In his spare time he also started drawing erotic images for his own pleasure, based on images of male laborers he had seen from an early age. At first he kept these drawings hidden, but then destroyed them "at least by the time I went to serve the army." The country became embroiled in the Winter War with the USSR, and then became formally involved in World War II, and he was conscripted in February 1940 into the Finnish Army. He served as an anti-aircraft officer, holding the rank of second lieutenant. He later attributed his fetishistic interest in uniformed men to encounters with men in army uniform, especially soldiers of the German Wehrmacht serving in Finland at that time. "In my drawings I have no political statements to make, no ideology. I am thinking only about the picture itself. The whole Nazi philosophy, the racism and all that, is hateful to me, but of course I drew them anyway—they had the sexiest uniforms!" After the war, in 1945, he returned to studies.


title: Tom of Finland

text: Laaksonen's artwork of this period compared to later works is considered more romantic and softer with "gentle-featured shapes and forms". The men featured were middle-class, as opposed to the sailors, bikers, lumberjacks, construction workers, and other members of stereotypically hypermasculine working class groups that feature in his later work. Another key difference is the lack of dramatic compositions, self-assertive poses, muscular bodies and "detached exotic settings" that his later work embodied.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 1956 Laaksonen submitted drawings to the influential American magazine "Physique Pictorial", which premiered the images in the 1957 Spring issue under the pseudonym "Tom", as it resembled his given name "Touko". In the Winter issue later that year, editor Bob Mizer coined the credit "Tom of Finland". One of his pieces was featured on the Spring 1957 cover, depicting two log drivers at work with a third man watching them. Pulled from the Finnish mythology of lumberjacks representing strong masculinity, Laaksonen emphasized and privileged "homoerotic potentiality [...] relocating it in a gay context", a strategy repeated throughout his career.


title: Tom of Finland

text: The post-World War II era saw the rise of the biker culture as rejecting "the reorganization and normalization of life after the war, with its conformist, settled lifestyle." Biker subculture was both marginal and oppositional and provided postwar gay men with a stylized masculinity that included rebelliousness and danger. This was in contrast to the then-prevailing stereotypes of gay man as an effeminate sissy, as seen in vaudeville and films going back to the first years of the industry. Laaksonen was influenced by images of bikers as well as artwork of George Quaintance and Etienne, among others, that he cited as his precursors, "disseminated to gay readership through homoerotic physique magazines" starting in 1950. Laaksonen's drawings of bikers and leathermen capitalized on the leather and denim outfits which differentiated those men from mainstream culture and suggested they were untamed, physical, and self-empowered. This in contrast with the mainstream, medical and psychological sad and sensitive young gay man who is passive. Laaksonen's drawings of this time "can be seen as consolidating an array of factors, styles and discourses already existing in the 1950s gay subcultures," this may have led to them being widely distributed and popularized within those cultures. Starting his professional career in 1958 as a creative executive in renown marketing agency, , further encouraged his creativity.


title: Tom of Finland

text: Laaksonen's style and content in the late 1950s and early 1960s was partly influenced by the U.S. censorship codes that restricted depiction of "overt homosexual acts". His work was published in the beefcake genre that began in the 1930s and predominantly featured photographs of attractive, muscular young men in athletic poses often shown demonstrating exercises. Their primary market was gay men, but because of the conservative and homophobic social culture of the era, gay pornography was illegal and the publications were typically presented as dedicated to physical fitness and health. They were often the only connection that closeted men had to their sexuality. By this time, however, Laaksonen was rendering private commissions, so more explicit work was produced but remained unpublished. Aside from his work at the advertising agency, Laaksonen operated a small mail-order business, distributing reproductions of his artwork around the world by post, though he did not generate much income this way.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In the 1962 case of "MANual Enterprises v. Day" the United States Supreme Court ruled that nude male photographs were not inherently obscene. Softcore gay pornography magazines and films featuring fully nude models, some of them tumescent, quickly appeared and the pretense of being about exercise and fitness was dropped as controls on pornography were reduced. By the end of the 1960s the market for beefcake magazines collapsed. Laaksonen was able to publish his more overtly homoerotic work and it changed the context with "new possibilities and conventions for displaying frontal male nudity in magazines and movies." Laaksonen reacted by publishing more explicit drawings and stylized his figures' fantastical aspects with exaggerated physical aspects, particularly their genitals and muscles. In the late 1960s he developed Kake, a character appearing in an ongoing series of comics, which debuted in 1968.


title: Tom of Finland

text: With the decriminalization of male nudity, gay pornography became more mainstream in gay cultures, and Laaksonen's work along with it. By 1973, he was publishing erotic comic books and making inroads to the mainstream art world with exhibitions. In 1973 he gave up his full-time job at the Helsinki office of advertising agency McCann. "Since then I've lived in jeans and lived on my drawings," is how he described the lifestyle transition which occurred during this period.


title: Tom of Finland

text: By the mid-1970s he was also emphasizing a photorealistic style, making aspects of the drawings appear more photographic. Many of his drawings are based on photographs, but none are exact reproductions of them. The photographic inspiration is used, on the one hand, to create lifelike, almost moving images, with convincing and active postures and gestures while Laaksonen exaggerates physical features and presents his ideal of masculine beauty and sexual allure, combining realism with fantasy. In "Daddy and the Muscle Academy – The Art, Life, and Times of Tom of Finland" examples of photographs and the drawings based upon them are shown side by side. Although he considered the photographs to be merely reference tools for his drawings, contemporary art students have seen them as complete works of art that stand on their own.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 1979, Laaksonen, with businessman and friend Durk Dehner, co-founded the Tom of Finland Company to preserve the copyright on his art, which had been widely pirated. In 1984 the Tom of Finland Foundation was established to collect, preserve, and exhibit homoerotic artwork. Although Laaksonen was quite successful at this point, with his biography on the best-seller list, and Benedikt Taschen, the world's largest art book publisher reprinting and expanding a monograph of his works, he was most proud of the Foundation. The scope of the organization expanded to erotic works of all types, sponsored contests, exhibits, and started the groundwork for a museum of erotic art.


title: Tom of Finland

text: Laaksonen was diagnosed with emphysema in 1988. Eventually the disease and medication caused his hands to tremble, leading him to switch media from pencil to pastel. He died in 1991 of an emphysema-induced stroke.


title: Tom of Finland

text: Laaksonen's life partner was the dancer Veli “Nipa” Mäkinen who shared his life for 28 years, until Mäkinen's death in 1981.


title: Tom of Finland

text: During his lifetime and beyond, Laaksonen's work has drawn both admiration and disdain from different quarters of the artistic community. Laaksonen developed a friendship with gay photographer Robert Mapplethorpe, whose work depicting sado-masochism and fetish iconography was also subject to controversy.


title: Tom of Finland

text: A controversial theme in his drawings was the erotic treatment of men in Nazi uniforms. They form a small part of his overall work, but the typically flattering visual treatment of these characters has led some viewers to infer sympathy or affinity for Nazism, and they have been omitted from most recent anthologies of his work. Later in his career Laaksonen disavowed this work and was at pains to dissociate himself and his work from fascist or racist ideologies. He also depicted a significant number of black men in his drawings, with no overt racial or political message in the context in which they appear; although they bear some commonality with racist caricatures of the "hypersexual" black male, these traits are shared by Laaksonen's white characters as well.


title: Tom of Finland

text: Art critics have mixed views about Laaksonen's work. His detailed drawing technique has led to him being described as a "master with a pencil", while in contrast a reviewer for Dutch newspaper "Het Parool" described his work as "illustrative but without expressivity".


title: Tom of Finland

text: There is considerable argument over whether his depiction of "supermen" (male characters with huge sexual organs and muscles) is facile and distasteful, or whether there is a deeper complexity in the work which plays with and subverts those stereotypes. For example, some critics have noted instances of apparent tenderness between traditionally tough, masculine characters, or playful smiles in sado-masochistic scenes.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In either case, there remains a large constituency who admire the work on a purely utilitarian basis; as described by Rob Meijer, owner of a leathershop and art gallery in Amsterdam, "These works are not conversation pieces, they're masturbation pieces."


title: Tom of Finland

text: Writing for "Artforum", Kevin Killian said that seeing Tom of Finland originals "produces a strong respect for his nimble, witty creation". Kate Wolf writes that "Tom of Finland helped pave the way to gay liberation".


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 1995, Tom of Finland Clothing Company introduced a fashion line based on his works, which covers a wide array of looks besides the typified cutoff-jeans-and-jacket style of his drawings. The fashion line balances the original homoeroticism of the drawings with mainstream fashion culture, and their runway shows occur in many of the venues during the same times as other fashion companies.


title: Tom of Finland

text: New York's Museum of Modern Art has acquired several examples of Laaksonen's artwork for its permanent collection. In 2006, MoMA in New York accepted five Tom of Finland drawings as part of a much larger gift from The Judith Rothschild Foundation. The trustee of The Judith Rothschild Foundation, Harvey S. Shipley Miller, said, "Tom of Finland is one of the five most influential artists of the twentieth century. As an artist he was superb, as an influence he was transcendent." Hudson, of Feature Inc., New York, placed Tom of Finland's work in the collections of Rhode Island School of Design Museum of Art and Art Institute of Chicago. His work is also in the public Collections of: The Museum of Contemporary Art (MOCA), Los Angeles, USA; Wäinö Aaltonen Museum of Art; Turku, Finland; University of California Berkeley Art Museum, Berkeley (California), USA; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, Los Angeles, USA; Kiasma, Museum of Contemporary Art, Helsinki, Finland; San Francisco Museum of Modern Art, San Francisco, USA; and Tom of Finland Foundation, Los Angeles, USA.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 1999, an exhibition took place at the Institut Culturel Finlandais (Finnish Cultural Centre) in Paris.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 2011 there was a large retrospective exhibition of Laaksonen's artwork in Turku, Finland. The exhibition was one of the official events in Turku's European Capital of Culture programme.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 2012, Kulturhuset presented a retrospective, "Tom of Finland", in Stockholm, Sweden; and Tom of Finland's work was in the Robert Rauschenberg Foundation's "We the People" in New York City, USA.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 2013, MOCA presented "Bob Mizer & Tom of Finland" in Los Angeles, USA. The artist's work was also seen in "HAPPY BIRTHDAY Galerie Perrotin – 25 years" in Lille, France; Leslie Lohman Museum's "Rare and Raw" in New York City, USA; and the Institute of Contemporary Art's "Keep Your Timber Limber (Works on Paper)" in London, England.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 2015, Artists Space presented the exhibition "Tom of Finland: The Pleasure of Play" in New York City, USA. The exhibition was also presented in Kunsthalle Helsinki in 2016, complemented with additional material such as photos from family albums.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 2020, as part of the 100th birthday celebrations, "Tom of Finland: Love and Liberation" at London's House of Illustration showed 40 originals with ephemera emphasizing fashion as an aspect of his work.


title: Tom of Finland

text: In 1991, Filmitakomo and Yleisradio produced a documentary film, "Daddy and the Muscle Academy", directed by Ilppo Pohjola. By the late 1980s, Laaksonen was well known in the gay world, but his "pneumatically muscled, meticulously rendered monster-donged icons of masculinity" received mainstream attention when the film – which includes hundreds of images of his work along with interviews – was released theatrically in Finland, won a Finnish Jussi Award in 1992, and was shown at film festivals and film art houses worldwide. While praising the artwork's quality one critic noted the film's lauding of Laaksonen as a gay pride icon while ignoring his work's "resemblance to both S & M pornography and Fascist art" which she tied to Laaksonen's early sexual experiences with German soldiers during World War II.


title: Tom of Finland

text: Filmmaker Wes Hurley credits Tom of Finland as an influence in his work, including his short "Peter and the Wolf" and his cult comedy musical "Waxie Moon in Fallen Jewel".


title: Tom of Finland

text: "Variety" announced in 2013 that Finnish director Dome Karukoski was set to make a biopic of Laaksonen, entitled "Tom of Finland". Helsinki-filmi produced it and secured exclusive rights. The film, released in February 2017 in Finland, is the first biopic of the artist.