title: Woodblock printing

text: Evidence of woodblock printing appeared in Korea and Japan soon afterward. The Great Dharani Sutra () was discovered at Bulguksa, South Korea in 1966 and dated between 704 and 751 in the era of Later Silla. The document is printed on a mulberry paper scroll. A dhāraṇī sutra was printed in Japan around AD 770. One million copies of the sutra, along with other prayers, were ordered to be produced by Empress Shōtoku. As each copy was then stored in a tiny wooden pagoda, the copies are together known as the "Hyakumantō Darani" (百万塔陀羅尼, "1,000,000 towers/pagodas Darani").


title: Woodblock printing

text: Woodblock printing spread across Eurasia by 1000 AD and could be found in the Byzantine Empire. However printing onto cloth only became common in Europe by 1300. "In the 13th century the Chinese technique of blockprinting was transmitted to Europe", soon after paper became available in Europe.


title: Woodblock printing

text: From 932 to 955 the Twelve Classics and an assortment of other texts were printed. During the Song dynasty, the Directorate of education and other agencies used these block prints to disseminate their standardized versions of the "Classics". Other disseminated works include the "Histories", philosophical works, encyclopedias, collections, and books on medicine and the art of war.


title: Woodblock printing

text: In 971 work began on the complete Tripiṭaka Buddhist Canon ("Kaibao zangshu" 開寶藏書) in Chengdu. It took 10 years to finish the 130,000 blocks needed to print the text. The finished product, the Sichuan edition of the "Kaibao canon", also known as the "Kaibao Tripitaka", was printed in 983.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Prior to the introduction of printing, the size of private collections in China had already seen an increase since the invention of paper. Fan Ping (215–84) had in his collection 7,000 rolls ("juan"), or a few hundred titles. Two centuries later, Zhang Mian owned 10,000 "juan", Shen Yue (441–513) 20,000 "juan", and Xiao Tong and his cousin Xiao Mai both had collections of 30,000 "juan". Emperor Yuan of Liang (508–555) was said to have had a collection of 80,000 "juan". The combined total of all known private book collectors prior to the Song dynasty number around 200, with the Tang alone accounting for 60 of them.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Following the maturation of woodblock printing, official, commercial, and private publishing businesses emerged while the size and number of collections grew exponentially. The Song dynasty alone accounts for some 700 known private collections, more than triple the number of all the preceding centuries combined. Private libraries of 10–20,000 "juan" became commonplace while six individuals owned collections of over 30,000 "juan". The earliest extant private Song library catalogue lists 1,937 titles in 24,501 "juan". Zhou Mi's collection numbered 42,000 "juan", Chen Zhensun's collection lists 3,096 titles in 51,180 "juan", and Ye Mengde (1077–1148) as well as one other individual owned libraries of 6,000 titles in 100,000 "juan". The majority of which were secular in nature. Texts contained material such as medicinal instruction or came in the form of a "leishu" (類書), a type of encyclopedic reference book used to help examination candidates.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Imperial establishments such as the Three Institutes: Zhaowen Institute, History Institute, and Jixian Institute also followed suit. At the start of the dynasty the Three Institutes' holdings numbered 13,000 "juan", by the year 1023 39,142 "juan", by 1068 47,588 "juan", and by 1127 73,877 "juan". The Three Institutes were one of several imperial libraries, with eight other major palace libraries, not including imperial academies. According to Weng Tongwen, by the 11th century, central government offices were saving tenfold by substituting earlier manuscripts with printed versions. The impact of woodblock printing on Song society is illustrated in the following exchange between Emperor Zhenzong and Xing Bing in the year 1005:


title: Woodblock printing

text: In 1076, the 39 year old Su Shi remarked upon the unforeseen effect an abundance of books had on examination candidates:


title: Woodblock printing

text: Woodblock printing also changed the shape and structure of books. Scrolls were gradually replaced by concertina binding (經摺裝) from the Tang period onward. The advantage was that it was now possible to flip to a reference without unfolding the entire document. The next development known as whirlwind binding ("xuanfeng zhuang" 旋風裝) was to secure the first and last leaves to a single large sheet, so that the book could be opened like an accordion.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Around the year 1000, butterfly binding was developed. Woodblock prints allowed two mirror images to be easily replicated on a single sheet. Thus two pages were printed on a sheet, which was then folded inwards. The sheets were then pasted together at the fold to make a codex with alternate openings of printed and blank pairs of pages. In the 14th century the folding was reversed outwards to give continuous printed pages, each backed by a blank hidden page. Later the sewn bindings were preferred rather than pasted bindings. Only relatively small volumes ("juan 卷") were bound up, and several of these would be enclosed in a cover called a "tao", with wooden boards at front and back, and loops and pegs to close up the book when not in use. For example, one complete Tripitaka had over 6,400 "juan" in 595 "tao".


title: Woodblock printing

text: Despite the productive effect of woodblock printing, historian Endymion Wilkinson notes that it never supplanted handwritten manuscripts. Indeed, manuscripts remained dominant until the very end of Imperial China:


title: Woodblock printing

text: Not only did manuscripts remain competitive with imprints, they were even "preferred" by elite scholars and collectors. The age of printing gave the act of copying by hand a new dimension of cultural reverence. Those who considered themselves real scholars and true connoisseurs of the book did not consider imprints to be real books. Under the elitist attitudes of the time, "printed books were for those who did not truly care about books."


title: Woodblock printing

text: However, copyists and manuscript only continued to remain competitive with printed editions by dramatically reducing their price. According to the Ming dynasty author Hu Yinglin, "if no printed edition were available on the market, the hand-copied manuscript of a book would cost ten times as much as the printed work," also "once a printed edition appeared, the transcribed copy could no longer be sold and would be discarded." The result is that despite the mutual co-existence of hand-copied manuscripts and printed texts, the cost of the book had declined by about 90 percent by the end of the 16th century. As a result, literacy increased. In 1488, the Korean Choe Bu observed during his trip to China that "even village children, ferrymen, and sailors" could read, although this applied mainly to the south while northern China remained largely illiterate.


title: Woodblock printing

text: In modern times, Chinese printing continued the tradition begun in medieval times. Black-and-white woodcuts were generally replaced by colored ones, achieved by printing successive runs with different inks. Between the end of the 16th and the beginning of the 17th century, three—and five—color prints appeared. The oldest surviving print is the "Ten Bamboo Studio Manual of Calligraphy and Paintings" (1644) by Hu Zhengyan, of which there are several copies in various museums and collections. It is still commonly reproduced in China today and its images are very popular: it includes landscapes, flowers, animals, reproductions of jades, bronzes, porcelain and other objects.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Another outstanding series is the collection of twenty-nine "Kaempfer Prints" (British Museum, London), brought in 1693 by a German physician from China to Europe, which includes flowers, fruits, birds, insects and ornamental motifs reminiscent of the style of Kangxi ceramics. Equally famous is the compilation "Manual of the Mustard Seed Garden", published in two parts between 1679 and 1701. It was initiated by the scholar and landscape painter Wáng Gài and expanded and prefaced by the art critic Li Yu and the landscape painter Wáng Niè. It was noted for the quality of its polychrome and drawings, which influenced Qing painting.


title: Woodblock printing

text: In 989 Seongjong of Goryeo sent the monk Yeoga to request from the Song a copy of the complete Buddhist canon. The request was granted in 991 when Seongjong's official Han Eongong visited the Song court. In 1011, Hyeonjong of Goryeo issued the carving of their own set of the Buddhist canon, which would come to be known as the "Goryeo Daejanggyeong". The project was suspended in 1031 after Heyongjong's death, but work resumed again in 1046 after Munjong's accession to the throne. The completed work, amounting to some 6,000 volumes, was finished in 1087. Unfortunately the original set of woodblocks was destroyed in a conflagration during the Mongol invasion of 1232. King Gojong ordered another set to be created and work began in 1237, this time only taking 12 years to complete. In 1248 the complete "Goryeo Daejanggyeong" numbered 81,258 printing blocks, 52,330,152 characters, 1496 titles, and 6568 volumes. Due to the stringent editing process that went into the "Goryeo Daejanggyeong" and its surprisingly enduring nature, having survived completely intact over 760 years, it is considered the most accurate of Buddhist canons written in Classical Chinese as well as a standard edition for East Asian Buddhist scholarship.


title: Woodblock printing

text: In the Kamakura period from the 12th century to the 13th century, many books were printed and published by woodblock printing at Buddhist temples in Kyoto and Kamakura.


title: Woodblock printing

text: The mass production of woodblock prints in the Edo period was due to the high literacy rate of Japanese people. The literacy rate of the Japanese by 1800 was almost 100% for the samurai class and 50% to 60% for the "chōnin" and "nōmin" (farmer) class due to the spread of private schools "terakoya". There were more than 600 rental bookstores in Edo, and people lent woodblock-printed illustrated books of various genres. The content of these books varied widely, including travel guides, gardening books, cookbooks, "kibyōshi" (satirical novels), "sharebon" (books on urban culture), "kokkeibon" (comical books), "ninjōbon" (romance novel), "yomihon", "kusazōshi", art books, play scripts for the kabuki and "jōruri" (puppet) theatre, etc. The best-selling books of this period were "Kōshoku Ichidai Otoko (Life of an Amorous Man)" by Ihara Saikaku, "Nansō Satomi Hakkenden" by Takizawa Bakin, and "Tōkaidōchū Hizakurige" by Jippensha Ikku, and these books were reprinted many times.


title: Woodblock printing

text: From the 17th century to the 19th century, "ukiyo-e" depicting secular subjects became very popular among the common people and were mass-produced. "ukiyo-e" is based on kabuki actors, sumo wrestlers, beautiful women, landscapes of sightseeing spots, historical tales, and so on, and Hokusai and Hiroshige are the most famous artists. In the 18th century, Suzuki Harunobu established the technique of multicolor woodblock printing called "nishiki-e" and greatly developed Japanese woodblock printing culture such as "ukiyo-e". "Ukiyo-e" influenced European Japonisme and Impressionism. In the early 20th century, "shin-hanga" that fused the tradition of "ukiyo-e" with the techniques of Western paintings became popular, and the works of Hasui Kawase and Hiroshi Yoshida gained international popularity.


title: Woodblock printing

text: A few specimen of wood block printing, possibly called "tarsh" in Arabic, have been excavated from a 10th-century context in Arabic Egypt. They were mostly used for prayers and amulets. The technique may have spread from China or been an independent invention, but had very little impact and virtually disappeared at the end of the 14th century. In India the main importance of the technique has always been as a method of printing textiles, which has been a large industry since at least the 10th century.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Block books, where both text and images are cut on a single block for a whole page, appeared in Europe in the mid 15th century. As they were almost always undated, and without statement of printer or place of printing, determining their dates of printing has been an extremely difficult task. Allan H. Stevenson, by comparing the watermarks in the paper used in block books with watermarks in dated documents, concluded that the "heyday" of block books was the 1460s, but that at least one dated from about 1451. Block books printed in the 1470s were often of cheaper quality, as a cheaper alternative to books printed by printing press. Block books continued to be printed sporadically up through the end of the 15th century.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Ceramic and wooden movable type were invented in the Northern Song dynasty around the year 1041 by the commoner Bi Sheng. Metal movable type also appeared in the Southern Song dynasty. The earliest extant book printed using movable type is the "Auspicious Tantra of All-Reaching Union", printed in Western Xia c. 1139–1193. Metal movable type was used in the Song, Jin, and Yuan dynasties for printing banknotes. The invention of movable type did not have an immediate effect on woodblock printing and it never supplanted it in East Asia.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Only during the Ming and Qing dynasties did wooden and metal movable types see any considerable use, but the preferred method remained woodblock. Usage of movable type in China never exceeded 10 percent of all printed materials while 90 percent of printed books used the older woodblock technology. In one case an entire set of wooden type numbering 250,000 pieces was used for firewood. Woodblocks remained the dominant printing method in China until the introduction of lithography in the late 19th century.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Traditionally it has been assumed that the prevalence of woodblock printing in East Asia as a result of Chinese characters led to the stagnation of printing culture and enterprise in that region. S. H. Steinberg describes woodblock printing in his "Five Hundred Years of Printing" as having "outlived their usefulness" and their printed material as "cheap tracts for the half-literate, [...] which anyway had to be very brief because of the laborious process of cutting the letters." John Man's "The Gutenberg Revolution" makes a similar case: "wood-blocks were even more demanding than manuscript pages to make, and they wore out and broke, and then you had to carve another one – a whole page at a time."


title: Woodblock printing

text: Recent commentaries on printing in China using contemporary European observers with first hand knowledge complicate the traditional narrative. T. H. Barrett points out that only Europeans who had never seen Chinese woodblock printing in action tended to dismiss it, perhaps due to the almost instantaneous arrival of both xylography and movable type in Europe. The early Jesuit missionaries of late 16th century China, for instance, had a similar distaste for wood based printing for very different reasons. These Jesuits found that "the cheapness and omnipresence of printing in China made the prevailing wood-based technology extremely disturbing, even dangerous." Matteo Ricci made note of "the exceedingly large numbers of books in circulation here and the ridiculously low prices at which they are sold." Two hundred years later the Englishman John Barrow, by way of the Macartney mission to Qing China, also remarked with some amazement that the printing industry was "as free as in England, and the profession of printing open to everyone." The commercial success and profitability of woodblock printing was attested to by one British observer at the end of the nineteenth century, who noted that even before the arrival of western printing methods, the price of books and printed materials in China had already reached an astoundingly low price compared to what could be found in his home country. Of this, he said:


title: Woodblock printing

text: Other modern scholars such as Endymion Wilkinson hold a more conservative and skeptical view. While Wilkinson does not deny "China's dominance in book production from the fourth to the fifteenth century," he also insists that arguments for the Chinese advantage "should not be extended either forwards or backwards in time."


title: Woodblock printing

text: During the 16th and 17th centuries, printmaking enjoyed great popularity, especially in the illustration of books such as Buddhist texts, poems, novels, biographies, medical treatises, music, etc. The major center of production was initially in Kien-ngan (Fujian) and, from the 17th century, in Sin-ngan (Anhui) and Nanjing (Jiangsu). On the other hand, in the 18th century, the industry began to decline, with stereotyped images. This coincided with the arrival of European missionaries who introduced Western engraving techniques. The Jesuit Matteo Ripa edited in 1714-1715 a series of poems by Emperor Kangxi, which he illustrated with landscapes of the imperial summer residence at Jehol. During the reign of Emperor Qianlong the one hundred and four maps of the Chinese Empire made by Jesuit missionaries were printed, as well as illustrations of his military victories, which he commissioned in Paris from the engraver Charles-Nicolas Cochin ("Conquests of the Emperor of China", 1767-1773). The emperor himself commissioned the Jesuits to instruct Chinese artisans in the intaglio technique, but they did not obtain good results. Already in the 19th century, the growing xenophobia against Europeans was progressively relegating the use of engraving in China.


title: Woodblock printing

text: In the 20th century, the genre was revived by the writer Lou Siun, who founded a woodcut school in Shanghai in 1930. Influenced by contemporary Russian engraving, this school dealt especially with popular, agricultural and military subjects for propaganda purposes, as is evident in the work of P'an Jeng and Huang Yong-yu.


title: Woodblock printing

text: In 1234, cast metal movable type was used in Goryeo (Korea) to print the 50-volume "Prescribed Texts for Rites of the Past and Present", compiled by Choe Yun-ui, but no copies survived to the present. The oldest extant book printed with movable metal type is the Jikji of 1377. This form of metal movable type was described by the French scholar Henri-Jean Martin as "extremely similar to Gutenberg's".


title: Woodblock printing

text: Movable type never replaced woodblock printing in Korea. Indeed, even the promulgation of Hangeul was done through woodblock prints. The general assumption is that movable type did not replace block printing in places that used Chinese characters due to the expense of producing more than 200,000 individual pieces of type. Even woodblock printing was not as cost productive as simply paying a copyist to write out a book by hand if there was no intention of producing more than a few copies. Although Sejong the Great introduced Hangeul, an alphabetic system, in the 15th century, Hangeul only replaced Hanja in the 20th century. And unlike China, the movable type system was kept mainly within the confines of a highly stratified elite Korean society:


title: Woodblock printing

text: Western style movable type printing-press was brought to Japan by Tenshō embassy in 1590, and was first printed in Kazusa, Nagasaki in 1591. However, western printing-press were discontinued after the ban on Christianity in 1614. The moveable type printing-press seized from Korea by Toyotomi Hideyoshi's forces in 1593 was also in use at the same time as the printing press from Europe. An edition of the Confucian "Analects" was printed in 1598, using a Korean moveable type printing press, at the order of Emperor Go-Yōzei.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Tokugawa Ieyasu established a printing school at Enko-ji in Kyoto and started publishing books using domestic wooden movable type printing-press instead of metal from 1599. Ieyasu supervised the production of 100,000 types, which were used to print many political and historical books. In 1605, books using domestic copper movable type printing-press began to be published, but copper type did not become mainstream after Ieyasu died in 1616.


title: Woodblock printing

text: The great pioneers in applying movable type printing press to the creation of artistic books, and in preceding mass production for general consumption, were Honami Kōetsu and Suminokura Soan. At their studio in Saga, Kyoto, the pair created a number of woodblock versions of the Japanese classics, both text and images, essentially converting emaki (handscrolls) to printed books, and reproducing them for wider consumption. These books, now known as Kōetsu Books, Suminokura Books, or Saga Books, are considered the first and finest printed reproductions of many of these classic tales; the Saga Book of the Tales of Ise ("Ise monogatari"), printed in 1608, is especially renowned. Saga Books were printed on expensive paper, and used various embellishments, being printed specifically for a small circle of literary connoisseurs.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Despite the appeal of moveable type, however, craftsmen soon decided that the running script style of Japanese writings was better reproduced using woodblocks. By 1640 woodblocks were once again used for nearly all purposes. After the 1640s, movable type printing declined, and books were mass-produced by conventional woodblock printing during most of the Edo period. It was after the 1870s, during the Meiji period, when Japan opened the country to the West and began to modernize, that this technique was used again.


title: Woodblock printing

text: In countries using Arabic scripts, works, especially the Qur'an were printed from blocks or by lithography in the 19th century, as the links between the characters require compromises when movable type is used which were considered inappropriate for sacred texts.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Around the mid-1400s, "block-books", woodcut books with both text and images, usually carved in the same block, emerged as a cheaper alternative to manuscripts and books printed with movable type. These were all short heavily illustrated works, the bestsellers of the day, repeated in many different block-book versions: the Ars moriendi and the Biblia pauperum were the most common. There is still some controversy among scholars as to whether their introduction preceded or, the majority view, followed the introduction of movable type, with the range of estimated dates being between about 1440–1460.


title: Woodblock printing

text: "Jia xie" is a method for dyeing textiles (usually silk) using wood blocks invented in the 5th–6th centuries in China. An upper and a lower block are made, with carved out compartments opening to the back, fitted with plugs. The cloth, usually folded a number of times, is inserted and clamped between the two blocks. By unplugging the different compartments and filling them with dyes of different colours, a multi-coloured pattern can be printed over quite a large area of folded cloth. The method is not strictly printing however, as the pattern is not caused by pressure against the block.


title: Woodblock printing

text: The earliest woodblock printing known is in colour—Chinese silk from the Han dynasty printed in three colours.


title: Woodblock printing

text: Colour is very common in Asian woodblock printing on paper; in China the first known example is a Diamond sutra of 1341, printed in black and red at the Zifu Temple in modern-day Hubei province. The earliest dated book printed in more than 2 colours is "Chengshi moyuan" (), a book on ink-cakes printed in 1606 and the technique reached its height in books on art published in the first half of the 17th century. Notable examples are the Hu Zhengyan's "Treatise on the Paintings and Writings of the Ten Bamboo Studio" of 1633, and the "Mustard Seed Garden Painting Manual" published in 1679 and 1701.


title: Lisa Jakub

text: Lisa Jakub () (born December 27, 1978) is a Canadian writer, yoga teacher, and former actress. She is best known for her roles as Lydia Hillard in the comedy-drama film "Mrs. Doubtfire" (1993) and as Alicia Casse in "Independence Day" (1996).


title: Lisa Jakub

text: Jakub was born on December 27, 1978, in Toronto, Ontario. She is of Slovak (father) and Welsh and Scottish (mother) descent. She attended multiple schools in her early life, including Hillfield Strathallan College.


title: Lisa Jakub

text: Jakub's first role was as Katis' Granddaughter in the 1985 film "Eleni". She appeared in comedy-drama film "Mrs. Doubtfire" (1993) alongside Mara Wilson, Sally Field, Matthew Lawrence, and Robin Williams. When Jakub received the part of Lydia in "Mrs. Doubtfire", her high school expelled her for accruing too many absences. Robin Williams wrote a letter to Jakub's high school, pleading with them to re-admit Jakub but this was unsuccessful.


title: Lisa Jakub

text: She played Sandra in "Matinee" (1993), appeared in "A Pig's Tale" (1994) and "Independence Day" (1996), "The Beautician and the Beast" (1997), and played the "inspiration" for Princess Leia in the short film "George Lucas in Love" (1999). She starred in "Picture Perfect" (1995), and portrayed a bordello worker in the American Old West in "Painted Angels" (1997).


title: Lisa Jakub

text: After retiring from acting in 2001 at the age of 22, Jakub moved to Virginia and married her longtime best friend, former Hollywood theater manager Jeremy Jones, in 2005. She has publicly stated that she has no plans to return to acting. Jakub later became a writer, authoring two books called "You Look Like That Girl" (2015) and "Not Just Me" (2017) and regularly contributes to online blogs"." Jakub is also a qualified Kripalu yoga teacher. She has openly discussed her battles with anxiety, depression and panic attacks, which she has suffered from since her teenage years and credits her yoga practice in helping her overcome her battles. In 2021, Lisa launched a new website, BlueMala, which she described as the resource that she wished she had when she was in her darkest moments. The website contains her articles on mental wellness along with her yoga and meditation videos.


title: Dottie West

text: Dorothy Marie Marsh West (October 11, 1932 – September 4, 1991) was an American country music singer and songwriter. Along with her friends and fellow recording artists Patsy Cline and Loretta Lynn, she is considered one of the genre's most influential and groundbreaking female artists. West's career started in the 1960s, with her top-10 hit, "Here Comes My Baby Back Again", which won her a Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance in 1965, the first woman in country music to receive a Grammy.


title: Dottie West

text: In the early 1970s, West wrote a popular commercial for the Coca-Cola company, titled "Country Sunshine", which reached number two on "Billboard's" Hot Country Singles in 1973. In the late 1970s, she teamed up with country pop superstar Kenny Rogers for a series of duets that took her career to new highs, earning platinum-selling albums and number-one records for the first time.


title: Dottie West

text: Her duet recordings with Rogers, "Every Time Two Fools Collide", "All I Ever Need Is You", and "What Are We Doin' in Love", became country music standards. In the mid-1970s, her image and music underwent a metamorphosis, bringing her to the peak of her popularity as a solo act, and reaching number one on her own for the first time in 1980 with "A Lesson in Leavin'".


title: Dottie West

text: Dorothy Marie Marsh was born on October 11, 1932, to Pelina Artha (née Jones; 1915–1970) and William Hollis Marsh (1908–1967) in a community called Frog Pond about 64 miles northeast of Nashville, Tennessee, United States. She was the eldest of 10 children. The family was extremely poor. To help alleviate the financial strain, West's mother opened up a restaurant and young Dottie helped her run it.


title: Dottie West

text: Dottie's father Hollis Marsh was an alcoholic who beat and sexually abused her until she was 17 and reported him to the local sheriff. She testified in court against her father and he was sentenced to 40 years in prison, where he died in 1967.


title: Dottie West

text: After living with the sheriff for a short time, she moved to McMinnville with her mother and siblings. She also joined her high-school band, "The Cookskins", where she sang and played guitar. In 1951, she obtained a music scholarship to Tennessee Technological University in Cookeville, Tennessee. There, she met her first husband, steel guitarist Bill West, with whom she had four children, including country music star Shelly West. She continued to use his surname professionally.


title: Dottie West

text: After graduation, West moved with her family to Cleveland, Ohio, where she began appearing on the television program "Landmark Jamboree", as one half of a country pop vocal duo called the "Kay-Dots" alongside partner Kathy Dee. At the same time, West made numerous trips to Nashville in the hopes of landing a recording deal. In 1959, Bill and she auditioned for producer Don Pierce at Starday, and were offered a recording contract. The singles West cut for the label proved unsuccessful, but she moved to Nashville, Tennessee, two years later, where her husband and she fell in with aspiring songwriters, including Willie Nelson, Roger Miller, Hank Cochran, and Harlan Howard. West often played hostess to these struggling songwriters, offering them a place to stay and eat. In return, they taught West about the structure of songwriting. During this time, she also became a close friend of Patsy Cline and her husband, Charlie Dick.


title: Dottie West

text: Cline became one of West's biggest career inspirations. As West related to Ellis Nassour in the 1980 book "Patsy Cline", the greatest advice Cline ever gave her was, "When you're onstage sing to the audience with all of your heart and mean it. Then cast a spell over them. If you can't do it with feeling, then don't." In their early days in Nashville, West and her family often did not have enough to pay the rent or buy the week's groceries, so Cline would hire her to help with her wardrobe, and West's husband Bill to play in her band. Cline even offered to help pay West's rent or buy groceries, when she and Bill were struggling to stay in Nashville.


title: Dottie West

text: On March 5, 1963, Cline died in a plane crash along with Cowboy Copas, Hawkshaw Hawkins, and her pilot and manager Randy Hughes on her way home from a benefit at Memorial Hall in Kansas City, a concert West also attended. West had asked Cline to ride with Bill and her in their car, but Cline, anxious to get back home to her children, opted to fly, instead.


title: Dottie West

text: In 1963, Jim Reeves recorded a song written by West called "Is This Me", becoming a number-three hit that year. As a result, Reeves helped West secure a recording contract with RCA Victor.


title: Dottie West

text: West earned her first top-40 hit in 1963 with "Let Me Off at the Corner", followed a year later by the top-10 duet with Jim Reeves, "Love Is No Excuse". Also in 1964, she auditioned for RCA Victor producer Chet Atkins, the architect of the Nashville sound, who agreed to produce her composition "Here Comes My Baby". The single made West the first female country artist to win a Grammy Award ("Best Female Country Vocal Performance"), leading to an invitation to join the Grand Ole Opry. "Here Comes My Baby" reached number 10 on "Billboard" country charts in 1964. After releasing the "Here Comes My Baby" LP in 1965, West and producer Chet Atkins reunited the following year for "Suffer Time," which generated her biggest hit yet in "Would You Hold It Against Me". In 1967, the West/Atkins pairing issued three separate albums: "With All My Heart and Soul" (featuring the number-eight smash "Paper Mansions"), "Dottie West Sings Sacred Ballads", and "I'll Help You Forget Her".


title: Dottie West

text: During the same period, she also appeared in a pair of films, "Second Fiddle to a Steel Guitar" and "There's a Still on the Hill". She continued to have success as a solo artist during the late 1960s, with such songs as "What's Come Over My Baby" and "Country Girl", which garnered her an offer to write a commercial based on it for Coca-Cola in 1970. The soft-drink company liked the result so much, it signed her to a lifetime contract as a jingle writer.


title: Dottie West

text: After the 1968 LP "Country Girl", West teamed with Don Gibson for a record of duets, "Dottie and Don", featuring the number-two hit "Rings of Gold" released in 1969. The album was her last with Atkins, and she followed it in 1970 with two releases, "Forever Yours" and "Country Boy and Country Girl", a collection of pairings with Jimmy Dean. Around the time of "Have You Heard Dottie West", released in 1971, she left her husband Bill, and in 1972, married drummer Byron Metcalf, who was 12 years her junior. Due possibly in part to her recent stratospheric success with duets, her solo career suffered between 1969 and 1972. Most of her singles released at the time had failed even to peak in the top 40, and her album sales were declining.


title: Dottie West

text: In 1973, West provided Coca-Cola with another advertisement, featuring a song called "Country Sunshine". The popularity of the commercial prompted her to release the song as a single, and it became one of her biggest hits, reaching number two on the country chart and number 49 on the pop chart. The ad itself netted a Clio Award for commercial of the year and she became the first country artist ever to win that particular honor. "Country Sunshine" proved to be a solid comeback, as she was nominated for two Grammys for the song, Best Country Song and Best Female Country Vocal Performance a year later.


title: Dottie West

text: After the release of "House of Love" in 1974, West notched a number of top-40 hits, including the top-10 "Last Time I Saw Him", "House of Love", and "Lay Back Lover". Before signing with United Artists Records in 1976, her final RCA album, "Carolina Cousins", was released in 1975.


title: Dottie West

text: In the late 1970s, West's image underwent a major metamorphosis; the woman who had once performed outfitted in conservative gingham dresses, and had originally refused to record Kris Kristofferson's "Help Me Make It Through the Night" because it was "too sexy", began appearing in spandex-sequined Bob Mackie designs with 20 costumes under a $400,000 contract (she had relented in late 1970 and recorded "Help Me Make It Through the Night" on the album "Careless Hands", which was released in 1971). As the sexual revolution peaked, so did West's career. Under United Artists, West's material changed from traditional country to up-tempo and slow-tempo Adult Contemporary-styled music. In 1977, West released her first album under United Artists, "When It's Just You and Me". The title track peaked at number 19 on the country chart.


title: Dottie West

text: In 1977, she was due to record the song "Every Time Two Fools Collide", when Kenny Rogers vocals were added. Released as a duet, the single hit number one, West's first; the duo's 1979 "All I Ever Need Is You" and 1981 "What Are We Doin' in Love" topped the chart. A 1979 duets album, "Classics", also proved successful. The duo proved popular enough to be booked in some of the biggest venues in the United States and other countries. In 1978 and 1979, the duo won the Country Music Association's "Vocal Duo of the Year" award.


title: Dottie West

text: During the 1980s, West continued to generate solo hits, most notably "A Lesson in Leavin'". Her popularity as a featured performer on the Grand Ole Opry endured. "A Lesson in Leavin'" was West's first number-one solo hit. It also peaked at number 73 on the pop charts. A week before "A Lesson in Leavin'" reached the number-one, it was part of a historic top five in country music, when those spots were all held by women. The album that included this song, "Special Delivery", included two other top-15 country hits from 1980, "You Pick Me Up (And Put Me Down)" and "Leavin's for Unbelievers". In 1981, West had a pair of back-to-back number-one hits, "Are You Happy Baby" and "What Are We Doin' in Love" with Kenny Rogers. "What Are We Doin' in Love" was West's only top-40 hit on the pop charts, reaching number 14, becoming a major crossover hit in mid-1981. Her 1981 album "Wild West" was one of her biggest sellers.


title: Dottie West

text: As the 1980s progressed, West's popularity began to slip. However, she did introduce herself to younger audiences as she lent her voice to Melissa Raccoon in the film "The Raccoons and the Lost Star" (1983), a precursor to the later series produced by Kevin Gillis, "The Raccoons." West's 1982 album "High Time" spawned her last top-20 hit, "It's High Time", which reached number 16. The album's other single, "You're Not Easy to Forget", peaked at only number 26. West's next two albums under Liberty Records, "Full Circle" and "New Horizons", were both commercial failures. West's last top-40 hit was "Tulsa Ballroom" (1983). In 1984, West departed from her label and switched to the independent label Permian.


title: Dottie West

text: In 1981, West's daughter Shelly also made a career in country music; she is best known for her hit duet with David Frizzell, "You're the Reason God Made Oklahoma", which hit number one that year. As a solo artist, Shelly notched her own number one in 1983 entitled "José Cuervo". During the early and mid-1980s, Shelly achieved several more hits, including top-10 solo hits "Flight 309 to Tennessee" and "Another Motel Memory". After getting married in the late 1980s, Shelly left the music business.


title: Dottie West

text: In 1982, West was asked to play the lead role in the stage production of "The Best Little Whorehouse in Texas". That summer, she toured for four weeks in the stage production, performing across the country. She had her own float in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade that year. She also posed for a revealing photo in the men's magazine "Oui". In 1983, she married her sound man, Al Winters, 22 years her junior. In 1984, she appeared in the play "Bring It On Home". In 1986, she made her screen debut in the science-fiction film "The Aurora Encounter". In 1984, West released her final studio album, "Just Dottie". This album was not very successful; all three of the singles that it contained failed to chart in the top 40. Her last chart hit, "We Know Better Now", reached only number 53 in 1985.


title: Dottie West

text: In 1983, West, who was a lifelong active Democrat, performed on the party's syndicated telethon, "Celebrate America".


title: Dottie West

text: Although she remained a popular touring act, West's financial problems mounted. West and Winters filed for divorce in 1990, and he sued her for $7,500. By this time, extravagant spending and a string of bad investments had left her nearly broke. In March, her Los Angeles manager sued her for $130,000, and her former manager sued her for $110,295. Furthermore, a local bank foreclosed on her mansion outside of Nashville, and sent West an eviction notice on August 1, 1990. At this time, West owed the IRS $1.3 million and filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy; she later switched to Chapter 7, which allowed her to liquidate her assets. West's fan-club president, Sandy Orwig, told The Nashville Network in a 1995 interview that according to West, the "IRS would show up at her door anytime of the day or night, taking her possessions. They even separated and took apart her award plaques, throwing half in one box and the other in another."


title: Dottie West

text: After a car accident in her Corvette and a public auction of her mansion and possessions, West began making plans for a comeback, including an album of duets and an autobiography. The album was to feature West's friends and fellow artists Kenny Rogers, Roger Miller, Tanya Tucker, and Tammy Wynette. However, the album never materialized. She recorded her last song in July 1991 called "As For Me", a duet with Norwegian country singer Arne Benoni.


title: Dottie West

text: On August 30, 1991, West was scheduled to perform at the "Grand Ole Opry". Shortly after leaving her apartment at Nashville's Wessex Towers, West's car, a Chrysler New Yorker which Rogers had given to her following the loss of her possessions at the IRS auction, stalled in front of the old Belle Meade theater on Harding Road. West's 81-year-old neighbor, George Thackston, spotted her on the side of the road and offered to drive her to the Opry for her scheduled appearance. Frantic about getting to the Opry on time, West had urged Thackston to speed.


title: Dottie West

text: Thackston lost control of his vehicle while exiting at the Opryland exit on Briley Parkway at a speed of 55 miles per hour; the exit ramp was posted for 25 miles per hour. The car left the ramp, went airborne, and struck the central divider. After the accident, Thackston was found to have had a blood alcohol content of 0.08%, and pled no contest to reckless endangerment and was ordered to complete an alcohol treatment program. West did not believe she was as badly injured as her neighbor had been, and insisted he be treated first. Officers who responded to the scene incorrectly reported she did not seem harmed at the time. West herself was under the same impression; however, she had suffered severe internal injuries and proved to have suffered both a ruptured spleen and a lacerated liver. Her spleen was removed that Friday, and the following Monday, she underwent two more surgeries to stop her liver from bleeding; these efforts ultimately failed. Doctors said that West knew the extent of her injuries and even visited with Kenny Rogers shortly before her last operation. On September 4, 1991, during her third operation, West died on the operating table, at the age of 58.


title: Dottie West

text: West's friend and fellow artist Tammy Wynette stated that she had put aside visiting her in the hospital, saying she had planned to allow West to heal first, something she admitted to later as regretting. In his autobiography, Kenny Rogers, who maintained a very close friendship with West, stated he did pay a visit to her in the hospital a few times prior to her death. On his last visit (the day of West's death), Rogers recalled that although he was told she was unlikely to hear him, he still spoke to her for a considerable amount of time in the hope that she could hear what he was saying.


title: Dottie West

text: West's funeral was held at Christ Church on Old Hickory Boulevard with 600 friends and family attendees, including Emmylou Harris, Connie Smith, Johnny and June Carter Cash, and Larry Gatlin. West's friend and fellow artist Steve Wariner, whom she had helped move to Nashville as a young artist, sang "Amazing Grace".


title: Dottie West

text: A few weeks later, President George H. W. Bush, a longtime fan for whom she had performed at the White House, expressed his condolences at the CMA Awards.


title: Dottie West

text: West's hometown of McMinnville, Tennessee, dedicated Highway 56 to her memory, naming it the Dottie West Memorial Highway.


title: Dottie West

text: A previously planned country music-themed week for the 1991–92 season of the syndicated "Family Feud", scheduled to feature Grand Ole Opry stars playing for charity, was dedicated in her memory.


title: Dottie West

text: George Thackston pleaded no contest to a charge of reckless endangerment arising out of the fatal accident. On March 26, 1992, a judge sentenced him to 11 months and 29 days of probation and also ordered him to complete an alcohol treatment program. His blood alcohol level of .08% was not enough for him to be considered intoxicated under Tennessee law.


title: Dottie West

text: In 1995, actress Michele Lee, with the help of West's daughter, Shelly, produced and starred in the made-for-TV biopic "", which premiered on CBS. Lee starred with Kenny Rogers; wore all of West's original clothes, including her famous Bob Mackie outfits; and sang West's hits for the movie. It proved to be one of the most successful TV movies in CBS history. That same year, a biography called "Country Sunshine: The Dottie West Story" was released, written by Judy Berryhill and Francis Meeker.


title: Dottie West

text: In 1999, country music singer Jo Dee Messina covered West's biggest solo hit, "A Lesson in Leavin'", for her album "I'm Alright". The song stayed at number two for seven weeks on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart that year, and was one of the year's biggest songs.


title: Dottie West

text: In 2000, West was honored at the BMI Golden Voice Awards with the Female Golden Legacy Award. She was the second woman to win this type of BMI award, the first being her friend and mentor Patsy Cline. Today, her hometown of McMinnville holds a Dottie West Music Festival each year in October. West was ranked number 23 in Country Music Television's "40 Greatest Women of Country Music" in 2002.


title: Dottie West

text: In November 2003, Country Music Television voted West on their special countdown of the "40 Greatest Fashion Statements in Country Music" at number 32 for her glittery costumes and tight spandex outfits from the 1980s.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: Time in New Zealand is divided by law into two standard time zones. The main islands use New Zealand Standard Time (NZST), 12 hours in advance of Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) / military M (Mike), while the outlying Chatham Islands use Chatham Standard Time (CHAST), 12 hours 45 minutes in advance of UTC / military M^ (Mike-Three).


title: Time in New Zealand

text: During summer months – from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April – daylight saving time is observed and clocks are advanced one hour. New Zealand Daylight Time (NZDT) is 13 hours ahead of UTC, and Chatham Daylight Time (CHADT) 13 hours 45 minutes ahead.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: New Zealand's associated states – the Cook Islands and Niue – and the dependent territory of Tokelau use several different time zones at their own discretion.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: On 2 November 1868, New Zealand officially adopted a standard time to be observed nationally, and was the first country to do so, about fifteen years before any other. Chatham Island was 45 minutes ahead of mainland New Zealand [twelve hours and fifteen minutes ahead of Coordinated Universal Time]. It was based on longitude 172° 30′ East of Greenwich, hours ahead of Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). This standard was known as New Zealand Mean Time (NZMT).


title: Time in New Zealand

text: In 1941, during the Second World War, clocks were advanced half an hour, to reduce electric power use making New Zealand 12 hours ahead of GMT. This change was made permanent from 1946 by the "Standard Time Act 1945", at which the time at the 180°E meridian was made the basis for New Zealand Time. NZST remained half an hour ahead of NZMT, and the Chatham Islands 45 minutes ahead of NZST.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: In the late 1940s the atomic clock was developed and several laboratories began atomic time scales. A new time scale known as Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) was adopted internationally in 1972. This was based on the readings of atomic clocks, updated periodically in accordance with time variations in the Earth's rotation by the addition or deletion of seconds (called leap seconds). The "Time Act 1974" defines New Zealand Standard Time as 12 hours in advance of UTC.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: In 2011, the New Zealand dependency of Tokelau moved its time zone forward by 24 hours, by skipping 30 December.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: Starting in 1909, a member of Parliament, Sir Thomas Kay Sidey annually put forward a bill to advance the clocks an hour from September to the following March and the "Summer Time Act 1927" succeeded. In 1927, clocks were advanced by an hour from first Sunday in November to the first Sunday in March. This proved unpopular, so the "Summer Time Act 1928" revised this to a "half"-hour shift from 14 October 1928 (second Sunday) to 17 March 1929 (third Sunday), then the "Summer Time Act 1929" permanently fixed this half-hour shift to run from the second Sunday in October to the third Sunday in March every year. In 1933, the period was extended from the first Sunday in September to the last Sunday in April. This continued until the Second World War, when emergency regulations in 1941 extended daylight saving to cover the whole year with annual re-applications until the "Standard Time Act 1945" made the abandonment of NZMT permanent in 1946, so that 180° becomes the base longitude and what was called NZ Summer Time (NZST) became NZ Standard Time.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: The "Time Act 1974" empowered the governor-general to declare by Order in Council a period when daylight saving time is to be observed. This was a one-hour shift (on top of the earlier half-hour shift) from the first Sunday in November to the last Sunday in February, promptly changed the next year by The New Zealand Time Order 1975 which fixed the period of observance from the last Sunday in October to the first Sunday in March.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: In 1985 a comprehensive survey was undertaken by the Department of Internal Affairs. Public attitudes towards NZDT (New Zealand Daylight Time) and its effects on work, recreation and particular groups of people in society were surveyed. The survey indicated that 76.2% of the population wanted NZDT either continued or extended.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: The survey also concluded that opinion on the topic differed little between sexes, and that support for NZDT was generally higher in urban centres. Daylight saving was famously opposed in the small Northland dairy farming community of Ararua, which refused to adjust its clocks for some years. Support for shortening or abolishing NZDT was always in the minority in the areas surveyed.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: As a consequence of the survey and further feedback from the public, in 1988 the Minister of Internal Affairs arranged for a trial period of extended NZDT to be held from the second Sunday in October 1989 to the third Sunday in March 1990. The Minister invited the public to write to him with their views on the five-week extension.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: The "Daylight Time Order 1990" declared that NZDT would run from 02:00 NZST on the first Sunday in October to 03:00 NZDT on the third Sunday in March.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: On 30 April 2007 the government announced that it had extended the daylight saving period from 24 to 27 weeks. From September 2007, daylight saving is now observed from the last Sunday in September until the first Sunday in April. From 30 April 2007, DST begins at 02:00 NZST on the last Sunday in September each year, and ends at 03:00 NZDT (or 02:00 NZST as defined in the 1974 Act) on the first Sunday in April.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: New Zealand time, including DST, is used by several Antarctic bases that are supplied from New Zealand. This results in the oddity that the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station sets its clocks an hour further ahead during the southern summer, when the sun is constantly above the horizon, than in the southern winter, when the sun is constantly below the horizon. The extreme geographic position of the base means that no possible adjustment of the daily activity cycle can have any effect on the amount of sunlight received during those activities. However, the arrangement presumably makes real time communications with New Zealand more practical, particularly in dealing with offices.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: The other countries in the Realm of New Zealand – Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau – do not maintain DST. Two of them are on the other side of the International Date Line and have 22–24 hours time difference to New Zealand.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: The following table lists near future starting and ending dates of daylight saving time in the main islands of New Zealand:


title: Time in New Zealand

text: New Zealand standard time is maintained by the Measurement Standards Laboratory (MSL), part of New Zealand Government. New Zealand standard time is based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). UTC is kept within 200 nanoseconds of the international atomic time scale maintained by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: It is disseminated by various means, including time pips broadcast on Radio New Zealand, speaking clock and Network Time Protocol.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: There are two associated states of New Zealand in the Pacific Ocean, both on the other side of the International Date Line:


title: Time in New Zealand

text: The New Zealand dependency of Tokelau is in the time zone or Military M' (Mike Prime) and does not observe daylight saving time. Clocks in Tokelau are set to the same time as or 1 hour ahead of New Zealand: at noon on Thursday in New Zealand, it is 12:00 or 13:00 on Thursday in Tokelau.


title: Time in New Zealand

text: The Ross Dependency, McMurdo Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station in Antarctica maintain NZST/NZDT.


title: The 8th Night

text: The 8th Night () is a 2021 South Korean mystery-thriller film directed by Kim Tae-hyoung for Gom Pictures starring Lee Sung-min, Park Hae-joon, Kim Yoo-jung, and Nam Da-reum. The film depicts the struggle of a former exorcist attempting to stop the resurrection of two mysterious beings who tormented humans and were locked up in separate caskets for 2500 years. It was released on Netflix and made available for streaming in 190 countries on July 2, 2021.


title: The 8th Night

text: ""A man, who was once an exorcist, suffers until he faces a demon that is freed. The night exists between real and unreal, their struggle to stop the resurrection of the demon has begun!""


title: The 8th Night

text: About two and half millennium ago (2,500 years), a monster crossed the bridge from hell to the human realm to create human suffering. Buddha ripped both the Red Eye and the Black Eye from the monster and locked them inside different Śarīra caskets. Before the Red Eye surrendered to Buddha, it ran away for seven days by hiding inside human bodies. On the 8th day, the Red Eye looked back. Knowing that it could not escape Buddha, it surrendered itself. The Eyes were buried in the cliffs of the Far East and the desert of the Far West. Buddha instructed his disciples to make sure they would never meet.


title: The 8th Night

text: In the present, Professor Kim Joon-Cheol (Choi Jin-ho) sets out in the desert to prove the existence of the Śarīra caskets. He finds a relic which is presumed to be one of the caskets. However, the scientific community declares his findings to be fraudulent, and he is shunned by all. Fourteen years later, Professor Kim, now a bitter individual, is determined to prove the truth of his discovery by reuniting the Black Eye and Red Eye. He opens the casket and pours a vial of blood into it along with his own. Before Professor Kim is about to give up, the Red Eye emerges from the casket, presumably possessing Professor Kim.


title: The 8th Night

text: In Gwangju, Bhante Ha-jung (Lee Eol), protector of the Black Eye casket, realizes the Red Eye has reawakened. He tells a young monk, Cheongseok (Nam Da-reum), the legend of the monster with two eyes. Later that night, Bhante Ha-jung tells Cheongseok that the Red Eye has awakened and will soon reunite with the Black Eye. They must slay at least the seventh pillar, the Virgin Shaman, to prevent the Red Eye from reuniting with the Black Eye. Cheongseok must find Bhante Seon-hwa (Lee Sung-min) and inform him of the situation. The following morning, Cheongseok finds Bhante Ha-jung dead, who presumably died in his sleep. Cheongseok finds the Śarīra casket beside the dead monk.


title: The 8th Night

text: Meanwhile, in Chilgok, the Red Eye takes over a hunter and goes into a motel where a couple was seen checking in. The woman tells her boyfriend about a meditation group where she was given a free health check-up and a blood test. The hunter presumably attacks the couple who checked into the secluded motel. Detectives Kim Ho-Tae and Dong-jin investigate the scene and find the hunter's body dried and decomposed after just a few hours. Cameras show that the woman was seen leaving the hotel. Later on, the very same woman is found in another location, her body found in a similar state as that of the hunter's. Due to the bizarre condition of the two victims, Dong-jin suggestes the help of a virgin shaman that he knows. However, being a skeptic, Kim refuses the idea.


title: The 8th Night

text: Cheongseok leaves Gwanju in search for Bhante Seon-hwa. Unfortunately, he had lost his bag containing the casket and some money. He presumed that it was taken by a young girl (Kim Yoo-Jung) who disappeared into the crowd. Cheongseok finds Seon-hwa, who is now a construction worker using his real name, Park Jin-soo, and tells him (via writing, due to his vow of silence) of what happened in Gwanju. In his flashbacks, it is revealed by Ha-jung's spirit that Seon-hwa left the monastery as he didn't want to be Ha-jung's successor. Seon-hwa also neglected his duty of "'helping lost souls ascend"', so their countless souls are clinging to his back. The following morning, Seon-hwa prepares to leave and search for the seventh pillar with Cheongseok following him. Seon-hwa presumes that the seventh pillar is the Virgin Shaman with which the monks of Gwanju are acquainted. Seon-hwa treats Cheongseok well, even buying him a new pair of shoes. Cheongseok thanks Seon-hwa, accidentally breaking his vow of silence.


title: The 8th Night

text: Meanwhile, the Red Eye had already planned to move on from the woman at the motel. A delivery man answers her call as both of them were members of a 'meditation group'. The Red Eye then passes onto the delivery man, and later, Detective Kim is called to see the body of a woman stuffed in a sewer. The woman is also found decomposed and drained like the first two victims. A motorcycle and delivery cargo is also found abandoned nearby.


title: The 8th Night

text: Before boarding the bus, Seon-hwa was visited again by Ha-jung's spirit. It is revealed that Cheongseok's mother accidentally ran over Seon-hwa and his wife and daughter. His wife and child died, compelling Seon-hwa to live a life as a monk in Gwanju. When Cheongseok's mother died, she wrote a letter to Seon-hwa asking him to adopt Cheongseok. Seon-hwa does so, but leaves him in Gwanju. He then left the monastery and his duties, never becoming an ordained monk. As they arrived, Seon-hwa tells Cheongseok to search for shaman services around the area, hoping to find the Virgin Shaman. Upon learning of the recent bizzare murder, Seon-hwa goes to the tunnel where the woman and delivery motorcycle was found. Detective Kim stops him, asking for Seonhwa's credentials and ran his ID for any criminal records. When Kim asks Seon-hwa to open his bag, which contained an axe, Seonhwa tried to run away. The two got into a scuffle, and Seonhwa was forced to leave his map.


title: The 8th Night

text: Cheongseok finds the house of the Virgin Shaman, and a young woman lets her in. She was the same young woman who took his belongings, but Cheongseok grew fond of her. Cheongseok leaves, but as soon as he stepped outside, he sees a student staring at him. The student revealed the Red Eye, being the sixth pillar. Cheongseok runs away in fear, and meets with Seon-hwa to inform him of what happened. Seonhwa tells Cheongseok to go back home, and reveals that he has to kill the young woman who he believes to be the seventh pillar and the Virgin Shaman. They go on their separate ways, but Cheongseok went back to the Virgin Shaman and took the Virgin Shaman away. Meanwhile, Dong-jin informs Kim of Seon-hwa's past. They were also able to connect the victims together. They were all members of a meditation group that Prof. Kim had set up, and Dong-jin had actually went to see one of them who was still alive--a woman who was the same Virgin Shaman Cheongseok unknowingly went to. Dong-jin had a talisman with his own blood made, thanks to the Virgin Shaman he met earlier, and gives it to Kim. It turns out that Kim saved Dong-jin from committing suicide, and he was indebted to Kim. Kim had Dong-jin leave while he uses Seonhwa's map to see if he could track down Seonhwa.


title: The 8th Night

text: Seonhwa finds the house of the Virgin Shaman, but the lady inside points to a note. When Seon-hwa confronts the lady, she strapped her face with talismans and Seonhwa prepared to strike her down. Detective Kim arrives in time to stop him, and the two squared off once more. Before Kim handcuffed Seonhwa, the possessed student arrived and threw him away, with the talisman he got from Dong-jin protecting him from further harm. The student realizes that the young woman had already left, and Seonhwa follows her, inscribing a talisman on his axe using his own blood. However, the student runs into Dong-jin, tricking the young detective to protect her from Seon-hwa. She possesses Dong-jin, and dries and decomposes. Dong-jin doesn't kill Seon-hwa, but tells him to head back to Gwanju, where he will die.


title: The 8th Night

text: Meanwhile, Cheongseok took the young woman to Gwanju, and Seon-hwa and the possessed Dong-jin arriving later. Detective Kim went back to the Virgin Shaman's house, and it is revealed that the lady who nearly died was the actual Virgin Shaman, and that the young woman Cheongseok was with is actually a ghost that she found living with Professor Kim. The real Virgin Shaman reveals that her name was Ae-ran, who was an abused child that was saved by Professor Kim. Professor Kim had groomed her to be the sacrifice that will assist the monster from reuniting its two Eyes. Professor Kim also tricked the members of the meditation group into donating their blood, via the 'free blood tests', in order to use their blood to summon the Red Eye, and later becoming the seven stepping stones. Ae-ran latched onto the Virgin Shaman, and she used her to trick Dong-jin into giving his own blood, so he could be possessed later on. It was also this Virgin Shaman, possessed by Ae-ran, who took the casket Cheongseok was carrying days ago. Detective Kim leaves to Gwanju in search for Dong-jin.


title: The 8th Night

text: Seon-hwa finds Cheongseok in an abandoned shack, and the young monk realizes that he was all alone from the start, with the casket being in his possession. Seon-hwa instructs Cheongseok of their plan to trap Dong-jin, let the Red Eye possess him instead, and Cheongseok delivering the killing blow. The plan goes well, and they managed to trap Dong-jin inside. However, Dong-jin revealed that Ae-ran, nor the Virgin Shaman, weren't the seventh pillar he needed. Ae-ran's purpose was to bewitch the seventh pillar, Cheongseok. Because Seon-hwa left the monastery and didn't become Ha-jung's successor, the title was transferred to Cheongseok. This meant that only Cheongseok has the ability to open the casket containing the Black Eye. Dong-jin orders the ghost of Ae-ran to find Cheongseok, who was hiding nearby. Still bewitched, Ae-ran was able to remove Cheongseok's robe, which had a talisman Seon-hwa made. Dong-jin orders Seon-hwa to shoot himself for being such a failure in life, but Seon-hwa shoots Dong-jin instead, though futile.


title: The 8th Night

text: Cheongseok runs away from the possessed Dong-jin, and encounters Detective Kim. Detective Kim tries to stop Dong-jin but was again thrown violently to the side, once again protected by Dong-jin's talisman in his pocket. Seon-hwa manages to shoot Dong-jin's weak left leg. but Dong-jin crawls to Cheongseok in pursuit. Seon-hwa delivers a killing blow to Dong-jin's back, but he got shot by Detective Kim. Detective Kim goes over to Dong-jin, but his corpse dried and decomposed. The Red Eye has successfully possessed Cheongseok, and it throws Detective Kim onto a sharp branch, killing the Detective. As the Black Eye materializes, the Red Eye grabs the dying Seon-hwa. It transforms itself to a young version of Cheongseok, and torments Seon-hwa into strangling the young boy, seeing as his mother was the cause of his family's deaths. However, Seon-hwa persists, caressing the young boy's cheek. The Red Eye reverts back to the grownup Cheongseok, and was about to kill Seon-hwa with the axe. Seon-hwa traps Cheongseok's arm while chanting a spell. As he was caressing Cheongseok's face, he was actually writing another talisman using his own blood onto Cheongseok's face. This forced the Red Eye to possess Seon-hwa, and he asks Cheongseok to kill him. Cheongseok gathers the courage to do so, killing Seon-hwa and stopping the reunion of the Red Eye and Black Eye in the process.


title: The 8th Night

text: Cheongseok is later seen in the border of India and Pakistan, and returns the casket back to where it was first unearthed. Ae-run appears before him, and Cheongseok offers up his hand. As Ae-run's spirit grabs Cheongseok's hand, the chains on her ankles were unchained, presumably freeing her.


title: The 8th Night

text: In May 2019, Lee Seong-min, Park Hae-joon, Kim Yoo-jung, and Nam Da-reum were confirmed to appear in the film. Later, Lee Eul and Choi Jin-ho joined the cast.


title: The 8th Night

text: Filming began on May 19, 2019 and was wrapped up on September 26, 2019. The film was shot in Suwon, Incheon, Paju, Daejeon, Daegu, Yeongyang-gun and Kazakhstan. It was set to release in 2020 but was postponed due to COVID-19.


title: The 8th Night

text: Sarah Musnicky, writing in Nightmarish Conjurings, rated it with 4.5/5 stars and wrote that the screenplay is 'incredibly thoughtful' as it kept the audience guessing. She opined, "The writing helps to elevate the story beyond a typical “save the day” scenario." Musnicky also praised the performances of the cast because in her opinion that really helped the development of characters. Praising the FX makeup and the VFX, she penned, "And its in that simplicity that I think the Makeup and VFX teams really shone." Concluding the review Musnicky expressed, "Altogether, "The 8th Night" is a strong contender for one of my favorite films of 2021."


title: The 8th Night

text: Johnny Loftus, writing for Decider, praised Nam Da-reum's performance. He opined that "The 8th Night", was a well-made film which eschews 'big scares' and 'jump scenes' for a 'suitably creepy' juxtaposition of the supernatural and mundane. Ending his write-up, he wrote, "A different film might fling the door to Hell open with a little more flair, but "The 8th Night" still drives at its central conceit with subtle notes of character and spirit world mystery."


title: The 8th Night

text: For JumpCut Online, Nguyen Le said the film has "the style, the startles and the sight to certify deeper currents" despite an overly rapid pacing and average English subtitling work that can cause details to be lost. He ended his 3.5/5 review by saying this is a film "you should, at least once, give the time of day to."


title: The 8th Night

text: Writing for Culture Mix, Carla Hay opined that "The 8th Night" has innovative cinematography and visual effects making the film an above average horror film. Hay wrote that the film with solid plot overcame decoration over content scenes, and suspenseful and surprising twists made up for the film’s messy climax. Ending the review Hay said, ""The 8th Night" has enough captivating mystery and horror that viewers, confused or not, shouldn’t get easily bored from watching this movie."


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Boston United Football Club is a semi-professional association football club based in Boston, Lincolnshire, England. The club participates in the National League North, at the sixth tier of the English football league system. The club is known as 'the Pilgrims' in reference to the Pilgrim Fathers, who left England and sailed to North America and settled near, though did not found, Boston, Massachusetts. The club's crest features the pilgrim fathers' ship, the "Mayflower". The club's traditional colours are amber and black. They are rivals with Lincoln City, Scunthorpe United, Gainsborough Trinity and Grimsby Town. They play at the Boston Community Stadium.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The club was formed in 1933 as a successor to the short lived Boston Town. They initially competed in the Midland League, before joining the Southern League for a four-year spell in 1958. They returned to the Midland League and then joined then United Counties League, winning their first league title in 1965–66. Boston then switched to the West Midlands (Regional) League, winning the Premier Division in 1966–67 and 1967–68, before becoming founder members of the Northern Premier League in 1968. United won four Northern Premier League titles in the 1970s (1972–73, 1973–74, 1976–77 and 1977–78) and became founder members of Alliance Premier League in 1979. Boston returned to the Northern Premier League in 1993 and moved back to the Southern League Premier Division in 1998.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Boston United won the Southern League in 1999–2000 and the Conference in 2001–02 to secure a place in the Football League for the first time under the stewardship of controversial manager Steve Evans. They spent five years in the fourth tier, but entered administration in 2007 and were relegated down two divisions into the Conference North. Demoted to the Northern Premier League the next year, Boston won the Northern Premier League Premier Division play-offs in 2010 and have since had five unsuccessful play-off campaigns in the Conference / National League North, including a 1-0 play-off final defeat to Altrincham during the last ever game to be held at York Street in August 2020.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The club was founded in 1933 as a successor to a club called Boston Town. Their first game was a 3–1 defeat at home to Grimsby Reserves on 26 August 1933, when a crowd of 1,544 watched Boston's no.7, Blessed, score United's first ever goal. They then had a moderate amount of success in various leagues, including the Midland League and Southern League.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The club's FA cup run of 1955–56 included a 6–1 victory at Derby County, then playing in Third Division North, with Geoff Hazledine scoring a hat-trick. This was a record away win by a non-league team against League opponents in the FA Cup. This set up a Third Round match against Tottenham Hotspur of the Football League First Division at White Hart Lane on 7 January 1956. The match against Tottenham Hotspur was played in front of a crowd of 46,185. The Pilgrims lost 4–0, but the match was more notable for the travelling support. Over 10,000 Boston supporters attended the game. A number of special train services from Boston to King's Cross were set up for the day.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: They were founder members of the Northern Premier League in 1968, of which they were champions four times, and of the Alliance Premier League (now the National League) in 1979. However, their Northern Premier League title wins were not enough to gain them election to the Football League, and when they won the title in 1978 they surprisingly missed out on league status in favour of runners-up Wigan Athletic, who took the Football League place previously held by Southport.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: In 1985 Boston United went to Wembley for the first and only time in their history for the FA Trophy Final of the 1984–85 season, after Bob Lee scored a winning last minute goal in the 2nd leg of the semi-final against Altrincham at York Street to put the Pilgrims through. Boston lost 2–1 to Wealdstone in front of 20,775, with Chris Cook scoring United's only goal.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Boston United finished third in the Conference in 1988–89, but were unable to build on this and were relegated to the NPL in 1993. They were transferred to the Southern League, winning the title in 2000, and went fully professional in 2001. In their first season as a professional club, Boston won the Conference and were promoted to the Football League.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: However, in the wake of their promotion, Boston's manager, Steve Evans, and former chairman, Pat Malkinson, were charged with breaking the Football Association's rules over the registration of players. Both men received bans from the FA, and the club were fined and docked four points from their first season in the League. This angered some, especially the Conference runners up Dagenham & Redbridge, who believed that any points deduction should have applied to the previous season, which would have meant Dagenham being promoted instead.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Youth team coach Neil Thompson was appointed as manager for Boston's maiden Football League season, and though they left it late to secure survival, they ultimately managed a creditable 15th-place finish. The following season resulted in another relegation battle, and as soon as former manager Steve Evans had served his suspension in full, Thompson was sacked and Evans was reinstated as manager, leading them to a strong late-season run and an eventual finish of 11th. Evans' return and a substantial investment in the playing squad saw Boston among the promotion favourites for the 2004–05 season, but it in fact resulted in a disappointing 16th place. 2005-06 would prove to be their most successful Football League season, with their finish of 11th being their joint-highest, but the club missing out on the play-offs by just five points (having missed out by a much larger margin in 2003–04).


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Because of the relegation Boston were originally scheduled to play the 2007–08 season in the Conference National but this position was immediately placed in doubt after the club's chairman Jim Rodwell entered Boston into a Company Voluntary Arrangement late in their last game so that 10 points would then be deducted in the 2006–07 season instead of the 2007–08 season. Although this meant that Boston started the 2007–08 season without a points penalty FA rules dictated that they be demoted 2 divisions as a result of HM Revenue & Customs placing a restriction into the CVA of Boston not being allowed to pay football creditors 100% of what they were owed. They therefore played the 2007–08 season in the Conference North division, two steps below the Football League. This would be United's first season under the new ownership of David Newton and Neil Kempster, who took control of the club over from ex-Chairman Jim Rodwell.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Despite finishing the 2007–08 campaign in 10th place under the guidance of Tommy Taylor, United were still in administration by the 2nd Saturday of May in 2008. This meant they were relegated again to the Northern Premier League Premier Division for the 2008–09 season. Despite coming out of administration just before the start of the new season anyway, Boston United failed to have this decision overturned. Another result of this was that they would also have to enter the FA Cup in the 1st qualifying round, something which they had not done for many years. They reached the final of the Lincs Senior Shield but were swept aside by Stamford 4–1,and finished the league campaign in 16th position.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: A much more favourable campaign the following season saw The Pilgrims finish 3rd in the league where they won the play-offs, beating Bradford Park Avenue in the final thanks to an Anthony Church extra time winner to earn promotion back to the Conference North.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Joint managers Rob Scott and Paul Hurst resigned from the club in 2011 and were appointed joint managers of Conference National side Grimsby Town. Club chairman David Newton revealed he was beginning legal proceedings against the pair and Grimsby Town, for breach of contract. The Pilgrims wasted no time appointing former Boston player Jason Lee and current player Lee Canoville as joint caretaker managers. With only 7 Conference North games remaining, the pair guided United to a 3rd-place finish in the league setting up a play-off tie against Guiseley. Boston lost the first leg 1–0 at Nethermoor Park but fought back in the return leg winning 3–2 at the Jakemans Stadium to take the match to extra-time and penalties. Boston went out losing 2–3.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: After a decent start to the 2012/13 season, Boston started to drop off the promotion pace, with a 7-game winless run from November to mid-December not aiding their cause. More inconsistency followed, and Jason Lee was sacked. Graham Drury took over within the same week but left the club after less than 2 months. Dennis Greene took over soon afterwards, but after a good start couldn't help the club from finishing higher than a poor 16th place, just 5 points above the relegation zone.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The following season was a marked improvement in both league and cups. Whilst Boston fell at the 2nd hurdle (2–0) at Brackley, they made the last 32 of the FA Trophy with wins over Redditch and Southport, before a 2–0 loss at Tamworth. In the league, they held on to a top 5 spot for most of the season and never fell below 8th, but they couldn't keep up with late surges by Hednesford and Guiseley, ending 1 place and 6 points off the playoffs in 6th.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The following season Boston did make the play-offs however, securing a place with a 4–1 victory at Solihull Moors before a 0–0 draw at home to relegated Leamington was enough to secure third place. A 0–0 draw at Chorley's Victory Park set up a winner takes it all second leg at York St, and goals from Scott Garner and Kaine Felix put Boston 2–0 ahead. However, Chorley forced extra time with an overhead kick from Adam Roscoe late in injury time. Despite Roscoe's extra time red card, Boston failed to score a third and the game went to penalties, which United lost after seven spot kicks when Sam Ashton saved Rene Steer's penalty.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Boston started the 2015–16 season as play-off favourites once again, but pressure mounted on Greene due to poor results including losing to Gainsborough in the FA Cup and Solihull Moors in the FA Trophy (both in the first round Boston featured in). However, Boston found spells of form later in the season to ensure 5th place at the expense of Nuneaton- a 3-point deduction received by the Warwickshire side helping the United cause.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Boston faced North Ferriby United in the play-offs, and won the first leg 2–0 at home through Grant Roberts and Zak Mills' goals. The second leg at Church Farm saw that lead overturned by King, Denton and Brooksby as United again missed out. Somewhat of an exodus then occurred as Boston saw Spiess, Mills, Piergianni, Garner, Marrs, Felix and Southwell all depart, Southwell and Mills notably moving to league sides Wycombe and Grimsby respectively.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The following season started poorly, manager Greene leaving the club in late November to be replaced by former Mansfield Town manager Adam Murray. He led the side to safety but was himself gone by November the following year. With Boston occupying a relegation spot, Craig Elliott – leaving Shaw Lane to do so – took over and guided the Pilgrims to safety, United for a time threatening to break in to the play-offs following victories over title chasing Harrogate and Salford City.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Elliott's second full season in charge was to be the club's last at York Street (2019/20). The side won through four away ties in the FA Cup to reach a Second Round game away to Rochdale. A draw at Spotland secured York Street one last big cup tie – the League One side winning 2–1 in a televised replay with over 4000 in attendance. Newcastle United at home was their reward. The coronavirus pandemic cut short the season and Boston finished third on points-per-game, winning a behind closed doors semi-final against Gateshead 5–3 to secure a play-off final with Altrincham. The Robins scored the only goal of the game, the club's last match at York Street.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: With the new Pilgrim Way stadium delayed due to the pandemic 2020/21, still behind closed doors, started with United playing home games at Gainsborough's Northolme. A covid outbreak in the squad meant only 3 home games were played at Trinity's home, as the Boston Community Stadium opened on 5 December 2020, against Chorley. The season was ended as the coronavirus situation worsened over the Winter.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: 2021/22 finally saw United fans able to see a game at the new Pilgrim Way stadium, starting with a 5-0 friendly win over Lincoln City in July 2021.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Boston United played at York Street until 2020, styled as The Jakemans Stadium through a sponsorship deal. There were four sides to the stadium: the main seated Mick George Stand; the Co-Operative York Street Stand; the Spayne Road Terrace; and the old away end—known as The Jakemans Stand and then turned into a home stand. The away fans sat in a section of the York Street Stand.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: Former club chairman Jon Sotnick claimed it was not up to Football League standards and called for a new ground during the Pilgrims' time in the Football League. Planning applications were made to Boston Borough Council in June 2006, but the council turned down the application. The ground had a total capacity of 6,643.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The club built a new stadium outside the town, and on 10 April 2019 announced that the 2019–2020 season was to be their last at York Street.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: For the beginning of the 2020–21 season, the club were granted permission to use Gainsborough Trinity's Northolme as their home ground temporarily whilst finishing touches were applied to their new stadium.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The club played its first game at the Boston Community Stadium on 5 December 2020, resulting in a 2–0 home defeat to Chorley in the National League North.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: On 4 December 2006 Boston's plan to relocate to a new stadium on The Boardsides was unanimously rejected by Boston Borough Council. This plunged the club's future into serious doubt. Chairman James Rodwell said the club's future was "hanging in the balance" because York Street did not have the facilities to allow the club to operate at a profit, and a ground move was required to wipe out the club's debts. Rodwell confirmed that he would be meeting with shareholders over the next couple of days to determine the best course of action, but did admit that the club's future was ultimately now in the hands of HM Revenue and Customs, who were owed a sizeable six-figure sum by the club.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: In a statement he released to the club's official website on 5 December he said: "The club's financial situation at the present moment is dire. I would urge all supporters and anybody interested in the future of the football club, be that investors or potential purchasers, to come forward immediately".


title: Boston United F.C.

text: In November 2006, Boston manager Steve Evans and his former chairman Pat Malkinson pleaded guilty to "conspiring to cheat the public revenue between 1997 and 2002". Both were given suspended jail sentences.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: In May 2007, Boston entered into a Company Voluntary Arrangement towards the end of their last game of the season when they knew they would be relegated to the Conference. This allowed them to avoid a points deduction in the next season, but has proved a controversial move.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: On 10 June 2007 the Football Conference's annual general meeting voted in favour of demoting Boston United to the Conference North, stating that the terms of the Company Voluntary Agreement which Boston entered was behind the decision. Altrincham were subsequently spared relegation for the second season running. Chief executive John Moules released this statement:


title: Boston United F.C.

text: "Because Boston United are in breach of certain rules, it was felt Blue Square North was the best place for them. HM Revenue and Customs put a caveat on that CVA that Boston could not pay football creditors. That breaks Football Association, Football League and Football Conference rules and regulations. We're giving Boston the opportunity to re-establish themselves as a leading club outside the Football League. They believe the decision we have made is fair and just, and they are not going to appeal. We had meetings all day on Friday with Boston United and then informed Altrincham that they were staying up."


title: Boston United F.C.

text: On 4 July 2007, Chestnut Homes, a local housing development company, announced that they had acquired Boston United FC.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: In a statement at a press conference the new chairman David Newton said: "... we are happy to sit here today and make certain pledges to the loyal supporters of the club. While we are involved in the club, the club will be whiter than white. While we are here, everyone will be paid. We will be prudent in the management of the club's finances. We will strive for excellence on and off the pitch. As finances permit, we will develop the youth side of the club, and if managed well that should pay dividends in the medium to long term for the club. Above all, we will try to rebuild the reputation of this football club."


title: Boston United F.C.

text: During the summer of 2007 Boston lost their entire squad except for Stewart Talbot and Paul Ellender, and new manager Tommy Taylor had to start from scratch. Nevertheless, at the end of the season it was announced Boston would be expelled from the Conference league structure after the club failed to exit administration by 10 May deadline. The Conference is the only league in the world to have this appendix, which is not a rule as such, but only a guideline to be used at the League's discretion. The Pilgrims came out of administration before the end of the summer.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: When founded in 1933, Boston United inherited a kit of blue shirts, white shorts and black socks from the wound-up Boston Football Club. Later that year, these kits were changed to a black shirt with a large white 'V', a design maintained until 1937. After this, United switched to white shirts and black shorts and socks. After World War II, Boston United reverted to blue shirts of different shades with either black or white shorts and socks.


title: Boston United F.C.

text: The currently colour scheme of amber and black has been in place since 1951, although the design has varied from season to season. In recent times, Boston United have had their kits supplied by Umbro (1988–90), Paulas Benara (1990–2005), Vandanel (2006–10), Errea (2010–2016), Nike (2016–2020), and Adidas (2020–present).


title: Shtetl

text: A shtetl or shtetel (; (singular); שטעטלעך, romanized: "shtetlekh" (plural)) is a Yiddish term for the small towns with predominantly Ashkenazi Jewish populations which existed in Eastern Europe before the Holocaust. The term is used in the contexts of peculiarities of former East European Jewish societies as islands within the surrounding non-Jewish populace, and bears certain socio-economic and cultural connotations. Shtetls (or shtetels, shtetlach, shtetelach or shtetlekh) were mainly found in the areas that constituted the 19th-century Pale of Settlement in the Russian Empire as well as in Congress Poland, Austrian Galicia, Kingdom of Romania and in the Kingdom of Hungary.


title: Shtetl

text: In Yiddish, a larger city, like Lviv or Chernivtsi, is called a ' (), and a village is called a ' (). "Shtetl" is a diminutive of "" with the meaning "little town". Despite the existence of Jewish self-administration ("kehilla"/"kahal"), officially there were no separate Jewish municipalities, and the shtetl was referred to as a "miasteczko" (or "mestechko", in Russian bureaucracy), a type of settlement which originated in the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and formally recognized in Russian Empire as well. For clarification, the expression "Jewish miasteczko" was often used.


title: Shtetl

text: The shtetl as a phenomenon of Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe was destroyed by the Nazis during the Holocaust.


title: Shtetl

text: A "shtetl" is defined by Yohanan Petrovsky-Shtern as "an East European market town in private possession of a Polish magnate, inhabited mostly but not exclusively by Jews" and from the 1790s onward and until 1915 shtetls were also "subject to Russian bureaucracy", as the Russian Empire had annexed the eastern part of Poland, and was administering the area where the settlement of Jews was permitted. The concept of "shtetl" culture describes the traditional way of life of East European Jews. Shtetls are portrayed as pious communities following Orthodox Judaism, socially stable and unchanging despite outside influence or attacks.


title: Shtetl

text: The history of the oldest Eastern European shtetls began around the 13th century and saw long periods of relative tolerance and prosperity as well as times of extreme poverty and hardships, including pogroms in the 19th-century Russian Empire.


title: Shtetl

text: The attitudes and thought habits characteristic of the learning tradition are as evident in the street and market place as the yeshiva. The popular picture of the Jew in Eastern Europe, held by Jew and Gentile alike, is true to the Talmudic tradition. The picture includes the tendency to examine, analyze and re-analyze, to seek meanings behind meanings and for implications and secondary consequences. It includes also a dependence on deductive logic as a basis for practical conclusions and actions.


title: Shtetl

text: In life, as in the Torah, it is assumed that everything has deeper and secondary meanings, which must be probed. All subjects have implications and ramifications. Moreover, the person who makes a statement must have a reason, and this too must be probed. Often a comment will evoke an answer to the assumed reason behind it or to the meaning believed to lie beneath it, or to the remote consequences to which it leads. The process that produces such a response—often with lightning speed—is a modest reproduction of the pilpul process.


title: Shtetl

text: The May Laws introduced by Tsar Alexander III of Russia in 1882 banned Jews from rural areas and towns of fewer than ten thousand people. In the 20th century revolutions, civil wars, industrialisation and the Holocaust destroyed traditional shtetl existence.


title: Shtetl

text: The decline of the "shtetl" started from about the 1840s. Contributing factors included poverty as a result of changes in economic climate (including industrialisation which hurt the traditional Jewish artisan and the movement of trade to the larger towns), repeated fires destroying the wooden homes, and overpopulation. Also, the anti-Semitism of the Russian Imperial administrators and the Polish landlords, and later, from the 1880s, pogroms, made life difficult for Jews in the shtetl. From the 1880s until 1915 up to 2 million Jews left Eastern Europe. At the time about three-quarters of its Jewish population lived in a shtetl. The Holocaust resulted in the total extermination of shtetls. It was not uncommon for the entire Jewish population of a shtetl to be rounded up and murdered in a nearby forest or taken to the various concentration camps. Some shtetl inhabitants did emigrate before and after the Holocaust, mostly to the United States, where some of the traditions were carried on. But, the shtetl as a phenomenon of Ashkenazi Jews in Eastern Europe was eradicated by the Nazis.


title: Shtetl

text: In the later part of the 20th century, Hasidic Jews founded new communities in the United States, such as Kiryas Joel and New Square, and they often use the term "shtetl" to refer to these enclaves in Yiddish, particularly those with village structures.


title: Shtetl

text: In Europe, the Ultra-Orthodox community in Antwerp, Belgium is widely described as the last shtetl, composed of about 12,000 people.


title: Shtetl

text: Qırmızı Qəsəbə, in Azerbaijan, thought to be the only 100% Jewish community not in Israel or the United States, has been described as a shtetl.


title: Shtetl

text: Not only did the Jews of the shtetls speak Yiddish, a language rarely spoken by outsiders, but they also had a unique rhetorical style, rooted in traditions of Talmudic learning:


title: Shtetl

text: In keeping with his own conception of contradictory reality, the man of the shtetl is noted both for volubility and for laconic, allusive speech. Both pictures are true, and both are characteristic of the yeshiva as well as the market places. When the scholar converses with his intellectual peers, incomplete sentences, a hint, a gesture, may replace a whole paragraph. The listener is expected to understand the full meaning on the basis of a word or even a sound... Such a conversation, prolonged and animated, may be as incomprehensible to the uninitiated as if the excited discussants were talking in tongues. The same verbal economy may be found in domestic or business circles.


title: Shtetl

text: Shtetls provided a strong sense of community due to Jews carrying faith in God. The shtetl "at its heart, it was a community of faith built upon a deeply rooted religious culture". A Jewish education was most paramount in shtetls. Men and boys would spend up to 10 hours a day dedicated to studying at yeshivas. Discouraged from extensive study, women would perform the necessary tasks of a household. In addition, shtetls offered communal institutions such as temples (synagogues), ritual baths and ritual butchers.


title: Shtetl

text: This approach to good deeds finds its roots in Jewish religious views, summarised in Pirkei Avot by Shimon Hatzaddik's "three pillars":


title: Shtetl

text: Tzedaka (charity) is a key element of Jewish culture, both secular and religious, to this day. Tzedaka was essential for shtetl Jews, many of whom lived in poverty. Acts of philanthropy aided social institutions such as schools and orphanages. Jews viewed giving charity as an opportunity to do a good deed (mitzvah).


title: Shtetl

text: Material things were neither disdained nor extremely praised in the shtetl. Learning and education were the ultimate measures of worth in the eyes of the community, while money was secondary to status.


title: Shtetl

text: Menial labor was generally looked down upon as "prost", or prole. Even the poorer classes in the shtetl tended to work in jobs that required the use of skills, such as shoe-making or tailoring of clothes.


title: Shtetl

text: The shtetl had a consistent work ethic which valued hard work and frowned upon laziness. Studying, of course, was considered the most valuable and hardest work of all. Learned yeshiva men who did not provide bread and relied on their wives for money were not frowned upon but praised as ideal Jews.


title: Shtetl

text: There is a belief found in historical and literary writings that the shtetl disintegrated before it was destroyed during World War II; however, Joshua Rosenberg of the Institute of East-European Jewish Affairs at Brandeis University argued that this alleged cultural break-up is never clearly defined. He argued that the whole Jewish life in Eastern Europe, not only in shtetls, "was in a state of permanent crisis, both political and economic, of social uncertainty and cultural conflicts". Rosenberg outlines a number of reasons for the image of "disintegrating shtetl" and other kinds of stereotyping. For one, it was an "anti-shtetl" propaganda of the zionist movement. Yiddish and Hebrew literature can only to a degree be considered representing the complete reality. It mostly focused on the elements that attract attention, rather than on an "average Jew". Also, in successful America, memories of "shtetl", in addition to sufferings, were colored with nostalgia and sentimentalism.


title: Shtetl

text: Kasrilevke, the setting of many of Sholem Aleichem's stories, and Anatevka, the setting of the musical "Fiddler on the Roof" (based on other stories of Sholem Aleichem) are other notable fictional shtetls.


title: Shtetl

text: Devorah Baron made aliyah to Ottoman Palestine in 1910 after a pogrom destroyed her shtetl near Minsk. But she continued writing about shtetl life long after she had arrived in Palestine.


title: Shtetl

text: Many of Joseph Roth's books are based on shtetls on the Eastern fringes of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and most notably on his hometown Brody.


title: Shtetl

text: Many of Isaac Bashevis Singer's short stories and novels are set in shtetls. Singer's mother was the daughter of the rabbi of Biłgoraj, a town in south-eastern Poland. As a child, Singer lived in Biłgoraj for periods with his family, and he wrote that life in the small town made a deep impression on him.


title: Shtetl

text: The 2002 novel "Everything Is Illuminated", by Jonathan Safran Foer, tells a fictional story set in the Ukrainian shtetl Trachimbrod (Trochenbrod).


title: Shtetl

text: The 1992 children's book "Something from Nothing", written and illustrated by Phoebe Gilman, is an adaptation of a traditional Jewish folk tale set in a fictional shtetl.


title: Shtetl

text: In 1996 the "Frontline" programme "Shtetl" broadcast; it was about Polish Christian and Jewish relations.


title: Shtetl

text: Harry Turtledove's 2011 short story "Shtetl Days", which can be read on-line, begins in a typical shtetl reminiscent of the works of Alecheim, Roth, et al., but soon reveals a plot twist which subverts the genre.


title: Shtetl

text: Many Jewish artists in Eastern Europe dedicated much of their artistic careers to depictions of the shtetl. These include Marc Chagall, Chaim Goldberg, and Mane Katz. Their contribution is in making a permanent record in color of the life that is described in literature—the klezmers, the weddings, the marketplaces and the religious aspects of the culture.