title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: According to stenographic transcripts translated by Hugh Trevor-Roper of conversations between Hitler and his inner circle which took place between July 1941 and November 1944, Hitler regarded himself as a vegetarian. These conversations were gathered together under the title Hitler's Table Talk. Written notes taken at the time were transcribed and then were edited by Martin Bormann. According to these transcripts dated 11 November 1941, Hitler said, "One may regret living at a period when it's impossible to form an idea of the shape the world of the future will assume. But there's one thing I can predict to eaters of meat: the world of the future will be vegetarian." On 12 January 1942, he said, "The only thing of which I shall be incapable is to share the sheiks' mutton with them. I'm a vegetarian, and they must spare me from their meat." In a diary entry dated 26 April 1942, Joseph Goebbels described Hitler as a committed vegetarian, writing,


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: In his table talks, on 25 April 1942 at midday, Hitler addressed the issue of vegetarianism and spoke about Roman soldiers eating fruits and cereals and the importance of raw vegetables. He placed the emphasis on scientific arguments such as naturalists' observations and chemical efficacy. Hitler also disapproved of cosmetics, since they contained animal by-products, and he frequently teased Eva Braun about her habit of wearing makeup. Braun was also fond of turtle soup and notes from the interrogation of Hitler's personal aides about his daily routine in 1944 reveal that after midnight she would "direct that there should be another light snack of turtle soup, sandwiches, and sausages".


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: All accounts by people familiar with Hitler's diet from 1942 onwards are in agreement that Hitler adhered to a vegetarian diet, but accounts of his diet prior to the Second World War are inconsistent in this regard with some stating he ate meat. Dione Lucas, a chef at a Hamburg hotel patronised by Hitler prior to the war, claimed that her stuffed squab was a favourite of his. According to Ilse Hess (wife of Rudolf Hess), in 1937, Hitler ceased eating meat except for liver dumplings. In his memoirs, Rochus Misch (who served as Hitler's bodyguard from 1940) states that during a train ride in 1941 he "saw Hitler eat meat for the only time in the five years I was with him". Margot Wölk, who became his unwilling food taster in 1942, stated that all the food she tested for Hitler was vegetarian, and she recalled no meat or fish. This account was backed up in 2017 when Russia's Federal Security Service granted permission to a team of French scientists to undertake an examination of Hitler's bones. An analysis of the tartar deposits found on the Führer's teeth and dentures found no traces of meat fibre. From an interview with forensic pathologist Philippe Charlier, who led the study, Agence France-Presse reported that Charlier had said that the analysis of Hitler's bad teeth and numerous dentures found white tartar deposits and no traces of meat fibre, and that the dictator was vegetarian.


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: Traudl Junge, who became Hitler's secretary in 1942, reported that he "always avoided meat" but that his Austrian cook Kruemel sometimes added a little animal broth or fat to his meals. "Mostly the Fuehrer would notice the attempt at deception, would get very annoyed and then get tummy ache," Junge said. "At the end he would only let Kruemel cook him clear soup and mashed potato." In addition, Marlene von Exner, who became Hitler's dietitian in 1943, reportedly added bone marrow to his soups without his knowledge because she "despised" his vegetarian diet.


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: Even though Hitler adhered to a vegetarian diet during this period, his physician, Theodor Morell, administered many unorthodox medications that contained animal by-products from 1936 until Hitler's death in 1945. These included Glyconorm (an injectable compound containing cardiac muscle, adrenal gland, liver, and pancreas), placenta, bovine testosterone, and extracts containing seminal vesicles and prostate. At the time, extracts from animal glands were popularly believed to be "elixirs of youth", but it is not known if Hitler requested them or if he blindly accepted them.


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: Prior to the Second World War, there are many accounts of Hitler's eating meat (including stuffed squab and Bavarian sausages) and caviar. According to Ilse Hess, in 1937, Hitler ceased eating all meat except for liver dumplings, an account that Dr. Kalechofsky found "consistent with other descriptions of Hitler's diet, which always included some form of meat, whether ham, sausages or liver dumplings." Frau Hess's comments are also backed up by several biographies about Hitler, with Fritz Redlich noting that Hitler "avoided any kind of meat, with the exception of an Austrian dish he loved, Leberknödl (liver dumpling)". Thomas Fuchs concurred, observing that a "typical day's consumption included eggs prepared in any number of ways, spaghetti, baked potatoes with cottage cheese, oatmeal, stewed fruits and vegetable puddings. Meat was not completely excluded. Hitler continued to eat a favourite dish, Leberklösse (liver dumplings)."


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: Some people have theorized that claims of Hitler ever being vegetarian were untrue and just for his image. English historical biographer Robert Payne, in his book "The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler" (Praeger, 1973) believed that Hitler's diet was ascetic and deliberately fostered by propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels to emphasize Hitler's self-control and total dedication to Germany. Rynn Berry—a vegetarian activist and author on vegetarian history—supported the notion that Hitler's vegetarianism was "a marketing scheme concocted by Nazi propagandists" who wished to create a better public perception of Hitler, and was mostly due to health reasons rather than moral ones (noting his fondness for liver dumplings), concluding that "Hitler was in no way an ethical vegetarian". In 1997, Wolfgang Fröhlich, Holocaust denier and former district council member for the Freedom Party, alleged that Hitler's favorite food was "Eiernockerl", or egg dumplings.


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: However, available evidence suggests that Hitler—also an antivivisectionist—may have followed his selective diet out of a profound concern for animals based on his private behavior. At social events, he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat. In the BBC series "", an eyewitness account tells of Hitler watching movies (which he did very often). If ever a scene showed (even fictional) cruelty to or death of an animal, Hitler would cover his eyes and look away until someone alerted him the scene was over.


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: Today, it is believed by scholars, including Alan Bullock, Arnold Aluke, Clinton Sanders and Robert Procter, that Hitler—at least during the war—followed a vegetarian diet. Hitler was put on a meat-free diet in 1938 by his doctors because of his failing health, but his interest in vegetarianism preceded this and may have had an ideological or psychological basis. The psychoanalyst Erich Fromm speculated that Hitler's vegetarianism was actually a means of atoning for the death of his half-niece Geli Raubal, as well as a means of proving to himself and others that he was incapable of killing.


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: It has also been theorized that Hitler's diet may have been based on Richard Wagner's historical theories which connected the future of Germany with vegetarianism. In the book, "The Mind of Adolf Hitler" by psychologist Walter C. Langer, the author speculates:


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: Researchers Arnold Arluke and Boria Sax, in a paper published in "Anthrozoös: A Multidisciplinary Journal of the interactions of People and Animals", concluded that the concern for animals and devotion to pets demonstrated by Hitler and many prominent Nazi Germans was due to "animals being seen as 'virtuous', 'innocent', and embodying ideal qualities absent in most humans. Indeed, to hunt or eat animals was itself defiling, a sign of 'decay' and perversion. People, on the other hand, were seen with 'contempt', 'fear', and 'disappointment'."


title: Adolf Hitler and vegetarianism

text: Despite Hitler's plans to convert Germany to vegetarianism after the war, some authors have questioned Hitler's commitment to the vegetarian cause due to the Nazi ban on vegetarian societies and the persecution of their leaders. However, the Nazi ban of non-Nazi organizations was widespread: all opposition political parties were banned, independent trade unions were replaced by Nazi equivalents, while non-government organizations and associations ranging from women's groups to film societies were either dissolved or incorporated into new organizations under the control of the Nazi leadership. The Nazi regime also introduced animal welfare laws which were unparalleled at the time.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: "Echoes" is a song by the rock band Pink Floyd, and the sixth and last track on their 1971 album "Meddle". It is 23 and a half minutes long and takes up the entire second side of the original LP. The track evolved from a variety of different musical themes and ideas, including instrumental passages and studio effects, resulting in the side-long piece. The music was written by the group, while Roger Waters' lyrics addressed themes of human communication and empathy, which he returned to in later work.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The song was performed live regularly by Pink Floyd from 1971 to 1975, including a performance in the film "" (1972). It was used for the opening shows on the 1987 A Momentary Lapse of Reason Tour but subsequently dropped. David Gilmour revived "Echoes" for his 2006 On an Island Tour, which featured Richard Wright, but retired the piece after Wright's death in 2008. The studio recording was used in the film "Crystal Voyager" (1973) while an edited version is included on the greatest-hits album "" (2001).


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: "Echoes" has been regarded by critics as an important song that transitions between Pink Floyd's early experimental material as a cult band, and later mainstream success. Several publications have remarked it as one of the best songs by the group. The group's members have mixed views of the track, but it was a particular favourite of Wright's.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: "Echoes" begins with a "ping" that was created as a result of an experiment very early in the "Meddle" sessions, produced by amplifying a grand piano played by Richard Wright, and sending the signal through a Leslie speaker and a Binson Echorec unit. After several "pings", a slide guitar played by David Gilmour gradually joins in. The verses are sung in harmony by Gilmour and Wright, and joined by a riff played by Gilmour and bassist Roger Waters in unison. This is followed by a guitar solo from Gilmour, played on a Fender Stratocaster through a Fuzz Face effects box, before repeating the previous riff. This leads into a funk-influenced jam.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The middle section of the song features Waters using a slide and a Binson Echorec. Gilmour plays a high-pitched screeching noise, which was created by plugging a wah-wah pedal in back to front. Drummer Nick Mason later clarified it was an accident, and their experience with working with Ron Geesin had taught them to embrace experiments and try anything if it would work on a song. This is followed by a repeat of the opening piano "pings" and a Farfisa organ solo from Wright, with a backing influenced by the Beach Boys' "Good Vibrations" (1967).


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Following a final third verse, the end of the piece features a choral-sounding segment playing a Shepard tone. This was created by placing two tape recorders in opposite corners of a room; the main chord tapes of the song were then fed into one recorder and played back while at the same time recording. The other recorder was then also set to play what was being recorded; this created a delay between both recordings, influencing the chordal structure.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: "Echoes" began as a collection of separate musical experiments, some of which were left over from previous sessions. The group then arranged the pieces in order to make a coherent piece originally referred to as "Nothing, Parts 1–24". Some pieces featured band members playing a recording without any idea what the rest of the group had or were going to play, while others simply had vague notes such as "first two minutes romantic, next two up-tempo". Not all of the pieces were used for the finished track, and out-takes included saying a phrase backwards, so it would sound correct yet strange when the tape was reversed. Subsequent tapes of work in progress were labelled "The Son of Nothing" and "The Return of the Son of Nothing"; the latter title was eventually used to introduce the as-yet-unreleased work during its first live performances in early 1971.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Wright said he composed the piano intro and the main chord progression of the song, and that Waters wrote the lyrics. During early development, the song's first verse had yet to be finalised and referred to the meeting of two celestial bodies. For the final lyrics, Waters took inspiration from his time in London in the mid to late 1960s, feeling a sense of disconnection and looking for the potential for humans to connect with each other. One particular observation was looking from his flat on Goldhawk Road and watching a procession of commuters walk past, which led to "Strangers passing in the street". "Echoes" established a trend with Waters to write emphatic words and explore the theme of communication, which would be a key theme of "The Dark Side of the Moon" (1973) and later solo work.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Pink Floyd rehearsed the completed piece before committing a final version to tape. Studio recording was split between Abbey Road Studios, Morgan Studios and AIR Studios in London; the latter two were used because they had a 16-track recorder, which made assembling the individual components of the songs easier. The basic backing tracks were recorded between 3 and 19 March at Abbey Road, with the further overdubs recorded at AIR from 30 March to 1 May, with additional work at Morgan. Pink Floyd were featured on an episode of the BBC1 programme "24 Hours" discussing bootleg recordings, which showed them rehearsing "Echoes" in Abbey Road.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: "Echoes" features a prominent instrumental riff which is identical to the main theme in Andrew Lloyd Webber's 1986 musical "The Phantom of the Opera". Waters considered taking legal action against Lloyd Webber for plagiarism, but declined to do so. Instead, he dissed Lloyd Webber in "It's a Miracle" on his 1992 solo album "Amused to Death".


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Pink Floyd first performed "Echoes" at Norwich Lads Club on 22 April 1971, and it was a regular part of the band's set up to the concert at Knebworth Park on 5 July 1975. It was originally announced by its working title, "Return of the Son of Nothing" and not formally identified as "Echoes" until the group's tour of Japan, starting on 6 August 1971. Occasionally, Waters would introduce the song with silly titles, such as "Looking Through the Knotholes in Granny's Wooden Leg", "We Won The Double" (a reference to Arsenal F.C. winning the double in the 1970–71 FA Cup), and "March of the Dambusters".


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The song was played at a BBC Radio 1 concert on 30 September 1971 and broadcast on 12 October. Shortly afterwards, Pink Floyd filmed a live performance at the Amphitheatre of Pompeii with no audience for "", where it was split in two halves to open and close the film. "Echoes" was one of four pieces that Pink Floyd played in collaboration with a ballet choreographed by Roland Petit in late 1972 and early 1973. The track featured a solo ballet piece for Rudy Bryans of the Ballets de Marseille. For the group's 1973 shows at Earl's Court, the performance of "Echoes" featured large quantities of dry ice being poured onto the stage during the middle section, and sheets of flame shooting from a cauldron at the back of the stage.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: From late 1974 to the Knebworth concert, "Echoes" was performed as an encore. These performances featured backing vocals by Venetta Fields and Carlena Williams and saxophone solos by Dick Parry instead of the guitar solos in earlier performances. "Echoes" was performed for the first eleven shows on the band's 1987 A Momentary Lapse of Reason tour, in a slightly rearranged version trimmed down to 17 minutes. However, Gilmour was uncomfortable about singing the "hippy" lyrics, and the touring musicians found it difficult to replicate the sound of the studio original, so it was replaced with "Shine On You Crazy Diamond".


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Gilmour resurrected the song on his 2006 On an Island Tour as the closing number of the main set, with Wright performing in his band. Wright said he still liked playing the song live and was amazed by the audience response to the opening "ping" when on tour. These performances appear on Gilmour's "Remember That Night" film and "Live in Gdańsk" album/film. A special acoustic version, featuring just Gilmour and Wright and filmed live at Abbey Road, featured as a hidden track on "Remember That Night". Gilmour told "Rolling Stone" in 2016 upon returning to Pompeii to play a solo show that he would have loved to perform "Echoes" but felt he could not do so without Wright, who had died in 2008 – "There's something that's specifically so individual about the way that Rick and I play in that, that you can't get someone to learn it and do it just like that." Similarly, Mason initially did not play "Echoes" live with Nick Mason's Saucerful of Secrets as he felt the track is too strongly identified with Wright, but included the song for the 2022 tour named "The Echoes Tour".


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: "Echoes" occupied the whole of the second side of the album "Meddle", released on 30 October 1971. Mason later said this might have been because the group wanted to put more suitable material for radio on side one. An edited version of the song appeared on the 2001 compilation "", and as part of an 8-track promotional sampler.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The live performance at Pompeii was released to cinemas in September 1972. It was first released on video in 1983, then on DVD in 2003. Several works-in-progress pieces and live performances were released on the 2016 box set "The Early Years 1965–1972".


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: In a review for the "Meddle" album, Jean-Charles Costa of "Rolling Stone" gave "Echoes" a positive review. Costa described "Echoes" as "a 23-minute Pink Floyd aural extravaganza that takes up all of side two, recaptures, within a new musical framework, some of the old themes and melody lines from earlier albums" adding "All of this plus a funky organ-bass-drums segment and a stunning Gilmour solo adds up to a fine extended electronic outing."


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: "NME" covered Pink Floyd's opening date on their 1972 UK tour at the Brighton Dome, and called "Echoes" a highlight of the set, saying it was "masterful". Reviewing the 1975 Knebworth concert, "Sounds" said that despite a mixed performance in the main set, "Echoes" was "pretty superb" and "played flawlessly". "Rolling Stone" said Gilmour's live performance of the piece at Gdańsk at the end of the On An Island Tour in 2006 was "jaw-dropping". Touring guitarist Phil Manzanera said "that version of "Echoes" was the longest one and the best one. Life is funny. It's cosmic. It's like Richard knew something was up, and he stayed on longer. It's a magical song."


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Author Ed Macan has called "Echoes" Pink Floyd's "masterpiece" and an important bridge between the group as a cult band and later mainstream success. Andy Cush has said the track is a transition between the group's experimental material and later commercial success, emphasising it is "ambitious beyond anything Pink Floyd had attempted before, wild beyond anything they’d attempt after". In 2008, "Uncut" magazine ranked "Echoes" number 30 in a list of Pink Floyd's 30 best songs, while in 2011, readers of "Rolling Stone" named it as the fifth-best song by Pink Floyd. The aggregate website Acclaimed Music lists "Echoes" as the 78th most acclaimed song of 1971.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The members of Pink Floyd have mixed views on the track. Wright said the piece was "a highlight" and "one of the finest tracks the Floyd have ever done". Waters and Gilmour have said it was a foretaste of things to come in "The Dark Side of the Moon", while Mason has said it was "a bit overlong".


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The 1973 George Greenough film "Crystal Voyager" concludes with a 23-minute segment in which the full version of "Echoes" accompanies a montage of images shot by Greenough from a camera mounted on his back while surfing on his kneeboard. The group allowed Greenough and director David Elfick to use the music in their film in exchange for the use of Greenough's footage as a visual background when they performed "Echoes" in concert. In the early 1990s, this footage was planned to be used in an advertisement for toilet cleaner, but it did not get clearance from the band.


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Similar to the Dark Side of the Rainbow effect, fans have suggested that "Echoes" coincidentally synchronises with Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film "", when played concurrently with the final 23-minute segment titled "Jupiter and Beyond the Infinite". Kubrick would later feature copies of both and Pink Floyd's "Atom Heart Mother" (1970) as props in the record store scene in "A Clockwork Orange" (1971).


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: Alien Sex Fiend covered the track for a Pink Floyd tribute album "A Saucerful of Pink", released in July 1995. British musician Ewan Cunningham covered "Echoes" in 2017, and uploaded a YouTube video which featured him playing all of the parts himself. This cover was heavily based on the "" version and went on to receive praise from Mason, who humorously said, "Looks like we're all out of a job!".


title: Echoes (Pink Floyd song)

text: The acoustic guitar duo Rodrigo y Gabriela covered "Echoes" on their 2019 album "Mettavolution", one of seven tracks which won the album an award for Best Contemporary Instrumental Album at the 62nd Annual Grammy Awards in 2020. In reviewing this cover version, "Rolling Stone" wrote that "like the original, the song is its own journey, and it's beautiful."


title: Mahie Gill

text: Rimpy Kaur "Mahie" Gill (born 19 December 1975) is an Indian actress, working in the Hindi and Punjabi film industries. She is best known for her role of Paro in Anurag Kashyap's critically acclaimed Hindi film "Dev.D", a modern take on Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay's Bengali novella "Devdas", for which she also won the 2010 Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actress. She started her career in Punjabi films before making a debut in Bollywood with "Dev.D".


title: Mahie Gill

text: She consequently gained recognition after portraying Madhavi Devi, a sexually frustrated wife in "Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster", as well as its sequel, "Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster Returns".


title: Mahie Gill

text: Gill was born in Chandigarh in a Punjabi Jat Sikh family on 19 December in 1975. She completed her master's degree in theater from Panjab University, Chandigarh in 1998.


title: Mahie Gill

text: Gill got her first break with the Punjabi based Bollywood film "Hawayein" and has done a couple of Punjabi films along with theatre. Anurag first saw her at a party and instantly finalized her to play the character of Paro in the movie "Dev D". She worked in Ram Gopal Verma's "Not a Love Story", which was based on the Niraj Grover Murder case of 2008. She also worked in "Saheb, Biwi Aur Gangster" with Jimmy Sheirgill and Randeep Hooda, which was released on 30 September 2011. This movie earned her a nomination at the Filmfare Awards for Best Actress.


title: Mahie Gill

text: Gill appeared in "Paan Singh Tomar" with Irrfan Khan. It is the true story of an athlete who became a dacoit. In this, she played the title character's wife. Gill made her debut with Apoorva Lakhia's film "Toofan", simultaneously shot with the Hindi version, "Zanjeer". She did her first ever item number in Tigmanshu Dhulia's film "Bullett Raja".


title: Mahie Gill

text: Mahie Gill to be next seen in upcoming web series '', directed by Mahesh Manjrekar. The series features Abhay Deol, Sumeet Vyas, Akash Thosar.


title: Fluid

text: In physics, a fluid is a liquid, gas, or other material that continuously deforms ("flows") under an applied shear stress, or external force. They have zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, are substances which cannot resist any shear force applied to them.


title: Fluid

text: Although the term "fluid" generally includes both the liquid and gas phases, its definition varies among branches of science. Definitions of "solid" vary as well, and depending on field, some substances can be both fluid and solid. Viscoelastic fluids like Silly Putty appear to behave similar to a solid when a sudden force is applied. Substances with a very high viscosity such as pitch appear to behave like a solid (see pitch drop experiment) as well. In particle physics, the concept is extended to include fluidic matters other than liquids or gases. A fluid in medicine or biology refers any liquid constituent of the body (body fluid), whereas "liquid" is not used in this sense. Sometimes liquids given for fluid replacement, either by drinking or by injection, are also called fluids (e.g. "drink plenty of fluids"). In hydraulics, fluid is a term which refers to liquids with certain properties, and is broader than (hydraulic) oils.


title: Fluid

text: These properties are typically a function of their inability to support a shear stress in static equilibrium. In contrast, solids respond to shear either with a spring-like restoring force, which means that deformations are reversible, or they require a certain initial stress before they deform (see plasticity).


title: Fluid

text: Solids respond with restoring forces to both shear stresses and to normal stresses—both compressive and tensile. In contrast, ideal fluids only respond with restoring forces to normal stresses, called pressure: fluids can be subjected to both compressive stress, corresponding to positive pressure, and to tensile stress, corresponding to negative pressure. Both solids and liquids also have tensile strengths, which when exceeded in solids makes irreversible deformation and fracture, and in liquids causes the onset of cavitation.


title: Fluid

text: Both solids and liquids have free surfaces, which cost some amount of free energy to form. In the case of solids, the amount of free energy to form a given unit of surface area is called surface energy, whereas for liquids the same quantity is called surface tension. The ability of liquids to flow results in different behaviour in response to surface tension than in solids, although in equilibrium both will try to minimise their surface energy: liquids tend to form rounded droplets, whereas pure solids tend to form crystals. Gases do not have free surfaces, and freely diffuse.


title: Fluid

text: In a solid, shear stress is a function of strain, but in a fluid, shear stress is a function of strain rate. A consequence of this behavior is Pascal's law which describes the role of pressure in characterizing a fluid's state.


title: Fluid

text: The behavior of fluids can be described by the Navier–Stokes equations—a set of partial differential equations which are based on:


title: Fluid

text: The study of fluids is fluid mechanics, which is subdivided into fluid dynamics and fluid statics depending on whether the fluid is in motion.


title: Fluid

text: Depending on the relationship between shear stress and the rate of strain and its derivatives, fluids can be characterized as one of the following:


title: Fluid

text: Newtonian and incompressible fluids do not actually exist, but are assumed to be for theoretical settlement. Virtual fluids that completely ignore the effects of viscosity and compressibility are called perfect fluids.


title: Muggle

text: In J. K. Rowling's "Harry Potter" series, a Muggle () is a person who lacks any sort of magical ability and was not born in a magical family. Muggles can also be described as people who do not have any magical blood inside them. It differs from the term "Squib", which refers to a person with one or more magical parents yet without any magical power or ability, and from the term Muggle-born (or the derogatory and offensive term "mudblood", which is used to imply the supposed impurity of Muggle blood), which refers to a person with magical abilities but with non-magical parents. The equivalent term used by the in-universe magic community of America is No-Maj, which is short for No Magic.


title: Muggle

text: The term "Muggle" is sometimes used in a pejorative manner in the novels. Since "Muggle" refers to a person who is a member of the non-magical community, Muggles are simply ordinary human beings without any magical abilities and almost always with no awareness of the existence of magic. Witches and wizards with non-magical parents are called "Muggle-borns". There have also been some children known to have been born to one magical and one non-magical parent. People of this mixed parentage are called "half-bloods"; magical people with any Muggle ancestry on the one side or the other are half-bloods as well. The most prominent Muggle-born in the "Harry Potter" series is Hermione Granger, who was born to Muggles of undisclosed names. Witches and wizards with all-magical heritage are called "pure bloods".


title: Muggle

text: In the "Harry Potter" novels, Muggles are often portrayed as foolish, sometimes befuddled characters, who are completely oblivious to the wizarding world that exists in their midst. If, by unfortunate means, Muggles do happen to observe the working of magic, the Ministry of Magic sends Obliviators to cast Memory Charms upon them, causing them to forget the event.


title: Muggle

text: Some Muggles are aware of the wizarding world. These include Muggle parents of magical children, such as Hermione Granger's parents, the Muggle Prime Minister (and predecessors), the Dursley family (Harry Potter's unsupportive non-magical and only living relatives), and the non-magical spouses of some witches and wizards.


title: Muggle

text: The word "muggle", or "muggles", is now used in various contexts in which its meaning is similar to the sense in which it appears in the Harry Potter book series. Generally speaking, it is used by members of a group to describe those outside the group, comparable to "civilian" as used by military personnel. Whereas in the books "muggle" is consistently capitalized, in other uses it is often predominantly lowercase.


title: Muggle

text: Nancy Stouffer, author of "The Legend of Rah and the Muggles" (1984) accused Rowling of a trademark violation for the use of the term "muggles", as well as copyright violations for some similarities to her book. Rowling and Scholastic, her publisher, sued for declaratory judgment and won on a summary judgment motion, based on a lack of likelihood of confusion.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: My Beautiful Laundrette is a 1985 British comedy-drama film directed by Stephen Frears from a screenplay by Hanif Kureishi. The film was also one of the first films released by Working Title Films.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: The story is set in London during the Thatcher years, as reflected in the complex, and often comical, relationships between members of the Pakistani and English communities. The story focuses on Omar, played by Gordon Warnecke, a young Pakistani man living in London, and his reunion and eventual romance with his old friend, a street punk named Johnny, played by Daniel Day-Lewis. The two become the caretakers and business managers of a launderette originally owned by Omar's uncle Nasser.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: The British Film Institute ranked "My Beautiful Laundrette" the 50th greatest British film of the 20th century.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: Omar Ali is a young man living in South London during the mid-1980s. His father, Hussein, once a famous left-wing journalist in Pakistan, lives in London but dislikes Britain's society and its international politics. His dissatisfaction with the world and a family tragedy have led him to sink into alcoholism, so that Omar has to be his caregiver. By contrast, Omar's paternal uncle Nasser is a successful entrepreneur and an active member of the Pakistani community. Hussein asks Nasser to give Omar a job and, after working for a brief time as a car washer in one of his uncle's garages, he is assigned the task of managing a run-down laundrette.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: At Nasser's, Omar meets a few other community members: Tania, Nasser's daughter and possibly a future bride; and Salim, who trafficks drugs and hires him to deliver them from the airport. While driving Salim and his wife home that night, the three of them get attacked by a group of right-wing extremist street punks. Their apparent leader turns out to be Johnny, Omar's childhood friend. Omar tries to reestablish their past friendship, offering Johnny a job and the opportunity to adopt a better life by working to fix up the laundrette with him. Johnny decides to accept and they resume a romantic relationship that (it is implied) had been interrupted after school. Running out of money, Omar and Johnny sell one of Salim's drug deliveries to make cash for the laundrette's substantial renovation.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: On the laundrette's opening day, Omar confronts Johnny on his fascist past. Johnny, feeling guilty, tells him that though he cannot make it up to him, he is with him now. Nasser visits the laundrette with his mistress, Rachel. As they dance together in the laundrette, Omar and Johnny make love in the back room, narrowly escaping discovery. At the inauguration, Tania confronts Rachel about having an affair with her father. Rachel accuses Nasser of having invited Tania on purpose to have her insulted, and storms off despite his protests. Later that night, a drunk Omar proposes to Tania, who accepts on the condition that he raise money to get away. Soon after, Salim reveals to Omar that he is on to them, and demands his money back. Omar's father stops by late in the night and appeals to Johnny to persuade Omar to go to college because he is unhappy with his son's role.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: Offering Salim a chance to invest in his businesses as a much needed 'clean outlet' for his money, Omar decides to take over two laundrettes owned by a friend of Nasser. Salim drives Johnny and Omar to view one of the properties, and he expresses his dislike of the British non-working punks in Johnny's gang. He attempts to run them over and injures one of them. Tania drops by the laundrette and tells Johnny she is leaving, asking him to come along. He refuses, implicitly revealing the truth about himself and Omar and she departs wordlessly. Rachel falls ill with a skin rash apparently caused by a ritual curse from Nasser's wife, and decides it is best for all that she and Nasser part ways. After Salim arrives and enters the laundrette, the punks, who had been lying in wait, trash his car. When he runs out, he is ambushed and viciously attacked. Johnny decides to interrupt and defend him, despite their mutual dislike, and the punks turn their attention to him instead. As he refuses to fight back, they beat him savagely until Omar returns and intervenes, protecting Johnny as the punks smash the window of the laundrette and flee the scene.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: Nasser visits Hussein, and the two discuss their respective failures, agreeing between them that only Omar's future matters now. Nasser sees Tania at the train platform while she is running away, and he shouts to her but she disappears. Meanwhile, at the laundrette, Omar nurses Johnny, and the two bond. The film ends with a scene of them shirtless and playfully splashing each other with water from a sink.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: "My Beautiful Laundrette" was Frears' third feature film for the cinema. Originally shot in 16mm for Channel 4 on a low budget, it was met with such critical acclaim at the Edinburgh Film Festival that it was distributed to cinemas and eventually became an international success.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: The role of Johnny was originally offered to Gary Oldman, who turned it down after telling Frears he had issues with the script and the dialogues. Oldman and Frears worked together two years later on "Prick Up Your Ears".


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: The film marked the first time Oliver Stapleton was in charge of cinematography in one of Frears' projects. He later became one of the director's consistent collaborators.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: The film was made around Wandsworth, Battersea and Vauxhall, all districts of South London. The location of the building which housed the laundrette on Wilcox Road, Vauxhall was given a rainbow plaque in 2021.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: "My Beautiful Laundrette" received positive reviews, currently holding a 98% "fresh" rating on Rotten Tomatoes from 42 critics, with an average rating of 8.2/10.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: Hanif Kureishi was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. He lost to Woody Allen ("Hannah and Her Sisters"). Kureishi was also nominated for a BAFTA Film Award. The screenplay received an award from the American National Society of Film Critics.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: Daniel Day-Lewis received the award for Best Supporting Actor from the U.S. National Board of Review of Motion Pictures, and the picture was nominated for Best Film.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: The original soundtrack, credited to Ludus Tonalis (a name associated with a work by the composer Paul Hindemith), was produced by Stanley Myers and Hans Zimmer. Non-original music included the waltz "Les Patineurs" by French composer Emile Waldteufel and excerpts from Puccini's "Madama Butterfly".


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: A play of "My Beautiful Laundrette", produced by Roger Parsley and Andy Graham from Snap Theatre Company, was played at British theatres in 2002; the play was attended by Hanif Kureishi. The music score, composed by Gaudi and Keita, was released on CD by Sub Signal Records.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: In January 2018, it was announced that Pakistani-American actor Kumail Nanjiani would write and star in a serialized television version of "My Beautiful Laundrette", based loosely on the original. The executive producers are to be Hanif Kureishi, Stephen Gaghan, and Alec Berg.


title: My Beautiful Laundrette

text: A play based on the film, adapted by Kureishi, played at theatres across England in late 2019. It was a co-production among Leicester's Curve Theatre, Coventry's Belgrade Theatre, Cheltenham's Everyman Studio Theatre and Leeds Playhouse. Gordon Warnecke, who played Omar in the original film, played Omar's father in the adaptation. It was directed by Nikolai Foster and featured both back catalog and new music from Pet Shop Boys.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: NXT TakeOver 36 was the 36th and final NXT TakeOver professional wrestling pay-per-view and livestreaming event produced by WWE. It was held for wrestlers from the promotion's NXT brand division. The event took place on August 22, 2021, from the Capitol Wrestling Center, hosted at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: The event was held during that year's SummerSlam weekend, but was held the night after SummerSlam, which was held on Saturday while TakeOver 36 was held on Sunday. It was NXT's final major event in which the Performance Center's arena was called the Capitol Wrestling Center, as following NXT's restructuring as NXT 2.0 in September, the name was discontinued, with future events simply billed as being held at the Performance Center. The TakeOver series itself was discontinued in late 2021 after the rebranding to NXT 2.0. It would in turn be NXT's last major event in which the brand was considered WWE's third main brand, as with the restructuring to NXT 2.0, the brand reverted to being WWE's developmental territory.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: Six matches were contested at the event, including one on the pre-show. In the main event, Samoa Joe defeated Karrion Kross to win the NXT Championship a record-breaking third time. In the penultimate match, Kyle O'Reilly defeated Adam Cole 2–1 in a two-out-of-three-falls match; this was also Cole's final WWE appearance. In other prominent matches, Ilja Dragunov defeated Walter by submission to win the NXT United Kingdom Championship ending Walter's record-setting reign at 870 days, and in the opening bout, Cameron Grimes defeated LA Knight to win the Million Dollar Championship with the added stipulation that if Grimes lost, Ted DiBiase would have become Knights' butler.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: TakeOver was a series of professional wrestling shows that began in May 2014, as WWE's NXT brand held their second WWE Network-exclusive event, billed as TakeOver. In subsequent months, the "TakeOver" moniker became the brand used by WWE for all of their NXT live specials. While originally exclusive to the WWE Network, NXT TakeOver events also became available on traditional pay-per-view (PPV) beginning with TakeOver 31 in October 2020, and then also on Peacock after the American version of the WWE Network merged under Peacock in March 2021.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: Titled for being the 36th NXT TakeOver event, TakeOver 36 was scheduled to be held on Sunday, August 22, 2021, the night after WWE's SummerSlam PPV for Raw and SmackDown. This in turn made TakeOver 36 the first TakeOver to air the night after one of WWE's main PPVs instead of the night before. Additionally, while Raw and SmackDown resumed live touring during the COVID-19 pandemic in mid-July, NXT continued to run its shows from the Capitol Wrestling Center, hosted at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando, Florida. The Capitol Wrestling Center was initially NXT's version of the WWE ThunderDome bio-secure bubble that had been used for Raw and SmackDown during the pandemic; however, the arena became the brand's home base, with nearly all COVID-19 restrictions having been lifted with the previous TakeOver event, .


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: The In Your House card included six matches, including one on the Pre-Show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters to build tension and culminate in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the NXT brand, while storylines were produced on the weekly television program, "WWE NXT".


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: In October 2020 on "NXT UK", Walter defeated Ilja Dragunov to retain the NXT United Kingdom Championship. In June 2021, Dragunov earned another opportunity to challenge Walter for the championship by defeating Rampage Brown and Joe Coffey in a triple threat match. The title match was then scheduled for the July 22 episode of "NXT UK". A contract signing for the match was held during the July 15 episode, but later that same episode, Walter injured his hand in a backstage altercation. It was then announced that the championship match had been postponed. During the July 22 episode, NXT executive Triple H, NXT UK producer Shawn Michaels, and NXT General Manager William Regal announced that the NXT United Kingdom Championship match would take place at TakeOver 36.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: After being released from his WWE contract in April 2021, Samoa Joe re-signed with NXT that June. Joe made his formal return to the brand during the June 15 episode of "NXT" under the agreement that he would be the enforcer for NXT General Manager William Regal, as Regal had essentially lost control of the wrestlers. Additionally, Joe would not be an active wrestler and could not attack any member of the active roster unless provoked. That same episode, Joe came face-to-face with NXT Champion Karrion Kross. Over the following month, Kross would attempt to provoke Joe. During the July 13 episode, Joe served as the special guest referee for Kross' championship defense. After Kross retained the title, he attacked Joe. The following week, Joe called out Kross, who appeared backstage, showing that he had attacked Regal; Joe headed backstage but Kross retreated in a car when Joe got to Regal. On the July 27 episode, Regal had intended to fire Kross for his actions, but Joe had a different plan that Regal accepted. Joe resigned as Regal's enforcer, was reinstated as a member of the active roster, and was scheduled to face Kross for the NXT Championship at TakeOver 36, marking Joe's first match since February 2020.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: At in February 2020, Raquel González made her NXT debut, helping Dakota Kai defeat Tegan Nox. Over the following months, González would accompany Kai to her matches, forging an alliance and becoming Kai's "bodyguard". During the 2020 Women's WarGames match at , González picked up momentum after pinning reigning NXT Women's Champion, Io Shirai. She then continued racking up victories with Kai by her side. Kai and González then won the inaugural women's Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic tournament, becoming the first-ever NXT Women's Tag Team Champions, although they lost the title the same night they were awarded them. González then entered into a feud with Shirai and defeated her at to win the NXT Women's Championship. On the July 27 episode of "NXT", González, with Kai by her side, issued an open challenge for the championship but no one answered. Kai then praised González but then attacked her from behind, subsequently turning González face in the process. Kai then said she would challenge González for the title, which was scheduled for TakeOver 36.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: At TakeOver: In Your House, LA Knight defeated Cameron Grimes in a ladder match to win the vacant Million Dollar Championship that had been reintroduced by WWE Hall of Famer and "The Million Dollar Man", Ted DiBiase. On the following episode of "NXT", DiBiase formally presented the Million Dollar Championship to Knight. After an emotional promo, Knight turned on and attacked DiBiase, who was saved by Grimes; in a video uploaded to WWE's YouTube channel, it was shown that Grimes had apologized to DiBiase following the match at In Your House. Knight then defeated Grimes in a rematch at The Great American Bash; as per the stipulation of the rematch, Grimes became Knight's personal butler. Grimes, however, would annoy Knight during this time. DiBiase then returned, encouraging Grimes to go after the Million Dollar Championship. During the August 10 episode of "NXT", Knight agreed to defend the championship against Grimes at TakeOver 36 under the condition that if Knight won, DiBiase would replace Grimes as Knight's personal butler. Although Grimes was against it, DiBiase agreed to the terms.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: During the kick-off show, Ridge Holland took on Trey Baxter. Holland quickly won the match after hitting a "Headbutt" and a "Brainbuster" on Baxter. After the match, Holland challenged Timothy Thatcher for a match on the upcoming episode of NXT.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: In the opening match, LA Knight defended the Million Dollar Championship against his butler Cameron Grimes with a stipulation that Ted DiBiase would become Knight's butler if he won. Grimes tried to win with the "Dream Street", but Knight escaped. Knight tried to leave with the title, but DiBiase stopped him and threw the title into the ring. While the referee was trying to take the title away from Grimes, DiBiase locked in Dream Street on Knight and threw him back into the ring. Grimes hit a "Cave In Stomp" on Knight to win the title, becoming free from being Knight's butler, and keeping DiBiase from becoming the butler.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: Next, Raquel González defended the NXT Women's Championship against Dakota Kai. Kai hit a Codebreaker on González for a nearfall. In the end, Dakota went for a "Yakuza Kick", but Raquel caught the foot and dragged Kai to the top rope with her and hit a "Powerbomb" off the top rope to retain the title. Afterward, NXT UK's Kay Lee Ray returned and confronted González from the stage.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: Then, Walter defended the NXT United Kingdom Championship against Ilja Dragunov. Dragunov exerted control with a headlock and later a keylock, but Walter placed Dragunov on the top rope, chopped him to the floor, and powerbombed him onto the ring apron. Both men exchanged chops, forearms, lariats, knees, kicks and suplexes. Walter countered Dragunov's "Torpedo Moscow" and hit a sleeper suplex, but Dragunov continued with a "Torpedo Moscow" to the back of Walter's head, and then a regular "Torpedo Moscow" for a nearfall. WALTER hit a shotgun dropkick and a powerbomb for a nearfall, then another powerbomb and a diving splash for another nearfall. Dragunov escaped Walter's sleeper hold and hit a diving headbutt. Dragunov overwhelmed Walter with strikes and sleeper holds, with Walter submitting on the third sleeper hold application, ending Walter's 870-day reign as champion.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: In the penultimate match, Adam Cole took on Kyle O'Reilly in a Three Stages of Hell match, a type of a 2-Out-of-3 Falls match in what was called The Undisputed Finale. The first fall was a Singles match. O'Reilly quickly won the first fall after countering a "Panama Sunrise" into a "Roll-Up". The second fall was a Street Fight. O'Reilly sat Cole in a steel chair and placed a trash can over his head and hitting a "Running Dropkick" off the apron. As O'Reilly went to the top rope, Cole kicked him off and Kyle hit his ribs on the apron. The two fought to the stage where Cole locked in a "Guillotine Choke", but O'Reilly escaped and threw Cole off the stage into the plexiglass. As O'Reilly went for the "Top Rope Knee Drop", Cole threw O'Reilly onto two standing chairs and hit a "Last Shot" to win the second fall. The final fall was a Steel Cage match. Cole threw O'Reilly into the cage multiple times and Kyle would catapult Cole into the cage as well. Cole had a pair of hand cuffs and attached O'Reilly to the top rope. Cole hit a "Superkick", but O'Reilly grabbed the foot on a second attempt and locked in a "Heel Hook", forcing Cole to submit to win the match. Afterward, Cole was helped to the back by officials. This was Adam Cole's final WWE appearance, as his WWE contract expired shortly after the event. Cole made his AEW debut at All Out.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: In the main event, Karrion Kross defended the NXT Championship against Samoa Joe. Joe hit a "Suicide Dive" on Kross on the outside. Joe hit a "Senton" off the top rope for a nearfall. Joe locked in the "Coquina Clutch", but Kross escaped. Kross locked in the "Kross Jacket", but Joe escaped as well. Joe hit a "Urange" and placed Kross on the top rope. Joe hit a "Muscle Buster" on Kross and pinned him to win his record-setting third NXT Championship.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: The event was met with critical acclaim. 411Mania gave the entire event a 8.5 out of 10 ratings and gave the WALTER vs. Ilja Dragunov match a perfect 5 star out of 5 ratings, with the reviewer declaring WALTER as "the best wrestler on the planet". Bleacher Report praised all the matches except the Ridge Holland vs. Trey Baxter which was graded C, their lowest graded match from the event. Raquel Gonzalez vs. Dakota Kai, WALTER vs. Ilja Dragunov, and Kyle O'Reilly vs. Adam Cole were particularly praised, with WALTER vs. Ilja Dragunov being awarded the highest grading of A+ and being called the potential match of the year. WALTER vs. Ilja Dragunov became the highest-rated WWE match of all times according to Cagematch.net, with a rating of 9.69 out of 10, surpassing the previous record held by Shawn Michaels vs. The Undertaker at WrestleMania 25. Fans all over the world took to Twitter and praised the WALTER vs. Ilja Dragunov match. Dave Meltzer of the "Wrestling Observer Newsletter" praised the event and gave the Ilja Dragunov vs. Walter a rating of 5.25 stars, making it only the fourth match in WWE history to exceed the 5 star ratings system.


title: NXT TakeOver 36

text: TakeOver 36 would be the final NXT event held under the TakeOver series. Starting with the September 14 episode of "NXT", the NXT brand went through a restructuring, being rebranded as "NXT 2.0", reverting, in part, to a developmental territory for WWE. The Capitol Wrestling Center name was also phased out, with events just being billed as held from the Performance Center. In October, it was speculated that the company may end the TakeOver series as another TakeOver event was not scheduled for 2021 after TakeOver 36. On November 9, 2021, NXT's next PPV and WWE Network event was announced as NXT WarGames to be held on December 5. WarGames was previously held under the TakeOver series from 2017 to 2020, however, the announcement confirmed that the event would not be a TakeOver event, thus ending the TakeOver series. However, the "Mat Men Podcast" reported that WWE may use the TakeOver name again if an NXT event is held in a large venue, such as sharing the same venue with one of WWE's major events, and held as a support show for one of those events, like several previous TakeOvers have done.


title: Reg Traviss

text: Reginald Stephen Traviss (born 12 February 1977) is an English film director and writer. He came to public attention in the UK in 2006 with the theatrical release of his debut feature film "Joy Division" which starred Ed Stoppard, Bernard Hill, Tom Schilling, Bernadette Heerwagen and Ricci Harnett. He followed up his World War Two drama with "Psychosis" (2010), a psychological thriller that starred Charisma Carpenter, Ricci Harnett and Justin Hawkins. Traviss directed "Screwed", a prison drama based on the 2008 book "", by a former prison guard writing under the pseudonym Ronnie Thompson. The film, released theatrically in the UK in June 2011, starred Noel Clarke, James D'Arcy, Frank Harper and Kate Magowan.


title: Reg Traviss

text: Traviss was born in London, England. He began making short films in the late 1990s. His first production, in 1996, was sponsored in part by "The Prince's Trust". In 2000 he started work as an Idents and Promos director for the BBC's "BBC Choice" TV station, then in February 2003 he co-founded feature film production company "Kingsway Films".


title: Reg Traviss

text: From 2003 to 2005 Traviss worked on his directorial debut for the big screen Joy Division, a fictionalised biopic which he wrote with Rosemary Mason, based on real life events set in the last months of World War II and the early years of the Cold War. The film was co-produced by German production company "Dreamtool Entertainment" and Traviss' company "Kingsway Films" on a budget of $6,000,000. The film starred an ensemble of German, British and Hungarian actors including the rising European stars Tom Schilling and Bernadette Heerwagen, British actor Ed Stoppard, television actress and pop singer Michelle Gayle, alongside veteran big screen performers Bernard Hill and Suzanne von Borsody and was filmed in London, Canada, Hungary, Germany and Slovakia. The story was influenced by the bestselling books "" by Antony Beevor and "Armageddon" by Max Hastings. "Joy Division" was received at the Copenhagen International Film Festival in September 2006 and was released in theatres in the UK, Germany, New Zealand and Australia from 2006 to late 2007. The film received good reviews by critics and Film Review magazine in 2007 named Traviss as "one of the UK's most promising new filmmakers". The film also attracted the attention of wider review and debate within the cultural press.


title: Reg Traviss

text: In 2008 to 2009 Traviss worked on his second film Psychosis, a psychological-thriller and homage in the style of cult British chillers Hammer House of Horror and Tales of the Unexpected. The story was a reworking of the segment "Dreamhouse" from the Michael Armstrong film "Screamtime", and starred Charisma Carpenter in the lead role, supported by Ricci Harnett, Paul Sculfor and rock singer Justin Hawkins. The film premiered in 2010 at the 'Home of Cult British Horror' Prince Charles Cinema in Leicester Square, London. In 2010 Traviss directed Screwed, the film adaptation of Ronnie Thompson's bestselling Prison Officer's memoir "", by Headline Publishing about an ex-British soldier who returns from Iraq to take job in one of England's toughest jails only to find that the Officers are more corrupt than the convicts. "Screwed" was released in theatres across the UK in June 2011 and starred acclaimed actors Noel Clarke and James D'Arcy alongside tough guy actors Frank Harper and Jamie Foreman


title: Reg Traviss

text: In 2015, a documentary film about Traviss's late former girlfriend Amy Winehouse was released in the summer, entitled "Amy". Winehouse's family and Traviss publicly disapproved of the film, saying that it was "downright inaccurate" and contained "basic untruths". Traviss and Winehouse's father Mitch have asked the film crew to edit the film, as it portrays Winehouse's father as a villain and contains nothing about Traviss. However, since the editors behind the movie declined their request, Mitch Winehouse and Traviss intend to create a new film about Winehouse, to correct all the inaccuracies and omissions that were in the documentary.


title: Reg Traviss

text: Between 2008 and 2010, Traviss was in a relationship with "Suicide Girls" burlesque dancer Raven Isis Holt, who featured in his 2010 film "Psychosis".


title: Reg Traviss

text: Traviss was in a relationship with singer Amy Winehouse from early 2010 until her death on 23 July 2011. According to media reports and a biography written by Winehouse's father, Traviss and Winehouse had planned to marry and intended to have children.


title: History of communism

text: The history of communism encompasses a wide variety of ideologies and political movements sharing the core theoretical values of common ownership of wealth, economic enterprise, and property. Most modern forms of communism are grounded at least nominally in Marxism, a theory and method conceived by Karl Marx during the 19th century. Marxism subsequently gained a widespread following across much of Europe and throughout the late 1800s its militant supporters were instrumental in a number of failed revolutions on that continent. During the same era, there was also a proliferation of communist parties which rejected armed revolution, but embraced the Marxist ideal of collective property and a classless society.


title: History of communism

text: Although Marxist theory suggested that the places ripest for social revolution, either through peaceful transition or by force of arms, were industrial societies, communism was mostly successful in underdeveloped countries with endemic poverty such as the Russian Empire and the Republic of China. In 1917, the Bolshevik Party seized power during the Russian Revolution and in 1922 created the Soviet Union, the world's first self-declared socialist state. The Bolsheviks thoroughly embraced the concept of proletarian internationalism and world revolution, seeing their struggle as an international rather than a purely regional cause. This was to have a phenomenal impact on the spread of communism during the 20th century as the Soviet Union installed new Marxist–Leninist governments in Central and Eastern Europe following World War II and indirectly backed the ascension of others in the Americas, Asia and Africa. Pivotal to this policy was the Communist International, also known as the Comintern, formed with the perspective of aiding and assisting communist parties around the world and fostering revolution. This was one major cause of tensions during the Cold War as the United States and its military allies equated the global spread of communism with Soviet expansionism by proxy.


title: History of communism

text: By 1985, one-third of the world's population lived under a Marxist–Leninist system of government in one form or another. However, there was significant debate among communist and Marxist ideologues as to whether most of these countries could be meaningfully considered Marxist at all since many of the basic components of the Marxist system were altered and revised by such countries. The failure of these governments to live up to the ideal of a communist society, their general trend towards increasing authoritarianism and the inherent inefficiencies in their economies has been linked to the decline of communism in the late 20th century. With the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, several Marxist–Leninist states repudiated or abolished the ideology altogether. As of the 21st century, only a small number of Marxist–Leninist states remain, namely China, Cuba, Laos and Vietnam. All of these states have started allowing more economic competition while maintaining one-party rule.


title: History of communism

text: Many historical groups have been considered as following forms of communism. Karl Marx and other early communist theorists believed that hunter-gatherer societies as were found in the Paleolithic through to horticultural societies as found in the Chalcolithic were essentially egalitarian and he, therefore, termed their ideology to be primitive communism. One of the first writers to espouse a belief in the primitive communism of the past was the Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca who stated," How happy was the primitive age when the bounties of nature lay in common...They held all nature in common which gave them secure possession of the public wealth." Because of this he believed that such primitive societies were the richest as there was no poverty. Other Greco-Roman writers that believed in a prehistoric humanity that practiced communism include Diodorus Siculus, Virgil, and Ovid. Similarly the early Church Fathers, like their pagan predecessors, maintained that humans society had declined to its current state from a now lost egalitarian social order.


title: History of communism

text: Around the late 5th century BC in Ancient Greece, ideas similar to communism were becoming widespread to the extent that they were parodied by the dramatist Aristophanes in his comedy The Assemblywomen in which the women of Athens seize control of the "Ecclesia" or city government and abolish all private property while making the sharing of women and the collective rearing of children mandatory. Over a decade later in Plato's Republic Socrates declares that an ideal state would eliminate all forms of private property among the elite of society to the extent that even children and wives are shared. He asserts that such practices would prevent internal conflict within a society and promote a sense of unity and common identity. Around AD 500 in Iran, the Zoroastrian priest and reformist Mazdak purportedly founded a movement preaching religious communism while under the patronage of the Sassanian King Kavad I who initially supported the priest and his reforms, but later had the Mazdakians repressed and Mazdak executed.


title: History of communism

text: Early Christianity supported a form of common ownership based on the teachings in the New Testament which emphasised sharing. For example, in the Book of Acts the passages and state all believers held their possessions communally and would distribute goods based on need. Additionally, the related Jewish sect known as the Essenes was committed to, "social and material egalitarianism." Despite these practices falling into decline even before the era of Constantine, the principles of sharing property and holding goods in common continued within the Christian traditions of monasticism.


title: History of communism

text: From the High Middle Ages to the early modern period in Europe, various groups supporting Christian communist and communalist ideas were occasionally adopted by reformist Christian sects. An early 12th century proto-Protestant group originating in Lyon, Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles known as the Waldensians held their property in common in accordance with the Book of Acts, but were persecuted by the Catholic Church and retreated to the Piedmont. With the rise of the Mendicant Orders in the 13th century groups such as the Franciscans began challenging the concept of private property to the extent it had to be defended by Pope John XXII in his 1328 papal bull "Quia vir reprobus", in which he ruled that because God had gifted Adam with the Earth as his domain, the ownership of property was divinely sanctioned. Also beginning in the 13th century a lay order known as the Beghards, originating in the Low Countries, started to spread among the underprivileged groups of society, taking in members who renounced private property and dedicated themselves to communal living and pious, frugal lifestyles as artisans. Although the practices were successful enough to spread to other areas on the continent such as France and Germany, the Beghards were later repeatedly condemned by the Catholic Church. Around 1300 the Apostolic Brethren in northern Italy were taken over by Fra Dolcino who formed a sect known as the Dulcinians which advocated ending feudalism, dissolving hierarchies in the church, and holding all property in common. The 14th century English scholastic and founder of Lollardy, John Wycliffe, preached of an idealized Christian state with collective ownership and disapproved of those rejecting the, "common charity and common property of Christian men." Around the same time the revolutionary priest John Ball, who was later executed for his prominent role in the doomed Wat Tyler Rebellion allegedly declared, "things cannot go well in England, nor ever will, until all goods are held in common."


title: History of communism

text: In Tábor, Bohemia during the 15th century Hussite Wars, the radical Taborites attempted to institute a system they called a "community of goods" where, "there is no mine or thine but all is held in common", but once initiated the scheme was quickly abandoned. After Taborite power was broken at Lipany their successors fled to Moravia forming the Moravian Church under the pacifist spiritual leader Petr Chelčický who harbored both Christian communist and Christian anarchist beliefs. The extent to which Chelčický's followers, also known as the "Bohemian Brethren", adhered to his ideals, namely the abstinence from property, trade, and government, is disputed, and by the 16th century the Brethren definitely no longer embraced them. During the Protestant Reformation of the 16th century the radical Anabaptists, who originated in Switzerland, endorsed the communalization of goods as practiced in the Book of Acts. The most notable Anabaptist groups were the Hutterites, founded by Jacob Hutter, who settled in Moravia in the 1520s and the Münster Anabaptists who were eradicated in battle during their attempt in 1535 to forcibly convert the city of Münster into a theocratic New Jerusalem. Various groups on the side of the Roundheads during the English Civil War in the mid-17th century propagated the redistribution of wealth on an egalitarian basis, namely the Levellers and the Diggers although only the latter group under Gerrard Winstanley promoted a propertyless, communist society.


title: History of communism

text: European writers began depicting idealized communist societies in utopian fiction from the 16th century onward. Inspired by largely fictional accounts of native communities in the New World, the English humanist and future Lord Chancellor Thomas More, wrote the utopian novel "Utopia" (1516) in which the main character decries private property after traveling to an idyllic island without money or private property and where, "everything is under state control." More coined the term "utopia" as a name for his idealized community, which means "nowhere" in Latin, evincing the fact that More did not consider such a society attainable in reality. Tommaso Campanella's 1601 work "The City of the Sun" propagated the concept of a society where the products of society should be shared equally. In Campanella's utopia all people are well educated, there is only a four-hour work day, there is no private property, the population practices eugenics to improve mental and physical fitness, most time is devoted to either leisure or self improvement, and society is managed by a ruling scientist who bases his administration on scientific principles all in the interest of benefiting society as a whole. Utopian communist societies were also described by the French writers François Fénelon and Denis Vairasse while English writer Francis Bacon wrote of a utopia that merely had a "communism in knowledge."


title: History of communism

text: During the Age of Enlightenment in 18th century France, some liberal writers increasingly began to criticize the institution of private property even to the extent they demanded its abolition. One of the first secular visions for a communist society is contained within the French Catholic abbé Jean Meslier's posthumously published "Testament" (1729). Similarly the Abbé de Mably, also a French philosopher wrote that the individual ownership of land was the source of all mischief and that wealthy inequality brought about social ruin that could only be reversed by adopting a society based on collective ownership." He did however temper his views by surmising that any attempts at enacting true equality and communal ownership would prove to be too costly and destructive to be worth implementing. Another French thinker, Étienne-Gabriel Morelly also contended that private property was the source of all vice in society and developed the basic principles for a communist society namely, the abolition of property, the right to live and work for all, and the duty of all citizens to work for the common good. The French philosopher Jean Jacques Rousseau in his hugely influential "The Social Contract" (1762) outlined the basis for a political order based on popular sovereignty rather than the rule of monarchs, and in his "Discourse on Inequality" (1755) inveighed against the corrupting effects of private property claiming that the invention of private property had led to the," crimes, wars, murders, and suffering" that plagued civilization.


title: History of communism

text: In 1785 the popular French novelist Restif de la Bretonne wrote a book review on Victor d'Hupay's 1779 book "Project for a Philosophical Community" which described a plan for a communal experiment in Marseille where all private property was banned and which could be considered," the first full blueprint for a secular communist society in the world." In the review Restif noted that d'Hupay had referred to himself as a , the French form of the word "communist", in a 1782 letter, the first recorded instance of that term. Restif himself wrote many novels centered around the idea of eliminating private property, first using the term "community of goods" in 1783 and then the term "communism" in 1793, rendered in French as .


title: History of communism

text: These currents of thought in French philosophy proved influential during the French Revolution of 1789 in which various anti-monarchists, particularly the Jacobins, supported the idea of redistributing wealth equally among the people, including Jean-Paul Marat and Gracchus Babeuf. The latter was involved in the Conspiracy of the Equals of 1796 intending to establish a revolutionary regime based on communal ownership, egalitarianism and the redistribution of property. Babeuf was directly influenced by Morelly's anti-property utopian novel "The Code of Nature" and quoted it extensively, although he was under the erroneous impression it was written by Diderot.Also during the revolution the publisher Nicholas Bonneville, the founder of the Parisian revolutionary Social Club used his printing press to spread the communist treatises of Restif and Sylvain Maréchal. Maréchal, who later joined Babeuf's conspiracy, would state it his "Manifesto of the Equals" (1796)," we aim at something more sublime and more just, the COMMON GOOD or the COMMUNITY OF GOODS" and "The French Revolution is just a precursor of another revolution, far greater, far more solemn, which will be the last." Restif also continued to write and publish books on the topic of communism throughout the Revolution. Accordingly, through their egalitarian programs and agitation Restif, Maréchal, and Babeuf became the progenitors of modern communism. Babeuf's plot was detected, however, and he and several others involved were arrested and executed. Because of his views and methods, Babeuf is sometimes referred to as the first revolutionary communist, although at the time Babeuf himself used the term "communitist". Despite this setback, the example of the French Revolutionary regime and Babeuf's doomed insurrection was an inspiration for French socialist thinkers such as Henri de Saint-Simon, Louis Blanc, Charles Fourier and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. Proudhon, the founder of modern anarchism and libertarian socialism would later famously declare "property is theft!" a phrase first invented by the French revolutionary Brissot de Warville.


title: History of communism

text: Importantly because one of Babeuf's co-conspirators, Philippe Buonarroti, survived the crackdown on the Conspiracy of the Equals he was able, later in his life, to write the influential book "Babeuf's Conspiracy for Equality" first published in 1828 which chronicled and popularized Babeouf's beliefs. In it Buonarroti asserted that in society," burdens, productions, and advantages ought to be equally divided," and believed that this division would lead to," the greatest possible happiness of all." Bournatti's writings led to a revival of Babeuf's thought in France and the dissemination of political theories referred to as Neo-Babouvism. According to Bournatti's Neo-Babouvism a revolutionary elite of "wise and courageous" citizens who cared only for "ensuring the triumph of equality" would be needed to uplift the masses and establish a new society based on egalitarian principles.


title: History of communism

text: By the 1830s and 1840s, the egalitarian concepts of communism and the related ideas of socialism had become widely popular in French revolutionary circles thanks to the writings of social critics and philosophers such as Pierre Leroux and Théodore Dézamy, whose critiques of bourgeoisie liberalism and individualism led to a widespread intellectual rejection of "laissez-faire" capitalism on economic, philosophical and moral grounds. According to Leroux writing in 1832, "To recognise no other aim than individualism is to deliver the lower classes to brutal exploitation. The proletariat is no more than a revival of antique slavery." He also asserted that private ownership of the means of production allowed for the exploitation of the lower classes and that private property was a concept divorced from human dignity. Dézamy would assert in his 1842 book that what was needed was a," complete and unrestricted society of communal property" in which all activity was centralized. The systematic, historical and materialist analysis of the nature of communism in Dézamy's work led Marx to consider him among the first scientific socialists along with . It was only in the year 1840 that proponents of common ownership in France, including the socialists Théodore Dézamy, Étienne Cabet, and Jean-Jacques Pillot began to widely adopt the word "communism" as a term for their belief system.


title: History of communism

text: A landmark event that established the popularity of the communist movement in France occurred in 1840 when Dézamy along with Pillot and Albert Laponneraye organized a pro-communist banquet in Belleville, France, the "first public manifestation of the communist party" in France which proved so successful that further planned communist banquets had to be outlawed by the French government. Also in 1840 a society of "Egalitarian Workers" following a communist program was founded in Paris and a general strike was called whose leaders were reportedly inspired by communist ideals. During the 1840s Étienne Cabet had a following of between 100,000 and 200,000 French workers and was considered by Friedrich Engels to be the representative of the French proletariat. One of the most prominent and influential French communists of the 1840s was Auguste Blanqui who was notable for his belief that violent revolutionary action should be used to overthrow the bourgeosie dominated state. In Blanqui's estimation a revolution would be most successful if it was executed by a small, secretive group which could then install a "dictatorship of the proletariat." Dézamy disagreed with any program endorsing a dictatorship, believing instead that the chief focus should be on cultivating proletarian unity through propaganda and education.


title: History of communism

text: The works and teachings of these French writers, many now self identifying as communists, went on to inspire new communist groups such as the League of the Just, an organization founded in Paris in 1836 by the Christian communist German émigrés Wilhelm Weitling and Karl Schapper. A second group, the Communist Correspondence Committee, was formed in Brussels in 1846 by another pair of German émigrés Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The two groups were merged in 1847 to form the Communist League which was headed by Schapper who then proceeded to task the co-founding members Marx and Engels with writing a manifesto laying out the principles of the new political party.


title: History of communism

text: In the 1840s, German philosopher and sociologist Karl Marx, who was living in England after fleeing the authorities in Prussia, where he was considered a political threat, began publishing books in which he outlined his theories for a variety of communism now known as Marxism. Marx was financially aided and supported by another German émigré, Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), who like Marx had fled from the German authorities in 1849. Marx and Engels took on many influences from earlier socialists such as the Utopian socialist Saint-Simonist school. Politically, they were influenced by Maximilien Robespierre and several other radical figures of the French Revolution whilst economically they were influenced by David Ricardo. Philosophically, they were influenced by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. Engels regularly met Marx at Chetham's Library in Manchester, England from 1845 and the alcove where they met remains identical to this day. It was here that Engels relayed his experiences of industrial Manchester, chronicled in the "Condition of the Working Class in England", highlighting the struggles of the working class.


title: History of communism

text: Marx stated that "the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles", something that he believed was happening between the bourgeoisie (the select few upper class and upper middle class) who then controlled society and the proletariat (the working class masses) who toiled to produce everything, but who had no political control. He advanced the idea that human society moved through a series of progressive stages from primitive communism through to slavery, feudalism and then capitalism; and that this, in turn, would be replaced by communism. For Marx, communism was seen as inevitable yet uncertain and desirable.


title: History of communism

text: Marx founded the Communist Correspondence Committee in 1846 through which the various communists, socialists and other leftists across Europe could keep in contact with one another in the face of political repression. He then published "The Communist Manifesto" in 1848, which would prove to be one of the most influential communist texts ever written. He subsequently began work on a multi-volume epic that would examine and criticise the capitalist economy and the effect that it had upon politics, society and philosophy—the first volume of the work which was known as "" was published in 1869. However, Marx and Engels were not only interested in writing about communism, as they were also active in supporting revolutionary activity that would lead to the creation of communist governments across Europe. They helped to found the International Workingmen's Association which would later become known as the First International to unite various communists and socialists, with Marx being elected to the Association's General Council.


title: History of communism

text: Marx summarized his system with the slogan, "From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs." This phrasing used to formulate the principles of communism is borrowed from earlier socialist political activists such as August Becker and Louis Blanc.


title: History of communism

text: During the latter half of the 19th century, various left-wing organisations across Europe continued to campaign against the many autocratic right-wing regimes that were then in power. In France, socialists set up a government known as the Paris Commune after the fall of Napoleon III in 1871, but they were soon overthrown and many of their members executed by counter-revolutionaries. Meanwhile, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels joined the German Social-Democratic Party which had been created in 1875, but which was outlawed in 1879 by the German government, then led by Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who deemed it to be a political threat due to its revolutionary nature and increasing number of supporters. In 1890, the party was re-legalised and by this time it had fully adopted Marxist principles. It subsequently achieved a fifth of the vote in the German elections and some of its leaders, such as August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, became well-known public figures.


title: History of communism

text: At the time, Marxism took off not only in Germany, but it also gained popularity in Hungary, the Habsburg monarchy and the Netherlands, although it did not achieve such success in other European nations like the United Kingdom, where Marx and Engels had been based. Nonetheless, the new political ideology had gained sufficient support that an organisation was founded known as the Second International to unite the various Marxist groups around the world.


title: History of communism

text: As Marxism took off, it also began to come under criticism from other European intellectuals, including fellow socialists and leftists. For instance, the Russian collectivist anarchist Mikhail Bakunin criticised what he believed were the flaws in the Marxian theory that the state would eventually dissolve under a Marxist government, instead he believed that the state would gain in power and become authoritarian. Criticism also came from other sociologists such as the German Max Weber, who whilst admiring Marx disagreed with many of his assumptions on the nature of society. Some Marxists tried to adapt to these criticisms and the changing nature of capitalism and Eduard Bernstein emphasised the idea of Marxists bringing legal challenges against the current administrations over the treatment of the working classes rather than simply emphasising violent revolution as more orthodox Marxists did. Other Marxists opposed Bernstein and other revisionists, with many including Karl Kautsky, Otto Bauer, Rudolf Hilferding, Rosa Luxemburg, Vladimir Lenin and Georgi Plekhanov sticking steadfast to the concept of violently overthrowing what they saw as the bourgeoisie-controlled government and instead establishing a dictatorship of the proletariat.


title: History of communism

text: The historical existence of the Communist International (Comintern) and the broader communist movement is divided among periods, regarding changes in the general policy it followed.


title: History of communism

text: At the start of the 20th century, the Russian Empire was an autocracy controlled by Tsar Nicholas II, with millions of the country's largely agrarian population living in abject poverty. The anti-communist historian Robert Service noted that "poverty and oppression constituted the best soil for Marxism to grow in". The man most responsible for introducing the ideology into the country was Georgi Plekhanov, although the movement itself was largely organised by Vladimir Lenin, who had for a time been exiled to a prison camp in Siberia by the Tsarist government for his beliefs. A Marxist group known as the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party was formed in the country, although it soon divided into two main factions, namely the Bolsheviks led by Lenin and the Mensheviks led by Julius Martov. In 1905, there was a revolution against the Tsar's rule in which workers' councils known as soviets were formed in many parts of the country and the Tsar was forced to implement democratic reform, introducing an elected government, the Duma.


title: History of communism

text: In 1917, with further social unrest against the Duma and its part in involving Russia in World War I, the Bolsheviks took power in the October Revolution. They began remodelling the country by nationalizing various industries and confiscating land from wealthy aristocrats and redistributing it amongst the peasants. They subsequently pulled out of the war against Germany by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which was unpopular amongst many in Russia, for it gave away large areas of land to Germany. From the outset, the new government faced resistance from a myriad of forces with differing perspectives, including anarchists, social democrats, who took power in the Democratic Republic of Georgia, Socialist-Revolutionaries, who formed the Komuch in Samara, Russia, scattered tsarist resistance forces known as the White Guard as well as Western powers. This led to the events of the Russian Civil War which the Bolsheviks won and subsequently consolidated their power over the entire country, centralising power from the Kremlin in the capital city of Moscow. In the early 1920s, Lenin began recruiting black workers, accusing American political parties of not doing more to campaign for black civil rights. A handful of African American activists were fascinated by communism, and Cyril Briggs led an organization called African Blood Brotherhood. In 1922, the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic was officially redesignated to lead the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, simply known as the Soviet Union.


title: History of communism

text: In 1924, Lenin resigned as leader of the Soviet Union due to poor health and soon died, with Joseph Stalin subsequently taking over control.


title: History of communism

text: In 1919, the Bolshevik government in Russia instigated the creation of an international communist organisation that would act as the Third International after the collapse of the Second International in 1916. This was known as the Communist International, although it was commonly abbreviated as the Comintern. Throughout its existence, the Comintern would be dominated by the Kremlin despite its internationalist stance. Meanwhile, in 1921, the Soviet Union invaded its neighboring Mongolia to aid a popular uprising against the Chinese who then controlled the country, instituting a pro-Soviet government which declared the nation to be the Mongolian People's Republic in 1924.


title: History of communism

text: The Comintern and other such Soviet-backed communist groups soon spread across much of the world, though particularly in Europe, where the influence of the recent Russian Revolution was still strong. In Germany, the Spartacist uprising took place in 1919 when armed Spartacus League communists supported rioting workers, but the government put the rebellion down violently with the use of a right-wing paramilitary group, the Freikorps, with many noted German communists such as Rosa Luxemburg being killed. Within a few months, a group of communists seized power amongst public unrest in the German region of Bavaria, forming the Bavarian Soviet Republic, although once more this was put down violently by the Freikorps, who historians believe killed around 1,200 communists and their sympathisers.


title: History of communism

text: That same year, political turmoil in Hungary following their defeat in World War I led to a coalition government of the Social Democratic Party and the Communist Party taking control. The Hungarian Communist Party led by Béla Kun soon became dominant and instituted various communist reforms in the country, but the country itself was subsequently invaded by its neighbouring Romania within a matter of months who overthrew the government, with its leaders either escaping abroad or being executed. In 1921, a communist revolt against the Kingdom of Italy occurred whilst supportive factory workers were on strike in Turin and Milan in northern Italy, but the government acted swiftly and put down the rebellion. That same year, a further communist rebellion took place in the Weimar Republic only to be crushed, but another occurred in 1923 which once again was also defeated by the government. The Bulgarian Communist Party had also attempted an uprising in 1923, but like most of their counterparts across Europe they were defeated.


title: History of communism

text: Communist parties were tight knit organizations that exerted tight control over the members. To reach sympathisers unwilling to join the party, front organizations were created that advocated party-approved positions. Under the leadership of Grigory Zinoviev in the Kremlin, the Comintern established fronts in many countries in the 1920s and after. To coordinate their activities, the Comintern set up various international umbrella organizations (linking groups across national borders) such as the Young Communist International (youth), Profintern (trade unions), Krestintern (peasants), International Red Aid (humanitarian aid), and Red Sport International (organized sports), among others. In Europe, front organizations were especially influential in Italy and France which became the base for Communist front organizer Willi Münzenberg in 1933. These organizations were dissolved by the late 1930s or early 1940s.


title: History of communism

text: The Pan-Pacific Trade Union Secretariat (PPTUS) was set up in 1927 by the Profintern (the Comintern's trade union arm) with the mission of promoting communist trade unions in China, Japan, Korea, the Philippines, Australia, New Zealand and other nations in the western Pacific. Trapeznik (2009) says the PPTUS was a "Communist-front organization" and "engaged in overt and covert political agitation in addition to a number of clandestine activities".


title: History of communism

text: There were numerous communist front organizations in Asia, many oriented to students and youth. According to one historian, in the labor union movement of the 1920s in Japan, the "Hyogikai never called itself a communist front but in effect, this was what it was". He points out it was repressed by the government "along with other communist front groups". In the 1950s, Scalapino argues: "The primary Communist-front organization was the Japan Peace Committee". It was founded in 1949.


title: History of communism

text: In 1924, Joseph Stalin, a key Bolshevik follower of Lenin, took power in the Soviet Union. Stalin was supported in his leadership by Nikolai Bukharin, but he had various important opponents in the government, most notably Lev Kamenev, Leon Trotsky, and Grigory Zinoviev. Stalin initiated his own process of building a communist society, creating a variant of communism known as Marxism–Leninism. As a part of this, he abandoned some of the capitalist, market policies that had been allowed to continue under Lenin such as the New Economic Policy. Stalinist policies radically altered much of the Soviet Union's agricultural production, modernising it by introducing tractors and other machinery, forced collectivisation of the farms and forced collection of grains from the peasants in accordance with predecided targets. There was food available for industrial workers, but those peasants who refused to move starved, especially in Kazakhstan and Ukraine. The All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) targeted kulaks, who owned a little land.


title: History of communism

text: Stalin took control of the Comintern and introduced a policy in the international organisation of opposing all leftists who were not Marxist–Leninists, labelling them to be social fascists, although many communists such as Jules Humbert-Droz disagreed with him on this policy, believing that the left should unite against the rise of right-wing movements like fascism across Europe. In the early 1930s, Stalin reversed course and promoted popular front movements whereby communist parties would collaborate with socialists and other political forces. A high priority was mobilizing wide support for the Republican cause in the Spanish Civil War.


title: History of communism

text: The Great Purge mainly operated from December 1936 to November 1938, although the features of arrest and summary trial followed by execution were well entrenched in the Soviet system since the days of Lenin as Stalin systematically destroyed the older generation of pre-1918 leaders. Stalin did so usually under the justification that the accused were enemy spies or deemed "enemies of the people"; in the Red Army, a majority of generals were executed and hundreds of thousands of other "enemies of the people" were sent to the gulag, where inhumane conditions in Siberia led a quick death.


title: History of communism

text: The opening of the Soviet archives has vindicated the lower estimates put forth by the "revisionist school" scholars, despite the popular press continuing to use higher estimates and containing serious errors. By 2009, historian Archie Brown reported that estimates were now lower; about 1.7 million were arrested in 1937–1938 and half were shot.


title: History of communism

text: The International Right Opposition and Trotskyism are examples of dissidents who still claim communism today, but they are not the only ones. In Germany, the split in the SPD had initially led to a variety of Communist unions and parties forming which included the councilist tendencies of the AAU-D, AAU-E and KAPD. Councilism had a limited impact outside of Germany, but a number of international organisations formed. In Spain, a fusion of left and right dissidents led to the formation of the POUM. Additionally, the Spanish CNT was associated with the development of the FAI political party, a non-Marxist party which stood for revolutionary communism.


title: History of communism

text: As the Cold War took effect around 1947, the Kremlin set up new international coordination bodies including the World Federation of Democratic Youth, the International Union of Students, the World Federation of Trade Unions, the Women's International Democratic Federation and the World Peace Council. Malcolm Kennedy says the "Communist 'front' system included such international organizations as the WFTU, WFDY, IUS, WIDF and WPC, besides a host of lesser bodies bringing journalists, lawyers, scientists, doctors and others into the widespread net".


title: History of communism

text: The World Federation of Trade Unions (WFTU) was established in 1945 to unite trade union confederations across the world and it was based in Prague. While it had non-communist unions it was largely dominated by the Soviets. In 1949 the British, American and other non-Communist unions broke away to form the rival International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. The labor movement in Europe became so polarized between the communists unions and social democratic and Christian labor unions, whereas front operations could no longer hide the sponsorship and they became less important.


title: History of communism

text: The devastation of the war resulted in a massive recovery program involving the rebuilding of industrial plants, housing and transportation as well as the demobilization and migration of millions of soldiers and civilians. In the midst of this turmoil during the winter of 1946–1947, the Soviet Union experienced the worst natural famine in the 20th century. There was no serious opposition to Stalin as the NKVD secret police continued to send possible suspects to the gulag.


title: History of communism

text: Relations with the United States and Britain went from friendly to hostile, as they denounced Stalin's political controls over eastern Europe and his blockade of Berlin. By 1947, the Cold War had begun. Stalin himself believed that capitalism was a hollow shell and would crumble under increased non-military pressure exerted through proxies in countries like Italy. However, he greatly underestimated the economic strength of the West and instead of triumph saw the West build up alliances that were designed to permanently stop or contain Soviet expansion. In early 1950, Stalin gave the go-ahead for North Korea's invasion of South Korea, expecting a short war. He was stunned when the Americans entered and defeated the North Koreans, putting them almost on the Soviet border. Stalin supported China's entry into the Korean War which drove the Americans back to the prewar boundaries, but which escalated tensions. The United States decided to mobilize its economy for a long contest with the Soviets, built the hydrogen bomb and strengthened the NATO alliance that covered Western Europe.