title: Cordite

text: The first smokeless powder was developed in 1865 by Johann Edward Schultze. At the time of this breakthrough, Schultze was a captain of Prussian artillery. Schultze eventually rose to the rank of colonel. His formulation (dubbed "Schultze Powder") was composed of nitrolignose impregnated with saltpetre or barium nitrate.


title: Cordite

text: In 1882 the Explosive Company of Stowmarket introduced "EC Powder", which contained nitro-cotton and nitrates of potassium and barium in a grain gelatinesed by ether alcohol. It had coarser grains than other nitrocellulose powders. It proved unsuitable for rifles, but it remained in long use for shotguns and was later used for grenades and fragmentation bombs.


title: Cordite

text: In 1884, the French chemist Paul Vieille produced a smokeless propellant that had some success. It was made out of collodion (nitrocellulose dissolved in ethanol and ether), resulting in a plastic colloidal substance which was rolled into very thin sheets, then dried and cut up into small flakes. It was immediately adopted by the French military for their Mle 1886 infantry rifle and called "Poudre B" (for "poudre blanche", or "white powder") to distinguish it from "black powder" (gunpowder). The rifle and the cartridge developed to use this powder were known generically as the 8mm Lebel, after the officer who developed its 8 mm full metal jacket bullet.


title: Cordite

text: The following year, 1887, Alfred Nobel invented and patented a smokeless propellant he called "Ballistite". It was composed of 10% camphor, 45% nitroglycerine and 45% collodion (nitrocellulose). Over time the camphor tended to evaporate, leaving an unstable explosive.


title: Cordite

text: A United Kingdom government committee, known as the "Explosives Committee", chaired by Sir Frederick Abel, monitored foreign developments in explosives and obtained samples of Poudre B and Ballistite; neither of these smokeless powders was recommended for adoption by the Explosives Committee.


title: Cordite

text: Abel, Sir James Dewar and W Kellner, who was also on the committee, developed and jointly patented (Nos 5,614 and 11,664 in the names of Abel and Dewar) in 1889 a new ballistite-like propellant consisting of (by weight) 58% nitroglycerin, 37% guncotton (nitrocellulose) and 5% petroleum jelly. Using acetone as a solvent, it was extruded as spaghetti-like rods initially called "cord powder" or "the Committee's modification of Ballistite", but this was swiftly abbreviated to "Cordite".


title: Cordite

text: Cordite began as a "double-base" propellant. In the 1930s "triple-base" was developed by including a substantial proportion of nitroguanidine. Triple-base propellant reduced the disadvantages of double-base propellant – its relatively high temperature and significant flash. Imperial Chemical Industries's (ICI) World War 2 double-base "AN" formulation also had a much lower temperature, but it lacked the flash reduction properties of N and NQ triple-base propellants.


title: Cordite

text: Whilst cordite is classified as an explosive, it is not employed as a high explosive. It is designed to deflagrate, or burn, to produce high pressure gases.


title: Cordite

text: Alfred Nobel sued Abel and Dewar over an alleged patent infringement. His patent specified that the nitrocellulose should be "of the well-known soluble kind". After losing the case, it went to the Court of Appeal. This dispute eventually reached the House of Lords, in 1895, but it was finally lost because the words "of the well-known soluble kind" in his patent were taken to mean the soluble collodion, and hence specifically excluded the insoluble guncotton. The ambiguous phrase was "soluble nitro-cellulose": soluble nitro-cellulose was known as "Collodion" and was soluble in alcohol. It was employed mainly for medical and photographic use. In contrast, insoluble in alcohol, nitrocellulose was known as "gun cotton" and was used as an explosive. Nobel's patent refers to the production of Celluloid using camphor and soluble nitrocellulose; and this was taken to imply that Nobel was specifically distinguishing between the use of soluble and insoluble nitrocellulose. For a forensic analysis of the case see The History of Explosives Vol II; The Case for Cordite, John Williams (2014). However, in her comprehensive 2019 biography of Alfred Nobel Ingrid Carlberg notes how closely Abel and Dewar were allowed to follow Nobel's work in Paris, and how disappointed Nobel was with how this trust was betrayed. The book argues for Nobel as the original inventor and that the case was lost because of an unimportant technicality.


title: Cordite

text: It was quickly discovered that the rate of burning could be varied by altering the surface area of the cordite. Narrow rods were used in small-arms and were relatively fast burning, while thicker rods would burn more slowly and were used for longer barrels, such as those used in artillery and naval guns.


title: Cordite

text: The original Abel-Dewar formulation was soon superseded, as it caused excessive gun barrel erosion. It has since become known as "Cordite Mk I".


title: Cordite

text: The composition of cordite was changed to 65% guncotton, 30% nitroglycerin (keeping 5% petroleum jelly), and 0.8% acetone shortly after the end of the Second Boer War. This was known as "Cordite MD" (modified).


title: Cordite

text: Cordite MD cartridges typically weighed approximately 15% more than the cordite Mk I cartridges they replaced, to achieve the same muzzle velocity, due to the inherently less powerful nature of Cordite MD.


title: Cordite

text: During World War I acetone was in short supply in Great Britain, and a new experimental form was developed for use by the Royal Navy. This was "Cordite RDB" (= "R"esearch "D"epartment formula "B"); which was 52% collodion, 42% nitroglycerin and 6% petroleum jelly. It was produced at HM Factory, Gretna; and the Royal Navy Cordite Factory, Holton Heath.


title: Cordite

text: Acetone for the cordite industry during late World War I was eventually produced through the efforts of Dr. Chaim Weizmann, considered to be the father of industrial fermentation. While a lecturer at Manchester University Weizmann discovered how to use bacterial fermentation to produce large quantities of many desired substances. He used the bacterium "Clostridium acetobutylicum" (the so-called Weizmann organism) to produce acetone. Weizmann transferred the rights to the manufacture of acetone to the Commercial Solvents Corporation in exchange for royalties. After the Shell Crisis of 1915 during World War I, he was director of the British Admiralty Laboratories from 1916 until 1919.


title: Cordite

text: Research on solvent-free Cordite RDB continued primarily on the addition of stabilizers, which led to the type commonly used in World War II as the main naval propellant. In Great Britain this was known as "Cordite SC" (= Solventless Cordite). Cordite SC was produced in different shapes and sizes, so the particular geometry of Cordite SC was indicated by the use of letters or numbers, or both, after the SC. For example, SC followed by a number was rod-shaped cord, with the number representing the diameter in thousandths of an inch. "SC T" followed by two sets of numbers indicated tubular propellant, with the numbers representing the two diameters in thousandths.


title: Cordite

text: Two-inch (approximately 50 mm) and three-inch (approximately 75 mm) diameter, rocket Cordite SC charges were developed in great secrecy before World War II for anti-aircraft purposes—the so-called "Z batteries", using 'Unrotated Projectiles'.


title: Cordite

text: Great Britain changed to metric units in the 1960s, so there was a discontinuity in the propellant geometry numbering system.


title: Cordite

text: An important development during World War II was the addition of another explosive, nitroguanidine, to the mixture to form "triple-base" propellant or "Cordite N" and "NQ". The formulations were slightly different for artillery and naval use. This solved two problems associated with the large naval guns fitted to British Navy's capital ships: gun flash and muzzle erosion. Nitroguanidine produces large amounts of nitrogen when heated, which had the benefit of reducing the muzzle flash, and its lower burning temperature greatly reduced the erosion of the gun barrel.


title: Cordite

text: N and NQ were also issued in limited amounts to ammunitions used by the British 25-pdr and 5.5-inch land-based artillery pieces.


title: Cordite

text: After World War II production of double-base propellants generally ended. Triple-base propellants, N and NQ, were the only ones used in new ammunition designs, such as the cartridges for 105 mm Field and for 155 mm FH70.


title: Cordite

text: In Great Britain cordite was developed for military use at the Royal Arsenal by Abel, Dewar and Kellner, Woolwich, and produced at the Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills from 1889 onwards.


title: Cordite

text: At the start of World War I cordite was in production at Waltham Abbey Royal Gunpowder Mills and by seven other suppliers (British Explosives Syndicate Ltd, Chilworth Gunpowder Company Ltd, Cotton Powder Company Ltd, Messrs Curtis's and Harvey Ltd, National Explosives Company Ltd, New Explosives Company Ltd and Nobels Explosive Company Ltd).


title: Cordite

text: . Existing factories were expanded and new ones built notably by Nobel's at Ardeer, HM Factory, Gretna, which straddled the Scotland-England border at Gretna, and the Royal Navy Cordite Factory, Holton Heath


title: Cordite

text: . A factory was also established by the Indian Government at Nilgris. Both the Gretna and the Holton Heath cordite factories closed at the end of World War I.


title: Cordite

text: By the start of World War II Holton Heath had reopened, and an additional factory for the Royal Navy, The Royal Navy Propellant Factory, Caerwent, opened at Caerwent in Wales. A very large Royal Ordnance Factory, ROF Bishopton, was opened in Scotland to manufacture cordite for the British Army and the Royal Air Force. A new cordite factory at Waltham Abbey and two additional ROF's—ROF Ranskill and ROF Wrexham—were also opened. Cordite produced in these factories was sent to filling factories for filling into ammunition.


title: Cordite

text: The British Government set up additional cordite factories, not under Royal Ordnance Factory control but as Agency Factories run on behalf of the Ministry of Supply (MoS). The company of ICI Nobel, at Ardeer, was asked in 1939 to construct and operate six factories in southern Scotland. Four of these six were involved in cordite or firearm-propellant manufacture. The works at MoS Drungans (Dumfries) produced guncotton that was converted to cordite at MoS Dalbeattie (triple-base cordite) and at MoS Powfoot (monobase granulated guncotton for small-arms). A smaller site at Girvan, South Ayrshire, now occupied by Grant's distillery, produced cordite and TNT. The ICI Ardeer site also had a mothballed World War I Government-owned cordite factory.


title: Cordite

text: 35% of British cordite produced between 1942 and 1945 came from Ardeer and these agency factories. ICI ran a similar works at Deer Park (which was also confusingly known as Ardeer after the adjacent suburb) near Melbourne in Australia and in South Africa.


title: Cordite

text: Additional sources of propellant were also sought from the British Commonwealth in both World War I and World War II. Canada, South Africa, and Australia had ICI-owned factories that, in particular, supplied large quantities of cordite.


title: Cordite

text: Canadian Explosives Limited was formed in 1910 to produce rifle cordite, at its Beloeil factory, for the Quebec Arsenal. By November 1915 production had been expanded to produce 350,000 lb (159,000 kg) of cordite per month for the Imperial Munitions Board.


title: Cordite

text: The Imperial Munitions Board set up a number of additional explosives factories in Canada. It built "The British Cordite Ltd" factory at Nobel, Ontario, in 1916/1917, to produce cordite. Production started in mid-1917.


title: Cordite

text: Canadian Explosives Limited built an additional cordite factory at Nobel, Ontario. Work started in February 1918 and was finished on 24 August 1918. It was designed to produce 1,500,000 lb (681,000 kg) of cordite per month.


title: Cordite

text: Factories, specifically "heavy industry" (Long, and Marland 2009) were important for the provision of munitions. Cordite factories typically employed women (Cook 2006) who put their lives at risk as they packed the shells.


title: Cordite

text: Prior to World War I, most of the cordite used by the British Government was produced in its own factories. Immediately prior to World War I, between 6,000 and 8,000 tons per year of cordite were produced in the United Kingdom by private manufacturers; between 1,000 and 1,500 tons per year were made by Nobel's Explosives, at Ardeer. However, private industry had the capability to produce about 10,000 tons per year, with Ardeer able to produce some 3,000 tons of this total.


title: Cordite

text: At the start of World War I, private industry in the UK was asked to produce 16,000 tons of cordite, and all the companies started to expand. HM Factory, Gretna, the largest propellant factory in the United Kingdom, which opened in 1916, was by 1917 producing 800 tons (812 tonne) of Cordite RDB per week (approximately 41,600 tons per year). The Royal Navy had its own factory at Holton Heath.


title: Cordite

text: In 1910, Canadian Explosives Limited produced 3,000 lb (1,362 kg) of rifle cordite per month at its Beloeil factory, for the Quebec Arsenal. By November 1915 production had been expanded to 350,000 lb (159,000 kg) of cordite per month (approximately 1,900 tonnes per year).


title: Cordite

text: The Canadian Explosives Limited cordite factory at Nobel, Ontario was designed to produce 1,500,000 lb (681 tonne) of cordite per month (approximately 8,170 tonnes per year).


title: Cordite

text: HM Factory, Gretna and the Royal Navy Cordite Factory, Holton Heath both closed after the end of the war and the Gretna factory was dismantled. This left the Waltham Abbey and Ardeer factories in production.


title: Cordite

text: As noted above, in addition to its own facilities, the British Government had ICI Nobel set up a number of Agency Factories producing cordite in Scotland, Australia, Canada and South Africa.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: Seven Days to the River Rhine (, "Sem' dney do reki Reyn") was a top-secret military simulation exercise developed in 1979 by the Warsaw Pact. It depicted the Soviet Bloc's vision of a seven-day nuclear war between NATO and Warsaw Pact forces.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: This possible World War III scenario was released by Polish Defense Minister Radosław Sikorski following the Law and Justice Party's victories in the 2005 Polish elections along with thousands of Warsaw Pact documents, in order to "draw a line under [the original Polish verb "odciąć" could also be translated as "make a break from"] the country's Communist past", and "educate the Polish public about the old regime." Sikorski stated that documents associated with the former regime would be declassified and published through the Institute of National Remembrance in the coming year.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: The files released included documents about "Operation Danube", the 1968 Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in response to the Prague Spring. They also included files on the 1970 Polish protests, and from the martial law era of the 1980s.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: The Czech Republic and Hungary had declassified related documents in the 1990s. The Polish government declassified some material in this period.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: The scenario for the war was NATO launching a nuclear attack on Polish and Czechoslovak cities in the Vistula river valley area in a first-strike scenario, which would prevent Warsaw Pact commanders from sending reinforcements to East Germany to forestall a possible NATO invasion of that country. The plan expected that as many as two million Polish civilians would die in such a war and Polish operational strength would be completely destroyed.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: A Soviet nuclear counter-strike would be launched against West Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands, Denmark and North-East Italy.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: Maps associated with the released plan show nuclear strikes in many NATO states, but exclude both France and the United Kingdom. There are several possibilities for this lack of strikes, the most probable being that both France and the United Kingdom are nuclear weapons states, and as such retain nuclear arsenals that could be employed in retaliation for nuclear strikes against their nations.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: The French Force de dissuasion employed a nuclear strategy known as "dissuasion du faible au fort" (weak-to-strong deterrence); this is considered a "counter-value" strategy, which implies that a nuclear attack on France would be responded to by a strike on Soviet-bloc cities.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: "The Guardian", however, speculates that "France would have escaped attack, possibly because it is not a member of NATO's integrated structure. Britain, which has always been at the heart of NATO, would also have been spared, suggesting Moscow wanted to stop at the Rhine to avoid overstretching its forces."


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: In 1966, President Charles de Gaulle withdrew France from NATO's integrated military command structure. In practical terms, while France remained a NATO member and fully participated in the political instances of the Organization, it was no longer represented on certain committees like the Nuclear Planning Group and the Defence Planning Committee. Foreign forces were removed from French territory and French forces temporarily withdrawn from NATO commands. The 1st French Army, with its headquarters at Strasbourg, on the Franco-German border, was the main field headquarters controlling operations in support of NATO in West Germany, as well as defending France. Although France was not officially part of NATO's command structure, there was an understanding, formalised by regular joint exercises in West Germany, that France would go to the aid of NATO, should the Warsaw Pact attack. To that end, the Headquarters and two divisions of II (Fr) Corps were permanently stationed in West Germany, with the wartime mission of supporting NATO's US-led Central Army Group (CENTAG).


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: There are many high-value targets in Britain (like RAF Fylingdales, RAF Mildenhall, and RAF Lakenheath) that would then have to be struck in a conventional manner in this plan, though a nuclear strike would be far more effective (and, as the plans show, a preferable option for the Soviet leadership as shown by their strikes in Western Europe). The plan also indicates that USAF fighter-bombers, primarily the long-ranged F-111 Aardvark, would be employed in nuclear strikes, and that they would launch from those British bases.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: Vienna was to be hit by two 500-kiloton bombs, while Vicenza, Verona, Padua, and several bases in Italy were to be hit by single 500-kiloton bombs. Hungary was to capture Vienna.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: Stuttgart, Munich, and Nuremberg in West Germany were to be destroyed by nuclear weapons and then captured by the Czechoslovaks and Hungarians.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: In Denmark, the first nuclear targets were Roskilde and Esbjerg. Roskilde, while having no military significance, is the second-largest city on Zealand and located close to the Danish capital Copenhagen (the distance from central Copenhagen to Roskilde is only ). It would also be targeted for its cultural and historical significance to break the morale of the Danish population and army. Esbjerg, the fifth-largest city in the country, would be targeted for its large harbour capable of facilitating delivery of large NATO reinforcements. If there was Danish resistance after the two initial strikes, other targets would be bombed.


title: Seven Days to the River Rhine

text: The Soviet Union planned to have reached Lyon by day nine and to press on to a final position at the Pyrenees. Czechoslovakia thought it to be too optimistic at the time, and some present-day Western planners believe that such a goal was unrealistic or even unattainable.


title: Boeing 720

text: Announced in July 1957 as a 707 derivative for shorter flights from shorter runways, the 720 first flew on November 23, 1959.


title: Boeing 720

text: Its type certificate was issued on June 30, 1960, and it entered service with United Airlines on July 5, 1960. A total of 154 Boeing 720s and 720Bs were built until 1967.


title: Boeing 720

text: Compared to the 707-120, it has a length reduced by 8.33 feet (2.54 m), a modified wing and a lightened airframe for a lower maximum takeoff weight. Originally designed to be powered by four Pratt & Whitney JT3C turbojets, the initial 720 would cover a range with 131 passengers in two classes.


title: Boeing 720

text: The reconfigured 720B, powered by JT3D turbofans, first flew on October 6, 1960, and entered service in March 1961.


title: Boeing 720

text: It could seat 156 passengers in one class over a range. Some 720s were later converted to 720Bs specification.


title: Boeing 720

text: It was succeeded by the Boeing 727 trijet. The 720 is the only Boeing-designed jetliner that does not follow the "7x7" naming scheme.


title: Boeing 720

text: Boeing announced its plans to develop a new version of the 707 in July 1957. It was developed from the to provide for short- to medium-range flights from shorter runways. The model was originally designated 707-020 before being changed to 720 at the input of United Airlines. Compared to the , it has four fewer frames in front of the wing and one fewer aft: a total length reduction of .


title: Boeing 720

text: The new model was designed to a lower maximum takeoff weight with a modified wing and a lightened airframe. The wing modifications included Krueger flaps outboard of the outboard engines, lowering take-off and landing speeds—thus shortening runway length requirements—and a thickened inboard leading edge section, with a slightly greater sweep. This modification increased the top speed over the . It had four Pratt & Whitney JT3C-7 turbojet engines producing each.


title: Boeing 720

text: At one point in the development phase, it was known as the , then , although this was the Boeing model designation of the KC-135 and remained unused for a commercial airliner until it was applied to the MD-95, following Boeing's merger with McDonnell Douglas in 1997.


title: Boeing 720

text: Because the aircraft systems were similar to the Boeing 707, no prototype Boeing 720 was built; any different systems were tested on the Boeing 367-80. The first 720 took its maiden flight on November 23, 1959. The type certificate for the 720 was issued on June 30, 1960. It first entered service with United Airlines on July 5, 1960; 65 of the original version were built.


title: Boeing 720

text: The 720B version of the 720 had JT3D turbofan engines, producing each. The JT3D engines had lower fuel consumption and higher thrust. The maximum takeoff weight for the 720B was increased to . The 720B first took to the skies on October 6, 1960, and received certification and entered service with American Airlines in March 1961; 89 720Bs were built, in addition to conversions of American's 10 existing 720s.


title: Boeing 720

text: As a modification of an existing model, the 720 had minimal research and development costs, which allowed it to be successful despite few sales. The company built 154 Boeing 720s and 720Bs from 1959 to 1967. The 720's wing modification was later added on the 707-120B and on 707-120s retrofitted to the B standard.


title: Boeing 720

text: The Boeing 720 is a four-engined low-wing cantilever monoplane. Although it was similar to the Boeing 707, compared with the , it was shorter in length, and had a lighter structure through use of lighter forged metal parts and thinner fuselage skins and structures.


title: Boeing 720

text: The rearmost of the 707's over-wing emergency exits was deleted on each side, which reduced passenger capacity, while two over-wing exits were an option for higher-density configurations.


title: Boeing 720

text: The 720 uses an improved wing based on the 707 wing. The wingspan remained the same as the . For the 720, the wing was changed between the fuselage and inner engines by adding a wing root glove. This glove reduced the drag of the wing by decambering the root, which reduced the "middle effect", thereby increasing the effective local wing sweep. The wing root glove reportedly increased the drag divergence Mach number of the wing by Mach 0.02.


title: Boeing 720

text: Though initially fitted with turbojet engines, the dominant engine for the Boeing 720 was the Pratt & Whitney JT3D, a turbofan variant of the JT3C with lower fuel consumption and higher thrust. JT3D-engined 720s had a "B" suffix; some of American's 720Bs were conversions of JT3C-powered 720s.


title: Boeing 720

text: Like the 707, the 720/720B used engine-driven turbocompressors to supply high-pressure air for cabin pressurization. The engines could not supply sufficient bleed air for this purpose without a serious loss of thrust. The small air inlets and associated humps are visible just above the main engine inlets on the two inner engine pods of all 720s and 720Bs; the lack of the turbocompressor inlet on the outer starboard pod (number 4 engine) helps spotters distinguish 720/720Bs from most 707s, which had three turbocompressors.


title: Boeing 720

text: The Boeing 720 lacked an auxiliary power unit, and relied instead on ground power and pneumatic air to power the aircraft's systems, provide air conditioning, and start the engines while on the ground. The normal practice for Boeing 720 aircraft was to start the number three (inner starboard) engine first, then disconnect ground power and air. With one engine running, bleed air from that engine could be used to provide necessary air pressure to start the other engines one by one. On ground, with ground starting crew at hand, all four engines were usually started with ground crew help: this was more reliable and faster.


title: Boeing 720

text: The first aircraft was a production aircraft for United Airlines which flew on November 23, 1959. The type certificate for the 720 was issued on June 30, 1960. The first service of the 720 was by United Airlines on July 5, 1960 on the Los Angeles-Denver-Chicago route. American Airlines followed by putting the 720 in commercial operation on July 31 that same year. On January 2, 1962, Pakistan International Airlines′ first Boeing 720B – a Boeing 720-040B (registration AP-AMG) piloted by Captain Abdullah Baig and copilot Captain Taimur Baig – set a world record during the London-to-Karachi leg of its delivery flight to Pakistan for speed over a commercial air route, making the flight in 6 hours 43 minutes 55 seconds at an average speed of .


title: Boeing 720

text: The 720 was supplanted by the Boeing 727 in the mid-1960s in its medium-range, high-performance market. In the late 1960s, 720 and 720B aircraft were used by the US military to shuttle troops to the Far-East war efforts. The interiors of these planes were stripped of class partitions. Some of these flights originated at Travis AFB California and flew nonstop to Japan. At least one of the landing sites was Yokota AB, Japan, before the troops traveled to their final destinations.


title: Boeing 720

text: After disposal of 720s by the major airlines, many were acquired by second-rank operators in South America and elsewhere.


title: Boeing 720

text: In 1984, a Boeing 720 flown by remote control was intentionally crashed at Edwards AFB as a part of the FAA and NASA Controlled Impact Demonstration program. The test provided peak accelerations during a crash. The performance of fire-retardant fuel was also tested.


title: Boeing 720

text: The first 720 (N7201U) was later renamed "The Starship" and became a private charter jet used mainly by touring rock bands. Its main user was Led Zeppelin in the 1970s. The seating capacity was reduced and a bar with a built-in electric organ was added, along with beds, a shower, a lounge area, a TV, and video cassette player.


title: Boeing 720

text: Honeywell operated the last Boeing 720 in the United States, flying out of Sky Harbor Airport in Phoenix. The aircraft had been modified with an extra engine nacelle mounted on the right side of the fuselage to allow testing of a turbine engine at altitude, operating on special certification allowing it to be used for experimental use. This 720B was scrapped on June 21 and 22, 2008. Honeywell replaced their aircraft with a Boeing 757.


title: Boeing 720

text: Pratt & Whitney Canada operated the last flying 720 until 2010. Its final operational flight occurred on September 29, 2010. Pratt & Whitney Canada replaced the testbed with a Boeing 747SP. In May 2012, the former PWC 720 was flown to CFB Trenton, Ontario, to be put on display at the National Air Force Museum of Canada.


title: Boeing 720

text: The Boeing 720 has had 23 hull-loss accidents during its career; it was also involved in a number of incidents including nine hijack incidents and one aircraft destroyed by a bomb in mid-air in 1976. Only 12 of the hull-loss accidents included fatalities which totaled 175 deaths in addition to the 81 deaths on the aircraft destroyed in mid-air by a bomb.


title: Ute people

text: Ute () are the Indigenous people of the Ute tribe and culture among the Indigenous peoples of the Great Basin. They had lived in sovereignty in the regions of present-day Utah and Colorado in the Southwestern United States for many centuries until European settlers conquered their lands. The state of Utah is named after the Ute tribe.


title: Ute people

text: In addition to their ancestral lands within Colorado and Utah, their historic hunting grounds extended into current-day Wyoming, Oklahoma, Arizona, and New Mexico. The tribe also had sacred grounds outside their home domain that were visited seasonally.


title: Ute people

text: There were 12 historic bands of Utes. Although they generally operated in family groups for hunting and gathering, the communities came together for ceremonies and trading. Many Ute bands were culturally influenced by neighboring Native American tribes and Puebloans, whom they traded with regularly.


title: Ute people

text: After contact with early European colonists, such as the Spanish, the Ute formed trading relationships. The theft and the acquisition of horses from the Spanish changed their lifestyle dramatically, affecting mobility, hunting practices, and tribal organization. Once primarily defensive warriors, they became more like the Europeans as adept horsemen who used horses to raid other tribes. Certain prestige within the community was based upon a man's horsemanship (tested during horse races), as well as the number of horses a man owned.


title: Ute people

text: As the American West began to be invaded by white European gold prospectors and settler colonialists in the mid-1800s, the Utes were increasingly pressured or killed and then eventually forced off their ancestral lands. They entered into treaties with the United States government to preserve their lives and some of their land, but were eventually relocated to the government-created reservations. A few of the key tribal land defensive conflicts during this period include the Walker War when the religious sect of Mormons arrived (1853), the Black Hawk War where other Native Americans went for treaty but were slaughtered by US forces (1865–72), and the Meeker Massacre in which the Utes tried to regain control of their lands with warring tactics (1879).


title: Ute people

text: Very few Ute people are left, and they now primarily live in Utah and Colorado, within three Ute tribal reservations: Uintah-Ouray in northeastern Utah (3,500 members); Southern Ute in Colorado (1,500 members); and Ute Mountain which primarily lies in Colorado, but extends to Utah and New Mexico (2,000 members). The majority of Ute live on these reservations with limited resources compared to their original lands, although some reside off-reservation.


title: Ute people

text: The origin of the word "Ute" is unknown; it is first attested as "Yuta" in Spanish documents. The Utes' self-designation is "Núuchi-u", meaning 'the people'.


title: Ute people

text: Ute people are from the Southern subdivision of the Numic-speaking branch of the Uto-Aztecan language family, which are found almost entirely in the Western United States and Mexico. The name of the language family was created to show that it includes both the Colorado River Numic language (Uto) dialect chain that stretches from southeastern California, along the Colorado River to Colorado and the Nahuan languages (Aztecan) of Mexico.


title: Ute people

text: It is believed that this Numic group originated near the present-day border of Nevada and California, then spread North and East. By about 1000, there were hunters and gatherers in the Great Basin of Uto-Aztecan ethnicity that are believed to have been the ancestors of the Indigenous tribes of the Great Basin, including the Ute, Shoshone, Hopi, Paiute, and Chemehuevi peoples. Some ethnologists postulate that the Southern Numic speakers, the Ute and Southern Paiute, left the Numic homeland first, based on language changes, and that the Central and then the Western subgroups spread out toward the east and north, sometime later. Shoshone, Gosiute and Comanche are Central Numic, and Northern Paiute and Bannock are Western Numic. The Southern Numic-speaking tribes—the Utes, Shoshone, Southern Paiute, and Chemehuevi— share many cultural, genetic and linguistic characteristics.


title: Ute people

text: There were ancestral Utes in southwestern Colorado and southeastern Utah by 1300, living a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The Ute occupied much of the present state of Colorado by the 1600s. The Comanches from the north joined them in eastern Colorado in the early 1700s. In the 19th century, the Arapaho and Cheyenne moved southward into eastern Colorado. Ute Indian Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation


title: Ute people

text: The Utes came to inhabit a large area including most of Utah, western and central Colorado, and south into the San Juan River watershed of New Mexico. Some Ute bands stayed near their home domains, while others ranged further away seasonally. Hunting grounds extended further into Utah and Colorado, as well as into Wyoming, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico. Winter camps were established along rivers near the present-day cities of Provo and Fort Duchesne in Utah and Pueblo, Fort Collins, Colorado Springs of Colorado.


title: Ute people

text: Aside from their home domain, there were sacred places in present-day Colorado. The Tabeguache Ute's name for Pikes Peak is "Tavakiev", meaning sun mountain. Living a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle, summers were spent in the Pikes Peak area mountains, which was considered by other tribes to be the domain of the Utes. Pikes Peak was a sacred ceremonial area for the band. The mineral springs at Manitou Springs were also sacred and Ute and other tribes came to the area, spent winters there, and "share[d] in the gifts of the waters without worry of conflict." Artifacts found from the nearby Garden of the Gods, such as grinding stones, "suggest the groups would gather together after their hunt to complete the tanning of hides and processing of meat."


title: Ute people

text: The old Ute Pass Trail went eastward from Monument Creek (near Roswell) to Garden of the Gods and Manitou Springs to the Rocky Mountains. From Ute Pass, Utes journeyed eastward to hunt buffalo. They spent winters in mountain valleys where they were protected from the weather. The North and Middle Parks of present-day Colorado were among favored hunting grounds, due to the abundance of game.


title: Ute people

text: Cañon Pintado, or painted canyon, is a prehistoric site with rock art from Fremont people (650 to 1200) and Utes. The Fremont art reflect an interest in agriculture, including corn stalks and use of light at different times of the year to show a planting calendar. Then there are images of figures holding shields, what appear to be battle victims, and spears. These were seen by the Domínguez–Escalante expedition (1776). Utes left images of firearms and horses in the 1800s. The Crook's Brand Site depicts a horse with a brand from George Crook's regiment during the Indian Wars of the 1870s.


title: Ute people

text: Public land surrounding the Bears Ears buttes in southeastern Utah became the Bears Ears National Monument in 2016 in recognition for its ancestral and cultural significance to several Native American tribes, including the Utes. Members of the Ute Mountain Ute and Uintah and Ouray Reservations sit on a five-tribe coalition to help co-manage the monument with the Bureau of Land Management and United States Forest Service.


title: Ute people

text: The Ute appeared to have hunted and camped in an ancient Ancestral Puebloans and Fremont people campsite in near what is now Arches National Park. At a site near natural springs, which may have held spiritual significance, the Ute left petroglyphs in rock along with rock art by the earlier peoples. Some of the images are estimated to be more than 900 years old. The Utes petroglyphs were made after the Utes acquired horses, because they show men hunting while on horseback.


title: Ute people

text: The culture of the Utes was influenced by neighboring Native American tribes. The eastern Utes had many traits of Plain Indians, and they lived in tepees after the 17th century. The western Utes were similar to Shoshones and Paiutes, and they lived year-round in domed willow houses. Weeminuches lived in willow houses during the summer. The Jicarilla Apache and Puebloans influenced the southeastern Utes. All groups also lived in structures 10–15 feet in diameter that were made of conical pole-frames and brush, and sweat lodges were similarly built. Lodging also included hide tepees and ramadas, depending upon the area.


title: Ute people

text: People lived in extended family groups of about 20 to 100 people. They traveled to seasonally-specific camps. In the spring and summer, family groups hunted and gathered food. The men hunted buffalo, antelope, elk, deer, bear, rabbit, sage hens, and beaver using arrows, spears and nets. They smoked and sun-dried the meat, and also ate it fresh. They also fished in fresh water sources, like Utah Lake. Women processed and stored the meat and gathered greens, berries, roots, yampa, pine nuts, yucca, and seeds. The Pahvant were the only Utes to cultivate food. Some western groups ate reptiles and lizards. Some southeastern groups planted corn and some encouraged the growth of wild tobacco. Implements were made of wood, stone, and bone. Skin bags and baskets were used to carry goods. There is evidence that pottery was made by the Utes as early as the 16th century.


title: Ute people

text: Men and women wore woven and leather clothing and rabbit skin robes. They wore their hair long or in braids. Parents provided some input, but people decided who they would take as spouses. Men could have multiple wives, and divorce was common and easy. There were restrictions for menstruating women and couples who were pregnant. Children were encouraged to be industrious through several rituals. When someone died, that person was buried in their best clothes with their head facing east. Their possessions were generally destroyed and their horses either had their hair cut or they were killed.


title: Ute people

text: Occasionally members of Ute bands met up to trade, intermarry, and practice ceremonies, like the annual spring Bear Dance.


title: Ute people

text: The Ute were divided into several nomadic and closely associated bands, which today mostly are organized as the Northern, Southern, and Ute Mountain Ute Tribes.


title: Ute people

text: Hunting and gathering groups of extended families were led by older members by the mid-17th century. Activities, like hunting buffalo and trading, may have been organized by band members. Chiefs led bands when structure was required with the introduction of horses to plan for defense, buffalo hunting, and raiding. Bands came together for tribal activities by the 18th century.


title: Ute people

text: Multiple bands of Utes that were classified as Uintahs by the U.S. government when they were relocated to the Ute Indian Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation. The bands included the San Pitch, Pahvant, Seuvartis, Timpanogos and Cumumba Utes. The Southern Ute Tribes include the Muache, Capote, and the Weeminuche, the latter of which are at Ute Mountain.


title: Ute people

text: This is also a half-Shoshone, half-Ute band of Cumumbas who lived above Great Salt Lake, near what is now Ogden, Utah. There are also other half-Ute bands, some of whom migrated seasonally far from their home domain.


title: Ute people

text: The Utes traded with Puebloans of the Rio Grande River valley at annual trade fairs or "rescates" held in at the Taos, Santa Clara, Pecos and other pueblos. They traded with the Navajo, Havasupai and Hopi peoples for woven blankets. The Utes were close allies with the Jicarilla Apache who shared much of the same territory and intermarried. They also intermarried with Paiute, Bannock and Western Shoshone peoples. There was so much intermarriage with the Paiute, that territorial borders of the Utes and the Southern Paiutes are difficult to ascertain in southeast Utah. Until the Ute acquired horses, any conflict with other tribes was usually defensive. They had generally poor relations with Northern and Eastern Shoshone.


title: Ute people

text: The first encounter between the Utes and the Spanish occurred before 1620, perhaps as early as 1581 when they knew about the high quality deerskin produced by the Utes. They traded with the Spanish in the San Luis Valley beginning in the 1670s, in northern New Mexico beginning in the early 1700s, and in Ute villages in what is now western Colorado and eastern Utah. The Utes, the main trading partners of the Spanish residents of New Mexico, were known for their soft, high quality tanned deer skins, or chamois, and they also traded meat, buffalo robes and Indian and Spanish captives taken by the Comanche. The Utes traded their goods for cloth, blankets, guns, horses, maize, flour, and ornaments. A number of Ute learned Spanish through trading. The Spanish "seriously guarded" trade with the Utes, limiting it to annual caravans, but by 1750 they were reliant on the trade with the Utes, their deerskin being a highly sought commodity. The Utes also traded in slaves, women and children captives from Apache, Comanche, Paiute and Navajo tribes.


title: Ute people

text: In 1637, the Spanish fought with the Utes, 80 of whom were captured and enslaved. Three people escaped with horses. Their lifestyle changed with the acquisition of horses by 1680. They became more mobile, more able to trade, and better able to hunt large game. Ute culture changed dramatically in ways that paralleled the Plains Indian cultures of the Great Plains. They also became involved in the horse and slave trades and respected warriors. Horse ownership and warrior skills developed while riding became the primary status symbol within the tribe and horse racing became common. With greater mobility, there was increased need for political leadership.


title: Ute people

text: During this time, few people entered Ute territory. Exceptions to this include the Dominguez–Escalante expedition of 1776 and French trappers passing through the area or establishing trading posts beginning in the 1810s. The French expedition recorded meeting members of the Moanunts and Pahvant bands.


title: Ute people

text: After the Utes acquired horses, they started to raid other Native American tribes. While their close relatives, the Comanches, moved out from the mountains and became Plains Indians as did others including the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, and Plains Apache, the Utes remained close to their ancestral homeland. The south and eastern Utes also raided Native Americans in New Mexico, Southern Paiutes and Western Shoshones, capturing women and children and selling them as slaves in exchange for Spanish goods. They fought with Plains Indians, including the Comanche who had previously been allies. The name "Comanche" is from the Ute word for them, "kɨmantsi", meaning enemy. The Pawnee, Osage and Navajo also became enemies of the Plains Indians by about 1840. Some Ute bands fought against the Spanish and Pueblos with the Jicarilla Apache and the Comanche. The Ute were sometimes friendly but sometimes hostile to the Navajo.


title: Ute people

text: The Utes were skilled warriors who specialized in horse mounted combat. War with neighboring tribes was mostly fought for gaining prestige, stealing horses, and revenge. Men would organize themselves into war parties made up of warriors, medicine men, and a war chief who led the party. To prepare themselves for battle Ute warriors would often fast, participate in sweat lodge ceremonies, and paint their faces and horses for special symbolic meanings. The Utes were master horsemen and could execute daring maneuvers on horseback while in battle. Most plains Indians had warrior societies, but the Ute generally did not - the Southern Utes developed such societies late, and soon lost them in reservation life. Warriors were exclusively men but women often followed behind war parties to help gather loot and sing songs. Women also performed the Lame Dance to symbolize having to pull or carry heavy loads of loot after a raid. The Utes used a variety of weapons including bows, spears and buffalo-skin shields, as well as rifles, shotguns and pistols which were obtained through raiding or trading.


title: Ute people

text: The Ute people traded with Europeans by the early 19th century including at encampments in the San Luis Valley, Wet Mountains, and the Upper Arkansas Valley and at the annual Rocky Mountain Rendezvous. Native Americans also traded at annual trade fairs in New Mexico, which were also ceremonial and social events lasting up to ten days or more. They involved the trading of skins, furs, foods, pottery, horses, clothing, and blankets.


title: Ute people

text: In Utah, Utes began to be impacted by European-American contact with the 1847 arrival of Mormon settlers. After initial settlement by the Mormons, as they moved south to the Wasatch Front, Utes were pushed off their land.


title: Ute people

text: Wars with settlers began about the 1850s when Ute children were captured in New Mexico and Utah by Anglo-American traders and sold in New Mexico and California. The rush of Euro-American settlers and prospectors into Ute country began with an 1858 gold strike. The Ute allied with the United States and Mexico in its war with the Navajo during the same period.


title: Ute people

text: There was continued pressure by the Mormons to push the Utah Utes off their land. This resulted in the Walker War (1853–54). By the mid-1870s, the Utes had been moved onto a reservation, less than 9% of its former land. The Utes found it to be very inhospitable and they tried to continue hunting and gathering off the reservation. In the meantime, the Black Hawk War (1865–72) occurred in Utah.


title: Ute people

text: A reservation was also established in 1868 in Colorado. Indian agents tried to get the Utes to farm, which would be a change in lifestyle and what they believed would lead to certain starvation due to evidence of previous crop failures. Their lands were whittled away until only the modern reservations were left: a large cession of land in 1873 transferred the gold-rich San Juan area, which was followed in 1879 by the loss of most of the remaining land after the "Meeker Massacre". Utes were later put on a reservation in Utah, Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation, as well as two reservations in Colorado, Ute Mountain Ute Tribe and Southern Ute Indian Reservation.


title: Ute people

text: Following acquisition of Ute territory from Mexico by the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo 1848, the United States made a series of treaties with the Ute and executive orders that ultimately culminated with relocation to reservations:


title: Ute people

text: The Uinta and Ouray Indian Reservation is the second-largest Indian Reservation in the US – covering over of land. Tribal owned lands only cover approximately of surface land and of mineral-owned land within the reservation area. Founded in 1861, it is located in Carbon, Duchesne, Grand, Uintah, Utah, and Wasatch Counties in Utah. Raising stock and oil and gas leases are important revenue streams for the reservation. The tribe is a member of the Council of Energy Resource Tribes.


title: Ute people

text: The Ute Indian Tribe of the Uintah and Ouray Reservation (Northern Ute Tribe) consists of the following groups of people:


title: Ute people

text: The Southern Ute Indian Reservation is located in southwestern Colorado, with its capital at Ignacio. The area around the Southern Ute Indian reservation are the hills of Bayfield and Ignacio, Colorado.


title: Ute people

text: The Southern Ute are the wealthiest of the tribes and claim financial assets approaching $2 billion. Gambling, tourism, oil & gas, and real estate leases, plus various off-reservation financial and business investments, have contributed to their success. The tribe owns the Red Cedar Gathering Company, which owns and operates natural gas pipelines in and near the reservation. The tribe also owns the Red Willow Production Company, which began as a natural gas production company on the reservation. It has expanded to explore for and produce oil and natural gas in Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. Red Willow has offices in Ignacio, Colorado and Houston, Texas. The Sky Ute Casino and its associated entertainment and tourist facilities, together with tribally operated Lake Capote, draw tourists. It hosts the Four Corners Motorcycle Rally each year. The Ute operate KSUT, the major public radio station serving southwestern Colorado and the Four Corners.


title: Ute people

text: The Southern Ute Tribes include the Muache, Capote, and the Weeminuche, the latter of which are at Ute Mountain.


title: Ute people

text: The Ute Mountain Reservation is located near Towaoc, Colorado in the Four Corners region. Twelve ranches are held by tribal land trusts rather than family allotments. The tribe holds fee patent on 40,922.24 acres in Utah and Colorado. The 553,008 acre reservation borders the Mesa Verde National Park, Navajo Reservation, and the Southern Ute Reservation. The Ute Mountain Tribal Park abuts Mesa Verde National Park and includes many Ancestral Puebloan ruins. Their land includes the sacred Ute Mountain. The White Mesa Community of Utah (near Blanding) is part of the Ute Mountain Ute Tribe but is largely autonomous.


title: Ute people

text: The Ute Mountain Utes are descendants of the Weeminuche band, who moved to the western end of the Southern Ute Reservation in 1897. (They were led by Chief Ignacio, for whom the eastern capital is named).


title: Ute people

text: Prior to living on reservations, Utes shared land with other tribal members according to a traditional societal property system. Instead of recognizing this lifestyle, the U.S. government provided allotments of land, which was larger for families than for single men. The Utes were intended to farm the land, which also was a forced vocational change. Some tribes, like the Uintah and Uncompahgre were given arable land, while others were allocated land that was not suited to farming and they resisted being forced to farm. The White River Utes were the most resentful and protested in Washington, D.C. The Weeminuches successfully implemented a shared property system from their allotted land. Utes were forced to perform manual labor, relinquish their horses, and send their children to American Indian boarding schools. Almost half of the children sent to boarding school in Albuquerque died in the mid-1880s, due to tuberculosis or other diseases.


title: Ute people

text: There was a dramatic reduction in the Ute population, partly attributed to Utes moving off the reservation or resisting being counted. In the early 19th century, there were about 8,000 Utes, and there were only about 1,800 tribe members in 1920. Although there was a significant reduction in the number of Utes after they were relocated to reservations, in the mid-20th century the population began to increase. This is partly because many people have returned to reservations, including those who left to attain college educations and careers. By 1990, there were about 7,800 Utes, with 2,800 living in cities and towns and 5,000 on reservations.


title: Ute people

text: Utes have self-governed since the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. Elections are held to select tribal council members. The Northern, Southern, and Ute Mountain Utes received a total of $31 million in a land claims settlement. The Ute Mountain Tribe used their money, including what they earned from mineral leases, to invest in tourist related and other enterprises in the 1950s. In 1954, a group of mixed blood Utes were legally separated from the Northern Utes and called the Affiliated Ute Citizens. Since the Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975, the Utes control the police, courts, credit management, and schools.


title: Ute people

text: All Ute reservations are involved in oil and gas leases and are members of the Council of Energy Resource Tribes. The Southern Ute Tribe is financially successful, having a casino for revenue generation. The Ute Mountain Ute Tribe generates revenues through gas and oil, mineral sales, casinos, stock raising, and a pottery industry. The tribes make some money on tourism and timber sales. Artistic endeavors include basketry and beadwork. The annual household income is well below that of their non-Native neighbors. Unemployment is high on the reservation, in large part due to discrimination, and half of the tribal members work for the government of the United States or the tribe.


title: Ute people

text: The Ute language is still spoken on the reservation. Housing is generally adequate and modern. There are annual performance of the Bear and Sun dances. All tribes have scholarship programs for college educations. Alcoholism is a significant problem at Ute Mountain, affecting nearly 80% of the population. The age expectancy there was 40 years of age as of 2000.


title: Ute people

text: Utes have believed that all living things possess supernatural power. A medicine person (the term shaman was not used among Native people in North America, it being a Siberian term), people of any gender receive power from dreams and some take vision quests. Traditionally, Utes relied on medicine men for their physical and spiritual health, but it has become a dying occupation. Spiritual leaders have emerged that perform ceremonies previously performed by medicine men, like sweat ceremonies, one of the oldest spiritual ceremonies of the Utes, performed in a sweat lodge. The annual fasting and purification ceremony Sun Dance is an important traditional spiritual event, feast, and means of asserting their Native American identity. It is held mid-summer. Each spring the Ute (Northern and Southern) hold their traditional Bear Dance, which was used to strengthen social ties and for courtship. It is one of the oldest Ute ceremonies.


title: Ute people

text: The Native American Church is another source of spiritual life for some Ute, where followers believe that "God reveals Himself in Peyote." The church integrates Native American rituals with Christianity beliefs. One of the followers was Sapiah ("Buckskin Charley"), chief of the Southern Ute Tribe.


title: Ute people

text: Christianity was picked up by some Ute from missionaries of the Presbyterian and Catholic churches. Some Northern Utes accepted Mormonism. It is common for people to see Christianity and Native American spirituality as complementary beliefs, rather that believing that they have to pick either Christianity or Native American spirituality.


title: Ute people

text: Utes produced beadwork over centuries. They obtained glass beads and other trade items from early trading contact with Europeans and rapidly incorporated their use into their objects.


title: Ute people

text: Native Americans have been using ceremonial pipes for thousands and years, and the traditional pipes have been used in sacred Ute ceremonies that are conducted by a medicine person or spiritual leader. The pipe symbolizes the Ute's connection to the creator and their existence on Earth. They conduct pipe ceremonies during events were different people come together. For instance, they conducted a pipe ceremony at an Interfaith event in Salt Lake City, Utah.


title: Ute people

text: The Uncompahgre Ute Indians from central Colorado are one of the first documented groups of people in the world known to use the effect of mechanoluminescence. They used quartz crystals to generate light, likely hundreds of years before the modern world recognized the phenomenon. The Ute constructed special ceremonial rattles made from buffalo rawhide, which they filled with clear quartz crystals collected from the mountains of Colorado and Utah. When the rattles were shaken at night during ceremonies, the friction and mechanical stress of the quartz crystals banging together produced flashes of light which partly shone through the translucent buffalo hide. These rattles were believed to call spirits into Ute ceremonies, and were considered extremely powerful religious objects.


title: Ute people

text: Medicine women used up to 300 plants to treat ailments. Pine pitch or split cactus was used to treat sores or wounds. Sage leaves were used for colds. Sage tea and powdered obsidian for sore eyes. Teas were made from various plants to treat stomachaches. Grass was used to stop bleeding. The Ute use the roots and flowers of "Abronia fragrans" for stomach and bowel troubles. Cedar and sage were used in purification ceremonies conducted in sweat lodges. Yarrow was also used as a medicine by the Utes. There were many plants found in Provo Canyon that were used by Utes as medicine.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Thomas James Snyder (May 12, 1936 – July 29, 2007) was an American television personality, news anchor, and radio personality best known for his late night talk shows "Tomorrow", on the NBC television network in the 1970s and 1980s, and "The Late Late Show", on the CBS Television Network in the 1990s. Snyder was also the pioneer anchor of the prime time "NBC News Update", in the 1970s and early 1980s, which was a one-minute capsule of news updates in prime time.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Snyder was born in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to Frank and Marie Snyder, who were of German, Cornish, and Irish descent. He received a Catholic upbringing, attending St. Agnes Elementary School and graduating from Jesuit-run Marquette University High School. He then attended Marquette University, after which he had originally planned to study medicine and become a doctor.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Snyder loved radio since he was a child and at some point he changed his field of study from pre-med to journalism. He once told "Milwaukee Journal Sentinel" reporter Tim Cuprisin that broadcasting became more important to him than attending classes, and he skipped a lot of them. Snyder began his career as a radio reporter at WRIT-AM (unrelated to the present-day FM station) in Milwaukee, now WJYI-AM and at WKZO in Kalamazoo (where he was fired by John Fetzer) in the 1950s. For a time he worked at Savannah, Georgia AM station WSAV (now WBMQ).


title: Tom Snyder

text: Snyder moved into television in the 1960s; he talked about driving cross-country in an early Corvair from Atlanta to Los Angeles around 1963. After a year-long stint in a news job at KTLA, he became a news anchor for KYW-TV (now WKYC-TV) in Cleveland in 1964. In 1965, when Westinghouse Broadcasting moved KYW-TV back to Philadelphia as the result of an FCC ruling, Snyder went along and remained in Philadelphia for five years.


title: Tom Snyder

text: In July 1970, Snyder returned to Los Angeles and joined NBC News, who assigned him to anchor the 6:00 pm (Pacific time) weeknight newscast on KNBC. Snyder remained in this capacity even after NBC launched the "Tomorrow" show with him as host in October 1973, working alongside Tom Brokaw, Jess Marlow and Paul Moyer at the KNBC anchor desk. Another KNBC broadcaster, Kelly Lange, later became Snyder's regular substitute guest host on the "Tomorrow" program, prior to the hiring of co-host Rona Barrett in the program's last year. Snyder moved to New York City in late 1974, taking the "Tomorrow" program with him and kept his hand in news, anchoring weeknight newscasts on WNBC-TV until 1977, and Sunday broadcasts of "NBC Nightly News" during 1975 and 1976.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Snyder returned to local news in 1982 after ending "Tomorrow", to become an anchor at WABC-TV in New York City. In 1985, he returned to Los Angeles but stayed with ABC, to anchor at KABC-TV.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Snyder gained national fame as the host of "Tomorrow with Tom Snyder" (more commonly known as "The Tomorrow Show)", which aired late nights after "The Tonight Show" on NBC from 1973 to 1982. It was a talk show unlike the usual late-night fare, with Snyder, cigarette in hand, alternating between asking hard-hitting questions and offering personal observations that made the interview seem more like a conversation.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Unique one-on-one exchanges were common to the program, notably with John Lennon in 1975, John Lydon of PiL and The Sex Pistols in 1980, Charles Manson, actor and writer Sterling Hayden, author Harlan Ellison, and author and philosopher Ayn Rand. A one-on-one program with David Brenner as the sole guest revealed that Snyder and Brenner worked together on several documentaries.


title: Tom Snyder

text: An infamous edition of "The Tomorrow Show" broadcast on October 31, 1979, saw Snyder interview the rock group KISS. During the episode, a visibly irritated Gene Simmons (bass) and Paul Stanley (guitar) tried to contain the bombastic (and drunk) Ace Frehley (lead guitar), whose nonstop laughter and joking overshadowed the rest of the band. Snyder and Peter Criss (drummer) were obviously enjoying it though, chiming in with several jokes, much to Frehley's delight, and Simmons' disgust. Criss made repeated references to his large gun collection, to the chagrin of Simmons. Some of the footage from this show was later included on the "Kissology—The Ultimate KISS Collection" Vol. 2: 1978–1991 (2007) DVD.


title: Tom Snyder

text: In the late 1970s Snyder interviewed Disney animator Ward Kimball regarding his toy train collection and his full-size trains. Snyder appeared to be as happy as a "kid in a candy store," picking up various locomotives and asking lots of questions. Snyder's love of toy trains started with his first Lionel locomotive, a scale steam switcher, which he claimed never worked too well. His collection was later donated to a New Jersey toy train club, the NJ Hi-Railers.


title: Tom Snyder

text: When not grilling guests, Snyder would often joke around with offstage crewmen, often breaking out in the distinctively hearty laugh that was the basis of Dan Aykroyd's impersonation of Snyder on "Saturday Night Live" (12 occasions, 1976–79 and 1995). Following a disastrous experiment with turning "Tomorrow" into a more typical talk show—renaming it "Tomorrow Coast to Coast" and adding a live audience and co-host Rona Barrett (all of which Snyder resented)—the show was canceled in fall 1981, to make way for the up-and-coming young comedian David Letterman, after Snyder turned down moving to the 1:30 to 2:30 am time slot after Letterman.


title: Tom Snyder

text: In 1982 Snyder joined WABC-TV in New York, anchoring the 5 pm "Eyewitness News" program with Kaity Tong. He stayed at WABC for two years, then returned to the talk format in 1985 at KABC-TV in Los Angeles with a local afternoon show. He had hoped to syndicate the program nationally the following year, but those plans were scratched after Oprah Winfrey's Chicago-based syndicated show entered the market first, and took over Snyder's time slot on KABC-TV.


title: Tom Snyder

text: In 1988 Snyder inaugurated a similar three-hour program on ABC Radio. The first hour was spent chatting with a celebrity guest; during the second hour Snyder engaged someone in the news; and the final hour was consumed chatting with his legion of fans. Occasionally the caller would be a well-known fan like David Letterman or Ted Koppel. One of Snyder's favorite callers was Sherman Hemsley, the actor who played George Jefferson on the hit television sitcom "The Jeffersons". The "Tom Snyder Show" for ABC Radio Networks went off the air in late 1992.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Snyder returned to television on CNBC on January 21, 1993, adding the opportunity for viewers to call in with their own questions for his guests. Snyder nicknamed his show the Colorcast, reviving an old promotional term NBC-TV used in the early 1960s to brand its color broadcasts. He also continued his trademark of talking to offscreen crew and made frequent reference to the studio, reminding viewers of its location in Fort Lee, New Jersey. The final CNBC show aired on December 1, 1994.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Meanwhile, Letterman had moved on to CBS and was given control of creating a new program to follow his at 12:35 am. Letterman, who had idolized Snyder for years, hired Snyder in 1994 as host of "The Late Late Show"; the announcement was made by Letterman and CBS president Howard Stringer on August 9 that Snyder's show would begin on January 9, 1995. The idea had actually begun as a running joke on Letterman's show that Snyder would soon follow him on the air as he had once followed Johnny Carson on "The Tonight Show"; the unlikely suggestion caught on. As part of the joke, Snyder appeared as himself in 1993 in "The Larry Sanders Show" episode "Life Behind Larry," in which talk-show host Sanders (Garry Shandling) steals Snyder from Letterman to host a talk-show in the slot immediately after his.


title: Tom Snyder

text: "The Late Late Show with Tom Snyder" aired live in the Eastern and Central Time Zones, and was simulcast to other time zones on radio to allow everyone a chance to call in. Snyder's CNBC show was taken over, largely unchanged in format, by Charles Grodin. One of the many interviews conducted on "The Late Late Show" was with Gloria Vanderbilt about her son's suicide, told dramatically over an entire hour. Another was a lengthy interview with Robert Blake very soon before Blake was charged with murder. When Snyder took ill with the flu, comedians Martin Mull and Jon Stewart filled in as hosts. Snyder's final "Late Late Show" aired on March 26, 1999. It was then reformatted for his successor Craig Kilborn, as a more traditional late night show with an audience, comic monologue, comedy segments, shorter interviews, and a greater emphasis on guests from the entertainment industry. Scottish comedian Craig Ferguson maintained a similar format when he succeeded Kilborn in 2005, though Ferguson cited Snyder as an influence in his interview style, and even experimented with an audience-less episode, in the style of Snyder's tenure, on February 23, 2010.


title: Tom Snyder

text: In February 2000, Snyder hosted two episodes of "The Late Show Backstage" that aired in "The Late Show" time slot when Letterman was recovering from heart surgery.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Snyder also hosted a video production called "A Century of Lionel Electric Trains", commemorating 100 years of Lionel Trains covering Lionel from 1900 to 2000. Part 1 featuring Lionel history from 1900 to 1945 and Part 2 featuring Lionel history from 1945 to 2000. Additionally, he hosted another program from the same production company called "Celebrity Train Layouts 2: Tom Snyder", featuring his own collection of trains.


title: Tom Snyder

text: Snyder posted regular messages on his own now-defunct website colortini.com during the early 2000s. A "colortini," according to Snyder in the CNBC era, was the drink you should enjoy while watching the show ("Fire up a colortini, sit back, relax, and watch the pictures, now, as they fly through the air."). For the CBS show, he redubbed the mythical drink a "simultini" as his show was also heard on selected radio stations.


title: Tom Snyder

text: On July 28, 2005, Snyder announced he was deleting his website after six years, stating: "The novelty of communicating this way has worn off." On August 1, 2005, his page was abruptly taken offline. The front page was replaced with a white screen with the simple phrase: "Colortini is gone. Thanks for the Memories." However, some have been preserved. The domain name has since been reused for other purposes.


title: Tom Snyder

text: In addition to being an avid model train collector, Snyder was also a car buff. On his radio and television programs, he would occasionally talk about current cars he owned as well as cars from the 1950s and 1960s he admired or owned in his teens and twenties. When Snyder left "The Late Late Show" in 1999, David Letterman gave him a white 1960 Cadillac Series 62 convertible as a going-away present.


title: Tom Snyder

text: In April 2005, Snyder revealed that he had been diagnosed with chronic lymphocytic leukemia. In June 2006, he sold his home in the Benedict Canyon area of Los Angeles, where he had lived for almost 30 years, and relocated to Belvedere, in the San Francisco Bay Area, where he owned a second home.


title: Talk That Talk

text: Talk That Talk is the sixth studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna, released on November 18, 2011, by Def Jam Recordings and SRP Records. It was recorded while traveling for the Loud Tour between February and November 2011, and was originally planned to be a reissue of her previous studio album "Loud" (2010). As executive producer, Rihanna enlisted a wide range of producers including Alex da Kid, Calvin Harris, Chase & Status, No I.D., and Stargate to achieve her desired sound. Following in the same vein as "Loud", "Talk That Talk" is a dance-oriented pop/R&B crossover album that incorporates elements of hip hop, dubstep, electronic and house music. The album also contains subtle dancehall influences, whilst its lyrical content and themes revolve around a nihilistic, romantic and lascivious lover.


title: Talk That Talk

text: "Talk That Talk" received generally positive reviews from music critics, who praised the album's lyrics. Others were less favorable of its themes. "Talk That Talk" debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" 200 with first-week sales of 198,000 copies and went on to sell 1.15 million copies in the United States by June 2015. The album also peaked at number one in Austria, New Zealand, Norway, Switzerland and the United Kingdom, where it debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, selling 163,000 copies in its first week. As of April 2012, the album has been certified triple Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 900,000 copies. According to the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), "Talk That Talk" was the ninth global best-selling album of 2011. As of March 2013, the album has sold more than 5.5 million copies worldwide.


title: Talk That Talk

text: The album produced six singles, including the international hit "We Found Love" which was released as the album's lead single. "We Found Love" became Rihanna's eleventh number-one song on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, and topped the charts in twenty six additional countries. "You da One", "Talk That Talk" (featuring rapper Jay-Z) and a remix of "Birthday Cake" (featuring Chris Brown) experienced moderate success, while "Where Have You Been" reached the top ten of twenty countries around the world. A remixed form of "Cockiness (Love It)" (featuring rapper ASAP Rocky) was released as the sixth and final single from the album.


title: Talk That Talk

text: Following the release of Rihanna's previous studio album, "Loud" (2010), the singer revealed via Twitter that the album would be re-issued with new songs and released in fall 2011.


title: Talk That Talk

text: In September 2011, Rihanna took to Twitter to confirm that plans for a re-issue of "Loud" had been scrapped, with the singer tweeting "I [thought about] a [re-release], but LOUD is its own body of work! Plus [you] guys work so [fucking] hard that [you] deserve to act brand new."


title: Talk That Talk

text: In an interview with "Mixtape Daily", songwriter Verse Simmonds, half of the duo The Jugganauts, who wrote and produced the reggae-infused song "Man Down" from "Loud", revealed that the singer was nearing completion of her sixth studio album in August 2011. The duo also said that they had penned two tracks for possible inclusion on the album, saying "From what I understand, she is closing the album up now, and we did two records for her that she really, really loved and I'm really excited about them as well" and also expressed interest in writing a third song. On September 15, 2011, Rihanna confirmed via her official Twitter account that recording sessions for the album were indeed underway, tweeting "I can't wait to start filling u guys in on some details!"


title: Talk That Talk

text: Rihanna created a Facebook campaign page entitled "Rihanna: UNLOCKED" ["sic"], whereby her fans on Facebook are given missions to complete, in the form of games, in order to "unlock" new information about the album. Upon the unveiling of the standard edition's artwork, both James Dinh of MTV and a reviewer for "NME" commented that Rihanna looks "seductive" in the image.


title: Talk That Talk

text: Recording sessions for "Talk That Talk" began in February 2011 and ended in November 2011. Recording for the album took place during the Loud Tour. Due to this, recording sessions for the album took place in various countries including Paris, London, Norway, Denmark and Germany. Vocal producer Kurk Harrell estimates the album was cut in more than 25 cities. Rihanna recorded a total of sixteen to seventeen songs.


title: Talk That Talk

text: The singer would record late into the morning, sometimes until noon, before riding her bus to the next city. In May 2012, Rihanna revealed that whilst she was recording the album, she suffered from exhaustion, saying in part: "It was the best [shit] ever, it was some rock star [shit] This is the craziest schedule I've ever been on in my entire life. One morning I woke up and started crying so hard. I finally just got to my bed from the IV [drip] and I was just like, 'Good I can actually get to sleep tonight', because we stayed up all night' and I finished [the album] at 5 pm the day before..."


title: Talk That Talk

text: Kuk Harrell, one of the producers of Talk That Talk, spoke on the recording of the album saying: "In addition to touring, we are recording Rihanna's new album. We have a portable studio that we set up at the different hotels that we are staying at. We set up shop anywhere in the hotel. Before we went on the European leg of Rihanna's Loud tour, we started recording the album in Los Angeles. Rihanna likes to work late hours, so she would come into the studio at 9pm and work until 6am." Continuing Harrell stated "The show was the priority, and then the album. That's how the day was broken up." Expanding on this Harrell stated that Rihanna would perform every night, finish her meet and greet by 1 a.m. Then go to the studio for around two or three a.m. During these session Harrell stated "I’d make the decision based off where I felt her voice was. Knowing she just did two hours of a show and meet-and-greets, I would suggest capturing the stuff that was easier to get like the lower-range stuff so we wouldn’t hurt or damage her voice."


title: Talk That Talk

text: "Talk That Talk" is a danceable pop/R&B crossover album, comprising uptempo club tracks, raunchy pop songs, and mid-tempo inspirational ballads. It also incorporates elements of dancehall, hip hop, and house. Most of the songs feature heavy bass and coarse sounds, including electro beats and imposing synthesizers. James Lachno of "The Daily Telegraph" cites "Talk That Talk" as Rihanna's "most club-ready album to date", while Robert Christgau calls it "pop without shame—her hookiest and most dance-targeted album, decorated with a thoughtful assortment of suitably titillating blats, noodles, dubs, groans, hiccups, boom-booms, cut-ups, speed-ups, xx samples, and spoken-word bits." Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" writes that Rihanna's version of dance music on the album draws on "the club music of the early 1990s".


title: Talk That Talk

text: The album also has subtle dancehall influences, with slower songs that have double-snare riddims. Music journalist Greg Kot observes that, along with droning electronic sounds, "Caribbean and Eastern touches from past Rihanna albums get recycled into bombastic dance tunes." Apart from its sexual innuendo, "Talk That Talk" features odes to dysfunctional love and universal love. Christgau interprets the lyrics to be "associating carnality with love" and writes that the album "celebrates the relationship of sex to love rather than pain," before leaning on "heart songs and theme statements" in the second half."


title: Talk That Talk

text: The opening track, "You Da One", which was produced by Dr. Luke, is a bouncy mid-tempo song with a Caribbean flavor, and features a dubstep influenced breakdown towards the middle of the song.


title: Talk That Talk

text: "Where Have You Been", produced by Dr. Luke and Ester Dean, runs through an acoustic beat and incorporates elements of trance.


title: Talk That Talk

text: The title track features rapper Jay-Z and samples The Notorious B.I.G.'s "I Got a Story to Tell". "Roc Me Out" is set in "chugging" tempo and features heavy synths.


title: Talk That Talk

text: The tenth track, "Watch n' Learn", features a flirtatious and playful hip pop melody with grinding synths.


title: Talk That Talk

text: The final standard edition track of the album, "Farewell", is a ballad. The song was written by Ester Dean and Alexander Grant, with production helmed by Grant under his production name Alex da Kid. "Farewell" contains lyrics that revolve around saying goodbye to a lover who is not able to be physically present in the relationship for long periods of time. Instrumentation consists of a rolling piano.


title: Talk That Talk

text: Additional tracks released on the deluxe edition of "Talk That Talk" include the songs "Red Lipstick", "Do Ya Thang", and "Fool in Love". "Red Lipstick" is described as a "dark 'n' twisted" dubstep number which was written by The Dream and Rihanna and produced by the two along with production duo Chase & Status, who first worked with the singer on her fourth studio album, "Rated R" (2009). "Do Ya Thang" is a contemporary R&B track with a subtle hook and a simple message. It was written and produced by Rihanna and The-Dream. "Fool in Love" is a rhapsodic ballad which incorporates acoustic and electric guitars, synthesizers, and drums, and has received comparisons to Britney Spears' "Criminal".


title: Talk That Talk

text: "We Found Love", featuring Calvin Harris, was released as the lead single from the album, premiering on September 22, 2011 in the United Kingdom, and being released the same day. Critical reaction was mixed. They criticized the lack of lyrical content, with many citing the lyrics as second best to the song's production and composition, though they praised Harris's production of the song. The music video, which premiered on October 19, 2011, depicts the singer as a drug abusing thrill seeker in a relationship that quickly spirals downward into addiction and violence. "We Found Love" debuted at number 16 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 chart, eventually reaching number one, giving Rihanna the record for a solo artist to have amassed twenty top ten singles in the shortest amount of time in the history of the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart.


title: Talk That Talk

text: "You da One" was released as the second single from the album, having its radio premiere on November 11 and being released digitally on November 14, 2011. The single was a moderate success, reaching the top twenty of the US "Billboard" Hot 100 peaking at fourteen as well as reaching the top twenty of the UK Singles Chart peaking at sixteen, while also topping the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart, and attaining top twenty positions in eleven other countries. "Talk That Talk", was confirmed as the third single from the album by Rihanna on Twitter, following a vote from her fans. The song, which features a rap verse from Jay-Z, was serviced to urban radio in the United States on January 17, 2012.


title: Talk That Talk

text: "Birthday Cake" was released as a full length remix version featuring former boyfriend Chris Brown on February 20, 2012, coinciding with Rihanna's 24th birthday. It was sent to radio as the fourth single from the album on March 6, 2012.


title: Talk That Talk

text: "Where Have You Been" was released as the fifth single from the album, impacting contemporary hit radio and rhythmic contemporary radio stations in the United States on April 17, 2012. Commercially, "Where Have You Been" was an international success, peaking at number five in the US for two weeks. In addition to attaining top five positions in the Czech Republic, Denmark, France, Israel, New Zealand and the United Kingdom, while peaking in the top ten of charts in twenty countries worldwide including Australia, Belgium and Norway. The song is certified Platinum or higher in eight countries.


title: Talk That Talk

text: "Cockiness (Love It)" was released as the sixth and final single on September 7, 2012 in a remixed form of the original version and features rapper ASAP Rocky. Upon the release of "Talk That Talk", the song debuted on multiple world charts. The song debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 62 on November 26, 2011, with sales of 6,918 digital downloads. In the United Kingdom, "Cockiness (Love It)" debuted at number 33 on the UK R&B Chart on November 27, 2011. It also debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 121 in the chart issue December 3, 2011. In the United States, the song debuted on the US "Billboard" Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart at number 17 in the chart issue December 10, 2011.


title: Talk That Talk

text: "We Found Love" was the first performed song from the album, as it was performed for the first time on November 14, 2011 at Rihanna's Loud Tour (2011) in London. On November 17, 2011 Rihanna performed the song on first season of "The X Factor USA". On November 20, 2011 Rihanna performed the song on eighth season of "The X Factor UK".


title: Talk That Talk

text: On February 12, 2012, Rihanna performed "We Found Love" at the 2012 Grammy Awards held at the Staples Center in Los Angeles, followed by her duet single "Princess of China" with Coldplay for first time.


title: Talk That Talk

text: Later that month, the singer performed the song at the 2012 BRIT Awards held on February 21, 2012 at The O2 Arena in London. Whilst promoting her first feature film appearance in "Battleship", Rihanna made a rare visit to Japan, performing "We Found Love" on the Japanese music television program Music Station. She donned a traditional kimono and concluded the performance by crowd surfing into the audience.


title: Talk That Talk

text: Rihanna's first performance of "Talk That Talk" was made on "The Jonathan Ross Show", in the United Kingdom, aired on March 3, 2012. The singer performed a solo version of the track, and was also interviewed. Rihanna performed "Where Have You Been" for the first time live at the 2012 Post-Grammy Charity Fundraiser, along with "We Found Love", on February 13, 2012. On April 15, 2012, Rihanna performed the Song at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, along with "We Found Love". She wasn't an official performer at the festival but she joined Calvin Harris on his set.


title: Talk That Talk

text: On May 5, 2012, Rihanna performed "Where Have You Been" and a Medley of "Birthday Cake" and "Talk That Talk" on "Saturday Night Live" in the United States. The performance of "Where Have You Been" featured an aesthetic similar to that of the music video; the "SNL" set was decorated in a "One Thousand and One Nights" fashion. Rihanna and her backup dancers performed a highly choreographed dance routine, the same as the music video, and they wore Arabian inspired outfits. The performance of the medley with the original interlude version of "Birthday Cake" and "Talk That Talk" started with the singer performing "Birthday Cake" and featured Rihanna in an all black outfit with a giant spiders web as the backdrop behind her. After she performed a short section of the song, it transitioned into "Talk That Talk", where she performed her part of the song in full, without the rap vocal by Jay-Z. On May 14, 2012, Rihanna performed "Where Have You Been" at the 2012 Robin Hood Benefit in New York. The performance was in "Cleopatra" style. Rihanna also performed the song on "American Idol"'s season 11 finale on May 23, 2012.


title: Talk That Talk

text: Rihanna later performed "We Found Love", "Talk That Talk", "Birthday Cake" and "Where Have You Been" at Radio 1's Hackney Weekend on May 24, 2012, where she also performed her previous singles "Run This Town" and "Umbrella". Lastly, on September 6, 2012, Rihanna and ASAP Rocky performed the remix of "Cockiness (Love It)" at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards in a medley with "We Found Love".


title: Talk That Talk

text: "Road to "Talk That Talk"" shows Rihanna behind the scenes during the production of the album. The first part of "Road to "Talk That Talk"" was released onto the internet on February 17, 2012. In the viral video Rihanna takes the cameras back stage on the last day of the Loud Tour, to the studio whilst she talks about the track listing and to Barbados with her family. The second part of "Road to "Talk That Talk"" was released May 9, 2012 in which Rihanna videoed the rest of her trip to Barbados, to the hotel where she was with Katy Perry, behind the photo shoots and she spoke on her breakdown.


title: Talk That Talk

text: "Talk That Talk" received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 64, based on 27 reviews. AllMusic's Andy Kellman dubbed it Rihanna's "third best album to date ... behind "Good Girl Gone Bad" (2007) and "Rated R" (2009)," and stated, "Minus the fluff, it's close to the latter's equal." Jon Caramanica of "The New York Times" wrote that the album places Rihanna "squarely at the center of the pop genre best suited for a singer of her fundamental evanescence – dance music, which conveniently is the mode du jour of contemporary R&B and pop." James Lachno of "The Daily Telegraph" called it "an adrenalised behemoth of a record which reasserts her position as one of pop's most compulsive pleasures". Rebecca Nicholson of "The Guardian" called it "a blast of obnoxious, filth-fuelled pop" and felt that "it works best when the music hall bawdiness is left aside in favour of bleak euphoria". In a review of its deluxe edition for "MSN Music", Robert Christgau complimented the songs' carnal lyrics and stated, "I prefer it to her earlier albums because I find its many porny moments titillating."


title: Talk That Talk

text: In a mixed review, Randall Roberts of the "Los Angeles Times" expressed dissatisfaction with the themes of the album and stated, "The singer works that NC-17 territory, but the sauciness sometimes borders on shtick. With an eye toward Middle America, it's mostly just insinuation." Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" panned its "double or single entendres", and felt that it gives the impression of "a chintzy soft-core porn movie." Andy Gill of "The Independent" said that Rihanna mostly "struggles to assert her vocal character against a sea of effects". Matthew Cole from "Slant Magazine" panned it as "pretty easily the worst Rihanna album yet". "Pitchfork"s Lindsay Zoladz wrote that the album "tries too hard to send a more one-dimensional message" than other pop artists in 2011, adding that it "ends up falling flat". Priya Elan of "NME" found it "annoyingly safe" and wrote that it "leaves us with the impression Rihanna has spread herself so thinly that she doesn’t have time to record a cohesive album."


title: Talk That Talk

text: The album debuted at number three on the US "Billboard" 200, with first-week sales of 198,000 copies in the United States, slightly below her last album, which also debuted at number three with 207,000 copies. In its second week, the album sold an additional 68,200 copies in the United States, dropping to number 7 on the charts and bringing its total sales to 266,400 units sold. On March 26, 2018, "Talk That Talk" was certified 3× Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), marking shipments of over three million album-equivalent units. It has sold over 1,150,000 copies in the United States as of June 2015.


title: Talk That Talk

text: In the United Kingdom, the album was certified Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 300,000 units after six days of sale. "Talk That Talk" debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, selling more than 163,000 copies in its first week. With the album and "We Found Love" both at number one, it made Rihanna the only female artist in the UK to simultaneously have a number one single and album twice in the same year with a different album and single. The other double chart topper being "What's My Name?" and "Loud" in January 2011. On December 9, 2011 the album was certified two-times Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 600,000 copies in the UK. As of May 2013 it has sold 1,000,000 copies.


title: Talk That Talk

text: It was the second biggest selling R&B / hip hop album of 2011 in the UK, only beaten by Rihanna's previous album, "Loud" (2010). On August 12, 2012, the album returned to the number one position of the UK Albums Chart, selling 9,578 copies, making it the UK's lowest-selling number one since records began. The record was beaten 4 years later by Blossoms' self-titled album which sold 7,948 copies on August 19, 2016.


title: Twista

text: Carl Terrell Mitchell (born November 27, 1973), better known by his stage name Twista (formerly Tung Twista), is an American rapper and record producer. He is best known for his chopper style of rapping and for once holding the title of fastest English-speaking rapper in the world according to Guinness World Records in 1992, being able to pronounce 598 syllables in 55 seconds.


title: Twista

text: In 1997, after appearing on Do or Die's hit single "Po Pimp", produced by the Legendary Traxster, Twista signed with Big Beat and Atlantic Records, where he released his third album "Adrenaline Rush" and formed the group Speedknot Mobstaz, in 1998. His 2004 album "Kamikaze" topped the U.S. "Billboard" 200, after the success of the "Billboard" Hot 100 number-one single "Slow Jamz" (with Kanye West and Jamie Foxx).


title: Twista

text: Carl Terrell Mitchell was born on November 27, 1973, and grew up in the K-Town area of the West Garfield Park neighborhood on the West Side of Chicago, Illinois and began rapping at the age of 12.


title: Twista

text: In 1992, Mitchell released his first album called "Runnin' Off at da Mouth" under the name Tung Twista.


title: Twista

text: His second album, titled "Resurrection", was set to be released in 1994, but due to problems with his record label at the time Atlantic Records and marketing issues involving fellow Chicago rapper Common's album of the same name, the album was only released in the city of Chicago and thus got little national attention.


title: Twista

text: In 1996, he teamed with Chicago producer The Legendary Traxster and Cwal's Do or Die on the track "Po Pimp" produced by the Legendary Traxster, which became a hit single. This led to a Cwal's label deal with Atlantic Records, which released "Adrenaline Rush" in 1997. Twista had by then dropped the "Tung" from his stage name. "Adrenaline Rush" became Twista's first charting album, as it peaked at #77 on the Billboard Hot 200. The album also spawned a "Billboard" Hot 100 hit in "Get It Wet" produced by the Legendary Traxster, which peaked at #96.


title: Twista

text: In 1998, Twista teamed with other Chicago area rappers to form the Speedknot Mobstaz. They released their first album, "Mobstability" produced entirely by the Legendary Traxster, in 1998. Twista then formed his own Legit Ballin' label, which released two compilation albums: "Legit Ballin" in 1999 and "Legit Ballin' Vol. 2: Street Scriptures" in 2001. The label later released "Respect The Game, Vol. 3" in 2002 and "Volume 4: Tha Truth" in 2006. In 2000, Twista collaborated with Ruff Ryders and Drag-On on the "Ruff Ryders: Ryde or Die Vol. 2" album, on the track "Twisted Heat." He also collaborated with Memphis Bleek on "Is That Your Chick" on "The Understanding" album.


title: Twista

text: Beginning in 2002, Twista began recording his album "Kamikaze" with rappers like Kanye West and Ludacris. "Kamikaze" came out in 2004 and debuted at the top spot of the American "Billboard" 200 album chart. Its first single "Slow Jamz" (also featured on Kanye West's debut album "The College Dropout"), featured West and Jamie Foxx and became a number-one hit in the US. Other singles included "Overnight Celebrity" and "So Sexy" (featuring R. Kelly); the album sold around two million copies. The remix of the song "Jook Gal" by Elephant Man featured Twista and the YoungBloodZ. The "Kamikaze" album and its singles gave Twista a new level of success and rose his profile significantly within the rap community.


title: Twista

text: Twista's album "The Day After" was released in 2005. It featured the hit singles "Girl Tonite" featuring Trey Songz, "Hit the Floor" featuring Pitbull, and "So Lonely" featuring Mariah Carey. His next album, "Adrenaline Rush 2007" came out in 2007. Its singles were "Give it Up" featuring Pharrell and "Creep Fast" featuring T-Pain. This album sold poorly compared to Twista's earlier albums. Twista appeared on the single "Hell No (Leave Home)" from Monica's album fall 2006 "The Makings of Me". In 2008, Twista launched a new record label called "Get Money Gang Entertainment" and the album "Category F5" with the hit, "Wetter". In 2009, Twista appeared on the single "Legendary" with fellow Chicago rappers AK47 of Do or Die and Saurus and Bones.


title: Twista

text: Twista released his eighth solo album entitled, "The Perfect Storm" on November 9, 2010. The first single from the album, "Make a Movie" produced by the Legendary Traxster, featuring Chris Brown, was released on August 24, 2010. Two buzz singles were released, "I Do" produced by Traxster and "Heat" produced by fellow Chicago producers NO I.D. and the Legendary Traxster. The album features artists such as Waka Flocka Flame, Raekwon, Tia London, Diddy, Ray J, and others. Production on the album is mainly by the Legendary Traxster along with Streetrunner, Twinz, Tight Mike and No I.D., Twista discussed his new documentary, directed by Vlad Yudin and the making of The Perfect Storm, including his belief that artists need to do more than just record songs and that they need to become more involved with the community around them.


title: Twista

text: In January 2013, Twista was featured in a remix of Lil Reese's song "Traffic". As of 2013, Twista was working on his ninth studio album entitled Dark Horse. He also was rumored to be in the works of signing a record deal with Kanye West's music label GOOD Music, although in an interview with HipHopDX Twista denied the rumor. The first single was "Throwin My Money", featuring R. Kelly and produced by Chris Millionaire. Twista appeared on the song "Jewels N Drugs" by Lady Gaga on the album "ARTPOP". "It's Yours" featuring Tia London was released on May 6, 2014, as the second single of the aforementioned album. It was serviced to urban contemporary radio in the United States on May 27, 2014, by Capitol Records. Dark Horse released on August 12, 2014.


title: Twista

text: Twista Released Twista Summer 96 mixtape in 2019, this includes the song Home invasion which features Do or Die Produced by HearonTrackz El aka HearonTrackz.


title: Twista

text: During the holiday season in 2010, Twista and his GMG team worked together with Chicago Food Bank's Produce mobile program to feed hungry people in the community.


title: Gopher (protocol)

text: The Gopher protocol is a communication protocol designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents in Internet Protocol networks. The design of the Gopher protocol and user interface is menu-driven, and presented an alternative to the World Wide Web in its early stages, but ultimately fell into disfavor, yielding to HTTP. The Gopher ecosystem is often regarded as the effective predecessor of the World Wide Web.


title: Gopher (protocol)

text: The Gopher protocol was invented by a team led by Mark P. McCahill at the University of Minnesota. It offers some features not natively supported by the Web and imposes a much stronger hierarchy on the documents it stores. Its text menu interface is well-suited to computing environments that rely heavily on remote text-oriented computer terminals, which were still common at the time of its creation in 1991, and the simplicity of its protocol facilitated a wide variety of client implementations. More recent Gopher revisions and graphical clients added support for multimedia.


title: Gopher (protocol)

text: Gopher's hierarchical structure provided a platform for the first large-scale electronic library connections. The Gopher protocol is still in use by enthusiasts, and although it has been almost entirely supplanted by the Web, a small population of actively-maintained servers remains.


title: Gopher (protocol)

text: Gopher system was released in mid-1991 by Mark P. McCahill, Farhad Anklesaria, Paul Lindner, Daniel Torrey, and Bob Alberti of the University of Minnesota in the United States. Its central goals were, as stated in :