title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Mohamed Bouazizi, who was known locally as "Babousa", was born in Sidi Bouzid, Tunisia, on 29 March 1984. His father, a construction worker in Libya, died of a heart attack when Bouazizi was three, and his mother married Bouazizi's uncle some time later.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Along with his six siblings, Bouazizi was educated in a one-room country school in Sidi Salah, a small village from Sidi Bouzid. Although several media outlets reported that Bouazizi had a university degree, his sister, Samia Bouazizi, stated that he had never graduated from high school, but that it was something he had wanted for both himself and his sisters. With his uncle in poor health and unable to work regularly, Bouazizi had worked various jobs since he was ten, and in his late teens he quit school in order to work full-time.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: His father left a three-hectare plot of land whose produce hardly provided for the family. His uncle tried to build a farm that uses irrigation water by taking a loan from a bank to finance the project. With Mohamed working on the farm, the uncle fell in debt, and subsequently, the bank took hold of the land. It was during that time that the young man became a street vendor.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Bouazizi lived in a modest stucco home, a 20-minute walk from the centre of Sidi Bouzid, a rural town in Tunisia burdened by corruption and suffering an unemployment rate estimated at 30%. According to his mother, he applied to join the army, but was refused, and several subsequent job applications also resulted in rejection. He supported his mother, uncle, and younger siblings, including paying for one of his sisters to attend university, by earning approximately per month selling produce on the street in Sidi Bouzid. He was also working toward the goal of buying or renting a pickup truck for his work. A close friend of Bouazizi said he "was a very well-known and popular man who would give free fruit and vegetables to very poor families".


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: According to friends and family, local police officers targeted and mistreated Bouazizi for years, including during his childhood, regularly confiscating his small wheelbarrow of produce; but Bouazizi had no other way to make a living, so he continued to work as a street vendor. Around on 16 December 2010, he had contracted approximately in debt to buy the produce he was to sell the following day. On the morning of 17 December, he started his workday at Just after , the police began harassing him again, ostensibly because he did not have a vendor's permit. However, while some sources state that street vending is illegal in Tunisia, and others that Bouazizi lacked a required permit to sell his wares, according to the head of Sidi Bouzid's state office for employment and independent work, no permit is needed to sell from a cart.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Bouazizi did not have the funds to bribe police officials to allow his street vending to continue. Similarly, two of Bouazizi's siblings accused authorities of attempting to extort money from their brother, and during an interview with Reuters, one of his sisters stated, "What kind of repression do you imagine it takes for a young man to do this? A man who has to feed his family by buying goods on credit when they fine him ... and take his goods. In Sidi Bouzid, those with no connections and no money for bribes are humiliated and insulted and not allowed to live."


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Bouazizi's family claims he was publicly humiliated, that a 45-year-old female municipal official, Faida Hamdi, slapped him in the face, spat at him, confiscated his electronic weighing scales, and tossed aside his produce cart It was also stated that she made a slur against his deceased father. Bouazizi's family says her sex made his humiliation worse.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Faida Hamdi and her brother claimed in interviews that she did not slap Bouazizi or otherwise mistreat him. An unnamed eyewitness referred to by "Asharq Al-Awsat" claimed not to have seen Hamdi slap Bouazizi.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Both Bouazizi's mother and the eyewitness who spoke with "Asharq Al-Awsat" stated that Hamdi's aides had kicked and beaten him after confiscating his fruit cart. Faida Hamdi states it might have happened, and "Asharq Al-Awsat" denies it did.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Bouazizi, angered by the confrontation, went to the governor's office to complain and to ask for his scales back. The governor refused to see or listen to him, even after Bouazizi was quoted as saying, "If you don't see me, I'll burn myself." Bouazizi then acquired a can of gasoline from a nearby gas station and returned to the governor's office. While standing in the middle of traffic, he shouted, "How do you expect me to make a living?" He then doused himself with the fuel, and set himself alight with a match at local time, less than an hour after the altercation.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: According to Bouazizi's sister, whose information was based on details relayed from her uncle who was present at the scene, people immediately panicked when he caught fire, and one of them tried to douse him with water. Bouazizi had suffered burns on over 90% of his body before locals managed to stop the flames. He was taken by ambulance to a hospital, where he was placed in an intensive care unit. He was subsequently transferred to a second, larger hospital in Sfax, more than away, and then to the Ben Arous Burn and Trauma Centre in the capital, away.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: On 31 December 2010, doctors reported that Bouazizi was in stable condition, and that he was showing a positive possibility of recovery. Despite the optimistic prognosis, however, Bouazizi remained comatose until his death. Bouazizi was visited in the hospital by then-President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali. According to Bouazizi's mother, Ben Ali promised to send him to France for medical treatment, but no such transfer ever occurred, prompting Menobia Bouazizi to criticize him for his unfulfilled promises.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: It is estimated that more than 5,000 people participated in the funeral procession that began in Sidi Bouzid and continued through to Bouazizi's native village, though police did not allow the procession to pass near the spot at which Bouazizi had burned himself. From the crowd, many were heard chanting "Farewell, Mohamed, we will avenge you. We weep for you today. We will make those who caused your death weep." He was buried at Garaat Bennour cemetery, 15 kilometres (10 mi) from Sidi Bouzid. His grave was described by Al-Jazeera as "simple" and surrounded by cacti, olive, and almond trees. In addition, a Tunisian flag flies next to the site. Tom Chesshyre also describes his tomb after visiting it: small, white, by a row of cacti, and with a simple inscription: "Martyr Mohamed Bouazizi. Peace for his life. And in the next life, have peace as well".


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: An investigation was launched following Bouazizi's self-immolation to find the details leading up to his actions. On 20 December 2010, it was reported that Faida Hamdi, the officer who accosted Bouazizi the day of his immolation, was suspended along with the secretary-general (governor) of Sidi Bouzid, but this was subsequently denied by the latter. Some time later, Hamdi was arrested on orders from President Ben Ali and held in an unspecified town. A brother of Hamdi later stated that she had been arrested and detained twice, the first time following Ben Ali's visit to Bouazizi in the hospital and subsequent meeting with Bouazizi's mother and sister at his presidential palace. Hamdi's brother then says his sister and her aides were released following a short detention and the closing of the investigation which "confirmed her innocence". He said her second arrest was "in response to the demands of the Tunisian protesters", and that the Tunisian security authorities informed him that she was being held only for her own protection and would be released once the protesting ended.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: According to Bouazizi's mother, Bouazizi chose to take this action because he had been humiliated, not because of the family's poverty. "It got to him deep inside, it hurt his pride," she said, referring to the police harassment. One of Bouazizi's sisters stated during an interview with "Asharq Al-Awsat" that their family intends to take legal action against all involved, "whether this is the municipal officers that slapped and insulted him, or the mayor [who] refused to meet him".


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: On 19 April, the case against Hamdi was dropped after Bouazizi's mother withdrew the family's complaint against her. She stated "It was a difficult but well-thought-out decision to avoid hatred and ... [to] help reconcile the residents of Sidi Bouzid." Hamdi had maintained her innocence, telling the court she did not slap Bouazizi, while her lawyer said the matter was "purely a political affair". Bouazizi's brother Salem supported the decision, saying "All the money in the world can't replace the loss of Mohamed who sacrificed himself for freedom and for dignity." Large crowds of people outside the courtroom also appeared to have been satisfied by the Bouazizi family's decision with some claiming Hamdi was being used as a scapegoat.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Outraged by the events that led to Bouazizi's self-immolation, protests began in Sidi Bouzid within hours, building for more than two weeks, with attempts by police to quiet the unrest serving only to fuel what was quickly becoming a violent and deadly movement. After Bouazizi's death, the protests became widespread, moving into the more affluent areas and eventually into the capital. The anger and violence became so intense that President Ben Ali fled Tunisia with his family on 14 January 2011, trying first to go to Paris, but was refused refuge by the French government. They were eventually welcomed into Saudi Arabia under "a long list of conditions" (such as being barred from participation in the media and politics), ending his 23-year rule and sparking "angry condemnation" among Saudis. In Tunisia, unrest persisted as a new regime took over, leaving many citizens of Tunisia feeling as though their needs were still being ignored.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Many Arabs in the Middle East and North Africa regard Bouazizi as a hero and inspiration. He is credited with galvanising the frustrations of the region's youth against their governments into the mass demonstrations, revolts, and revolutions that have become known as the Arab Spring. One year on, Tunisian writer and academic Larbi Sadiki asserted that Bouazizi's self-immolation "changed the course of Arab political history", achieving the "breakthrough in the fight against autocracy". However, he also wrote it would take years before the act and the subsequent chain of events that followed were "profoundly grasped by historians and social scientists".


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Bouazizi is considered a martyr by the Progressive Democratic Party (PDP) of Tunisia. Tunisian film director Mohamed Zran plans on making a feature film about Bouazizi, describing him as "a symbol for eternity". Tarak Ben Ammar, another Tunisian film director, intends to make a film on Bouazizi as well, stating he is "a hero for us as Tunisians and the Arab world as a whole".


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Since suicide is forbidden in Islam, Bouazizi's self-immolation created controversy among scholarly Muslim circles. While Al-Azhar University, the most prestigious religious institution in the Sunni Muslim world, issued a "fatwa" (a religious opinion) stating "suicide violates Islam even when it is carried out as a social or political protest", influential Egyptian cleric Yusuf al-Qaradawi spoke sympathetically of Bouazizi.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: On 4 February 2011, Bertrand Delanoë, the mayor of Paris, announced that, as a tribute to honour Bouazizi, a square in Paris will be named after him; the Mohamed-Bouazizi Square was unveiled four days later. On 17 February, the main square in Tunis that was previously called "November 7", after the date of Ben Ali's take-over in 1987, was renamed "January 14", though some had suggested it should honor Bouazizi (though a major roadway leading to the city's airport was renamed for him). Bouazizi was posthumously awarded the 2011 Sakharov Prize as one of "five representatives of the Arab people, in recognition and support of their drive for freedom and human rights". On 17 December, a cart statue was unveiled in Sidi Bouzid in honor of Bouazizi. Tunisia's first elected president Moncef Marzouki attended the ceremony, stating "Thank you to this land, which has been marginalised for centuries, for bringing dignity to the entire Tunisian people." Also, in Sidi Bouzid, as well as in the capital city of Tunis, both cities' respective main streets were renamed, "Boulevard Mohamed Bouazizi". The United Kingdom's "The Times" newspaper named Bouazizi person of the year for 2011.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: "By Fire", a story by Moroccan author Tahar Ben Jelloun inspired by this incident, was published in "The New Yorker" edition of 16 September 2013. It is a fictional treatment; some details in the story differ from the factual account. An interview with the author about his story was posted to "The New Yorker" "This Week in Fiction" on 9 September 2013.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: On 17 December 2015, the Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet, the Nobel Peace Prize laureates of that year, as well as other civil society organizations, celebrated Mohamed Bouazizi and the start of the Arab spring five years after his death in a ceremony in Sidi Bouzid.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: A Guardian article in 2020 noted that many Tunisians had become disillusioned at the bleak economic situation in the country, and "cursed" Bouazizi's name and legacy.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Bouazizi's actions triggered a number of self-immolations, in protests emulating his own, in several other countries in the Greater Middle East and Europe. In Algeria in particular, protests against rising food prices and spreading unemployment have resulted in many self-immolations. The first reported case following Bouazizi's death was that of Mohsen Bouterfif, a 37-year-old father of two, who set himself on fire when the mayor of Boukhadra (in Tébessa Province) refused to meet with him and others regarding employment and housing requests on 13 January 2011. According to a report in "El-Watan", the mayor challenged him, saying if he had courage he would immolate himself by fire as Bouazizi had done. He died on 24 January. In nearby El Oued Province, Maamir Lotfi, a 36-year-old unemployed father of six, also denied a meeting with the governor, burned himself in front of the town hall of El Oued on 17 January, dying on 12 February. Abdelhafid Boudechicha, a 29-year-old day laborer who lived with his parents and five siblings, burned himself in Medjana on 28 January over employment and housing issues. He died the following day.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: In the six months immediately after Mohamed Bouazizi's death on 4 January 2011, at least 107 Tunisians set themselves on fire. The men who self-immolated were mostly young unmarried men from poor, rural areas, and had only basic education. Amenallah Messaadi, who collated the figures and is head of the Burns Centre, said that people "should stop adding fuel to the fire".


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: In Egypt, Abdou Abdel-Moneim Jaafar, a 49-year-old restaurant owner, set himself alight in front of the Egyptian Parliament. His act of protest helped instigate weeks of protest and, later, the resignation of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak on 11 February 2011. In Saudi Arabia, an unidentified 65-year-old man died on 21 January 2011, after setting himself on fire in the town of Samtah, Jizan. This was apparently the kingdom's first known case of self-immolation.


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: Although these cases, with the exception of Egypt, did not garner the same kind of popular reaction that Bouazizi's case did in Tunisia, the Algerian, Yemeni, and Jordanian governments experienced significant protests and made major concessions in response to them. As such, these men and Bouazizi were hailed by some as "heroic martyrs of a new Middle Eastern revolution".


title: Mohamed Bouazizi

text: On 11 February 2011, in a case very similar to Bouazizi's, Noureddine Adnane, a 27-year-old Moroccan street vendor, set himself on fire in Palermo, Sicily, in protest of the confiscation of his wares and the harassment that was inflicted on him by municipal officials. He died five days later. In Amsterdam, Kambiz Roustay, a 36-year-old asylum seeker from Iran, set himself on fire on Dam Square in protest of being refused asylum. Roustay had fled the country for publishing works undermining the regime, and feared being tortured by the Iranian government upon his return.


title: Milk snake

text: The milk snake or milksnake (Lampropeltis triangulum), is a species of kingsnake; 24 subspecies are currently recognized. "Lampropeltis elapsoides", the scarlet kingsnake, was formerly classified as a 25th subspecies ("L. t. elapsoides"), but is now recognized as a distinct species. The subspecies have strikingly different appearances, and many of them have their own common names. Some authorities suggest that this species could be split into several separate species. They are not venomous to humans.


title: Milk snake

text: Milk snakes can be found from the southeastern extreme of Canada through the eastern half of the United States.


title: Milk snake

text: Across the wide range of this species, habitat varies. Typically, milk snakes live in forested regions; however, they can also be found in swamps, prairie, farmland, rocky slopes, and sand dunes/beaches. In some situations, milk snakes also migrate seasonally, during the winter they move to higher and drier habitats for hibernation and moister habitats for the summer. Milk snakes enter hibernation from late October or November to mid-April.


title: Milk snake

text: There is a significant amount of variation among milk snakes in terms of size. Depending on subspecies, they can be as small as 14" (36cm) or as large as 72" (183cm) long. Adults in the wild apparently average from in North America. However, unusually large milk snakes can become rather bulkier than average-sized adults and potentially weigh up to , though high weights as such are generally reported from captivity. Males typically are larger than females in maturity, although females can be bulkier than males similar in length as well. Generally more tropical populations, from Mexico and further south, reach larger adult sizes than milk snakes living in the temperate zones.


title: Milk snake

text: Milk snakes have smooth and shiny scales and their typical color pattern is alternating bands of red-black-yellow or white-black-red; however, red blotches instead of bands are seen in some populations. Some milk snakes have a striking resemblance to coral snakes, in Batesian mimicry, which likely scares away potential predators. Both milk snakes and coral snakes possess transverse bands of red, black, and yellow. Experts now recognize that common mnemonics that people use to distinguish between the deadly coral snake and the harmless milk snake are not 100% reliable. Some coral snakes do not have the typical banding colors or patterns. Examples of unreliable mnemonics commonly used:


title: Milk snake

text: Due to the many colors of the eastern milk snake ("L. t. triangulum"), it can resemble the coral snake, corn snake, fox snake, scarlet snake, and most importantly, the venomous snake genera "Agkistrodon" and "Sistrurus". Milk, fox, and scarlet snakes are killed because of a resemblance to the venomous pygmy rattlers. Juvenile milk snakes, which are more reddish than adults, are often killed because they are mistaken for copperheads. Enough distinction exists among the five to make the eastern milk snake fairly easy to identify. The eastern milk snakes also have a light-colored V-shaped or Y-shaped patch on their necks. One subspecies, "L. t. gaigeae", is melanistic (almost all black) as an adult.


title: Milk snake

text: Milk snakes are mostly nocturnal, especially during summer months. They are primarily terrestrial and attempt to blend in with ground litter. However, they are able to climb and swim. These snakes tend to be secretive and remain hidden. When threatened, a milk snake will usually first try to escape. If cornered or harassed, it may vibrate its tail and strike energetically, though of course they are non-venomous, have only tiny teeth and their tails lack a rattle. Unless frightened, milk snakes move slowly. They are often fairly docile.


title: Milk snake

text: Young milk snakes typically eat crickets and other insects, slugs, and earthworms; in the western U.S., juveniles also feed on small lizards and other young snakes. Adults' diet is primarily small mammals, but frequently includes lizards (especially skinks). They are also known to eat birds and their eggs, frogs, fish, and other snakes (including venomous species like coral snakes and rattlesnakes) and their eggs.


title: Milk snake

text: Milk snakes are much more opportunistic eaters than the fox snake or corn snake. Although the diet of adult milk snakes primarily consists of rodents (such as voles, mice, and rats), they also have been known to consume a variety of other animals: birds and their eggs, other reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates.


title: Milk snake

text: They are nocturnal hunters and are often found resting during the day in old barns and under wood. An old fable about milk snakes is that they suck cow udders to get milk. The story is entirely false, and is discredited by the fact that the milk snake is not physically capable of sucking milk from a cow's udder; however, milk snakes "are" frequently found in and around barns, making use of the cool and dark environment for a resting-place during the day, and the easily accessible infestations of rodents for a convenient food supply. This preference for barns, and consequently the company of cows, presumably gave rise to the fable.


title: Milk snake

text: Milk snakes are oviparous, laying an average of about 10 eggs per clutch, although that number may vary by region. The milk snake mates from early May to late June. In June and July, the female lays three to 24 eggs beneath logs, boards, rocks, and rotting vegetation. The eggs are oval in shape, and white in color. Eggs range from 2.5 cm to 4.2 cm (1 to 1.7 in) in length. The eggs incubate for about two months, and hatch around August or September. The average hatchling in Virginia measures in total length and weighs .


title: Milk snake

text: Milk snakes typically live around 12 years, or up to 21 years in captivity. They reach maturity within three or four years.


title: Milk snake

text: The milk snake is listed as of least concern by the IUCN (a wildlife conservation union), but in some areas, they may face significant pressure due to pet-trade collection. Because of this species' attractiveness in the pet trade, many subspecies are now being bred in captivity for sale.


title: Global Entry

text: Global Entry is a program of the U.S. Customs and Border Protection service that allows pre-approved, low-risk travelers to receive expedited clearance upon arrival into the United States through automatic kiosks at select airports and via the SENTRI and NEXUS lanes by land and sea. , Global Entry was available at 53 U.S. airports and 15 preclearance locations. By April 2018 more than 5 million people were enrolled in Global Entry and approximately 50,000 new applications for the program were being filed monthly.


title: Global Entry

text: During the 1990s and early 2000s, the US Immigration and Naturalization Service operated INSPASS, a trusted traveler program designed to integrate with Canadian and European programs, at JFK and Newark Airports. INSPASS operated with a similar system, identifying travelers with their handprint. The program was discontinued in 2002 when the INS was merged with U.S. Customs to form U.S. Customs and Border Protection.


title: Global Entry

text: The Global Entry program was initially deployed in 2008 at a small number of airports, including New York-JFK (Terminal 4), Washington-Dulles and Houston-Intercontinental. Following a good reception by travelers, the program was expanded to include Los Angeles International, Atlanta-Hartsfield, Chicago-O'Hare and Miami International Airport.


title: Global Entry

text: In May 2009, Global Entry membership was expanded to include Netherlands citizens who are also members of the Dutch Privium trusted traveler program under the FLUX (Fast Low-risk Universal Crossing) alliance. Present members of Global Entry are now permitted to apply to join the Privium program at Amsterdam-Schiphol International Airport allowing entry into the Schengen area. Members of NEXUS and SENTRI are also entitled to use Global Entry.


title: Global Entry

text: New York's immigrant sanctuary "Green Light Law", enacted in 2020, prohibited its state DMV from sharing criminal records with the federal Customs and Border Protection (CBP) or Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) without a court order. New York provides driver's licenses to undocumented immigrants, as over a dozen other states also do, though none of those other states placed as tight restrictions on the federal government's access to DMV records.


title: Global Entry

text: In response to this law, on February 6, 2020, the Department of Homeland Security announced that it would immediately prohibit New York state residents from applying for or renewing trusted traveler programs including Global Entry. This affected about 175,000 New Yorkers whose trusted traveler memberships would expire in 2020 and another 80,000 New Yorkers with pending applications. The Trump administration said it would reinstate access to the trusted traveler programs if New York state opened its DMV records to the federal government.


title: Global Entry

text: New York did not immediately agree to these terms. The next day, state officials promised to sue the Trump administration. They said the lawsuit would argue that "the federal government's actions were arbitrary and capricious, did not provide state residents equal protection and violated the state's sovereign immunity," as "The New York Times" explained. New York attorney general Letitia James filed the lawsuit against CBP and DHS on February 10.


title: Global Entry

text: However, on February 12, Gov. Andrew Cuomo said he would comply with the Trump administration's request. He said he would propose either a legislative bill or a change to the New York state budget to grant the federal government access to New York's motor vehicle data, but only to the records of trusted traveler applicants and members, and only on a case-by-case basis. On February 13, Cuomo met with Trump at the White House; details of the meeting were not disclosed.


title: Global Entry

text: On July 23, 2020, after New York amended its law to allow federal agencies access to state records of applicants to trusted traveler programs, the Department of Homeland Security reopened the programs for New York residents.


title: Global Entry

text: To enroll in Global Entry, applicants must first file an application with the U.S. Customs and Border Protection, and then submit to an interview and background check (which checks against multiple databases, including more than a simple TSA PreCheck). After submission, applicants must wait for either conditional approval or rejection. If conditionally approved, all first-time applicants must schedule an appointment for an interview, photograph and fingerprints. The wait for an interview may be months to a year. There is no minimum number of international trips required to qualify for the Global Entry program.


title: Global Entry

text: There is a $100 non-refundable fee due at the time of application (before consideration for conditional approval). Unlike other trusted traveler programs, like NEXUS, the fee applies to infants and children. Some credit cards reimburse this fee to both the cardholder and household family members.During the interview, the applicant's fingerprints are captured and a digital photo is taken. Applicants are also given instructions on how to use the automated kiosk. The applicant is not always approved on-site, but the interviewing CBP officer makes the final determination and can mark full approval immediately to within 15 minutes or hours later the same day. In any case, the program (CBP) sends both an email notification and a letter stating the outcome, and this message is sent immediately upon the interviewing officer's input of decision. The email directs applicants to login to their DHS TTP portal to view the outcome (though it is not necessary). The physical letter may contain a membership ID card (typically only included if requested via the DHS TTP web portal). However, the card is neither required for any aspect of the program and also cannot be used at kiosks (i.e., a passport is still required). If a participant does not receive a card or else needs a replacement, the member requests via the TTP portal.


title: Global Entry

text: An advantage to viewing the status online is that, if approved, the Known Traveler ID ("KTN", required to be provided to participating airlines in order to receive TSA PreCheck) is supplied and may be used immediately. Otherwise, the approved applicant has to wait for their KTN in the physically mailed letter.


title: Global Entry

text: Although an ID card serves no purpose during customs interactions, it can be used as a photo ID at U.S. airports and for entry into certain other Federal buildings. Further, airports without dedicated PreCheck lanes occasionally allow cardholding members to bypass standard security: while they wait in line, a special paper is given and provided to the x-ray operator letting them know that the member does not need to remove liquids, computer or clothing. However, this practice is much more common for after-hours use (i.e., this process is often used once the staffed, dedicated PreCheck lane is closed). The card is also WHTI-compliant, meaning it can be used at U.S. land and sea crossings into the U.S. from Canada and Mexico (only; entry from all other countries and entry via air from any country still require a passport). The card is RFID enabled, so it can be used in Ready Lanes at such border checkpoints (an RFID enabled card is required for SENTRI, NEXUS and Ready lanes because data must read wirelessly in advance to allow border guards to pre-process passengers before their vehicle arrives at the crossing station). Further, Global Entry participants may also use the dedicated SENTRI and NEXUS lanes (other TTP programs allow only for use of their dedicated lane plus Ready Lanes).


title: Global Entry

text: Once an application is approved, the applicant may use the Global Entry kiosk at any participating airport for a duration of five years. The five year period begins at the member's next birthday following approval. So for instance, an applicant with a birthday in October who is approved in May (i.e., 5 months prior to their birthday) will enjoy 5 years + 5 months of privileges.


title: Global Entry

text: Renewal of membership requires an additional fee (currently, the same $100 fee as charged for new applicants), and in some cases, renewal applicants are selected for a new interview. Early renewal is encouraged, and the renewal may be started beginning on the participant’s birthday exactly 365 days ahead of the expiration. Failure to renew on-time results in permanent discontinuation, meaning an entire new application is required, and an interview is required (whereas, again, renewals on-time do not always require an interview). The TSA maintains a list of credit card issuers and loyalty programs that reimburse members' TSA PreCheck and/or Global Entry application fees.


title: Global Entry

text: Any type of criminal conviction can disqualify a traveler from the Global Entry program: it is a risk-based system to facilitate the entry of pre-approved travelers. Three to five percent of travelers who sign up for the program are rejected; in such cases, they are generally told the reason for the rejection. Applicants may not qualify if they provide false or incomplete information on the application, if they have pending criminal charges or for any other legal/customs issues (particularly, but not exclusively, for customs-related offenses) such as, for example, having previously paid a fine for transporting a prohibited or undeclared item at a port of entry in the U.S. or even abroad.


title: Global Entry

text: Those whose Global Entry applications are denied have three ways to appeal: making an appointment to speak with a supervisor at a trusted traveler enrollment center, e-mailing the CBP Trusted Traveler Ombudsman, or filing a complaint through the Department of Homeland Security's Traveler Redress Inquiry Program.


title: Global Entry

text: CBP claims that less than one percent of active Global Entry participants' privileges are revoked. In these situations, an explanation for the revocation is not necessarily supplied.


title: Global Entry

text: A common explanation for revocation or denial of re-approval is simply that the applicant (no longer) meets the inclusion criteria (i.e., a full reason is not supplied). Often, this means some kind of criminal activity, such as an outstanding warrant. Once said item is addressed, applicants have a chance of success, but it is still required to appeal via one of the above-listed three avenues. Notably, the Ombudsman may be reached, in certain circumstances, via the DHS TTP portal. A button appears to appeal. Otherwise, a submission is required via U.S. Mail to the listed P.O. Box.


title: Global Entry

text: When entering by air, enrolled users must present their machine-readable passport or permanent residency card, and submit their fingerprints to establish identity. Users then complete a computerized customs declaration, and are issued a receipt instructing them to either proceed to baggage claim, or to a normal inspection booth for an interview. For subsequent entries at certain facilities (e.g., NEXUS), only a facial recognition scan is required instead of the passport (however users are always advised to travel with a passport when abroad).


title: Global Entry

text: For entering by land and sea, enrolled users are provided with an RFID-enabled Global Entry membership card that may be used to enter the United States via expedited "Ready Lanes," akin to NEXUS lanes from Canada, or SENTRI lanes from Mexico. The card may also be used at sea ports of entry without the need of a passport. The Global Entry Card cannot be used to enter Canada: a passport is required. The card may be used, however, to return into the U.S. via land borders.


title: Global Entry

text: NEXUS is another trusted traveller program operated jointly by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection and the Canada Border Services Agency that allows pre-approved, low-risk travelers to receive expedited clearance upon arrival into the United States and Canada by air, land, and water. The program is available to U.S. citizens, U.S. permanent residents, Canadian citizens, Canadian permanent residents, and Mexican nationals. Members of NEXUS can use the benefits of Global Entry if their fingerprints and passport information were collected during the interview to apply for the program.


title: Global Entry

text: SENTRI is similar to the NEXUS program, but it is fully operated by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection. It allows expedited entry for pre-approved travelers that are considered low-risk into the United States but not out of it. U.S. citizens, U.S. permanent residents, and all foreign nationals are eligible for the program. U.S. citizens and U.S. permanent residents may use their SENTRI card at Global Entry kiosks. Mexican nationals who are SENTRI members may apply for Global Entry after passing a risk assessment conducted by the Mexican government.


title: Global Entry

text: Members of Global Entry (along with members of other U.S. Trusted Traveler programs, NEXUS and SENTRI) may be selected to use TSA PreCheck on all participating airlines by entering their Customs and Border Protection “Known Traveler Number” from their Global Entry card or dashboard into their flight reservation information or into their frequent flyer account under the airline’s KTN field during checkout. Alternatively, passengers may often save their KTN via a frequent flyer account such that it automatically applies to all checkouts for the customer flying (when logged in to the airline’s website and/or by inputting their frequent flyer number at checkout). Further, in case the KTN is forgotten during purchase, the participant may simply call the airline pre-departure to have the KTN manually added to the reservation: this is recommended to be done at least 24 hours prior to departure. Note that any person, including TTP participants in GE, may be subjected to standard or enhanced screening at any time (i.e., denied PreCheck). However, denying PreCheck to GE members is rare and is a case-by-case. PreCheck is included for all Global Entry members, NEXUS members who are U.S. citizens, U.S. permanent residents or Canadian citizens, and SENTRI members who are U.S. citizens or U.S. permanent residents.


title: Global Entry

text: As of October 2022, in addition to U.S. nationals and U.S. lawful permanent residents, nationals of the following countries may also apply for Global Entry:


title: Global Entry

text: Nationals and permanent residents of Canada are not eligible to apply for Global Entry but they may apply for NEXUS, whose members have all benefits of Global Entry including using its kiosks.


title: Global Entry

text: A limited number of nationals of Israel, Japan, Qatar and Saudi Arabia have been able to apply for Global Entry as a trial before eligibility is expanded to all nationals of these countries. The governments of Australia, Costa Rica, Croatia and Dominican Republic have also negotiated participation in the program.


title: Global Entry

text: As of 2018, more than 96% of Global Entry members were citizens or permanent residents of the United States.


title: Global Entry

text: Participants may enter the United States (or the United States pre-clearance area in select international airports) by utilizing automated kiosks located at the following airports:


title: Global Entry

text: Australia and New Zealand's SmartGate system (eGate in New Zealand) is available to all holders of biometric passports of Australia and New Zealand, and selected other countries aged 16 or over for entry to Australia, and selected other countries aged 12 or over for entry to New Zealand. It requires no pre-registration and is similar to its US counterpart, although in addition, it uses facial recognition technology to process passengers.


title: Global Entry

text: Germany's federal police also offers Easypass automated border control at major airports (Hamburg, Dusseldorf, Frankfurt, and Munich). It is open to citizens of the European Union, citizens of the European Economic Area, Switzerland, and South Korea. Nationals of the US and the Hong Kong S.A.R. of China may also register.


title: Global Entry

text: Hong Kong's e-Channel is situated at all border crossing points. A person who holds a Hong Kong Identity Card (HKID) inserts the card into a slot to enter the first gate and then has their thumbprint scanned to pass through the second gate.


title: Global Entry

text: Japan's equivalent to the US program, Automated gate, costs 2200 JPY in the form of revenue stamps. It is similar in that a passport and fingerprint are scanned at a kiosk to pass.


title: Global Entry

text: Mexico's Viajero Confiable program is open to Mexican citizens and US citizens who are members of Global Entry. Prospective members must pass a background check and an interview with a Mexican immigration officer, and have fingerprints and iris scans taken. Kiosks are currently available at the Cancun, Los Cabos, and Mexico City international airports, but the Mexican government hopes to expand it to other cities in the near future.


title: Global Entry

text: South Korea's Smart Entry Service is the automated immigration clearance system. South Korean citizens aged 7 or above, all foreigners residing in South Korea aged 17 or above, US citizens aged 17 or above who are not residing in South Korea and participating in Global Entry, and Hong Kong and Macau electronic passport holders aged 17 or above are eligible for the program. South Korean citizens who registered their fingerprints are exempted from pre-registration. US dual citizens holding South Korean citizenship must use their South Korean passports to use the programme. US citizens with a valid South Korean visa must use their Alien Registration Card to participate in the programme and are exempted from the Global Entry prerequisite. It uses both facial recognition and fingerprinting technology.


title: Global Entry

text: Taiwan's e-Gate is a free automated entry system for citizens and certain classes of residents and frequent visitors. Users simply scan their travel documents at the gate and are passed through for facial recognition. Electronic fingerprinting is used when facial recognition fails. Registration is available at the immigration counter right at the port of entry.


title: Global Entry

text: Singapore’s enhanced-Immigration Automated Clearance System (eIACS) enables Singaporean citizens aged 6 and above, foreigners that hold a valid work pass in Singapore and foreign visitors who enrolled in relevant Traveller programmes (stated below), to arrive and depart Singapore using the automated immigration gates at Singapore points of entry. US citizens aged 6 or above (who are not residing in Singapore), are participating in Global Entry, and have visited Singapore at least 2 times in the last 24 months, are eligible to enrol into the Singapore - United States of America Trusted Traveller Programme (TTP). Electronic passport holders from other selected nations, are eligible to enrol for the broader Frequent Traveller Programme (FTP). All Singaporean citizens are exempted from enrolling into the eIACS, as they have registered their fingerprints whilst applying for Singapore national registration identity card (NRIC) and Singapore passport. Foreigners who hold a valid work pass, are also exempted from enrolling into the eIACS, as they have registered their fingerprints whilst applying for the relevant work pass.


title: Global Entry

text: In Canada, the CANPASS provides expedited customs and immigration clearance for travelers flying on corporate and private aircraft flying from the United States. The program cost and is valid for 5 years. The program was previously available for commercial airline passengers and private boats and operated similar to Global Entry. The program was discontinued in 2018 in favour of NEXUS, which has the same benefits of the former CANPASS program in addition to the benefits of Global Entry, with existing members being allowed to kept their membership until it expires.


title: History of Brazil

text: The history of Brazil begins with indigenous people in Brazil. Europeans arrived in Brazil at the ending of the 15th century. The first European to claim sovereignty over Indigenous lands part of what is now the territory of the Federative Republic of Brazil on the continent of South America was Pedro Álvares Cabral (c. 1467/1468 – c. 1520) on 22 April 1500 under the sponsorship of the Kingdom of Portugal. From the 16th to the early 19th century, Brazil was a colony and a part of the Portuguese Empire. The country expanded south along the coast and west along the Amazon and other inland rivers from the original 15 donatary captaincy colonies established on the northeast Atlantic coast east of the Tordesillas Line of 1494 (approximately the 46th meridian west) that divided the Portuguese domain to the east from the Spanish domain to the west, although Brazil was at one time a colony of Spain. The country's borders were only finalized in the early 20th century.


title: History of Brazil

text: On 7 September 1822, the country declared its independence from Portugal and it became the Empire of Brazil. A military coup in 1889 established the First Brazilian Republic. The country has seen two dictatorship periods: the first during the Vargas Era (1937–1945) and the second during the military rule (1964–1985) under Brazilian military government.


title: History of Brazil

text: Some of the earliest human remains found in the Americas, Luzia Woman, were found in the area of Pedro Leopoldo, Minas Gerais and provide evidence of human habitation going back at least 11,000 years.


title: History of Brazil

text: When Portuguese explorers arrived in Brazil, the region was inhabited by hundreds of different types of Jiquabu tribes, "the earliest going back at least 10,000 years in the highlands of Minas Gerais". The dating of the origins of the first inhabitants, who were called "Indians" ("índios") by the Portuguese, is still a matter of dispute among archaeologists. The earliest pottery ever found in the Western Hemisphere, radiocarbon-dated 8,000 years old, has been excavated in the Amazon basin of Brazil, near Santarém, providing evidence to overturn the assumption that the tropical forest region was too poor in resources to have supported a complex prehistoric culture". The current most widely accepted view of anthropologists, linguists and geneticists is that the early tribes were part of the first wave of migrant hunters who came into the Americas from Asia, either by land, across the Bering Strait, or by coastal sea routes along the Pacific, or both.


title: History of Brazil

text: The Andes and the mountain ranges of northern South America created a rather sharp cultural boundary between the settled agrarian civilizations of the west coast and the semi-nomadic tribes of the east, who never developed written records or permanent monumental architecture. For this reason, very little is known about the history of Brazil before 1500. Archaeological remains (mainly pottery) indicate a complex pattern of regional cultural developments, internal migrations, and occasional large state-like federations.


title: History of Brazil

text: At the time of European discovery, the territory of current day Brazil had as many as 2,000 tribes. The indigenous peoples were traditionally mostly semi-nomadic tribes who subsisted on hunting, fishing, gathering, and migrant agriculture. When the Portuguese arrived in 1500, the Natives were living mainly on the coast and along the banks of major rivers.


title: History of Brazil

text: Tribal warfare, cannibalism and the pursuit of brazilwood for its treasured red dye convinced the Portuguese that they should Christianize the natives. But the Portuguese, like the Spanish in their South American possessions, had brought diseases with them, against which many Natives were helpless due to lack of immunity. Measles, smallpox, tuberculosis, gonorrhea, and influenza killed tens of thousands of indigenous people. The diseases spread quickly along the indigenous trade routes, and whole tribes were likely annihilated without ever coming in direct contact with Europeans.


title: History of Brazil

text: Marajoara culture flourished on Marajó island at the mouth of the Amazon River. Archeologists have found sophisticated pottery in their excavations on the island. These pieces are large, and elaborately painted and incised with representations of plants and animals. These provided the first evidence that a complex society had existed on Marajó. Evidence of mound building further suggests that well-populated, complex and sophisticated settlements developed on this island, as only such settlements were believed capable of such extended projects as major earthworks.


title: History of Brazil

text: The extent, level of complexity, and resource interactions of the Marajoara culture have been disputed. Working in the 1950s in some of her earliest research, American Betty Meggers suggested that the society migrated from the Andes and settled on the island. Many researchers believed that the Andes were populated by Paleoindian migrants from North America who gradually moved south after being hunters on the plains.


title: History of Brazil

text: In the 1980s, another American archeologist, Anna Curtenius Roosevelt, led excavations and geophysical surveys of the mound Teso dos Bichos. She concluded that the society that constructed the mounds originated on the island itself.


title: History of Brazil

text: The pre-Columbian culture of Marajó may have developed social stratification and supported a population as large as 100,000 people. The Native Americans of the Amazon rainforest may have used their method of developing and working in Terra preta to make the land suitable for the large-scale agriculture needed to support large populations and complex social formations such as chiefdoms.


title: History of Brazil

text: The papal bull inter caetera had divided the New World between Spain and Portugal in 1493, and the Treaty of Tordesillas added to this by moving the dividing line westwards.


title: History of Brazil

text: There are many theories regarding who was the first European to set foot on the land now called Brazil. Besides the widely accepted view of Cabral's discovery, some say that it was Duarte Pacheco Pereira between November and December 1498 and some others say that it was first encountered by Vicente Yáñez Pinzón, a Spanish navigator who had accompanied Columbus in his first voyage of discovery to the Americas, having supposedly arrived in today's Pernambuco region on 26 January 1500 but was unable to claim the land because of the Treaty of Tordesillas. In April 1500, Brazil was claimed for Portugal on the arrival of the Portuguese fleet commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral. The Portuguese encountered stone-using natives divided into several tribes, many of whom shared the same Tupi–Guarani language family, and fought among themselves. Early names for the country included "Santa Cruz" (Holy Cross) and "Terra dos Papagaios" (Land of the Parrots). After European arrival, the land's major export was a type of tree the traders and colonists called "pau-Brasil" (Latin for wood red like an ember) or brazilwood from which gave it its final name, a large tree ("Caesalpinia echinata") whose trunk yields a prized red dye, and which was nearly wiped out as a result of overexploitation.


title: History of Brazil

text: Until 1529 Portugal had very little interest in Brazil mainly due to the high profits gained through its commerce with India, China, and the East Indies. This lack of interest allowed traders, pirates, and privateers of several countries to poach profitable Brazilwood in lands claimed by Portugal, with France setting up the colony of France Antarctique in 1555. In response the Portuguese Crown devised a system to effectively occupy Brazil, without paying the costs. Through the hereditary Captaincies system, Brazil was divided into strips of land that were donated to Portuguese noblemen, who were in turn responsible for the occupation and administration of the land and answered to the king. The system was a failure, and only four lots were successfully occupied: Pernambuco, São Vicente (later called São Paulo), Ilhéus and Porto Seguro. In 1572, the country was divided into the Northern Government based in Salvador and the Southern Government based in Rio de Janeiro.


title: History of Brazil

text: In 1578, the then King of Portugal Dom Sebastião disappeared in the Alcacer-Quibir war, a conflict between Portugal and the Moors in Morocco. The king had entered the war without much allied support or the necessary resources to fight properly. With his disappearance, and since he had no direct heirs, King Philip II of Spain, who was his uncle, took control of the Portuguese lands, in what was called the Iberian Union which lasted only briefly until 60 years later when John, Duke of Bragança, rebelled with the announced purpose of restoring Portuguese independence, which he achieved, thus becoming John IV of Portugal. Sebastian was never found, and neither was his body, which made the Portuguese believe that one day he would come back and take Philip out of the government. Brazil was added to the Spanish Empire but kept under Portuguese administration, until Portugal restored its independence in 1668 and the Portuguese colonial possessions were given back to the Portuguese crown.


title: History of Brazil

text: The "Tamoyo Confederation" ("Confederação dos Tamoios" in Portuguese language) was a military alliance of aboriginal chieftains of the sea coast ranging from what is today Santos to Rio de Janeiro, which occurred from 1554 to 1567.


title: History of Brazil

text: The main reason for this rather unusual alliance between separate tribes was to react against slavery and wholesale murder and destruction brought by the early Portuguese discoverers and colonisers of Brazil onto the Tupinambá people. In the Tupi language, "Tamuya" means "elder" or "grandfather". Cunhambebe was elected chief of the Confederation by his counterparts, and together with chiefs Pindobuçú, Koakira, Araraí and Aimberê, declared war on the Portuguese.


title: History of Brazil

text: Starting in the sixteenth century, sugarcane grown on plantations called "engenhos" along the northeast coast (Brazil's "Nordeste") became the base of Brazilian economy and society, with the use of slaves on large plantations to produce sugar for Europe. At first, settlers tried to enslave the natives as labor to work the fields. Portugal had pioneered the plantation system in the Atlantic islands of Madeira and São Tomé, with forced labor, high capital inputs of machinery, slaves, and work animals. The extensive cultivation of sugar was for an export market, necessitating land that could be acquired with relatively little conflict from existing occupants. By 1570, Brazil's sugar output rivaled that of the Atlantic islands. In the mid-seventeenth century, the Dutch seized productive areas of northeast Brazil, from 1630–1654, and took over the plantations. When the Dutch were expelled from Brazil, following a strong push by Portuguese-Brazilians and their indigenous and Afro-Brazilian allies, the Dutch as well as the English and French set up sugar production on the plantation model of Brazil in the Caribbean. Increased production and competition meant that the price of sugar dropped, and Brazil's market share dropped. Brazil's recovery from the Dutch incursion was slow since warfare had taken its toll on sugar plantations. In Bahia, tobacco was cultivated for the African export market, with tobacco dipped in molasses (derived from sugar production) being traded for African slaves. Brazil's settlement and economic development was largely on its lengthy coastline. The Dutch incursion had underlined the vulnerability of Brazil to foreigners, and the crown responded by building coastal forts and creating a marine patrol to protect the colony.


title: History of Brazil

text: The initial exploration of Brazil's interior was largely due to para-military adventurers, the "bandeirantes", who entered the jungle in search of gold and native slaves. However colonists were unable to continually enslave natives, and Portuguese sugar planters soon turned to import millions of slaves from Africa. Mortality rates for slaves in sugar and gold enterprises were dramatic, and there were often not enough females or proper conditions to replenish the slave population through natural increase.


title: History of Brazil

text: During the first 150 years of the colonial period, attracted by the vast natural resources and untapped land, other European powers tried to establish colonies in several parts of Brazilian territory, in defiance of the papal bull ("Inter caetera") and the Treaty of Tordesillas, which had divided the New World into two parts between Portugal and Spain. French colonists tried to settle in present-day Rio de Janeiro, from 1555 to 1567 (the so-called France Antarctique episode), and in present-day São Luís, from 1612 to 1614 (the so-called France Équinoxiale). Jesuits arrived early and established São Paulo, evangelising the natives. These native allies of the Jesuits assisted the Portuguese in driving out the French. The unsuccessful Dutch intrusion into Brazil was longer lasting and more troublesome to Portugal (Dutch Brazil). Dutch privateers began by plundering the coast: they sacked Bahia in 1604, and even temporarily captured the capital Salvador. From 1630 to 1654, the Dutch set up more permanently in the northwest and controlled a long stretch of the coast most accessible to Europe, without, however, penetrating the interior. But the colonists of the Dutch West India Company in Brazil were in a constant state of siege, in spite of the presence in Recife of John Maurice of Nassau as governor. After several years of open warfare, the Dutch withdrew by 1654. Little French and Dutch cultural and ethnic influences remained of these failed attempts, but the Portuguese subsequently attempted to defend its coastline more vigorously.


title: History of Brazil

text: Slave rebellions were frequent until the practice of slavery was abolished in 1888. The most famous of the revolts was led by Zumbi dos Palmares. The state he established, named the Quilombo dos Palmares, was a self-sustaining republic of Maroons escaped from the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, and was "a region perhaps the size of Portugal in the hinterland of Pernambuco". At its height, Palmares had a population of over 30,000.


title: History of Brazil

text: Forced to defend against repeated attacks by Portuguese colonial power, the warriors of Palmares were expert in capoeira, a martial arts form developed in Brazil by African slaves in the 16th century.


title: History of Brazil

text: An African known only as Zumbi was born free in Palmares in 1655 but was captured by the Portuguese and given to a missionary, Father Antônio Melo when he was approximately 6 years old. Baptized Francisco, Zumbi was taught the sacraments, learned Portuguese and Latin, and helped with daily mass. Despite attempts to "civilize" him, Zumbi escaped in 1670 and, at the age of 15, returned to his birthplace. Zumbi became known for his physical prowess and cunning in battle and was a respected military strategist by the time he was in his early twenties.


title: History of Brazil

text: By 1678, the governor of the captaincy of Pernambuco, Pedro Almeida, weary of the longstanding conflict with Palmares, approached its leader Ganga Zumba with an olive branch. Almeida offered freedom for all runaway slaves if Palmares would submit to Portuguese authority, a proposal which Ganga Zumba favored. But Zumbi was distrustful of the Portuguese. Further, he refused to accept freedom for the people of Palmares while other Africans remained enslaved. He rejected Almeida's overture and challenged Ganga Zumba's leadership. Vowing to continue the resistance to Portuguese oppression, Zumbi became the new leader of Palmares.


title: History of Brazil

text: Fifteen years after Zumbi assumed leadership of Palmares, Portuguese military commanders Domingos Jorge Velho and Vieira de Melo mounted an artillery assault on the quilombo. On February 6, 1694, after 67 years of ceaseless conflict with the cafuzos (Maroons) of Palmares, the Portuguese succeeded in destroying Cerca do Macaco, the republic's central settlement. Palmares' warriors were no match for the Portuguese artillery; the republic fell, and Zumbi was wounded. Though he survived and managed to elude the Portuguese, he was betrayed, captured almost two years later and beheaded on the spot on November 20, 1695. The Portuguese transported Zumbi's head to Recife, where it was displayed in the central praça as proof that, contrary to popular legend among African slaves, Zumbi was not immortal. It was also done as a warning of what would happen to others if they tried to be as brave as him. Remnants of the old quilombos continued to reside in the region for another hundred years.


title: History of Brazil

text: The discovery of gold in the early eighteenth century was met with great enthusiasm by Portugal, which had an economy in disarray following years of wars against Spain and the Netherlands. A gold rush quickly ensued, with people from other parts of the colony and Portugal flooding the region in the first half of the eighteenth century. The large portion of the Brazilian inland where gold was extracted became known as the Minas Gerais (General Mines). Gold mining in this area became the main economic activity of colonial Brazil during the eighteenth century. In Portugal, the gold was mainly used to pay for industrialized goods (textiles, weapons) obtained from countries like England and, especially during the reign of King John V, to build Baroque monuments such as the Convent of Mafra.


title: History of Brazil

text: Minas Gerais was the gold mining center of Brazil, during the 18th century. Slave labor was generally used for the workforce. The discovery of gold in the area caused a huge influx of European immigrants and the government decided to bring in bureaucrats from Portugal to control operations. They set up numerous bureaucracies, often with conflicting duties and jurisdictions. The officials generally proved unequal to the task of controlling this highly lucrative industry. Following Brazilian independence, the British pursued extensive economic activity in Brazil. In 1830, the Saint John d'El Rey Mining Company, controlled by the British, opened the largest gold mine in Latin America. The British brought in modern management techniques and engineering expertise. Located in Nova Lima, the mine produced ore for 125 years.


title: History of Brazil

text: Diamond deposits were found near Vila do Príncipe, around the village of Tijuco in the 1720s, and a rush to extract the precious stones ensued, flooding the European market. The Portuguese crown intervened to control production in Diamantina, the Diamond District. A system of bids for the right to extract diamonds was established, but in 1771, it was abolished and the crown retained the monopoly.


title: History of Brazil

text: Mining stimulated regional growth in southern Brazil, not just from extraction of gold and diamonds, but the stimulation of food production for local consumption. More importantly it stimulated commerce and the development of merchant communities in port cities. Nominally, the Portuguese controlled the trade to Brazil, banning the establishment productive capacity for goods produced in Portugal. In practice, Portugal was an entrepôt for the import and export of goods from elsewhere, which were then re-exported to Brazil. Direct trade with foreign nations was forbidden, but prior to the Dutch incursion, much of Brazil's exports were carried in Dutch ships. After the American Revolution, U.S. ships called at Brazilian ports. When the Portuguese monarchy fled Iberia to Brazil in 1808 during the Napoleonic wars, one of the first acts of the monarch was to open Brazilian ports to foreign ships.


title: History of Brazil

text: Brazil was one of only three modern states in the Americas to have its own monarchy (the other two were Mexico and Haiti) – for a period of almost 90 years.


title: History of Brazil

text: As the Haitian Revolution for independence against the French crown was taking place in the late 1700s, Brazil, then a colony of Portugal, was also on the verge of starting their own revolution for independence. In the early 1790s, plots to overthrow the Portuguese colonial government flooded the streets of Brazil. Poor whites, a few upper-class whites, freed persons, slaves and mixed-race natives wanted to revolt against the Portuguese crown in order to abolish slavery, take power from the Catholic Church, end all forms of racial oppression, and establish a new governmental system that provided equal opportunities to all citizens.


title: History of Brazil

text: Though original plots had been foiled by royal authorities, Brazilians remained persistent in forming plots for revolutions after an outbreak of successful independence movements. The plan was similar to that of the French Revolutions, which by this time period had established the revolutionary rhetoric for much of the colonial world. However, the harsh punishment inflicted upon poor whites, working people of color, and slaves had silenced many voices of the revolution. As for the white elites, while some remained influenced by the revolutionary ideals spreading through France, others saw the incredible and intimidating strength of the lower classes through the Haitian Revolution, and feared that an uprising from their own lower class may lead to something equally as catastrophic to their society. It would not be until September 7, 1822, that Brazilian Prince Dom Pedro would declare Brazil as its own independent empire.


title: History of Brazil

text: In 1808, the Portuguese court, fleeing from Napoleon's invasion of Portugal during the Peninsular War in a large fleet escorted by British men-of-war, moved the government apparatus to its then-colony, Brazil, establishing themselves in the city of Rio de Janeiro. From there the Portuguese king ruled his huge empire for 15 years, and there he would have remained for the rest of his life if it were not for the turmoil aroused in Portugal due, among other reasons, to his long stay in Brazil after the end of Napoleon's reign.


title: History of Brazil

text: In 1815 the king vested Brazil with the dignity of a united kingdom with Portugal and Algarves. In 1817 a revolt occurred in the province of Pernambuco. In two months it was suppressed.


title: History of Brazil

text: When king João VI of Portugal left Brazil to return to Portugal in 1821, his elder son, Pedro, stayed in his stead as regent of Brazil. One year later, Pedro stated the reasons for the secession of Brazil from Portugal and led the Independence War, instituted a constitutional monarchy in Brazil assuming its head as Emperor Pedro I of Brazil.


title: History of Brazil

text: Also known as "Dom Pedro I", after his abdication in 1831 for political incompatibilities (displeased, both by the landed elites, who thought him too liberal and by the intellectuals, who felt he was not liberal enough), he left for Portugal leaving behind his five-year-old son as Emperor Pedro II, which left the country ruled by regents between 1831 and 1840. This period was beset by rebellions of various motivations, such as the Sabinada, the Ragamuffin War, the Malê Revolt, Cabanagem and Balaiada, among others. After this period, Pedro II was declared of age and assumed his full prerogatives. Pedro II started a more-or-less parliamentary reign which lasted until 1889, when he was ousted by a "coup d'état" which instituted the republic in Brazil.


title: History of Brazil

text: Externally, apart from the Independence war, stood out decades of pressure from Great Britain for the country to end its participation in the Atlantic slave trade, and the wars fought in the region of La Plata river: the Cisplatine War (in 2nd half of the 1820s), the Platine War (in the 1850s), the Uruguayan War and the Paraguayan War (in the 1860s). This last war against Paraguay also was the bloodiest and most expensive in South American history, after which the country entered a period that continues to the present day, averse to external political and military interventions.


title: History of Brazil

text: The coffee crop was introduced in 1720, and by 1850 Brazil was producing half of the world's coffee. The state set up a marketing board to protect and encourage the industry.


title: History of Brazil

text: The major export crop in the 19th century was coffee, grown on large-scale plantations in the São Paulo area. The Zona da Mata Mineira district grew 90% of the coffee in Minas Gerais region during the 1880s and 70% during the 1920s. Most of the workers were black men, including both slaves and free. Increasingly Italian, Spanish and Japanese immigrants provided the expanded labour force. While railway lines were built to haul the coffee beans to market, they also provided essential internal transportation for both freight and passengers, as well as providing work opportunities for a large skilled labour force. By the early 20th century, coffee accounted for 16% of Brazil's gross national product, and three quarters of its export earnings.


title: History of Brazil

text: The growers and exporters played major roles in politics; however, historians debate whether or not they were the most powerful actors in the political system.


title: History of Brazil

text: Before the 1960s, historians generally ignored the coffee industry. Coffee was not a major industry in the colonial period. In any one particular locality, the coffee industry flourished for a few decades and then moved on as the soil lost its fertility; therefore it was not deeply embedded in the history of any one locality. After independence, coffee plantations were associated with slavery, underdevelopment, and a political oligarchy, and not the modern development of state and society. Historians now recognize the importance of the industry, and there is a flourishing scholarly literature.


title: History of Brazil

text: The rubber boom in the Amazon in the 1880s–1910s radically reshaped the Amazonian economy. For example, it turned the remote poor jungle village of Manaus into a rich, sophisticated, progressive urban center, with a cosmopolitan population that patronized the theater, literary societies, and luxury stores, and supported good schools. In general, key characteristics of the rubber boom included the dispersed plantations, and a durable form of organization, yet did not respond to Asian competition. The rubber boom had major long-term effects: the private estate became the usual form of land tenure; trading networks were built throughout the Amazon basin; barter became a major form of exchange; and native peoples often were displaced. The boom firmly established the influence of the state throughout the region. The boom ended abruptly in the 1920s, and income levels returned to the poverty levels of the 1870s. There were major negative effects on the fragile Amazonian environment.


title: History of Brazil

text: Pedro II was deposed on November 15, 1889, by a Republican military coup led by General Deodoro da Fonseca, who became the country's first "de facto" president through military ascension. The country's name became the "Republic of the United States of Brazil" (which in 1967 was changed to "Federative Republic of Brazil"). Two military presidents ruled through four years of dictatorship amid conflicts among the military and political elites (two Naval revolts, followed by a Federalist revolt), and an economic crisis due to the effects of the burst of a financial bubble, the encilhamento.


title: History of Brazil

text: From 1889 to 1930, although the country was formally a constitutional democracy, the First Republican Constitution, created in 1891, established that women and the illiterate (then the majority of the population) were prevented from voting. Presidentialism was adopted as the form of government and the State was divided into three powers (Legislative, Executive and Judiciary) "harmonic and independent of one another". The presidential term was fixed at four years, and the elections became direct.


title: History of Brazil

text: After 1894, the presidency of the republic was occupied by coffee farmers (oligarchies) from São Paulo and Minas Gerais, alternately. This policy was called "política do café com leite" ("coffee with milk" policy). The elections for president and governors was ruled by the "Política dos Governadores" (Governor's policy), in which they had mutual support to ensure the elections of some candidates. The exchanges of favors also happened among politicians and big landowners. They used the power to control the votes of population in return for favors (this was called "coronelismo").


title: History of Brazil

text: Between 1893 and 1926 several movements, civilians and military, shook the country. The military movements had their origins both in the lower officers' corps of the Army and Navy (which, dissatisfied with the regime, called for democratic changes) while the civilian ones, such Canudos and Contestado War, were usually led by messianic leaders, without conventional political goals.


title: History of Brazil

text: Internationally, the country would stick to a course of conduct that extended throughout the twentieth century: an almost isolationist policy, interspersed with sporadic automatic alignments with major Western powers, its main economic partners, in moments of high turbulence. Standing out of this period: the resolution of the Acreanian's Question, its tiny role in the World War I, of which highlights the mission accomplished by its Navy on anti-submarine warfare, and an effort to play a leading role in the League of Nations.


title: History of Brazil

text: After 1930, the successive governments continued industrial and agriculture growth and development of the vast interior of Brazil.


title: History of Brazil

text: Getúlio Vargas led a military junta that had taken control in 1930 and would remain to rule from 1930 to 1945 with the backing of Brazilian military, especially the Army. In this period, he faced internally the Constitutionalist Revolt in 1932 and two separate coup d'état attempts: by Communists in 1935 and by local right-wing elements of the Brazilian Integralism movement in 1938.


title: History of Brazil

text: The liberal revolution of 1930 overthrew the oligarchic coffee plantation owners and brought to power an urban middle class and business interests that promoted industrialization and modernization. Aggressive promotion of new industry turned around the economy by 1933. Brazil's leaders in the 1920s and 1930s decided that Argentina's implicit foreign policy goal was to isolate Portuguese-speaking Brazil from Spanish-speaking neighbors, thus facilitating the expansion of Argentine economic and political influence in South America. Even worse, was the fear that a more powerful Argentine Army would launch a surprise attack on the weaker Brazilian Army. To counter this threat, President Getúlio Vargas forged closer links with the United States. Meanwhile, Argentina moved in the opposite direction. During World War II, Brazil was a staunch ally of the United States and sent its military to Europe. The United States provided over $100 million in Lend-Lease grants, in return for free rent on air bases used to transport American soldiers and supplies across the Atlantic, and naval bases for anti-submarine operations. In sharp contrast, Argentina was officially neutral and at times favored Germany. A democratic regime prevailed from 1945–64. In the 1950s after Vargas' second period (this time, democratically elected), the country experienced an economic boom during Juscelino Kubitschek's years, during which the capital was moved from Rio de Janeiro to Brasília.


title: History of Brazil

text: Externally, after a relative isolation during the first half of the 1930s due to the effects of the 1929 Crisis, in the second half of the 1930s there was a rapprochement with the fascist regimes of Italy and Germany. However, after the fascist coup attempt in 1938 and the naval blockade imposed on these two countries by the British navy from the beginning of World War II, in the decade of 1940 there was a return to the old foreign policy of the previous period.


title: History of Brazil

text: During the early 1940s, Brazil joined the allied forces in the Battle of the Atlantic and the Italian Campaign; in the 1950s the country began its participation in the United Nations' peacekeeping missions with Suez Canal in 1956 and in the beginning of the 1960s, during the presidency of Janio Quadros, its first attempts to break the automatic alignment (that had started in the 1940s) with the U.S.A.


title: History of Brazil

text: The institutional crisis of succession for the presidency, triggered with the Quadros' resignation, coupled with external pressure from the United States against a more nationalist government, would lead to the military intervention of 1964 and to the end of this period.


title: History of Brazil

text: The Brazilian military government, also known in Brazil as the United States of Brazil or Fifth Brazilian Republic, was the authoritarian military dictatorship that ruled Brazil from 1 April 1964 to 15 March 1985. It began with the 1964 "coup d'état" led by the Armed Forces against the administration of President João Goulart.


title: History of Brazil

text: The coup was planned and executed by the commanders of the Brazilian Army and received the support of almost all high-ranking members of the military, along with conservative elements in society, like the Catholic Church and anti-communist civil movements among the Brazilian middle and upper classes. Internationally, it was supported by the State Department of the United States through its embassy in Brasilia.


title: History of Brazil

text: The military dictatorship lasted for almost twenty-one years; despite initial pledges to the contrary, the military government, in 1967, enacted a new, restrictive Constitution, and stifled freedom of speech and political opposition. The regime adopted nationalism and anti-communism as its guidelines.


title: History of Brazil

text: The dictatorship achieved growth in GDP in the 1970s with the so-called "Brazilian Miracle", even as the regime censored all media, and tortured and exiled dissidents. João Figueiredo became President in March 1979; in the same year he passed the Amnesty Law for political crimes committed for and against the regime. By this time soaring inequality and economic instability had replaced the earlier growth, and Figueiredo could not control the crumbling economy, chronic inflation and concurrent fall of other military dictatorships in South America. Amid massive popular demonstrations in the streets of the main cities of the country, the first free elections in 20 years were held for the national legislature in 1982. In 1988, a new Constitution was passed and Brazil officially returned to democracy. Since then, the military has remained under the control of civilian politicians, with no official role in domestic politics.


title: History of Brazil

text: In May 2018, the United States government released a memorandum, written by Henry Kissinger, dating back to April 1974 (when he was serving as Secretary of State), confirming that the leadership of the Brazilian military regime was fully aware of the killing of dissidents. It is estimated that 434 people were either confirmed killed or went missing (not to be seen again), 8,000 indigenous people suffered a genocide and 20,000 people were tortured during the military dictatorship in Brazil, while some human rights activists and others assert that the true figure could be much higher.


title: History of Brazil

text: Tancredo Neves was elected president in an indirect election in 1985 as the nation returned to civilian rule. He died before being sworn in, and the elected vice president, José Sarney, was sworn in as president in his place.


title: History of Brazil

text: Fernando Collor de Mello was the first elected president by popular vote after the military regime in December 1989 defeating Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva in a two-round presidential race and 35 million votes. Collor won in the state of São Paulo against many prominent political figures. The first democratically elected President of Brazil in 29 years, Collor spent much of the early years of his government battling hyper-inflation, which at times reached rates of 25% per month.


title: History of Brazil

text: Collor's neoliberal program was also followed by his successor Fernando Henrique Cardoso who maintained free trade and privatization programs. Collor's administration began the process of privatization of a number of government-owned enterprises such as "Acesita", "Embraer", "Telebrás" and "Companhia Vale do Rio Doce". With the exception of Acesita, the privatizations were all completed during the term of Fernando Henrique Cardoso.


title: History of Brazil

text: Following Collor's impeachment, acting president, Itamar Franco, was sworn in as president. In elections held on October 3, 1994, Fernando Henrique Cardoso, his finance minister, defeated left-wing Lula da Silva again. He was elected president due to the success of the so-called "Plano Real". Reelected in 1998, he guided Brazil through a wave of financial crises. In 2000, Cardoso ordered the declassifying of some military files concerning Operation Condor, a network of South American military dictatorships that kidnapped and assassinated political opponents.


title: History of Brazil

text: Brazil's most severe problem today is arguably its highly unequal distribution of wealth and income, one of the most extreme in the world. By the 1990s, more than one out of four Brazilians continued to survive on less than one dollar a day. These socio-economic contradictions helped elect Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva of the Partido dos Trabalhadores (PT) in 2002. On 1 January 2003, Lula was sworn in as the first ever elected leftist President of Brazil.


title: History of Brazil

text: In the few months before the election, investors were scared by Lula's campaign platform for social change, and his past identification with labor unions and leftist ideology. As his victory became more certain, the Real devalued and Brazil's investment risk rating plummeted (the causes of these events are disputed, since Cardoso left a very small foreign reserve). After taking office, however, Lula maintained Cardoso's economic policies, warning that social reforms would take years and that Brazil had no alternative but to extend fiscal austerity policies. The Real and the nation's risk rating soon recovered.


title: History of Brazil

text: Lula, however, has given a substantial increase in the minimum wage (raising from R$200 to R$350 in four years). Lula also spearheaded legislation to drastically cut retirement benefits for public servants. His primary significant social initiative, on the other hand, was the "Fome Zero" (Zero Hunger) program, designed to give each Brazilian three meals a day.


title: History of Brazil

text: In 2005 Lula's government suffered a serious blow with several accusations of corruption and misuse of authority against his cabinet, forcing some of its members to resign. Most political analysts at the time were certain that Lula's political career was doomed, but he managed to hold onto power, partly by highlighting the achievements of his term (e.g., reduction in poverty, unemployment and dependence on external resources, such as oil), and to distance himself from the scandal. Lula was re-elected President in the general elections of October 2006.


title: History of Brazil

text: The income of the poorest increased by 14% in 2004, with Bolsa Familia accounting for an estimated two-thirds of this growth. In 2004, Lula launched the "popular pharmacies" programme, designed to make medicines considered essential accessible to the most disadvantaged. During Lula's first term in office, child malnutrition declined by 46 per cent. In May 2010, the UN World Food Programme (WFP) awarded Lula da Silva the title of "world champion in the fight against hunger".</ref>


title: History of Brazil

text: Having served two terms as president, Lula was forbidden by the Brazilian Constitution from standing again. In the 2010 presidential election, the PT candidate was Dilma Rousseff. Rousseff won and assumed office on January 1, 2011 as the country's first female president.


title: History of Brazil

text: Nationwide protests broke out in 2013 and 2014 primarily over public transport fares and government expenditures on the 2014 FIFA World Cup. Rousseff faced a conservative challenger for her re-election bid in the October 26, 2014, runoff, but managed to secure a re-election with just over 51% of votes. Protests resumed in 2015 and 2016 in response to a corruption scandal and a recession that began in 2014, resulting in the impeachment of President Rousseff for mismanagement and disregard of the national budget in August 2016. In 2016, Rio de Janeiro was the host of the 2016 Summer Olympics and the 2016 Summer Paralympics, making the city the first South American and Portuguese-speaking city to ever host the events, and the third time the Olympics were held in a Southern Hemisphere city.


title: History of Brazil

text: In October 2018, far-right congressman and former army captain Jair Bolsonaro was elected President of Brazil, disrupting sixteen years of continuous left-wing rule by the Worker's Party (PT). With an unprecedented corruption scandal eroding the public's trust of institutions, Bolsonaro's position as a political outsider along with his hardline ideology against crime and corruption helped him win the presidential election. During Bolsonaro's presidency, the installation of wind energy and solar energy reached its highest level throughout history. according to ONS, total installed capacity of wind energy was 19.1 GW, with average capacity factor of 30%. In 2020 Brazil was the 8th country in the world in terms of installed wind power (17.2 GW). according to ONS, total installed capacity of photovoltaic solar was 8.9 GW, with average capacity factor of 24%. In 2020, Brazil was the 14th country in the world in terms of installed solar power (7.8 GW). One of the main objectives of the Bolsonaro Government is to try to complete the execution of more than 14,000 works promised by previous governments, which were never completed, many even having started. According to calculations, the execution and completion of works that have already started would cost something around R$144 billion. Some of the most important road works carried out in Bolsonaro's term include: completion of the duplication of the BR-116 in Rio Grande do Sul, of the BR-101 in the Northeast, of BR-116 in Bahia, of BR-364 between Cuiabá and Rondonópolis, duplication of the BR-470 in Santa Catarina, from BR-280 in Santa Catarina, of the BR-381 in Minas Gerais, construction of the International Integration Bridge (linking Foz do Iguaçu to Presidente Franco, in Paraguay), bidding for construction of a bridge that will connect Porto Murtinho (MS) to Carmelo Peralta (Paraguay) for the realization of the Bioceanic Corridor, completion of asphalting of BR-163 in Pará, inauguration of the Abunã Bridge connecting Rondônia to Acre, paving of BRs in the Northeast such as BR-222 and the BR-235, in addition to being programmed new concessions for the main highways of Paraná and President Dutra Highway, among others. During Bolsonaro government, there has also been a greater focus on the construction of railways, with the Government, for example, inaugurating a stretch of the North-South Railway, between Goiás and São Paulo, start of construction of the Railroad of East-West Integration in Bahia, in addition to planning the construction of Ferrogrão, between Mato Grosso and Pará, among others. It was during the Bolsonaro government that the COVID-19 pandemic began. In the year 2020, the first of the pandemic, the Brazilian gross domestic product plummeted by more than 4%. It was also during 2020 that the protests against the current Brazilian government and the impeachment orders against Bolsonaro gained strength, motivated by unscientific statements — inspired by Donald Trump — propagated by the Brazilian president, who encouraged the use of medicines without medical evidence and discouraged the use of masks and vaccination. Under pressure from the Brazilian Congress, during the pandemic, "emergency assistance" was created for low-income people (in the amount of R$600). In 2021, the second year of the pandemic, the Brazilian Senate created a parliamentary inquiry commission (CPI, in Portuguese) to investigate President Bolsonaro's conduct of the pandemic.


title: History of Brazil

text: During the Bolsonaro government, Brazil reached 33 million people suffering from hunger, a number that less than 2 years earlier was 19.1 million, also during his government, Brazil became the second country with the most deaths from Covid-19, more than 670,000 deaths with more than 30 million infections were reported.


title: History of Brazil

text: Several allegations of corruption erupted in the Bolsonaro government, such as Covaxgate, the "Tractorgate"(Tratoraço in Portuguese), and the "".


title: History of Brazil

text: Until recently Catholicism was overwhelmingly dominant. Rapid change in the 21st century has led to a growth in secularism (no religious affiliation). Just as dramatic is the sudden rise of evangelical Protestantism to over 22% of the population. The 2010 census indicates that fewer than 65% of Brazilians consider themselves Catholic, down from 90% in 1970. The decline is associated with falling birth rates to one of Latin America's lowest at 1.83 children per woman, which is below replacement levels. It has led Cardinal Cláudio Hummes to comment, "We wonder with anxiety: how long will Brazil remain a Catholic country?"


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: The murder of Samantha Josephson, a student at University of South Carolina, in Columbia, South Carolina, occurred on March 29, 2019. Josephson, 21, had ordered an Uber and mistakenly entered a car that she thought was her ride. Nathaniel Rowland used childproof locks to prevent Josephson from leaving the vehicle and kidnapped and murdered her, leaving her body near New Zion, South Carolina65 miles (105 km) from Columbia, where she had entered Rowland's car.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Rowland was arrested the next day, and charged with kidnapping and murdering Josephson. A trial began on July 20, 2021. On July 27, the jury found Rowland guilty of Josephson's kidnapping and murder and the judge sentenced him to life in prison.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: The killing attracted national attention and led to discussion about the dangers of ridesharing and the importance of ensuring that a rideshare car is being driven by a registered driver prior to entering. The murder led to the passage of Sami’s Law in New Jersey, which enhances protections for drivers and passengers using ride share services. Legislation at the federal level is pending.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Samantha Lee Josephson was born in Princeton, New Jersey, and grew up in Robbinsville, New Jersey. She attended the University of South Carolina (USC), where she majored in political science. Josephson, who was a senior in college at the time of her death, planned on graduating in 2019, and attending Drexel University School of Law. She earned a full scholarship to Drexel University, as well as a partial scholarship to Rutgers and aspired to practice international law.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Josephson, a member of the Alpha Gamma Delta sorority, studied abroad in Barcelona and visited Madrid and Paris during her time at USC. Josephson is buried at the Perrineville Jewish Cemetery in Perrineville, New Jersey.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Josephson spent the night before her death in the Five Points district in downtown Columbia with friends. At about 2:00 am she decided to leave the Bird Dog bar and ordered an Uber. According to surveillance footage, at 2:09, a black Chevrolet Impala, driven by Rowland, pulled up beside her. Josephson entered the vehicle, thinking it was her Uber driver. According to authorities, Rowland activated the child locks so that the doors could only be opened from the outside, thereby trapping Josephson inside the vehicle.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Using a two-bladed knife, Rowland proceeded to inflict roughly 120 stab wounds upon Josephson. During the attack, Josephson attempted to shield herself. One of Rowland’s strikes went completely through her right hand, as she likely used it to protect herself. Rowland also stabbed Josephson in her head with enough force that the knife went through her skull to her brain. He also stabbed her in the carotid, one of two main arteries that carries blood to the head. Many of the wounds, especially those in her right neck and right shoulder, were close together, most likely resulting from being rapidly inflicted stab wounds. Additionally, Josephson suffered a severed hyoid bone, as well as stab wounds to her face, neck, shoulder, torso, back, lung, leg, and feet. She bled profusely, ultimately dying within 10-20 minutes, according to the pathologist who conducted an autopsy on her body. Investigators believe Rowland dragged Josephson’s body to the New Zion field where she would later be discovered.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Josephson's roommates became concerned and reported her missing the day after she accidentally entered the vehicle. Her body was then found in a field in the town of New Zion in Clarendon County by turkey hunters fourteen hours after the kidnapping.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: According to police, the area where Josephson's body was located is where Rowland recently resided. An autopsy showed that she died of multiple sharp force injuries. Specifically, the pathologist determined that she suffered approximately 120 separate stab wounds. The pathologist could not determine an exact number of wounds because there were so many. Josephson’s autopsy also revealed the extent of her blood loss—the human body normally has several litres of blood, but Josephson's body only contained .


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Nathaniel Rowland was seen by police driving a car that matched the description of the one Josephson was seen entering in the surveillance video. When Rowland, who was driving around the Five Points area where Josephson was kidnapped, was pulled over he got out of the car and ran away. He was caught and was arrested at 3:00 am on March 30. Inside the car, police found a container of liquid bleach, germicidal wipes, and window cleaner. The car also contained Josephson's phone as well as a large amount of her blood, which was in the passenger seat and in the trunk. Additionally, the child locks were activated, which police believe prevented Josephson from escaping.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: When investigators searched the trash behind Rowland’s girlfriend’s residence, they uncovered cleaning supplies and a two-bladed knife, both of which had Josephson’s blood on them. Josephson’s blood was also found on a sock and a bandana, both owned by Rowland. Additionally, Josephson’s DNA was collected from Rowland’s fingernails.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: Rowland was charged with kidnapping, murder, and possession of a weapon during the commission of a crime. In addition to Josephson’s murder, Rowland is alleged to have sold items that were stolen from a woman during a kidnapping in Columbia. The alleged victim was carjacked by two men while at a traffic light in October 2018. The carjackers allegedly physically assaulted the victim and then forced her to drive to an ATM where they robbed her of money, before forcing her to drive to her home where they again robbed her of items including a Playstation 4. According to Richland County deputies, hours after the alleged kidnapping Rowland sold some of the items stolen from the woman, including the Playstation 4, at a pawn shop. Rowland was charged with obtaining goods under false premises.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: On June 9, 2020, Nathaniel Rowland was denied bond, In a virtual hearing, family members for both Josephson and Rowland delivered statements in front of Judge Benjamin.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: On July 20, 2021, Rowland's trial began. During the trial, prosecutors called 31 witnesses, including the turkey hunter who found Josephson’s body, a cell phone store owner who testified that Rowland unsuccessfully attempted to sell him Josephson's phone the day after she went missing, Rowland’s former girlfriend, and numerous State Law Enforcement Division investigators and other experts. Rowland’s defense attorneys called no witnesses and Rowland did not testify.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: On July 27, 2021, Rowland was found guilty of kidnapping and murdering Josephson and of possessing a weapon during a violent crime after the jury deliberated for a little over an hour. Immediately after Rowland's conviction, State Circuit Judge Clifton Newman sentenced him to life in prison. "For whoever asked me for leniency, that's not part of my DNA," said Judge Newman. "There's a thousand trails each that led to you. All of the evidence, each speck of the evidence — not simply beyond a reasonable doubt, but as the highest standard the law requires — all points to your guilt." Newman also characterized Rowland as being "heartless" and said the case was the "most severe" murder he had seen in court before.


title: Murder of Samantha Josephson

text: After their daughter's death, Josephson's parents established the What's My Name Foundation. The foundation works to educate people about ride-share safety, along with supporting charitable foundations and awarding college scholarships. Josephson's parents have worked with lawmakers to advocate for policies that enhance safety for ride-share passengers Several laws have been enacted since Josephson's death. On June 5, 2019, the Samantha L. Josephson Ridesharing Safety Act was signed into law in South Carolina. The act requires ride-share vehicles to display license plate numbers on the front. The law also subjects people who misrepresent themselves as authorized Transportation Network Company (TNC) drivers to a maximum $500 fine and those who use TNC ride-sharing application in the furtherance of criminal activity to a maximum $1,000 fine. In addition to facing fines, one guilty of misrepresenting themselves as an authorized TNC driver may be incarcerated for up to 30 days while one who uses ride-sharing in the furtherance of criminal activity may face up to 2 years of incarceration.