title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: Several former senior BND officials publicly stated that the agency had repeatedly warned the CIA not to take Curveball's information as fact. Hanning, the BND president at the time, even formulated his concerns about that in a letter to then CIA Director George Tenet. The CIA however ignored those warnings and presented the information as facts.


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: Following the 2006 Lebanon War, the BND mediated secret negotiations between Israel and Hezbollah, eventually leading up to the 2008 Israel–Hezbollah prisoner exchange.


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: In the beginning of 2008, it was revealed that the BND had managed to recruit excellent sources within Liechtenstein banks and had been conducting espionage operations in the principality since the beginning of the 2000s. The BND mediated the German Finance Ministry's $7.3 million acquisition of a CD from a former employee of the LGT Group – a Liechtenstein bank owned by the country's ruling family. While the Finance Ministry defends the deal, saying it would result in several hundred millions of dollars in back tax payments, the sale remains controversial, as a government agency has paid for possibly stolen data.


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: In November 2008, three German BND agents were arrested in Kosovo for allegedly throwing a bomb at the European Union International Civilian Office, which oversees Kosovo's governance. Later the "Army of the Republic of Kosovo" had accepted responsibility for the bomb attack. Laboratory tests had shown no evidence of the BND agents' involvement. However, the Germans were released only 10 days after they were arrested. It was suspected that the arrest was a revenge by Kosovo authorities for the BND report about organized crime in Kosovo which accuses Kosovo Prime Minister Hashim Thaçi, as well as the former Prime Minister Ramush Haradinaj of far-reaching involvement in organized crime.


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: According to reporting in "Der Standard" and "profil", the BND engaged in espionage in Austria between 1999 and 2006, spying on targets including the International Atomic Energy Agency, the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, the Austria Press Agency, embassies, and Austrian banks and government ministries. The government of Austria has called on Germany to clarify the allegations.


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: In 2014, an employee of BND was arrested for handing over secret documents to the United States. He was suspected of handing over documents about the committee investigating the NSA spying in Germany. The German government responded to this espionage by expelling the top CIA official in Berlin. In December 2016, WikiLeaks published 2,420 documents from the BND and the Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution (BfV). The published materials had been submitted in 2015 as part of a German parliamentary inquiry into the surveillance activities of the BND and its cooperation with the US National Security Agency. The BND has been reported to store 220 million sets of metadata every day. That is, they record with whom, when, where and for how long someone communicates. This data is supposedly collected across the world, but the exact locations remains unclear to this date. The Bundestag committee investigating the NSA spying scandal has uncovered that the German intelligence agency intercepts communications traveling via both satellites and Internet cables. It seems certain that the metadata only come from "foreign dialed traffic," that is, from telephone conversations and text messages that are held and sent via mobile phones and satellites. Of these 220 million data amassed every day, one percent is archived for 10 years "for long-term analysis." Apparently though, this long-term storage doesn't hold any Internet communications, data from social networks, or emails.


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: The new BND headquarters in Berlin, near the former Berlin Wall, was completed in 2017. At the official opening in February 2019, Angela Merkel, Chancellor of Germany, made this statement: "In an often very confusing world, now, more urgently than ever, Germany needs a strong and efficient foreign intelligence service". At the time, some 4,000 employees were expected to work from this location, moving here from the former headquarters in Pullach, a suburb of Munich. The agency's total number of employees, in Germany and other countries, was approximately 6,500.


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: The head of the Bundesnachrichtendienst is its President. The following persons have held this office since 1956:


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: The president of the BND is a federal Beamter paid according to BBesO order B, B9, which is in payment the equivalent of a lieutenant general.


title: Federal Intelligence Service

text: The President of the BND has three deputies: one Vice President, one Vice President for Military Affairs (Since December 2003), and one Vice President for Central Functions and Modernization (Possibly Since 2013). Prior to December 2003, there was only one Vice President. The following persons have held this office since 1957:


title: Cassius Dio

text: Lucius Cassius Dio (), also known as Dio Cassius ( ), was a Roman historian and senator of maternal Greek origin. He published 80 volumes of the history on ancient Rome, beginning with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy. The volumes documented the subsequent founding of Rome (753 BC), the formation of the Republic (509 BC), and the creation of the Empire (27 BC), up until 229 AD. Written in Ancient Greek over 22 years, Dio's work covers approximately 1,000 years of history. Many of his 80 books have survived intact, or as fragments, providing modern scholars with a detailed perspective on Roman history.


title: Cassius Dio

text: Lucius Cassius Dio was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator and member of the gens Cassia, who was born and raised at Nicaea in Bithynia. Byzantine tradition maintains that Dio's mother was the daughter or sister of the Greek orator and philosopher, Dio Chrysostom; however, this relationship has been disputed. Although Dio was a Roman citizen, he wrote in Greek. Dio always maintained a love for his hometown of Nicaea, calling it "his home", as opposed to his description of his villa in Italy ("my residence in Italy").


title: Cassius Dio

text: For the greater part of his life, Dio was a member of the public service. He was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna following the death of Septimius Severus; he became a suffect consul in approximately the year 205. Dio was also proconsul in Africa and Pannonia. Severus Alexander held Dio in the highest esteem and reappointed him to the position of consul, even though his caustic nature irritated the Praetorian Guards, who demanded his life. Following his second consulship, while in his later years, Dio returned to his native country, where he eventually died.


title: Cassius Dio

text: Dio published a "Roman History" (, ""), in 80 books, after twenty-two years of research and labour. The books cover a period of approximately 1,400 years, beginning with the tales from Roman mythology of the arrival of the legendary Aeneas in Italy () and the founding of Rome by his descendant Romulus (753 BC); as well as the historic events of the republican and imperial eras through 229 AD. The work is one of only three written Roman sources that document the British revolt of 60–61 AD led by Boudica and the subsequent defeat of Boudica. Until the first century BC, Dio provides only a summary of events; after that period, his accounts become more detailed. From the time of Commodus (ruled 180–192 AD), Dio is very circumspect in his conveyance of the events that he witnessed.


title: Cassius Dio

text: The version of Dio's work that survives today is quite composite since his history does not survive in its entirety.


title: Cassius Dio

text: Dio's work has often been deprecated as unreliable and lacking any overall political aim. Recently, however, some scholars have re-evaluated his work and have highlighted his complexity and sophisticated political and historical interpretations.


title: Cassius Dio

text: The first 21 books have been partially reconstructed based on fragments from other works, as well as the epitome of Zonaras who used Dio's "Roman History" as a main source. Scholarship on this part of Dio's work is scarce but the importance of the Early Republic and Regal period to Dio's overall work has recently been underlined.


title: Cassius Dio

text: The books that follow, Books 36 through 54, are nearly all complete; they cover the period from 65 BC to 12 BC, or from the eastern campaign of Pompey and the death of Mithridates to the death of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa. Book 55 contains a considerable gap, while Books 56 through 60 (which cover the period from 9–54 AD) are complete and contain events from the defeat of Varus in Germany to the death of Claudius.


title: Cassius Dio

text: Of the 20 subsequent books in the series, there remain only fragments and the meager abridgement of John Xiphilinus, a monk from the 11th century. The abridgment of Xiphilinus, as now extant, commences with Book 35 and continues to the end of Book 80: it is a very indifferent performance and was made by order of the emperor Michael VII Doukas. The last book covers the period from 222 to 229 AD (the first half of the reign of Alexander Severus).


title: Cassius Dio

text: Dio attempted to emulate Thucydides in his writing style. His style, where there appears to be no corruption of the text, is generally clear though full of Latinisms. Dio's writing was underpinned by a set of personal circumstances whereby he was able to observe significant events of the Empire in the first person, or had direct contact with the key figures who were involved.


title: Cassius Dio

text: The first season of 2017 docu-drama mini-series "" includes Cassius Dio, portrayed by Edwin Wright. Dio is shown engaging in delicate political manipulation, playing a key role in the downfall of Marcus Aurelius Cleander, trusted advisor to the Emperor Commodus, and ultimately in the murder of Commodus himself.


title: Clostridium

text: Clostridium is a genus of anaerobic, Gram-positive bacterium. Species of "Clostridium" inhabit soils and the intestinal tract of animals, including humans. This genus includes several significant human pathogens, including the causative agents of botulism and tetanus. It also formerly included an important cause of diarrhea, "Clostridioides difficile", which was reclassified into the "Clostridioides" genus in 2016.


title: Clostridium

text: In the late 1700s, Germany experienced a number of outbreaks of an illness that seemed connected to eating certain sausages. In 1817, the German neurologist Justinus Kerner detected rod-shaped cells in his investigations into this so-called sausage poisoning. In 1897, the Belgian biology professor Emile van Ermengem published his finding of an endospore-forming organism he isolated from spoiled ham. Biologists classified van Ermengem's discovery along with other known gram-positive spore formers in the genus "Bacillus". This classification presented problems, however, because the isolate grew only in anaerobic conditions, but "Bacillus" grew well in oxygen.


title: Clostridium

text: Circa 1880, in the course of studying fermentation and butyric acid synthesis, a scientist surnamed Prazmowski first assigned a binomial name to "Clostridium butyricum". The mechanisms of anaerobic respiration were still not yet well elucidated at that time, so taxonomy of anaerobes was still nascent.


title: Clostridium

text: In 1924, Ida A. Bengtson separated van Ermengem's microorganisms from the "Bacillus" group and assigned them to the genus "Clostridium". By Bengtson's classification scheme, "Clostridium" contained all of the anaerobic endospore-forming rod-shaped bacteria, except the genus "Desulfotomaculum".


title: Clostridium

text: The genus, as traditionally defined, contains many organisms not closely related to its type species. The issue was originally illustrated in full detail by a rRNA phylogeny from Collins 1994, which split the traditional genus (now corresponding to a large slice of Clostridia) into twenty clusters, with cluster "I" containing the type species and its close relatives. Over the years, this has resulted in many new genera being split out, with the ultimate goal of constraining "Clostridium" to cluster "I".


title: Clostridium

text: "Clostridium" cluster "XIVa" and "Clostridium" cluster "IV" efficiently ferment plant polysaccharide composing dietary fiber, making them important and abundant taxa in the rumen and the human large intestine. As mentioned before, these clusters are not part of current "Clostridium", and use of these terms should be avoided due to ambiguous or inconsistent usage.


title: Clostridium

text: Species of "Clostridium" are obligate anaerobe and capable of producing endospores. They generally stain gram-positive, but as well as "Bacillus", are often described as Gram-variable, because they show an increasing number of gram-negative cells as the culture ages.


title: Clostridium

text: The normal, reproducing cells of "Clostridium", called the vegetative form, are rod-shaped, which gives them their name, from the Greek κλωστήρ or spindle. "Clostridium" Endospores have a distinct bowling pin or bottle shape, distinguishing them from other bacterial endospores, which are usually ovoid in shape. The Schaeffer-Fulton stain (0.5% malachite green in water) can be used to distinguish endospores of "Bacillus" and "Clostridium" from other microorganisms.


title: Clostridium

text: "Clostridium" can be differentiated from the also Endspore forming genus "Bacillus" by its obligate anaerobic growth, the shape of endospores and the lack of catalase. Species of "Desulfotomaculum" form similar endospores and can be distinguished by their requirement for sulfur.


title: Clostridium

text: Glycolysis and fermentation of pyruvic acid by Clostridia yield the end products butyric acid, butanol, acetone, isopropanol, and carbon dioxide.


title: Clostridium

text: There is a commercially available polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test kit (Bactotype) for the detection of "C. perfringens" and other pathogenic bacteria.


title: Clostridium

text: "Clostridium" species are readily found inhabiting soils and intestinal tracts. "Clostridium" species are also a normal inhabitant of the healthy lower reproductive tract of females.


title: Clostridium

text: Several more pathogens were previously described in "Clostridium", but have been moved to other genera with additional research.


title: Clostridium

text: In general, the treatment of clostridial infection is high-dose penicillin G, to which the organism has remained susceptible. "Clostridium welchii" and "Clostridium tetani" respond to sulfonamides. Clostridia are also susceptible to tetracyclines, carbapenems (imipenem), metronidazole, vancomycin, and chloramphenicol.


title: Clostridium

text: The vegetative cells of clostridia are heat-labile and are killed by short heating at temperatures above 72–75 °C. The thermal destruction of "Clostridium" spores requires higher temperatures (above 121.1 °C, for example in an autoclave) and longer cooking times (20 min, with a few exceptional cases of > 50 min recorded in the literature). "Clostridia" and "Bacilli" are quite radiation-resistant, requiring doses of about 30 kGy, which is a serious obstacle to the development of shelf-stable irradiated foods for general use in the retail market. The addition of lysozyme, nitrate, nitrite and propionic acid salts inhibits clostridia in various foods.


title: Clostridium

text: Fructooligosaccharides (fructans) such as inulin, occurring in relatively large amounts in a number of foods such as chicory, garlic, onion, leek, artichoke, and asparagus, have a prebiotic or bifidogenic effect, selectively promoting the growth and metabolism of beneficial bacteria in the colon, such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli, while inhibiting harmful ones, such as clostridia, fusobacteria, and bacteroides.


title: Sphincter

text: A sphincter is a circular muscle that normally maintains constriction of a natural body passage or orifice and which relaxes as required by normal physiological functioning. Sphincters are found in many animals. There are over 60 types in the human body, some microscopically small, in particular the millions of precapillary sphincters. Sphincters relax at death, often releasing fluids and faeces.


title: Sphincter

text: Each sphincter is associated with the lumen (opening) it surrounds. As long as the sphincter muscle is contracted, its length is shortened and the lumen is constricted (closed). Relaxation of the muscle causes it to lengthen, opening the lumen and allowing the passage of liquids, solids, or gases.


title: Sphincter

text: Many sphincters are used every day in the normal course of digestion. For example, the lower oesophageal sphincter (or cardiac sphincter), which resides at the top of the stomach, is closed most of the time, keeping acids and other stomach contents from pushing up and into the oesophagus, but opens to let swallowed food pass into the stomach.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: Jacky Cheung Hok-yau (born 10 July 1961) is a Hong Kong singer and actor. Dubbed the "God of Songs", he is regarded as one of the Four Heavenly Kings of Hong Kong pop music. Cheung is known for his technically skilled vocals, lengthy tours, and multimillion-selling albums. His successful music and acting career has made Cheung one of Hong Kong's icons. He was elected by Time Magazine as one of the "25 most influential people in the New Hong Kong". Cheung set the Guinness World record for the largest combined audience for a live act in 12 months during his ""Jacky Cheung 1/2 Century World Tour"", with 2,048,553 audience members.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: Jacky Cheung was born and grew up in Quarry Bay in the eastern part of Hong Kong Island. His father is from Tianjin and his mother is from Shanghai. He attended North Point Government Primary School from 1967 to 1973, and graduated from in 1978.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 2007, Cheung revealed that the paternal side of his family are mostly seamen, including his father, paternal cousin, and older brother. His first language is Cantonese, but he also speaks Mandarin and English. He sings Cantonese, Mandarin, Japanese, Korean and modern English pop songs. Cheung is known for his rich baritone voice, but also his dramatic vibrato by rapidly moving his pronounced Adam's Apple.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: Cheung originally started working as a reservation officer for the airline Cathay Pacific. His music career started when he won the Amateur 18-Hong Kong district singing contest in 1984 with the song "Fatherland" () by Michael Kwan. He outcompeted more than 10,000 other contestants. After winning the contest, he was signed by the then Polygram Records, now Universal Music Group. Although encouraged by a bright start, he was not achieve immediate supremacy in Cantopop, then dominated by Leslie Cheung, Alan Tam, Anita Mui and Danny Chan. In 1985 he won his first two major awards together with the 1985 RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards and the 1985 Jade Solid Gold Top 10 Awards.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 1991 he released the song "Loving You More Every Day" (), a translated version of the Japanese Southern All Stars hit "Midsummer's Fruit" (). The album "True Love Expression" () in 1992, as well as the subsequent release, "Love Sparks" () in 1992, achieved sales of over 400,000 copies in Hong Kong alone.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: His subsequent albums included 1993 "Me and You" () and 1994 "Born to be Wild" (). In the 1994 Billboard Music Awards in the US, he was named the most popular singer in Asia. He received numerous music awards both in Hong Kong and elsewhere, including the best-selling Chinese singer in the World Music Awards for two consecutive years in 1995 and 1996 held at Monaco. Cheung was also elected as one of the world's Top Ten Outstanding Young Persons in 1999.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: Amongst his hit songs, some of his most famous were "Amour", "Just want to spend my life with you" () and "Goodbye Kiss" (). The 1993 album "The Goodbye Kiss" () is one of the best-selling Chinese music albums of all time, achieving more sales in Hong Kong, Taiwan and Southeast Asia than ever attained before, with more than 5 million copies sold in 1993, making him one of PolyGram's top 10 artists worldwide that year. It made him the first singer with non-Taiwanese citizenship to win Taiwan's Golden Melody Awards. The album was also instrumental in helping Cheung break into the mandopop market. Due to these great songs and albums, Cheung is generally considered to be the pre-eminent member of the "Four Heavenly Kings of Cantopop". He is regarded by some sources as the best singer of the four.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 1995, Cheung staged his record-breaking 100-show world tour titled "Yau Hok Yau" (), literally a pun of "friendship Jacky Cheung" reusing the same Chinese characters found in his name. The tour started with 34 shows from 8 April to 9 June at the Hong Kong Coliseum. Then the tour continued at Perth Brisbane Australia and returned to Taipei and mainland China. It then expanded to Madison Square Garden in the US, different parts of Europe, Singapore, India, Malaysia and Japan.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 1999, he was named one of the Ten Outstanding Young Persons of the World by JCI (Junior Chamber International), a worldwide federation of young professionals and entrepreneurs. In 2000 he was awarded the Golden Needle Award by RTHK. This award, the equivalent of a lifetime achievement award, recognised outstanding contributions to the music industry. He expressed his astonishment upon receiving the award, as he was the least experienced living recipient at only 16 years, and this award was awarded to singers, producers and lyricists that are late in their careers or are semi-retired, in which he was not, but to quash any negative publicity, he clarified that according to his research, there was no stipulation of this sort.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 2004, Cheung released "", an album in which Jacky co-produced with long-time collaborative partner Michael Au, and Jacky composed the melody for all songs, and penned the lyrics for 3 of the songs.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: Cheung won the "Best Selling Cantonese Album Award" at the Hong Kong IFPI Awards in 2005 with his live album, "Jacky Live Performance", which he accepted in person for the first time in years. This is despite poor ticket sales for the reason that the concert was meant to be a one-night-only charity concert in nature, and Jacky attempted to sing a song by other artists for the first time. In the fast-changing scene of canto-pop, Cheung has maintained his popularity and sales power for more than 20 years after his debut, an incredible feat in Hong Kong pop music.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 2007, Cheung staged his ""Year of Jacky Cheung World Tour 2007"". The tour started on 18 February 2007 at The Colosseum at Caesars Palace in Las Vegas. When the tour ended in Hong Kong on 3 February 2008 after touring 58 cities around the world, a total of 105 shows had been given, attracting more than 2 million fans. 105 became the highest number of shows in a tour by a Chinese artist, breaking the previous record of 100, which was also set by Cheung previously. In that same year, he also released a Mandopop album, , in which he was the sole executive producer of the album for the first time after Michael Au suddenly left to further his career in Beijing.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 2009, Cheung recorded "Private Corner", his first jazz album for which he coined the phrase "Canto-jazz". The album was produced by Andrew Tuason. "Everyday Is Christmas", "Which Way, Robert Frost?", "Let It Go", "Lucky in Love" and "Double Trouble" were co-written by Roxanne Seeman in collaboration with Tuason, tailor-made for Cheung. "Lucky in Love" is the end-credit song of "Crossing Hennessy", Hong Kong movie starring Jacky Cheung and Tang Wei, produced by Bill Kong. Nokia's music download service website (Ovi.com) announced that "Everyday Is Christmas" was the 10th most downloaded Christmas song in the world in 2010, joining classic hits such as Wham's "Last Christmas" and Mariah Carey's "All I Want for Christmas is You". Cheung is the only Chinese language singer to make it into the Top Ten.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 2010, Cheung started his ""Jacky Cheung 1/2 Century World Tour"". This tour started on 30 December 2010 at Shanghai, and ended in Hong Kong on 30 May 2012. For 1 year and 5 months, his tour included 5 countries 77 cities, overall 146 shows, more than 2,800,000 audiences. 146 became the highest number of shows in a one tour by Chinese artist. Previous record of 105 was also made by Jacky Cheung on his 2007–2008 World Tour. Both 2007 and 2010 World tour was led by Andrew Tuason as Cheung's Musical Director. At the beginning of that year, he also attempted new musical styles. His new album, "Private Corner", became his first ever Jazz album in Cantopop history, it also featured other non-mainstream Cantopop styles such as strings quartet, Waltz and Hymn. The special edition also featured a special glass-CD, also a first in Chinese pop history. "Double Trouble" from "Private Corner" was a featured produced number in the "Jacky Cheung 1/2 Century World Tour".


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In ""Jacky Cheung 1/2 Century World Tour"", he set a Guinness World record for the largest combined audience for a live act in 12 months, with 2,048,553 audience members. During the first 12-month of the tour, was ran from 30 December 2010 to 29 December 2011, with 105 live concerts in 61 cities across China, USA, Malaysia, Singapore and Australia.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: Cheung won the RTHK " Honor of Golden song 35th Anniversary Award" in the 2012 RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards, as he has the greatest number of RTHK Golden Songs since the award has been started.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 2018, he earned a new nickname of "Fugitive Bait" or "Fugitives' Krytonite" in China as his concerts attracted wanted criminals in China to purchase tickets to watch his concerts in China. He helped to bring 4 wanted criminals to be captured between April to June 2018 during Cheung's Chinese leg of the world tour. In June, two ticket scalpers were also captured. This was also part of his 233-show, ""Jacky Cheung A Classic Tour"" world tour, which eclipses the previous tour record. The entire tour, which lasted for 27 months with performances in 97 cities, ended on 29 January 2019 after a series of 15 concerts in Hong Kong.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: Cheung not only performs solo but often performs duets with female singers. Cheung recorded a duet with Filipino singer and Asia's Songbird Regine Velasquez for the song "In Love with You"; the song was included in her multi-platinum album "Listen Without Prejudice". In 2008, Cheung and A-Mei, the popular Taiwanese singer, performed "Zhu Fu" ("Blessing") as a duet in a benefit concert for victims of the 2008 Sichuan earthquake. Other duet partners include:


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 1997, his work on the groundbreaking Cantonese Broadway-style musical "Snow.Wolf.Lake" was enthusiastically received by both audiences and critics. Cheung not only played the male lead, he was also the artistic director for this production. The first female leads were played by Sandy Lam in Hong Kong and Nadia Chan in Singapore. Kit Chan played the second female lead. They achieved 42 consecutive full-house performances at the gigantic Hung Hom Hong Kong Coliseum which remains the record today. In November 2004, Cheung and his concert manager, Florence Chan Suk-fan, worked on a revised Mandarin version of "Snow.Wolf.Lake" so as to bring it to a wider audience. The female leads this time were Evonne Hsu and Nadia Chan respectively. The market budget alone exceeded HK$15 million. The estimated budget for this revised production was HK$100 million and the show premiered on 24 December 2004 in Beijing.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: While Cheung is better known for his singing, he has also acted in many films. He received the Best Supporting Actor award in the 8th Hong Kong Film Awards for his work in "As Tears Go By" (1988) as well as the Best Supporting Actor Golden Horse Award for his work in "The Swordsman" (1990). That same year he also collaborated with John Woo and Tony Leung in the film "Bullet in the Head". He also received the Best Actor Award at the International Film Festival of India for his work in "July Rhapsody" (2002). His song "Perhaps Love", which serves as the theme song for the 2005 award-winning film of the same name, also won the "Best Song Award" at the 2005 Hong Kong Film Award and the CASH Best Song Award at the 2006 CASH Gold Sail Music Awards.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 2002, he appeared in Taiwanese mini-series "Love Scar" (2002) with F4 member Jerry Yan and Karen Mok, where he played Jerry Yan's older brother.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In the 2004 drama film "Jiang Hu" directed by Wong Ching-po, Cheung plays Lefty, the best friend and right-hand man of crime boss Hung Yan Chau (Andy Lau). The film includes several other actors from "Infernal Affairs". As of 2021, he is one of a handful of Chinese singer-actors who have never starred in a television drama.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: Cheung was named the spokesperson for Hong Kong Disneyland in 2004. He took part in a number of large-scale marketing events organised by The Walt Disney Company and Walt Disney Parks and Resorts, beginning with the hosting of a TV program, "Magical World of Disneyland". He recorded a multi-lingual song for Hong Kong Disneyland, entitled "One." The music video for "One" was filmed at Hong Kong Disneyland. He also recorded for "".


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In December 2006, Cheung performed live the theme song "Together Now" at the Opening Ceremony of the 15th Asian Games in Doha, Qatar. He was introduced as "the most popular Asian performer in the world".


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In 2010, Cheung and Jane Zhang the Mandarin version of the Coca-Cola Celebration Mix of K'naan's "Wavin' Flag", which was the brand's promotional anthem for the 2010 FIFA World Cup.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: On 15 February 1996 in London, Cheung married Hong Kong actress May Lo Mei-mei. They met during the filming of Devoted to You in 1986. The couple have two daughters, Zoe, b. 2000, and Zia, b. 2005. He is a Buddhist and a vegetarian.


title: Jacky Cheung

text: In March 2009 he became the first Cantopop/Mandopop artist to contribute items to the Hard Rock franchise memorabilia collection. Items are to be exhibited at the Hard Rock hotel in Macau. A joint donation is also made to donate HK$600,000 to the Children's Cancer Foundation and ORBIS Macau. In September 2009, Cheung, was one of the super ambassadors of End Child Sexual Abuse Foundation (ECSAF) founded by Josephine Siao; he attended the charity fundraising event for ECSAF's 10th anniversary in Hong Kong.


title: Brooke Lynn Hytes

text: Brooke Lynn Hytes is the stage name of Brock Edward Hayhoe (born March 10, 1986), a Canadian drag queen, ballet dancer, performer, and television personality. After working as a dancer with Cape Town City Ballet and Les Ballets Trockadero de Monte Carlo, Hytes achieved international recognition for competing on the eleventh season of "RuPaul's Drag Race"; Hytes placed second, only to winner Yvie Oddly. Hytes is the first Canadian to compete in the series. Hytes is also a main judge on the spin-off series "Canada's Drag Race", becoming the first "Drag Race" contestant to become a full-time judge in the franchise.


title: Brooke Lynn Hytes

text: Hayhoe was born on March 10, 1986, in Toronto. He attended high school at Etobicoke School of the Arts. When he was 15, he started to take ballet at the National Ballet School of Canada for five years. He came out as gay when he was 18. He is of Swedish and French descent.


title: Brooke Lynn Hytes

text: At 20, Hytes moved to South Africa and performed at the Cape Town City Ballet. She later moved to New York City and joined Les Ballets Trockadero de Monte Carlo. In 2014, Hytes won the Miss Continental pageant.


title: Brooke Lynn Hytes

text: Hytes was announced to be one of fifteen contestants competing on season eleven of "RuPaul's Drag Race" on January 24, 2019. She won the main challenges in episode one, five and eleven, placing in the top of a challenge a record-breaking nine times throughout the season. This is the most top 3 positions achieved by any contestant in a single season in "RuPaul's Drag Race" history. She was in a "double-shantay" alongside Yvie Oddly in the Snatch Game episode after bombing her Celine Dion impersonation; the duo's lip sync to Demi Lovato's "Sorry Not Sorry" was lauded over by critics, and declared by many to be one of the best lip syncs in the history of the series.


title: Brooke Lynn Hytes

text: Throughout the season, Hytes developed an on-show romance with Vanessa Vanjie Mateo, dubbed "Branjie". Hytes and Mateo were in the bottom two of episode twelve, with Hytes emerging victorious in a lip sync battle to Aretha Franklin's "A Deeper Love", making Mateo the last queen to be eliminated prior to the finale. Hytes finished as a runner-up on the eleventh season of "Rupaul's Drag Race", ultimately losing to Yvie Oddly in the final lip sync for the crown.


title: Brooke Lynn Hytes

text: In June 2019, Hytes was one of 37 queens to be featured on the cover of "New York" magazine. On September 26, she was announced as a full-time judge for "Canada's Drag Race", the Canadian spin-off of "RuPaul's Drag Race". She is the first contestant from any series in the "Drag Race" franchise to become a full-time judge. On November 11, she won a People's Choice Award for "Most Hypeworthy Canadian".


title: Brooke Lynn Hytes

text: On March 25, 2021, Hytes released a single with Priyanka, titled "Queen of the North". In May 2021, Hytes, McKenzie, and Bowyer-Chapman won the Canadian Screen Award for Best Host or Presenter in a Factual or Reality/Competition Series at the 9th Canadian Screen Awards. The same month, she launched a podcast with Priyanka, "Famous This Week", and was announced as the host of "1 Queen 5 Queers", a reboot of "1 Girl 5 Gays", for Crave.


title: Brooke Lynn Hytes

text: Hytes was living in Nashville, Tennessee before being accepted on "Drag Race". She since moved to Los Angeles.


title: Brendan Fehr

text: Brendan Jacob Joel Fehr (born October 29, 1977) is a Canadian film and television actor, perhaps best known for portraying Michael Guerin in the WB television series "Roswell", and for portraying lab tech in "". In 2008, Fehr won a Gemini Award for "Hottest Canadian Male TV Star". Fehr also played Jared Booth in the Fox television series "Bones". He has had numerous film roles.


title: Brendan Fehr

text: Fehr was born October 29, 1977, in New Westminster, British Columbia, to a mother who worked as a correctional case manager and a father who was a yacht manufacturer. He moved to Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1990, and was raised as a strict Russian Mennonite. He graduated in 1995 from Mennonite Brethren Collegiate Institute.


title: Brendan Fehr

text: Fehr has modeled for Levi's, Calvin Klein, Emporio Armani, and DKNY Jeans, and his pictures appeared in magazines. In 1996, he was cast in an early internet soap opera, "CR6". Fehr broke into television in 1997 when he was cast in "Breaker High". He enjoyed a regular role on the Sci-Fi TV series "Roswell" from 1999 to 2002. In 2001, Fehr starred in the U2 video "Stuck in a Moment You Can't Get Out Of". He plays a rookie football player named Paul Hewson (Bono's real name), who blows what would have been the game winning kick in an American football game as the ball hit the goal post. Fehr also appeared in Vanessa Carlton's video "Pretty Baby".


title: Brendan Fehr

text: In 2008, Fehr starred as Jake Stanton in the ABC mini-series "Samurai Girl", and had a recurring role as the character Jared Booth on "Bones". In 2009 he had a recurring role as Cole, a criminalist in CSI: Miami TV series. In 2011, Fehr played a businessman in "A Christmas Kiss" and the navigator of a U.S. warship in the movie "X-Men First Class". He also guest-starred in two episodes of "Nikita (TV series)".


title: Brendan Fehr

text: In 2014, Fehr began playing the role of Dr. Drew Alister, an Army vet and surgeon at a San Antonio hospital, in the NBC drama "The Night Shift". The show aired for four seasons, ending in 2017.


title: Brendan Fehr

text: Fehr was in a relationship with, and was engaged briefly to, his "Roswell" costar and onscreen love interest Majandra Delfino between 2001 and 2003. He currently lives in Los Angeles, California and Albuquerque, New Mexico with his wife, Jennifer Rowley, whom he married in July 2006. The couple have three daughters: James Olivia (b. 2008), Ellison Jane (b. 2011) and Ondine Carda Kitty (b. 2013).


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Vapour-compression refrigeration or vapor-compression refrigeration system (VCRS), in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air conditioning of buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries, petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration systems. Cascade refrigeration systems may also be implemented using two compressors.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Refrigeration may be defined as lowering the temperature of an enclosed space by removing heat from that space and transferring it elsewhere. A device that performs this function may also be called an air conditioner, refrigerator, air source heat pump, geothermal heat pump, or chiller (heat pump).


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Vapor-compression uses a circulating liquid refrigerant as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere. Figure 1 depicts a typical, single-stage vapor-compression system. All such systems have four components: a compressor, a condenser, a metering device or thermal expansion valve (also called a throttle valve), and an evaporator. Circulating refrigerant enters the compressor in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated vapor and is compressed to a higher pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed vapor is then in the thermodynamic state known as a superheated vapor and it is at a temperature and pressure at which it can be condensed with either cooling water or cooling air flowing across the coil or tubes.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The superheated vapor then passes through the condenser. This is where heat is transferred from the circulating refrigerant to an external medium, allowing the gaseous refrigerant to cool and condense into a liquid. The rejected heat is carried away by either the water or the air, depending on the type of condenser.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The condensed liquid refrigerant, in the thermodynamic state known as a saturated liquid, is next routed through an expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure reduction results in the adiabatic flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant. The auto-refrigeration effect of the adiabatic flash evaporation lowers the temperature of the liquid and vapor refrigerant mixture to where it is colder than the temperature of the enclosed space to be refrigerated.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The cold refrigerant liquid and vapor mixture is then routed through the coil or tubes in the evaporator. Air in the enclosed space circulates across the coil or tubes due to either thermal convection or a fan. Since the air is warmer than the cold liquid refrigerant, heat is transferred which cools the air and causes evaporation of the liquid, returning it to a gaseous state whilst absorbing heat. While liquid remains in the refrigerant flow, its temperature will not rise above the boiling point of the refrigerant, which depends on the pressure in the evaporator. Most systems are designed to evaporate all of the refrigerant to ensure that no liquid is returned to the compressor.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor from the evaporator is again a saturated vapor and is routed back into the compressor. Over time, the evaporator may collect ice or water from ambient humidity. The ice is melted through defrosting. The water from the melted ice or the evaporator then drips into a drip pan, and the water is carried away by gravity or a condensate pump.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The selection of working fluid has a significant impact on the performance of the refrigeration cycles and as such it plays a key role when it comes to designing or simply choosing an ideal machine for a certain task. One of the most widespread refrigerants is "Freon". Freon is a trade name for a family of haloalkane refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and other companies. These refrigerants were commonly used due to their superior stability and safety properties: they were not flammable at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, nor obviously toxic as were the fluids they replaced, such as sulfur dioxide. Haloalkanes are also an order(s) of magnitude more expensive than petroleum-derived flammable alkanes of similar or better cooling performance.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Unfortunately, chlorine- and fluorine-bearing refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they escape. In the stratosphere, substances like CFCs and HCFCs break up due to UV radiation, releasing their chlorine free-radicals. These chlorine free-radicals act as catalysts in the breakdown of ozone through chain reactions. One CFC molecule can cause thousands of ozone molecules to break down. This causes severe damage to the ozone layer that shields the Earth's surface from the Sun's strong UV radiation and has been shown to lead to increased rates of skin cancer. The chlorine will remain active as a catalyst until and unless it binds with another particle, forming a stable molecule. CFC refrigerants in common but receding usage include R-11 and R-12.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Newer refrigerants with reduced ozone depletion effect such as HCFCs (R-22, used in most homes today) and HFCs (R-134a, used in most cars) have replaced most CFC use. HCFCs in turn are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol and replaced by hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), that do not contain chlorine atoms. Small example of common HFCs in current use: R-410A (which is itself a blend of other HFCs: R-32 and R-125) ; designed to be a drop-in replacement for R-22 in existing installations and R-404A (blend of HFCs: R-125, R-134a, and R-143a, and was developed as a substitute refrigerant for R-502 and R-22). However, CFCs, HCFCs, and HFCs all have very large global warming potential (GWP).


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: More benign refrigerants are currently the subject of research, such as supercritical carbon dioxide, known as R-744. These have similar efficiencies compared to existing CFC- and HFC-based compounds, and have many orders of magnitude lower global warming potential. General industry and governing body push are toward more GWP-friendly refrigerants. In industrial settings ammonia, as well gasses like ethylene, propane, iso-butane and other hydrocarbons are commonly used (and have own R-x customary numbers), depending on required temperatures and pressures. Many of these gases are unfortunately flammable, explosive, or toxic; making their use restricted (i.e. well-controlled environment by qualified personnel, or a very small amount of refrigerant used). HFOs which can be considered to be HFC with some carbon-carbon bonds being double bounds, do show promise of lowering GWP very low to be of no further concern. In the meantime, various blends of existing refrigerants are used to achieve the required properties and efficiency, at a reasonable cost and lower GWP.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The thermodynamics of the vapor compression cycle can be analyzed on a temperature versus entropy diagram as depicted in Figure 2. At point 1 in the diagram, the circulating refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapor. From point 1 to point 2, the vapor is isentropically compressed (compressed at constant entropy) and exits the compressor as a superheated vapor. Superheat is the amount of heat added above the boiling point.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: From point 2 to point 3, the vapor travels through part of the condenser which removes the superheat by cooling the vapor. Between point 3 and point 4, the vapor travels through the remainder of the condenser and is condensed into a saturated liquid. The condensation process occurs at essentially constant pressure.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Between points 4 and 5, the saturated liquid refrigerant passes through the expansion valve and undergoes an abrupt decrease of pressure. That process results in the adiabatic flash evaporation and auto-refrigeration of a portion of the liquid (typically, less than half of the liquid flashes). The adiabatic flash evaporation process is isenthalpic (occurs at constant enthalpy).


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Between points 5 and 1, the cold and partially vaporized refrigerant travels through the coil or tubes in the evaporator where it is totally vaporized by the warm air (from the space being refrigerated) that a fan circulates across the coil or tubes in the


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: evaporator. The evaporator operates at essentially constant pressure and boils off all available liquid there after adding 4–8 kelvins of superheat to the refrigerant in order to make sure the liquid has evaporated completely. This is a safeguard for the compressor, as it cannot pump liquid.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The resulting refrigerant vapor returns to the compressor inlet at point 1 to complete the thermodynamic cycle.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The above discussion is based on the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle which does not take into account real world items like frictional pressure drop in the system, slight internal irreversibility during the compression of the refrigerant vapor, or non-ideal gas behavior (if any).


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The most common compressors used in refrigeration are reciprocating and scroll compressors, but large chillers or industrial cycles may use rotary screw or centrifugal compressors. Each application prefers one or another due to size, noise, efficiency, and pressure issues. Compressors are often described as being either open, hermetic, or semi-hermetic, to describe how the compressor and/or motor is situated in relation to the refrigerant being compressed. Variations of motor/compressor types can lead to the following configurations:


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Typically in hermetic, and most semi-hermetic compressors (sometimes known as accessible hermetic compressors), the compressor and motor driving the compressor are integrated, and operate within the refrigerant system. The motor is hermetic and is designed to operate, and be cooled by, the refrigerant being compressed. The obvious disadvantage of hermetic motor compressors is that the motor drive cannot be maintained in situ, and the entire compressor must be removed if a motor fails. A further disadvantage is that burnt out windings can contaminate whole refrigeration systems requiring the system to be entirely pumped down, and the refrigerant replaced.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: An open compressor has a motor drive which is outside of the refrigeration system, and provides drive to the compressor by means of an input shaft with suitable gland seals. Open compressor motors are typically air-cooled and can be fairly easily exchanged or repaired without degassing of the refrigeration system. The disadvantage of this type of compressor is a failure of the shaft seals, leading to loss of refrigerant.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Open motor compressors are generally easier to cool (using ambient air) and therefore tend to be simpler in design and more reliable, especially in high pressure applications where compressed gas temperatures can be very high. However the use of liquid injection for additional cooling can generally overcome this issue in most hermetic motor compressors.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Rotary screw compressors are also positive displacement compressors. Two meshing screw-rotors rotate in opposite directions, trapping refrigerant vapor, and reducing the volume of the refrigerant along the rotors to the discharge point.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Small units are not practical due to back-leakage but large units have very high efficiency and flow capacity.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Centrifugal compressors are dynamic compressors. These compressors raise the pressure of the refrigerant by imparting velocity or dynamic energy, using a rotating impeller, and converting it to pressure energy.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Chillers with centrifugal compressors have a 'Centrifugal Compressor Map' that shows the "surge line" and the "choke line." For the same capacity ratings, across a wider span of operating conditions, chillers with the larger diameter lower-speed compressor have a wider 'Centrifugal Compressor Map' and experience surge conditions less than those with the smaller diameter, less expensive, higher-speed compressors. The smaller diameter, higher-speed compressors have a flatter curve.,


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: As the refrigerant flow rate decreases, some compressors change the gap between the impeller and the volute to maintain the correct velocity to avoid surge conditions.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Scroll compressors are also positive displacement compressors. The refrigerant is compressed when one spiral orbits around a second stationary spiral, creating smaller and smaller pockets and higher pressures. By the time the refrigerant is discharged, it is fully pressurized.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: In order to lubricate the moving parts of the compressor, oil is added to the refrigerant during installation or commissioning. The type of oil may be mineral or synthetic to suit the compressor type, and also chosen so as not to react with the refrigerant type and other components in the system. In small refrigeration systems the oil is allowed to circulate throughout the whole circuit, but care must be taken to design the pipework and components such that oil can drain back under gravity to the compressor. In larger more distributed systems, especially in retail refrigeration, the oil is normally captured at an oil separator immediately after the compressor, and is in turn re-delivered, by an oil level management system, back to the compressor(s). Oil separators are not 100% efficient so system pipework must still be designed so that oil can drain back by gravity to the oil separator or compressor.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Some newer compressor technologies use magnetic bearings or air bearings and require no lubrication, for example the Danfoss Turbocor range of centrifugal compressors. Avoiding the need for oil lubrication and the design requirements and ancillaries associated with it, simplifies the design of the refrigerant system, increases the heat transfer coefficient in evaporators and condensers, eliminates the risk of refrigerant being contaminated with oil, and reduces maintenance requirements.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: In simple commercial refrigeration systems the compressor is normally controlled by a simple pressure switch, with the expansion performed by a capillary tube or thermal expansion valve. In more complex systems, including multiple compressor installations, the use of electronic controls is typical, with adjustable set points to control the pressure at which compressors cut in and cut out, and temperature control by the use of electronic expansion valves.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: In addition to the operational controls, separate high-pressure and low-pressure switches are normally utilised to provide secondary protection to the compressors and other components of the system from operating outside of safe parameters.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: In more advanced electronic control systems the use of floating head pressure, and proactive suction pressure, control routines allow the compressor operation to be adjusted to accurately meet differing cooling demands while reducing energy consumption.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The schematic diagram of a single-stage refrigeration system shown in Figure 1 does not include other equipment items that would be provided in a large commercial or industrial vapor compression refrigeration system, such as:


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: In most of the world, the cooling capacity of refrigeration systems is measured in watts. Common residential air conditioning units range in capacity from 3.5 to 18 kilowatt. In a few countries it is measured in "tons of refrigeration", with common residential air conditioning units from about 1 to 5 tons of refrigeration.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: Many systems still use HCFC refrigerants, which contribute to depletion of the Earth's ozone layer. In countries adhering to the Montreal Protocol, HCFCs are due to be phased out and are largely being replaced by ozone-friendly HFCs. However, systems using HFC refrigerants tend to be slightly less efficient than systems using HCFCs. HFCs also have an extremely large global warming potential, because they remain in the atmosphere for many years and trap heat more effectively than carbon dioxide.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: With the ultimate phasing out of HCFCs already a certainty, alternative non-haloalkane refrigerants are gaining popularity. In particular, once-abandoned refrigerants such as hydrocarbons (butane for example) and CO are coming back into more extensive use. For example, Coca-Cola's vending machines at the 2006 FIFA World Cup in Germany used refrigeration utilizing CO. Ammonia (NH) is one of the oldest refrigerants, with excellent performance and essentially no pollution problems. However, ammonia has two disadvantages: it is toxic and it is incompatible with copper tubing.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: In 1805, the American inventor Oliver Evans described a closed vapor-compression refrigeration cycle for the production of ice by ether under vacuum. Heat would be removed from the environment by recycling vaporized refrigerant, where it would move through a compressor and condenser, and would eventually revert to a liquid form in order to repeat the refrigeration process over again. However, no such refrigeration unit was built by Evans.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: In 1834, an American expatriate to Great Britain, Jacob Perkins, built the first working vapor-compression refrigeration system in the world. It was a closed-cycle that could operate continuously, as he described in his patent:


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: A similar attempt was made in 1842, by American physician, John Gorrie, who built a working prototype, but it was a commercial failure. American engineer Alexander Twining took out a British patent in 1850 for a vapor compression system that used ether.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The first practical vapor compression refrigeration system was built by James Harrison, a British journalist who had emigrated to Australia. His 1856 patent was for a vapor compression system using ether, alcohol or ammonia. He built a mechanical ice-making machine in 1851 on the banks of the Barwon River at Rocky Point in Geelong, Victoria, and his first commercial ice-making machine followed in 1854. Harrison also introduced commercial vapor-compression refrigeration to breweries and meat packing houses and, by 1861, a dozen of his systems were in operation in Australia and England.


title: Vapor-compression refrigeration

text: The first gas absorption refrigeration system using gaseous ammonia dissolved in water (referred to as "aqua ammonia") was developed by Ferdinand Carré of France in 1859 and patented in 1860. Carl von Linde, an engineering professor at the Technological University Munich in Germany, patented an improved method of liquefying gases in 1876. His new process made possible using gases such as ammonia, sulfur dioxide , and methyl chloride (CHCl) as refrigerants and they were widely used for that purpose until the late 1920s.


title: Cyrina Fiallo

text: Cyrina Fiallo (born December 29, 1991) is an American actress. She is perhaps best known for her recurring role as Vonnie on the Disney Channel sitcom "Good Luck Charlie". She also has guest starred on "Everybody Hates Chris", "Community", "Gigantic", "Glee", "Switched at Birth", "Girl Meets World" and "Supernatural". She also starred in the internet television series "My Alibi" and "The Subpranos", the latter of which she co-wrote, co-directed and co-produced with fellow actress Chrissie Fit.


title: Cyrina Fiallo

text: Born in Miami, Florida, she is of Cuban and Italian descent. She is also a member of the cover group The Girls, alongside fellow actresses Alison Brie and Julianna Guill.


title: Cyrina Fiallo

text: She has appeared in numerous TV commercials for various retailers, such as Allstate, Booking.com, Capital One, Pepsi, Samsung, and Subaru.


title: Edison Chen

text: Edison Chen Koon-hei (, born Chen Hing-wah on 7 October 1980) is a Canadian-born Hong Kong actor, singer, rapper, fashion designer and entrepreneur. Chen is the co-founder of CLOT, a Hong Kong-based streetwear and fashion label. Debuting in 1999, he released multiple Cantopop and Mandopop albums under the record company Emperor Entertainment Group, before releasing "Please Steal This Album" in 2004, the first of many Chinese-language hip-hop albums.


title: Edison Chen

text: On 21 February 2008, he publicly announced that he intended to step away "indefinitely" from the Hong Kong entertainment industry due to a sex photo scandal, in which numerous explicit photographs of Chen and several Hong Kong actresses were published online. He returned in 2010 but other than a brief cameo in the 2014 film "Golden Chickensss", he did not make a complete comeback to the Hong Kong film industry until 2016.


title: Edison Chen

text: Along with his two older sisters, Chen was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada and is of Chinese and one-eighth Portuguese descent. Chen's father is businessman Edward Chen (陳澤民), a Hong Kong entertainment industry mogul famously known as "Ninth Brother" (九哥). He is of Shanghai ancestry on his father's side.


title: Edison Chen

text: He was a student at R.C. Palmer Secondary School in Richmond, British Columbia and also attended Hong Kong International School. He was in the same tenth grade class as fellow actor Nicholas Tse.


title: Edison Chen

text: Chen's native language is English. He is also fluent in Cantonese and Mandarin, which he primarily records music in. He speaks conversational Japanese as a result of his early training to be a Hong Kong idol, and he knows some basic Khmer since he learnt it when portraying a Cambodian assassin in the 2006 Hong Kong movie "Dog Bite Dog."


title: Edison Chen

text: In 1999, a talent scout approached Chen while he was clubbing with friends in Hong Kong and asked him to film a commercial. He was aged 19 when he was featured in Leon Lai's Citibank commercial. In the same year, he also starred alongside Cecilia Cheung in a commemorative subway commercial.


title: Edison Chen

text: From then on, his career began with the Japanese film "". He made his Hong Kong film debut in the film "Gen-Y Cops" in 2000. He starred in many popular films including "Infernal Affairs", "Infernal Affairs II", "Initial D", and "Dog Bite Dog". Determined to expand his horizons to countries around the world, he also starred in the Japanese drama "Under the Same Moon". In 2006, he made his American debut as a Hong Kong journalist in "The Grudge 2". He was offered a small role in "" but he declined. His final film in Hong Kong as of 2013 is "The Sniper", which was filmed before his photo scandal.


title: Edison Chen

text: He also filmed a cameo as a thug in "The Dark Knight" but because of the scandal, his role was reduced and was seen very briefly as a receptionist instead. Some reports states that he was originally cast to play Lau, a corrupted Chinese accountant, which was played by Chin Han. He made his comeback in an Asian-American film called "Almost Perfect". On 28 October, during a fashion event in Beijing, Edison Chen announced that he would be starring in Initial D 2. The filming of the movie was scheduled to begin in 2011 but it has been delayed indefinitely. In 2014, he made an brief comeback to the Hong Kong film industry in "Golden Chickensss". After eight years of doing short roles, he is officially making a comeback to the entertainment business after he was spotted filming for Lou Ye's new project in Guangzhou in April 2016.


title: Edison Chen

text: In 2000, at the age of 20, Chen landed a record deal with Emperor Entertainment Group. It took him a number of successful album releases before he was given the opportunity to produce a hip hop album. His first hip-hop release was in February 2004, called "Please Steal This Album" backed by MC Yan and Singaporean musician Hanjin Chen. Several singles from the album topped local pop charts. Chen mentioned the difficulty of fitting in Hong Kong, where it is dominated by Cantopop, but said that hip hop has a great potential.


title: Edison Chen

text: He is featured on M-Flo's album, "Cosmicolor", on the track ""LOVE ME, HATE THE GAME"" with Chen, Thaitanium and Ryohei Yamamoto.


title: Edison Chen

text: After Chen's comeback in late 2009 he began work on his next album titled "Confusion". The record includes a feature by well-known Taiwanese rapper MC HotDog, as well as famous singers Sammi Cheng and Jay Chou.


title: Edison Chen

text: Chen released two Cantonese hip-hop albums in collaboration with Hong Kong rappers MC Yan and Chef entitled "三角度 (3 Corners)" and "三角度(二) (3 Corners II)" in 2012 and 2015 respectively.


title: Edison Chen

text: Edison's foray into the fashion industry accompanied his rising success as a young pop icon. Edison, along with partners Kevin Poon and Billy Ip, became the founders of CLOT Inc., a clothing company described as a "lifestyle company" that is geared toward youth culture, and bringing street fashion to China. The company has collaborated with many big clothing companies, such as Adidas, Nike, A Bathing Ape, Subcrew and Disney. CLOT operates multiple stores worldwide, including in Hong Kong, Los Angeles, mainland China and Taiwan. He is also part founder of clothing vendor JUICE, currently operating in Hong Kong, Shanghai a


title: Edison Chen

text: In February 2007, he invested $10 million HKD to open his own multi-media company, Clot Media Division, which plans to produce movies, commercials and music albums. In June 2007, he released a Mandarin album, "Allow Me to Re-Introduce Myself" (讓我再次介紹我自己), with tracks produced by legendary hip-hop artist Kanye West, as well as producers Just Blaze and Clinton Sparks.


title: Edison Chen

text: As early as 2001 Chen had appeared in Vancouver charity shows. He has also been a supporter for the gay and lesbian community in Hong Kong, including being voted as an icon in 2001.


title: Edison Chen

text: In 2007 he was invited by Be@rbrick toys for a charity event in Harbour City, Hong Kong. The charity proceeds were donated to "Hong Kong Blood Cancer Foundation".


title: Edison Chen

text: He provided English and Cantonese voice work as a Sun On Yee triad member (inspired by the real life triad Sun Yee On) named Jackie Ma, a major character in the 2012 open world action-adventure video game "Sleeping Dogs" originally released on PC, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. "Sleeping Dogs" is set in the city of Hong Kong, and also features voice work from other established actors including Will Yun Lee, Emma Stone and Lucy Liu.


title: Edison Chen

text: In March 2004, two male teenagers assaulted Chen in the Central District of Hong Kong. The two teenagers mocked Chen with dance moves outside a record store. Immediately following the dance taunt, both of the teenagers punched Chen. Upon doing so the two teenagers fled the scene, and Chen gave chase. Chen eventually caught up to the two individuals as they were trying to board a bus. They were turned over to Hong Kong Police. As a result of the incident, Chen reported that he sprained his ankle and that his cheekbone and ear were also injured. Chen declined to press charges and the two individuals were released.


title: Edison Chen

text: Chen drove to his home after midnight 9 March 2007. The gate was blocked by a Toyota Crown Comfort taxi that had just dropped off its passengers. The taxi driver then signaled Chen to move away so he could pull out, clearing the way for Chen to enter. Chen's security guard told the taxi driver to pull over so that Chen could pass. The taxi driver insulted the security guard. Chen proceeded to have an argument with the taxi driver. Despite the presence of the security guard and other witnesses, he got out of his car and kicked the taxi several times, denting it and breaking all its windows. He was subsequently charged by the police. On the basis of these charges he was convicted and placed on a one-year good behavior bond. He was also fined; the taxi company was granted HK$4,700 in compensation for the damage inflicted to the car.


title: Edison Chen

text: In January 2008, Chen was involved in a widely publicised sex scandal when sexually explicit nude photographs of himself taken four years earlier became widely circulated on the Internet. Chen was never accused of uploading the photos himself and a computer technician was later sentenced for accessing Chen's computer during a repair. Celebrities implicated in the scandal included 8 victims: Cecilia Cheung, Gillian Chung, Bobo Chan, Candice Chan (陈思慧), Vincy Yeung (杨永晴), Mandy Chen (陈育嬬) and Rachel Ngan (颜颖思). Nude photos of Edison's ex-girlfriend, Vincy Yeung, were also made public and the future of their relationship was the subject of intense media gossip.


title: Edison Chen

text: Hong Kong police have stated that they confiscated a collection of sex-related photos that involve six other identifiable females and other unidentifiable males.


title: Edison Chen

text: Initially the authenticity of the photos was denied, and digital manipulation was used as the primary explanation for the pictures. However, Hong Kong police and Photoshop experts argued that the photos were in fact real and not digitally altered. This brought about a serious reaction towards all parties involved in the scandal. As a result, Chen made a public apology in English to the Hong Kong people and the women involved and indirectly admitted his role and expressed remorse and subsequently announced his indefinite departure from the Hong Kong entertainment industry at a press conference.


title: Edison Chen

text: Due to the scandal, the Google search engine rankings for 2008 resulted in Chen's Chinese name being the number 1 search term in China, and number 3 in Taiwan. Chen was runner-up to US president-elect Barack Obama in the Hong Kong Person of 2008 poll by government-run RTHK radio, with just under 30 percent of votes in the Person of the Year. On 1 June 2009, Chen spoke openly about the sex photo scandal for the first time since the scandal broke in an interview with TalkAsia on CNN. In the interview he reveals his side of the scandal and how he endured criticisms from the public, the media, and from the individuals affected by the case.


title: Edison Chen

text: Three years later, Chen was involved in another photo scandal, this time with a 16-year-old Hong Kong model Cammi Tse. Their relationship was revealed after photos of them together hugging and kissing each other were leaked online and later, the 16-year-old model stated that her phone was lost. It was later revealed that Chen had sent text messages to Tse, asking her to pose for him in swimsuits and school uniforms. Tse confirmed that there were no nude photos. Tse reported that she lost her virginity to Chen and adding on that he filmed a two-minute video of her in the bedroom and he also bought sexy lingerie for her.


title: Edison Chen

text: In 2015, Chen went into a relationship with Chinese model and actress Qin Shupei. In August 2017, Chen confirmed the birth of his daughter, Alaia.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: The co-princes of Andorra are jointly the heads of state () of the Principality of Andorra, a landlocked microstate lying in the Pyrenees between France and Spain. Founded in 1278 by means of a treaty between the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix, this unique diarchical arrangement has persisted through medieval times to the 21st century. Currently, the Bishop of Urgell (Joan Enric Vives Sicília) and the president of France (Emmanuel Macron) serve as Andorra's co-princes, following the transfer of the count of Foix's claims to the Crown of France and, thence, to the president of France. Each co-prince appoints a personal representative, the episcopal co-prince by Josep Maria Mauri and the French co-prince currently being represented by Patrick Strzoda.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: Tradition holds that Charlemagne granted a charter to the Andorran people in return for their fighting against the Moors. The feudal overlord of this territory was at first the Count of Urgell. In 988, however, the count, Borrell II, gave Andorra to the Diocese of Urgell in exchange for land in Cerdanya. The Bishop of Urgell, based in Seu d'Urgell, has ruled Andorra ever since.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: Before 1095, Andorra did not have any type of military protection, and since the Bishop of Urgell knew that the Count of Urgell wanted to reclaim the Andorran valleys, he asked for help from the lord of Caboet. In 1095, the lord and the bishop signed a declaration of their co-sovereignty over Andorra. Arnalda, daughter of Arnau of Caboet, married the viscount of Castellbò, and both became viscounts of Castellbò and Cerdanya. Their daughter, Ermessenda, married Roger Bernat II, the French count of Foix. They became, respectively, count and countess of Foix, viscount and viscountess of Castellbò and Cerdanya, and also co-sovereigns of Andorra (together with the Bishop of Urgell).


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: In the 11th century, a dispute arose between the Bishop of Urgell and the Count of Foix. The conflict was mediated by Aragon in 1278, and led to the signing of the first paréage, which provided that Andorra's sovereignty be shared between the count and the bishop. This gave the principality its territory and political form, and marked the formal commencement of Andorra's unique monarchical arrangement.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: Through inheritance, the Foix title to Andorra passed to the kings of Navarre. After King Henry III of Navarre became King Henry IV of France, he issued an edict in 1607 establishing the king of France and the Bishop of Urgell as co-princes of Andorra. In 1812–13, the First French Empire annexed Catalonia and divided it into four départements, with Andorra forming part of the district of Puigcerdà (department of Sègre). Following the defeat of Napoleon I, a royal decree reversed this annexation, and Andorra reverted to its former independence and political state. The French head of state—whether king, emperor, or president—has continued to serve as a co-prince of Andorra ever since.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: On 12 July 1934, Andorra's monarchical system was challenged by an adventurer named Boris Skossyreff, who issued a proclamation in Urgell declaring himself "Boris I, King of Andorra". Though initially enjoying some support within Andorra's political establishment, he was ultimately arrested by Spanish authorities on 20 July 1934 after declaring war on the Bishop of Urgell (who had refused to relinquish his own claim to the principality). Skossyreff was expelled, and was never considered to have been the Andorran monarch in any legal sense.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: Before 1993, Andorra had no codified constitution, and the exact prerogatives of the co-princes were not specifically defined in law. In March 1993, a Constitution was approved by a vote of the Andorran people and signed into law by the two reigning co-princes at the time: Bishop Joan Martí Alanis and President François Mitterrand. It clarified the continuance of the unique Andorran diarchy, and also delineated the precise role and prerogatives of the two co-princes. Prior to adoption of the Constitution, Andorra paid in odd-numbered years a tribute of approximately $460 to the French ruler, while on even-numbered years, it paid a tribute of approximately $12 to the Spanish bishop, plus six hams, six cheeses, and six live chickens. This medieval custom was subsequently abandoned in 1993.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: In 2009, French president Nicolas Sarkozy threatened to abdicate as French co-prince if the principality did not change its banking laws to eliminate its longstanding status as a tax haven.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: The Constitution of Andorra carefully defines the exact role and prerogatives of the co-princes of Andorra today. The constitution establishes Andorra as a "parliamentary coprincipality", providing for the Bishop of Urgell and the president of France to serve together as joint heads of state. The constitution distinguishes between which powers they may exercise on their own (Article 46), and which require the countersignature of the head of the Andorran government, or the approval of the "Síndic General", the Andorran legislature (Article 45).


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: Each co-prince is granted an annual allowance by the General Council to dispose of as he or she sees fit. Each appoints a personal representative in Andorra, and in the case of incapacitation of one of them, the constitution provides for the other prince to govern in his or her absence, with the concurrence of the Andorran head of government or the General Council.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: Certain treaties require the participation of the co-princes (or their designated representatives) in their negotiation process as well as their final approval; these are detailed in Articles 66 and 67 of the constitution.


title: Co-Princes of Andorra

text: The co-princes jointly retain the right to propose amendments to the constitution; this same right rests with the General Council. They have no veto power over legislation passed by the General Council, though they do retain a veto over certain international treaties, as described above.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Khoobsurat () is a 2014 Indian Hindi-language romantic comedy-drama film. The film is directed by Shashanka Ghosh and produced by Rhea Kapoor, Anil Kapoor and Siddharth Roy Kapur. It stars Sonam Kapoor, Fawad Khan, Kirron Kher, Ratna Pathak and Aamir Raza Hussain. The film is loosely based on the 1980 film of the same name.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Mrinalini "Mili" Chakravarty is a physiotherapist who works for the Kolkata Knight Riders. Her loud Punjabi mother Manju hopes that she will find a suitable and charming man to marry. Her services are called upon by a royal family in Rajasthan where King Shekhar Singh Rathore is paralyzed from the waist down. She is told that 40 doctors have already left a demanding job.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Mili travels to the royal palace and meets the discipline-oriented queen, Nirmala Devi Rathore, who is not amused by Mili's enthusiasm and clumsiness. Mili finds that her casual way of living clashes with the strict discipline of the royal household. She meets the prince, Vikram Singh Rathore, whose distant personality makes him similar to his parents. Mili befriends Divya Rathore, the youngest child princess of the family, and encourages her passion for cinema against the family's wishes that she study business management.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Shekhar avoids the exercises Mili prescribes and she turns to Vikram for help. He gives Mili the same answer that Nirmala gave her - if she can't stand the heat, might as well get out of the kitchen. Mili becomes frustrated and tells them that they should be helping Shekhar, accusing them of being stubborn, rigid and self-centered.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Mili is about to leave when she learns from Ram Sevak, Shekhar's trusted servant, that Shekhar's injury came from a car accident that killed his eldest son. The queen's demeanor changed due to his paralysis and the responsibilities thrust upon her, and the once-happy atmosphere of the royal household came to its present state. Mili shames Shekhar into getting over his guilt and tries to befriend him through conversation and video games, and encourages him to talk about the car accident.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Mili sees improvements after 2–3 months with Shekhar, who persuades Vikram to take Mili with him to Surajgarh Palace. They spend some time together, and the prince leaves for a meeting while she shops. Mili is kidnapped; when Vikram saves her, they share a kiss. Though they agree to set aside their attraction, the two start falling in love. Mili confesses her love for him but Vikram refuses to acknowledge it, saying that they come from two different stocks; he is also engaged to a lady of his status, Kiara.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Divya runs away for film auditions in Jaipur. Mili informs Nirmala that she knew about Divya's plans, and is ordered out of the palace, heartbroken over Vikram's rejection. Divya returns and tells Nirmala that she came back because of Mili. Shekhar then surprises Nirmala by rising to his feet and admitting that he saw Divya run away. He tells her that this is what Mili has been trying to teach them: to love life as it is. Vikram breaks off his engagement with Kiara and confesses his love for Mili; his parents give their blessing and send him to find her in Delhi.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Vikram eventually finds Mili at a paintball arena, and declares his love for her. Covered in paint, he wins her mother's approval by proposing in her style. They are married, with Mili given the title of "The Royal Misfit".


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: The music of "Khoobsurat" was composed by Sneha Khanwalkar, featuring two additional numbers composed by Badshah and Amaal Mallik. The lyrics were written by a range of artists including, Ikram Rajasthani, Badshah, Kumaar, Sunil Choudhary, Amitabh Verma and Sneha Khanwalkar. The first song, "Engine Ki Seeti", was released on 7 August 2014, and samples Rajasthani folk song "Anjun Ki Seeti" which Ikram Rajasthani specifically re-wrote for the film. A promotional song titled "Abhi Toh Party Shuru Hui Hai", composed by Punjabi rapper Badshah, was released on 22 August 2014. The film's soundtrack was officially released on 1 September 2014.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: The producers felt that the film lacked a soulful love song and upon the request of Rhea Kapoor, music composer Amaal Mallik wrote the song "Naina", which is sung by his brother Armaan Malik and Sona Mohapatra.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: "Khoobsurat" opened to a slow start at the box office, with occupancies ranging from 15 to 20 percent at multiplexes and single screens across India. The film earned about on its opening day. Due to positive word of mouth, "Khoobsurat" showed 30% growth at the box office, earning on the second day of release and on the third. The film netted a total of during the first three days of release, with Box Office India describing the weekend collections as "low", but with "good" trending. The film remained steady throughout the rest of the week, netting in India alone. Remaining steady on its eighth day of release, the film collected , and a further on its ninth day, being declared as a "hit" by various media outlets.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Khoobsurat performed fairly well overseas. As of 21 September 2014, "Khoobsurat" earned in Pakistan, in the United States and Canada, in the UK, in the United Arab Emirates, in Australia, in New Zealand and in Malaysia. In the first two days of release, it had netted a total of in the overseas markets.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: "Khoobsurat" garnered mixed to positive reviews from critics but received widespread critical acclaim overseas.


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Koel Puri of India Today gave the film 4/5, saying "[the film] is no path breaker but for the fact that I just can't fault it, I still have a smile plastered on my face and I'll probably go see it again... tomorrow". Subhash K. Jha also gave a 4/5 and said, "Hrishida won't recognise this as his "Khubsoorat". But he won't disapprove of what has been done to his work". Rachit Gupta of Filmfare gave the film a 4/5 and said that, "director Shashank Ghosh is no Hrishikesh Mukherjee" though manages "to make a perfect Disney movie. It makes you laugh. It makes you go 'aww' and that goes a long way in a young romance". Saibaal Chatterjee of NDTV also gave a positive review, giving the film a 3.5/5 and saying, "in the end, Khoobsurat is a pretty good show. It is both funny and flashy, but its many flourishes are delivered in measures that religiously avoid excess".


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: Srijana Mitra Das of "Times of India" gave the film 3.5/5 and said, "This delightfully roguish romance tickles everything fun-loving inside you ... that's what makes it so "khoobsurat"." Rajeev Masand of CNN IBN gave a rating of 3/5 and wrote, ""Khoobsurat" is for those seeking comfort in the familiar, it's a pretty satisfying watch." Sarita A. Tanwar of DNA India gave the film 3/5 and said it "is sure to connect with the hearts of girls of all ages". Sonia Chopra of Sify also gave the film a 3/5, and said "this film has little of the gentle nuance of the Hrishikesh Mukherjee-directed original, but it's still pretty good fun. This Bollywood-Disney fairytale combo is worth a shot". Raja Sen, of Rediff gave the film 3/5, and compared it to candy, saying "wrapped in bright plastic and frequently too sweet for your own good, they act as sunny, unsurprising treats that lead to sticky, syrupy smiles". Andy Webster of the "New York Times" also wrote positively, saying "Bollywood films have appropriated Hollywood genres and imagery for years, but Mr. Ghosh, using a pleasing pastel palette, deftly achieves a particularly Disney-like polish. And he avoids making-of-a-royal pitfalls: Ms. Kapoor’s character never abandons her humor for refinement. Twice, Mili says that she was raised to speak up for herself. Not a bad characteristic for a future Rajput princess".


title: Khoobsurat (2014 film)

text: A critic at "Bollywood Hungama" gave the film 2.5/5, and said, "overall, "Khoobsurat" is likeable in parts with good performances and stunning visuals; however the weak script is an 'ugly' hurdle this film will face at the box-office". Sweta Kaushal of "Hindustan Times" also gave a negative review, giving the film a 1/5, and said "the film could have been more tolerable".


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Foucault's Pendulum (original title: "Il pendolo di Foucault" ) is a novel by Italian writer and philosopher Umberto Eco. It was first published in 1988, and an English translation by William Weaver appeared a year later.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: "Foucault's Pendulum" is divided into ten segments represented by the ten Sefiroth. The satirical novel is full of esoteric references to Kabbalah, alchemy, and conspiracy theory—so many that critic and novelist Anthony Burgess suggested that it needed an index. The pendulum of the title refers to an actual pendulum designed by French physicist Léon Foucault to demonstrate Earth's rotation, which has symbolic significance within the novel. Some believe that it refers to Michel Foucault, noting Eco's friendship with the French philosopher, but the author "specifically rejects any intentional reference to Michel Foucault"—this is regarded as one of his subtle literary jokes.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: The book opens with a man named Casaubon hiding in the Musée des Arts et Métiers after closing. He believes that a secret society has kidnapped his friend Jacopo Belbo and are now after him, and will meet in the museum. As he waits, Casaubon reflects on his life that led him here, but it is implied he is an unreliable narrator whose mind has been warped by conspiracy theories.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: In the 1970s Milan, Casaubon, who as a student had participated in the 1968 uprisings, is studying the Knights Templar when he meets Belbo and his colleague Diotallevi. Belbo works as an editor in a publishing house and invites Casaubon to review a manuscript about the Templars. The manuscript, by Colonel Ardenti, claims he discovered a secret plan of the Templars to take over the world. Ardenti mysteriously vanishes after meeting with Belbo and Casaubon. Casaubon moves to Brazil to pursue a relationship with a woman named Amparo and meets Agliè, an elderly man who implies that he is the mystical Comte de Saint-Germain. Casaubon's relationship with Amparo falls apart after attending an Umbanda rite and he returns to Milan, where he is hired by Belbo's employer, Mr. Garamond, as a researcher. Casaubon learns that in addition to a respected publishing house, Garamond also owns Manuzio, a vanity publisher that charges incompetent authors large sums to print their work. Garamond has the idea to begin two lines of occult books, one for serious publishing and the other to be published by Manutius to attract more vanity authors. Agliè, now also in Milan, becomes a consultant to Garamond. Belbo grows jealous of Agliè's ability to charm Belbo's former mistress Lorenza.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Belbo, Diotallevi, and Casaubon become submerged in occult manuscripts that draw flimsy connections between historical events and have the idea to develop their own as a game. Using Belbo's personal computer "Abulafia" and Ardenti's manuscript as a foundation, the three create what they call "The Plan" using a program that rearranges text at random. The Plan becomes an intricate web of conspiracy theories about the Templars and their goal to reshape the world using "telluric currents", which are focused at the Foucault pendulum. In addition to numerous other historical organizations apparently involved in The Plan, the three invent a fictional secret society, the Tres ("Templi Resurgentes Equites Synarchici", Latin for "the Risen again Synarchic Knights of the Temple").


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: The three increasingly become obsessed with The Plan and wonder if it could be true. Diotallevi is diagnosed with cancer and attributes it to divine retribution for his role in The Plan. Belbo, overcome by his jealousy over Lorenza, discusses The Plan with Agliè and claims to be in possession of a Templar map of the telluric currents; Agliè demands to see it and is refused. Agliè, Garamond, Ardenti, and many of the manuscript authors, convince themselves they are the Tres, and Agliè is their leader, and he forces Belbo to come to Paris with him. Casaubon goes to Belbo's apartment and reads his personal files, and goes to Paris and Foucault's Pendulum to see Agliè and his associates.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: In the present, a group led by Agliè gathers around the pendulum for an arcane ritual. Casaubon sees several ectoplasmic forms appear, one of which claims to be the real Comte de Saint-Germain and denounces Agliè in front of his followers. Belbo is questioned but he refuses to reveal what he knows, inciting a riot during which Belbo is hanged from Foucault's Pendulum. Casaubon escapes the museum and flees to the countryside villa where Belbo grew up. Casaubon soon learns that Diotallevi succumbed to his cancer at midnight on St. John's Eve, coincidentally the same time Belbo died.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Casaubon meditates on events and is resigned to capture by the Tres, and he will follow Belbo's lead and tell them nothing. While waiting in the villa, Casaubon finds an old manuscript by Belbo that relates a mystical experience he had when he was twelve, in which he perceived ultimate meaning beyond signs and semiotics. He realizes that much of Belbo's behavior and possibly his creation of the Plan and even his death was inspired by Belbo's desire to recapture that lost meaning.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Most books written in this fiction genre seem to focus on the mysterious, and aim to provide their own version of the conspiracy theory. Eco avoids this pitfall without holding back on the historical mystery surrounding the Knights Templar. In fact, the novel may be viewed as a critique, spoof, or deconstruction of the grand overarching conspiracies often found in postmodern literature, and indeed its very title may well allude to one of postmodernism's key exponents, Michel Foucault. Although the main plot does detail a conspiratorial "Plan", the book focuses on the development of the characters, and their slow transition from skeptical editors, mocking the Manutius manuscripts to credulous Diabolicals themselves. In this way, the conspiracy theory provided is a plot device, rather than an earnest proposition.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Belbo's writings are a recurrent theme throughout the book. The entire book is narrated in the first person by Casaubon, with brief interludes from the files on Abulafia. These passages are often eccentrically written, and deal in most part with Belbo's childhood, his constant sense of failure, and his obsession with Lorenza. The interludes from his childhood serve as a stark contrast to the mythical world of cults and conspiracies. Belbo is extremely careful to not try to create (literature), because he deems himself unworthy, although it becomes somewhat obvious that writing is his passion. This attitude of constant subconscious self-abasement fits in with the overall irony focused on in the book, considering that Belbo is eventually consumed by (re)creation of the Plan; one excerpt meant for the unattainable Lorenza reads,


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Casaubon is a scholar: While Belbo seeks inner peace, Casaubon's quest is of knowledge. The uncertainty of scientific knowledge and human experience is explored in his character, as he participates in various extra-natural events. His narratives abandon his strict realism and become increasingly inclined towards the supernatural as the novel progresses, despite periodic reality checks from his partner Lia.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Mr. Garamond, whose primary business is selling dreams (through his vanity press outlet), comes to believe the fantasy world his authors weave. It is possible, though, that he had always been a "Diabolical", and founded his publishing business to fish for information.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Eco shows that if one stops discriminating between whether propositions are right or wrong, it is possible to link any fact or idea with any other, but that this creates a dangerous tendency towards conspiracy theories. As Diotallevi approaches death, he remarks:


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: As Casaubon awaits death at the hands of those who incorrectly believe that he is withholding some occult information from them, he reflects that:


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: The following list among the groups that appear in Foucault's Pendulum. They include, in alphabetical order,


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Assassins of Alamut, Bavarian Illuminati, Bogomils, Cabalists, Candomblé, Cathars, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Elders of Zion, Freemasons, Gnostics, Jesuits, Knights Templar, Opus Dei, Ordo Templi Orientis, Panta Rei, and the Rosicrucians.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: "Foucault's Pendulum" (1988) has been called "the thinking man's "Da Vinci Code"". The parchment that sparks the Plan plays a role which is similar to the parchments in the Rennes-le-Château story in Brown's novel and in "The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail" (1982), from which Brown drew inspiration. Eco's novel predated the "Da Vinci" phenomenon by more than a decade, but both novels are concerned with the Knights Templar, complex conspiracies, secret codes, and even a chase around the monuments of Paris. Eco does so, however, from a much more critical perspective; "Foucault" is more a satire on the futility of conspiracy theories and those who believe them, rather than an attempt to proliferate such beliefs.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: Eco was indebted to Danilo Kiš's story "The Book of Kings and Fools" in "The Encyclopedia of the Dead" (1983) for the portrayal of Sergei Nilus. "The Boston Globe" claimed that "one can trace a lineage from Robert Anton Wilson's "The Illuminatus! Trilogy" to Umberto Eco's "Foucault's Pendulum"". "The Illuminatus! Trilogy" was written 13 years before "Foucault's Pendulum". George Johnson wrote on the similarity of the two books that "both works were written tongue in cheek, with a high sense of irony." Both books are divided into ten segments represented by the ten Sefiroth.


title: Foucault's Pendulum

text: "Foucault's Pendulum" also bears a number of similarities to Eco's own experiences and writing. The character of Belbo was brought up in the region of Piedmont in Northern Italy. Eco refers to his own visit to a Candomblé ceremony in Brazil in an article compiled in "Faith in Fakes", reminiscent of the episode in the novel. He also describes French ethnologist Roger Bastide who bears a resemblance to the character of Agliè. Eco's novel was also a direct inspiration on Charles Cecil during the development of Revolution Software's highly successful point and click adventure game "", in which an American tourist and a French journalist must thwart a conspiracy by a shadowy cabal who model themselves on the Knights Templar.


title: Tailhook scandal

text: The Tailhook scandal was a military scandal in which United States Navy and U.S. Marine Corps aviation officers were alleged to have sexually assaulted up to 83 women and seven men, or otherwise engaged in "improper and indecent" conduct at the Las Vegas Hilton in Las Vegas, Nevada. The events took place at the 35th Annual Tailhook Association Symposium from September 5 to 8, 1991. The event was subsequently abbreviated as "Tailhook '91" in media accounts.


title: Tailhook scandal

text: The alleged sexual assaults mainly occurred in a third-floor hallway in which "hospitality suites" rented by participating military units for the conference were located. According to witnesses, a "gauntlet" of male military officers in civilian clothes groped, molested, or committed other sexual or physical assaults and harassment on women who walked through the hallway. In addition, military officers were alleged to have engaged in public nudity, excessive alcohol intoxication, public sexual activity, and other lewd behavior in and around the convention location at the hotel. One of the alleged victims, naval officer Paula Coughlin, initiated an investigation into the incident when she notified her chain of command about what she had experienced.


title: Tailhook scandal

text: About a month after the conference, the public learned of the affair when it received widespread attention in the media. In response, the United States Congress, led by the Senate Armed Services Committee, directed the US military to investigate the event, verify the allegations, and prosecute the personnel involved. The resulting Navy inquiries were criticized for failing to adequately investigate what had happened. Also, it was learned that Secretary of the Navy Henry Garrett had attended the convention, but his involvement had not been disclosed in the Navy's investigation report.


title: Tailhook scandal

text: As a result, the Department of Defense Inspector General's Office took over the inquiry. Its investigation led to approximately 40 naval and Marine officers receiving non-judicial punishment, mainly for conduct unbecoming an officer and false official statements. Three officers were taken to courts-martial, but their cases were dismissed after the presiding military judge determined that Chief of Naval Operations Frank Kelso, who had attended the conference, had misstated and concealed his own involvement in the events in question. No officers were disciplined for the alleged sexual assaults.


title: Tailhook scandal

text: The aftermath resulted in sweeping changes throughout all military services in the Department of Defense regarding attitudes and policies toward women. Military critics claimed that the scandal highlighted a hostile attitude in U.S. military culture towards women in the areas of sexual harassment, sexual assault and equal treatment of women in career advancement and opportunity. Following the incident, in April 1993, Secretary of Defense Les Aspin announced a revised policy on the assignment of women in the armed forces: both services were to allow women to compete for assignments in combat aircraft, and the Navy was to open additional ships to women and draft a proposal for Congress to remove existing legislative barriers to the assignment of women to combat vessels.