title: Ferrari 348

text: The 348 was fitted with dual-computer engine management using twin Bosch Motronic ECUs, double-redundant anti-lock brakes, and self-diagnosing air conditioning and heating systems. Late versions (1993 and beyond) have Japanese starter motors and Nippondenso power generators to improve reliability, as well as the battery located within the front left fender for better weight distribution.


title: Ferrari 348

text: All 348s have OBD-I engine management systems, though European and general market variants do not come with the self-test push button installed, which is needed to activate this troubleshooting feature.


title: Ferrari 348

text: Similar to the Testarossa but departing from the 512 BB and 308/328, the oil and coolant radiators were relocated from the nose to the sides, widening the side of the car substantially, but making the cabin much easier to cool since hoses routing warm water no longer ran underneath the cabin as in the older front-radiator cars. This also had the side effect of making the doors very wide.


title: Ferrari 348

text: The 348 was equipped with a dry-sump oil system to prevent oil starvation at high speeds and during hard cornering. The oil level could only be accurately checked on the dipstick when the engine was running due to this setup. The 348 was fitted with adjustable ride-height suspension and a removable rear sub-frame to speed up the removal of the engine for maintenance.


title: Ferrari 348

text: Between 1992 and 1993, Ferrari made 100 limited edition units of the 348 Serie Speciale of its tb and ts versions. It was only made for the US market.


title: Ferrari 348

text: The main technical modifications consisted in a revised engine which produced at 7,200  rpm, a wider rear track (50mm), a free-flow exhaust system, a shorter ratio final drive and Pirelli P Zero tyres. Ferrari indicated a 0–97  km/h acceleration time of 5.3 seconds and a standing ¼ mile of 13.75 seconds.


title: Ferrari 348

text: Several modifications were made to the exterior as well: new front spoiler to optimize aerodynamics similar to the F40, new front grille with the chrome prancing horse, bumpers and rocker panels in body colour, engine cover in body colour, modified taillight assembly and new rear grille with the chrome prancing horse.


title: Ferrari 348

text: The cars were offered with F40 style sport seats in Connolly leather with the regular seats included as an option. The door panels were also modified and made of leather. Each car was numbered (1 to 100), with a 348 Serie Speciale plaque on the passenger's side door-post.


title: Ferrari 348

text: The Ferrari Challenge was initiated by Ferrari Club Nederland founder and President Hans Hugenholtz and designated for the Ferrari 348; the series debuted in 1993 and included the Italian and European series. The engine used in the participating cars was similar to the road going GT models introduced in the same year with the only noticeable changes being the slick tyres, new body kit, better brake-pads, roll-bar, smaller battery in a different position and seat belts. In 1994 the G-spec engined cars had to be modified with the H-spec cylinder heads and injection system. The cars were mostly modified by dealers by installing factory supplied Challenge kits. The car's final season was in 1995 and was replaced subsequently by the F355 Challenge.


title: Ferrari 348

text: In late 1993, the 348 was revised, featuring subtle styling changes (front grille, rear chrome Cavallino and removable seat cushions) and more power, this time and (Europe) from the same 3.4-litre engine, with an improved engine management system - Bosch Motronic 2.7 and a new exhaust system (single muffler).


title: Ferrari 348

text: The revised cars are called 348 GTB (252 made) and GTS (137 made) and were presented to the public as the 348 GT versions, equipped with the F119H engine (as opposed to the original F119D and US F119G). The F119H engine had an increased 10.8:1 compression ratio as compared to the F119D & F119G's 10.4:1 compression ratio, taller intake plenums, a larger intake compensation valve, fuel pressure raised from 3.4 bar to 3.8 bar, and different camshaft timing.


title: Ferrari 348

text: For these models, both the engine cover and lower body skirts were body-coloured instead of black, and the rear track was one inch wider due to the mounting area, on the inside, of the rear wheels being thicker. The suspension geometry was revised which greatly enhanced its handling, ride and body control. The fuel tank was made smaller in order to reduce overall weight and provide space to improve chassis rigidity; it now held .


title: Ferrari 348

text: A convertible variant called the Spider was introduced in 1993 and was Ferrari's first series production convertible model since the Daytona Spider. Visual changes for the spider included body coloured lower cladding pieces, a specially designed engine cover and a manual folding soft top. The rear track was increased by compared to the 348 tb. The Spider used the same engine as the 348 GT models and hence benefitted from the increased power output. A new transverse mounted gearbox with modified gear ratios was installed to ensure better acceleration times and shift response.


title: Ferrari 348

text: In 1993, Ferrari presented a light weight 348 GT Competizione variant as a homologation version for competing in the GT Championship. Safety equipment such as a tool kit was carried over from the 348 Challenge. The braking system was derived from the F40 Evoluzione model. The cars also had modified racing suspension and exhaust system. The engine had a power output of at 7,000 rpm and of torque at 5,000 rpm, consistent to standard late 348 production with the F119H engine. Only 50 were made, including 8 Right Hand Drive models. Special features included a specially trimmed steering wheel indicating the number sequence in the production of the 50 cars, 5-spoke 18-inch Speedline competizione wheels and cloth trim seats with kevlar structure for weight reduction. Aiding further in the weight reduction was the carbon kevlar composite material used for the front and rear bumpers as well as the doors and a light weight polycarbonate rear window. Additional interior trim pieces such as door sills featured carbon kevlar and creature comforts such as air conditioning and sound proofing materials were removed. These changes resulted in a dry weight of . The final drive in the gear box was changed to 25/27 ratio for improved performance.


title: Ferrari 348

text: Between 1991 and 1992, Italian coach builder Zagato announced the Zagato Elaborazione package for the Ferrari 348 TB. The changes were all cosmetic and the engine and other mechanical components remained identical to the donor car.


title: Ferrari 348

text: At the front of the car a new bumper removed the original's fake central grille and also replaced the Ferrari "prancing horse" emblem. The side intake cooling ducts were enlarged with the strakes removed and the engine cover was replaced with a glass engine cover showing off the V8 engine. A new round triple tail-light arrangement and an electronically controlled rear spoiler were added. A "double bubble" roof replaced the original, the idea being that Zagato could lower the roofline of a car, but retain enough headroom for each occupant. Other modifications included custom OZ Racing alloy wheels, external fuel filler caps and a completely reworked interior including a three-inch rear view screen and suede upholstery. Zagato initially announced a production run of 22 examples, but only 10 cars were made.


title: Ferrari 348

text: The Ferrari 348 Barchetta Competizione is a one-off special created for car collector Guy Audebert from his crashed Ferrari 348. The car, which has a true open top barchetta body style features heavily modified body work that includes a deeper chin spoiler, removal of the pop-up headlamps with the headlamps integrated in the fog light assembly, quick release bonnet, minimalist racing interior; featuring a detachable steering wheel, Sparco racing bucket seats with six-point harness and a roll bar for the driver's safety, a large air scoop reminiscent to that used in Ferrari F1 cars, racing wing mirrors, replacement of the straked side air intakes with larger air intakes along with two additional vents, tail lights from the Ferrari 328, perforated rear grille, 18-inch BBS racing alloy wheels and a large rear wing inspired by the Ferrari F40 LM. Details of the coach builder that carried out this conversion, the materials used for the body work and the car's technical specifications remain unknown due to the car being mostly kept private but the weight was revealed to be .


title: Ferrari 348

text: In 1991, 348 chassis number 82881 was delivered to Ecurie Francorchamps for the purposes of evaluating the 348's suitability for competition use, and its development set the stage for the 348 GT Competizione production models to come near the end of the model run. Outfitted with composite doors, polycarbonate competition windows, and experimental exterior and underbody aerodynamic treatments, the development mule was designated as 348 tb/f, with the f designating the car's creator, Francorchamps, and weighed a total of 1,165 kg (2,569 lbs). The car was frequently run at Spa Ferrari race events, but did not campaign formally within any major series.


title: Ferrari 348

text: For 1993, Michelotto, then known as Ferrari's unofficial race preparation specialist based upon their work in developing the 288 GTO Evoluzione, F40 LM, and 333SP, was commissioned to prepare 11 examples of the 348 CSAI-GT model for competition in such prestigious events as the 24 Hours of Le Mans and Daytona races. Sold with the intention of being campaigned by privateer teams, only 2 of the cars ever saw true competition use, with the remaining 9 disappearing into private collections. Italian race team Jolly Club campaigned one of the 348s alongside their Michelotto-prepared F40 LM, achieving significant success in the Super Car GT series, with the 348 winning sequential outright titles in 1993 and 1994, along with 3 category titles.


title: Ferrari 348

text: Michelotto built a further 2 cars in 1994, designated as 348 GTC-LM for competition within the GT2 class, campaigned by Team Repsol and Ferrari Club Italia. Team Repsol placed 4th in the GT2 class for the 1994 24 Hours of Le Mans, following a trio of Porsche 911 GTs, and 11th overall. The 348 GTC-LMs also placed 2nd and 6th at Vallelunga 6hr and 4hr races, and 5th at Spa 4 hours for the season, along with another Michelotto 348 taking 7th in the GT2 class for the Daytona 24 hours.


title: Ferrari 348

text: Two Ferrari 348s were used as two of the three test mules for the Ferrari Enzo namely M1 and M3 respectively. Details about the M1 remain unknown but some images surfaced online show that it was painted black and had stretched body work while the M3 featured heavily modified body work to accommodate the V12 engine and gearbox which were intended to be used in the production car along with many components from its successors, the F355 and the F430 respectively. The engine in the test mule produced , more than that of the production car. The car was not kept by Ferrari and was auctioned off in 2005 to a private collector at a price of €190,000; making its presence known to the public. The car was famous as "the Frankenstein Ferrari" due to it being a by product of many Ferrari models. Due to this fact and a lack of model name and safety features, it was deemed not road legal.


title: Ferrari 348

text: The Ferrari 348 made its debut in September 1989 at the Frankfurt Auto Show to positive review, cited as "Best in Show" by Road & Track and AutoWeek coverage. In a later 1991 comparison against the NSX, Road & Track inquired, “Has Honda bettered Ferrari?” The magazine concluded the Ferrari 348 was “the better exotic” and would later name it “one of the ten best cars in the world.” Auto journalists described the 348 as, "something quite special," and the engine being the formative element in defining the car's character, rising in an, "operatic crescendo," having the, "power to raise goose bumps as Pavarotti climbing to that note in Nessun Dorma."


title: Ferrari 348

text: Gavin Green reviewed the 348 against contemporaries in Car Magazine, Oct 1990: “There is nothing like it. It communicates so richly, involves you so completely. And, when you have finished driving it – cocooned in that exquisite cockpit – you can get out and feast your eyes on one of the loveliest cars ever designed.”


title: Ferrari 348

text: LA Times staff writer Paul Dean described the car in July 1990: “Ferrari builds motor cars in much the same way Claude Monet painted landscapes—not to please the populace, but more to satisfy self, a technique and a coterie,” with the 348 as a “better looking, stronger, faster” successor to the “enormously successful” 308/328 series, and “thoroughly irresistible.” Revising the longitudinal V8 layout in the way of the 288 GTO and F40, with a dry sump and transversely mounted “new gearbox and transmission (actually a carry-over from a Ferrari Formula 1 racing car),” the center of gravity is lower “by about 2 inches. Ergo flatter handling, and better steering response.”


title: Ferrari 348

text: Autocar Magazine featured a comparison of the 348tb, Honda NSX, Porsche 911 Turbo, and Lotus Esprit in the July 1993 article, “Lord of the Fliers,” by Stephen Sutcliffe. Through the road test that extended from Paris to Le Mans, the 348 was lauded for its styling and presence, “Crawling out of Paris in the thick of the densest French traffic jam any of us can ever recall, three things about our convoy were already becoming apparent. The First – how much more attention and affection the French public had in reserve for the Ferrari – was perhaps predictable, especially since the 348 had already blown the others into the water at Dover when it came to impressing the locals. Even so, the crowds that gathered like bees to honey wherever and whenever we parked it, and the comparative lack of enthusiasm for the other three, still came as something of a shock.” On the Le Mans race circuit, the 348s control and steering garnered praise over the NSX, “It's the Honda's body control and its meaty yet beautifully positive steering that allows it to feel so natural through the Esses of Le Mans; both seem peerless. Until you try the Ferrari. In the 348 you've got the same degree of body control, the same iron tautness through the corners, but the steering – lighter than the Honda's but with much more feedback – lifts it clear of even the mighty NSX at La Sarthe.” Critique found the 348 difficult in traffic due to heavy steering and controls, though transformative on open road, “the further we traveled and the harder we drove in France, the more special, the more unique the Ferrari felt. We argued long and hard over which of the two made the best noise under full throttle, although no one disputed the fact that the NSX was more refined overall and had vastly superior gearchange. But ultimately this is as much the Honda's problem as it is its strength. Because it is so well honed as an all-rounder, so easy to live with, it misses out on that last 10 per cent of pure, raw thoroughbred sports car appeal that makes the Ferrari such a deliciously rich experience. Partly it is the steering; the NSX's is very good, the 348's exquisite. And partly it is the extra sharpness of the Ferrari's chassis, which is that crucial fraction more responsive to your inputs than not only the NSX but also any other supercar this side of £100,000 we can think of.”


title: Ferrari 348

text: Peter Dron of "Motor Trend" gave the car a negative review, criticising its acceleration by saying "For some manufacturers, it might be hard to go to market when competitors are offering cars with demonstrably better performance for tens of thousands of dollars less. Ferrari, however, seems blessed with such cache that the numbers gleaned from mere fifth wheels don't seem to make much of a difference. Take the Ferrari 348, for example. Its 0-60-mph time of about 6 seconds can be bested by such lesser-priced machinery as an L98 Corvette. Its slalom speed of a little over 63 mph is flat blown away by the humbly priced Nissan 300ZX Turbo." The engine note was criticised as well with the publication noting "It doesn't sound like a V-8; in fact, the noise it makes is more like a high-pitched turbine than anything else, the characteristic whine of the flat-plane crank. It doesn't have the hard edge of Lamborghini's V-8 (similar to the old Cosworth DFV) or the deep, throaty rumble of the high-performance domestic engines. It isn't an unpleasant noise, but it won't make the hairs on the back of your neck stand on edge. It's simply an efficient device, to be used to the fullest." The exterior design, especially the fake front grille received a negative reception as well, with the publication remarking "Least flattering is the full frontal view, and that dummy grille is a copout: If you don't need a grille, why have one? An innovative aerodynamic approach would have made more sense. In the press handout (referring to the Testarossa-style side strakes) is the following remark: 'On a Ferrari a technical requirement becomes a stylistic theme and nothing is simply there for decoration.' Oh, really?"


title: Ferrari 348

text: In a 2015 retrospective, EVO Magazine compared the 458 Italia against its 308, 348, F355, 360 and F430 ancestors, where Henry Catchpole noted the primary highlight of the day being the 348's steering, describing it as, “instantly obvious this car has some of the best steering, possibly the best, that I have ever sat behind.” He expounded on the car's analog character, describing the steering as, “coming alive in my hands. It literally starts wriggling around, talking excitedly about all the bumps in the road and sometimes making a bigger gesture as a camber attracts its attention. Despite the lack of assistance and the wheel’s relatively small diameter, it’s not heavy in any way, there’s just perfect weight and no slack to add to the constant communication.”


title: Ferrari 348

text: Some areas of critique focused around the long-established topic of Ferrari gearboxes, typically stiff and balky when cold. The 348 did not break from tradition in this area, requiring careful adjustment and lubricating considerations, as well as full warm up, and was found to perform best with quick and aggressive driving. "It's only when you allow the engine full voice that the 348's drivetrain really works," mentioned Mike McCarthy of May 1994's Wheels Magazine. "Only then does this drivetrain achieve harmony," with the gear lever "moving fast and fluidly," leaving "no surprise to anyone who knows why Ferrari has the reputation it does," summarizing it to be, "very much like what you imagine a Ferrari might be." Paul Dean described, “Gears are given up smoothly only when the moment, the engine, the clutch and shift are in concert. But finding that moment, being the conductor of a coordinated downshift, earning some respect from a benchmark machine that rises above the best of our abilities . . . ah, there's the defiance but also the satisfaction of Ferrari.” Though lauded for its capability on a race circuit, oversteer characteristics at the limit in early 348s became a point of concern for the buying public due to the sensitive nature of the chassis setup, leading to updated mounting points in the rear combined with revised alignment specifications in later cars.


Ferrari 348


title: Sydney Lemmon

text: Sydney Noël Lemmon (born August 10, 1990) is an American actress. Lemmon graduated from Yale School of Drama at Yale University. She stars as Ana Helstrom in the Hulu series "Helstrom".


title: Sydney Lemmon

text: She has appeared in the HBO series "Succession". Lemmon earned a Saturn Award nomination for her role as Isabelle in Season 5 of "Fear the Walking Dead".


title: Igorot people

text: The indigenous peoples of the Cordillera Mountain Range of northern Luzon, Philippines are often referred to using the exonym Igorot people, or more recently, as the Cordilleran peoples. There are nine main ethnolinguistic groups whose domains are in the Cordillera Mountain Range, altogether numbering about 1.5 million people in the early 21st century.


title: Igorot people

text: Their languages belong to the northern Luzon subgroup of Philippine languages, which in turn belongs to the Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) family.


title: Igorot people

text: These ethnic groups keep or have kept until recently their traditional religion and way of life. Some live in the tropical forests of the foothills, but most live in rugged grassland and pine forest zones higher up.


title: Igorot people

text: From the root word "golot", which means "mountain," "Igolot" means "people from the mountains", a reference to any of various ethnic groups in the mountains of northern Luzon. During the Spanish colonial era, the term was variously recorded as "Igolot", "Ygolot", and "Igorrote", compliant to Spanish orthography.


title: Igorot people

text: The endonyms Ifugao or Ipugaw (also meaning "mountain people") are used more frequently by the Igorots themselves, as "igorot" is viewed by some as slightly pejorative, except by the Ibaloys. The Spanish borrowed the term "Ifugao" from the lowland Gaddang and Ibanag groups.


title: Igorot people

text: The Igorots may be roughly divided into two general subgroups: the larger group lives in the south, central and western areas, and is very adept at rice-terrace farming; the smaller group lives in the east and north. Prior to Spanish colonisation of the islands, the peoples now included under the term did not consider themselves as belonging to a single, cohesive ethnic group.


title: Igorot people

text: The Bontok ethnolinguistic group can be found in the central and east portions of the Mountain Province. It mainly consists of the Balangaos and Gaddangs, with a significant portion who identify as part of the Kalinga group. The Bontok live in a mountainous territory, particularly close to the Chico River and its tributaries. Mineral resources (gold, copper, limestone, gypsum) can be found in the mountain areas. Gold, in particular, has been traditionally extracted from the Bontoc municipality. The Chico River provides sand, gravel, and white clay, while the forests of Barlig and Sadanga within the area have rattan, bamboo and pine trees. They are the second largest group in the Mountain Province. The Bontoc live on the banks of the Chico River. They speak Bontoc and Ilocano. They formerly practiced head-hunting and had distinctive body tattoos. The Bontoc describe three types of tattoos: The "chak-lag′", the tattooed chest of the head taker; "pong′-o", the tattooed arms of men and women; and "fa′-tĕk", for all other tattoos of both sexes. Women were tattooed on the arms only.


title: Igorot people

text: The Ibaloi (also Ibaloy, Ibaluy, Nabaloi, Inavidoy, Inibaloi, Ivadoy) and Kalanguya (also Kallahan and Ikalahan) are one of the indigenous peoples of the Philippines who live mostly in the southern part of Benguet, located in the Cordillera of northern Luzon, and Nueva Vizcaya in the Cagayan Valley region. They were traditionally an agrarian society. Many of the Ibaloi and Kalanguya people continue with their agriculture and rice cultivation.


title: Igorot people

text: Their native language belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian languages family and is closely related to the Pangasinan language, primarily spoken in the province of Pangasinan, located southwest of Benguet.


title: Igorot people

text: Baguio, the major city of the Cordillera, dubbed the "Summer Capital of the Philippines," is located in southern Benguet.


title: Igorot people

text: The largest feast of the Ibaloi is the "Peshit or Pedit", a public feast mainly sponsored by people of prestige and wealth. "Peshit" can last for weeks and involves the killing and sacrifice of dozens of animals.


title: Igorot people

text: One of the more popular dances of the Ibaloi is the "bendian", a mass dance participated in by hundreds of male and female dancers. Originally a victory dance in time of war, it evolved into a celebratory dance. It is used as entertainment ("ad-adivay") in the cañao feasts, hosted by the wealthy class ("baknang").


title: Igorot people

text: Ifugaos are the people inhabiting Ifugao Province. They come from the municipalities of Lagawe (Capital Town), Aguinaldo, Alfonso Lista, Asipulo, Banaue, Hingyon, Hungduan, Kiangan, Lamut, Mayoyao, and Tinoc. The province is one of the smallest provinces in the Philippines with an area of only 251,778 hectares, or about 0.8% of the total Philippine land area. It has a temperate climate and is rich in mineral and forest products.


title: Igorot people

text: The term "Ifugao" is derived from ""ipugo"" which means "earth people", "mortals" or "humans", as distinguished from spirits and deities. It also means "from the hill", as "pugo" means hill. The term "Igorot" or "Ygolote" was the term used by Spanish conquerors for mountain people. The Ifugaos, however, prefer the name "Ifugao".


title: Igorot people

text: As of 1995, the population of the Ifugaos was counted to be 131,635. Although the majority of them are still in Ifugao province, some of them already transferred to Baguio, where they worked as woodcarvers, and to other parts of the Cordillera region. They are divided into subgroups based on the differences in dialects, traditions, and design/color of costumes. The main subgroups are Ayangan, Kalangaya, and Tuwali. Furthermore, the Ifugao society is divided into 3 social classes: the "kadangyans" or the aristocrats, the "tagus" or the middle class, and the "nawotwots" or the poor ones. The "kadangyans" sponsor the prestige rituals called "hagabi" and "uyauy" and this separates them from the "tagus" who cannot sponsor feasts but are economically well off. The "nawotwots" are those who have limited land properties and are usually hired by the upper classes to do work in the fields and other services.


title: Igorot people

text: The Kalaguya or Ikalahan people are a small group distributed amongst the mountain ranges of Sierra Madre, the Caraballo Mountains, and the eastern part of the Cordillera mountain range. The main population resides in the Nueva Vizcaya province, with Kayapa as the center. They are considered to be part of the Igorot (mountain people) but distinguish themselves with the name Ikalahan, the name taken from the forest trees that grow in the Caraballo Mountain.


title: Igorot people

text: They are among the least studied ethnic groups, thus their early history is unknown. However, Felix M. Keesing suggests that, like other groups in the mountains, they fled from the lowlands to escape Spanish persecution.


title: Igorot people

text: The Isnag, also Isneg or Apayao, live at the northwesterly end of northern Luzon, in the upper half of the Cordillera province of Apayao. The term "Isneg" derives from "itneg", meaning inhabitants of the Tineg River. Apayao derives from the battle cry "Ma-ap-ay-ao" as their hand is clapped rapidly over their mouth. They may also refer to themselves as "Imandaya" if they live upstream, or "Imallod" if they live downstream. The municipalities in the Isneg domain include Pudtol, Kabugao, Calanasan, Flora, Conner, Sta. Marcela, and


title: Igorot people

text: Jars of basi are half-buried in the ground within a small shed, "abulor", constructed of 4 posts and a shed. This "abulor" is found within the open space, "linong" or "sidong", below their houses ("balay"). They grow upland rice, while also practicing swidden farming and fishing.


title: Igorot people

text: "Say-am" was an important ceremony after a successful headhunting, or other important occasions, hosted by the wealthy, and lasting one to five days or more. Dancing, singing, eating, and drinking mark the feast, and Isnegs wear their finest clothes. The shaman, "Anituwan", prays to the spirit Gatan, before the first dog is sacrificed, if a human head had not been taken, and offered at the sacred tree, "ammadingan". On the last day, a coconut is split in honor of the headhunter guardian, Anglabbang.The "Pildap" is an equivalent "say-am" but hosted by the poor. Conversion to Christianity grew after 1920, and today, the Isnegs are divided in their religious beliefs, with some still being animistic.


title: Igorot people

text: The Itneg people, also known as Tingguian people, live in the mountainous area of Abra in northwestern Luzon who descended from immigrants from Kalinga, Apayao, and the Northern Kankana-ey. They are large in stature, have mongoloid eyes, aquiline nose, and are effective farmers. They refer to themselves as "Itneg", though the Spaniards called them "Tingguian" when they came to the Philippines because they are mountain dwellers. The Tingguians are further divided into 11 distinct subgroups which are the Adasen, Balatok, Banao, Belwang, Binongan, Gobang, Inlaud, Mabaka, Maeng, Masadiit and Moyadan. Wealth and material possessions (such as Chinese jars, copper gongs called "gangsa", beads, rice fields, and livestock) determine the social standing of a family or person, as well as the hosting of feasts and ceremonies. Despite the divide of social status, there is no sharp distinction between rich ("baknang") and poor. Wealth is inherited but the society is open for social mobility of the citizens by virtue of hard work. Medium are the only distinct group in their society, but even then it is only during ceremonial periods.


title: Igorot people

text: The Kalingas are mainly found in Kalinga province which has an area of 3,282.58 sq. km. Some of them, however, already migrated to Mountain Province, Apayao, Cagayan, and Abra. As of 1995, they were counted to be 105,083, not including those who have migrated outside the Cordillera region.


title: Igorot people

text: Kalinga territory includes floodplains of Tabuk, and Rizal, plus the Chico River. Gold and copper deposits are common in Pasil and Balbalan. Tabuk was settled in the 12th century, and from there other Kalinga settlements spread, practicing wet rice ("papayaw") and swidden ("uwa") cultivation. Kalinga houses ("furoy", "buloy", "fuloy", "phoyoy", "biloy")are either octagonal for the wealthy, or square, and are elevated on posts (a few as high as 20–30 feet), with a single room. Other building include granaries ("alang") and field sheds ("sigay").


title: Igorot people

text: The name "Kalinga" came from the Ibanag and Gaddang term "kalinga", which means "headhunter". Edward Dozier divided Kalinga geographically into three sub-cultures and geographical position: Balbalan (north); Pasil, Lubuagan, and Tinglayan (south); and Tanudan (east). Teodoro Llamzon divided the Kalinga based on their dialects: Guinaang, Lubuagan, Punukpuk, Tabuk, Tinglayan, and Tanudan.


title: Igorot people

text: The Kankanaey domain includes Western Mountain Province, northern Benguet and southeastern Ilocos Sur. Like most Igorot ethnic groups, the Kankanaey built sloping terraces to maximize farm space in the rugged terrain of the Cordilleras.


title: Igorot people

text: Kankanaey houses include the two-story "innagamang", the larger "binangi", the cheaper "tinokbob", and the elevated "tinabla". Their granaries ("agamang") are elevated to avoid rats. Two other institutions of the Kankanaey of Mountain Province are the "dap-ay", or the men's dormitory and civic center, and the "ebgan", or the girls' dormitory.


title: Igorot people

text: Kankanaey's major dances include "tayaw", "pat-tong", "takik" (a wedding dance), and "balangbang". The "tayaw" is a community dance that is usually done in weddings it maybe also danced by the Ibaloi but has a different style. "Pattong", also a community dance from Mountain Province which every municipality has its own style, while "Balangbang" is the dance's modern term. There are also some other dances like the "sakkuting", "pinanyuan" (another wedding dance) and "bogi-bogi" (courtship dance).


title: Igorot people

text: The gold found in the land of the Igorot was an attraction for the Spanish. Originally gold was exchanged at Pangasinan by the Igorot. The gold was used to buy consumable products by the Igorot. Both gold and desire to Christianize the Igorot were given as reasons for Spanish conquest. In 1572 the Spanish started hunting for the gold. Benguet Province was entered by the Spanish with the intention of obtaining gold. The fact that the Igorots managed to stay out of Spanish dominion vexed the Spaniards. The gold evaded the hands of the Spaniards due to Igorot opposition. The Igorot would also be used as mercenaries and scouts during the Philippine Revolution and the Philippine-American War.


title: Igorot people

text: Samuel E. Kane wrote about his life amongst the Bontoc, Ifugao, and Kalinga after the Philippine–American War in his book "Thirty Years with the Philippine Head-Hunters" (1933). The first American school for Igorot girls was opened in Baguio in 1901 by Alice McKay Kelly. Kane argued that Dean C. Worcester "did more than anyone man to stop head-hunting and to bring the traditional enemy tribes together in friendship." Kane wrote of the Igorot people, "there is a peace, a rhythm and an elemental strength in the life...which all the comforts and refinements of civilization can not replace...fifty years hence...there will be little left to remind the young Igorots of the days when the drums and "ganzas" of the head-hunting "canyaos" resounded throughout the land.


title: Igorot people

text: In 1903, Missionary Bishop Charles Brent traveled through northern Luzon, in hopes of directing missionary efforts to convert the pagan Igorot populace. A mission church was established for the Bontoc Tribe of the Igorots in the Bontoc, Mountain Province. The Bontoc missionaries wrote the first Igorot grammars, which were published by the government.


title: Igorot people

text: In 1904, a group of Igorot people were brought to St. Louis, Missouri, United States, for the St. Louis World's Fair. They constructed the Igorot Village in the Philippine Exposition section of the fair, which became one of the most popular exhibits. The poet T. S. Eliot, who was born and raised in St. Louis, visited and explored the Village. Inspired by their tribal dance and others, he wrote the short story, "The Man Who Was King" (1905). In 1905, 50 tribespeople were on display at a Brooklyn, New York, amusement park for the summer, ending in the custody of the unscrupulous Truman K. Hunt, a showman "on the run across America with the tribe in tow."


title: Igorot people

text: On February 12, 1912, a Mountain Province Igorot chief named Gagaban became the first Filipino to fly in an airplane, riding as a passenger in a biplane called the "Red Devil" with Lee Hammond as the pilot.


title: Igorot people

text: During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, Igorots fought against Japan. Donald Blackburn's World War II guerrilla force had a strong core of Igorots. A young Igorot woman, Naomi Flores, was an important member of the Miss U Spy Ring.


title: Igorot people

text: On June 18, 1966, "Republic Act No. 4695" was enacted to split Mountain Province and create four separate and independent provinces namely Benguet, Ifugao, Kalinga-Apayao, and Mountain Province. Ifugao and Kalinga-Apayao were placed under the jurisdiction of the Cagayan Valley region, with Benguet and Mountain Province placed under the Ilocos Region.


title: Igorot people

text: After the declaration of Martial law by Ferdinand Marcos in 1972, the region became the focus of militarization as a result of local objections to the government's push for the Chico River Dam Project near Sadanga, Mountain Province and Tinglayan, Kalinga. Frustrated by the project delays caused by the opposition, Ferdinand Marcos issued Presidential Decree no. 848 in December 1975, constituting the municipalities of Lubuagan, Tinglayan, Tanudan, and Pasil into a "Kalinga Special Development Region" (KSDR), in an effort to neutralize opposition to the Chico IV dam.


title: Igorot people

text: Empowered by Martial Law to conduct warrantless arrests, the 60th PC Brigade had arrested at least 150 locals by April 1977, accusing them of supposed subversion and of obstructing government projects, and various other offenses such as boycotting the October 1976 Constitutional Referendum. Individuals arrested included tribal "papangat" (leaders/elders), young couples, and in at least one case, a 12-year-old child. By December 1978, parts of the Chico IV area had been declared "free fire zones", no-man's-land areas where the army could freely fire on any animals or permit-less humans at will.


title: Igorot people

text: On April 24, 1980, Marcos-controlled military forces assassinated Macli-ing Dulag, a "pangat" (leader) of the Butbut tribe of Kalinga. The assassination became a watershed moment, marking the first time the mainstream Philippine press could be openly critical against Marcos and the military, and building up a sense of Igorot identity that eventually led to Cordillera autonomy.


title: Igorot people

text: After the end of the Marcos administration due to the 1986 People Power Revolution, the succeeding government under President Corazon Aquino secured a ceasefire with the main indigenous armed group in the Cordilleras, the Cordillera People's Liberation Army led by Conrado Balweg. The Aquino government made a "sipat" or indigenous treaty, which would be known as the Mount Data Peace Accord, with the CPLA on September 13, 1986, ending hostilities.


title: Igorot people

text: In 2014, Victoria Tauli-Corpuz, an indigenous rights advocate, of Igorot ethnicity, was appointed UN Special Rapporteur on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.


title: Igorot people

text: In February 2021, Mountain Province Representative Maximo Y. Dalog Jr. wrote Philippine Education Secretary Leonor Briones to look into learning materials that allegedly discriminated against Igorots for their physical appearance and manner of dress. One learning module inaccurately described Igorots as having curly hair. Department of Education Regional Director Estela L. Cariño apologized on behalf of the department, noting that copies of the book were retrieved when its contents were brought to the department's attention.


title: Ouya

text: The Ouya ( ), stylized as OUYA, is an Android-based microconsole developed by Ouya Inc. Julie Uhrman founded the project in 2012, bringing in designer Yves Béhar to collaborate on its design and Muffi Ghadiali as VP of Product Management to put together the engineering team. Development was funded via Kickstarter, raising 8.5 million, becoming one of the website's highest earning projects in its history.


title: Ouya

text: Units started to ship to Kickstarter backers in March 2013 and were released to the general public in June 2013. It featured a store for applications and games designed specifically for the Ouya platform, the majority of which were casual games. Out of the box, Ouya supports media apps such as Twitch and the Kodi media center. It runs a modified version of Android Jelly Bean, with rooting being officially encouraged. The console's hardware design allows it to be easily opened up, requiring only a standard screwdriver for easy modding and possible hardware add-ons.


title: Ouya

text: All systems can be used as development kits, allowing any Ouya owner to also be a developer, without the need for licensing fees. All games were initially required to have some kind of free-to-play aspect, whether they be completely free, have a free trial, or have optional purchasable upgrades, levels, or other in-game items. This requirement was later removed.


title: Ouya

text: Despite the successful Kickstarter campaign, the Ouya was criticized after launch as a commercial failure. Sales were lackluster, game developers failed to embrace the platform, and incentives offered to promote adoption failed causing financial problems for Ouya Inc. and forcing the company to wind down the business. Its software assets were sold to Razer Inc., who announced the discontinuation of the console in July 2015. Razer continued to provide software support for existing Ouya units until June 2019, when it shut down the Ouya storefront, services and accounts, rendering the use of the many applications that required a check-in with the store impossible.


title: Ouya

text: Ouya was announced on July 3, 2012 as a new home video game console, led by Julie Uhrman, the chief executive officer of Santa Monica, California-based Boxer8, Inc. (later rebranded Ouya, Inc. on August 13, 2012). On July 10, Ouya started a campaign to gauge how many people were interested in the project. Boxer8 confirmed having a working prototype with in-progress software and user interface. It features an Nvidia Tegra 3 chip and a price tag of $99 ($95 for 1000 "early birds" backers of the Kickstarter campaign).


title: Ouya

text: The Kickstarter fundraising goal was $950,000, with a month to reach that goal; within 8 hours it surpassed $1 million. Funding continued to increase as more models were made available at various funding levels. According to Kickstarter, in reaching its goal, Ouya holds the record for best first-day performance of any project hosted to date. Within the first 24 hours, the project attracted one backer every 5.59 seconds. Ouya became the eighth project in Kickstarter history to raise more than a million dollars and was the quickest project ever to do so. The Kickstarter campaign finished on August 9 with $8,596,475 at 904% of their goal. This made the Ouya Kickstarter the fifth-highest earning in the website's history at the time.


title: Ouya

text: Ouya units for Kickstarter funders started to ship on March 28, 2013. On June 25, 2013, the Ouya was released to the public for $99.


title: Ouya

text: Ouya announced the "Free the Games Fund" in July 2013 with the goal to support developers making games exclusively for their system with Ouya matching a Kickstarter campaign's pledge dollar-for-dollar if a minimum of $50,000 is raised, but only if the game will be an Ouya exclusive for six months.


title: Ouya

text: In October 2013, Uhrman stated that the company planned on releasing a new iteration of the Ouya console sometime in 2014, with an improved controller, double the storage space, and better Wi-Fi. On November 23, 2013, a limited edition white Ouya with double the storage of the original and a new controller design was available for pre-order at $129.


title: Ouya

text: As of January 1, 2014, the limited edition white Ouya went off sale and cannot be found on the official store, nor from any official resellers. On January 31, 2014, a new black version of the Ouya was released with double storage and new controller design.


title: Ouya

text: In January 2015, Ouya received an investment of US$10 million from Alibaba with the possibility of incorporating some of Ouya technologies into Alibaba's set-top box.


title: Ouya

text: In April 2015, it was revealed that Ouya was trying to sell the company because it failed to renegotiate its debt. On July 27, 2015, it was announced that Razer Inc. had acquired Ouya's employees and content library and that Ouya hardware was now discontinued. The deal does not include Ouya's hardware assets. Owners were encouraged to migrate to Razer's own Forge microconsole; Ouya's content library will be integrated into the Forge ecosystem, and "[the] Ouya brand name will live on as a standalone gaming publisher for Android TV and Android-based TV consoles." On the same day Uhrman stepped down as Ouya's CEO.


title: Ouya

text: The technical team and developer relations personnel behind Ouya joined the software team of Razer, which developed its own game platform called the Forge TV. The Forge TV was discontinued in 2016.


title: Ouya

text: On May 21, 2019, Razer released a statement which announced that online accounts and services would be discontinued on June 25, 2019. According to Razer, most apps will become unusable on the platform, many relying on the user accounts to work. Razer suggests that users may be able to transfer purchases to other storefront platforms like Google Play, if developers and publishers agree to such.


title: Ouya

text: The Ouya is a cube designed to be used with a TV as the display via an HDMI connection. It ships with a single wireless controller, but it can also support multiple controllers. Games are available via digital distribution or can be side-loaded.


title: Ouya

text: The Ouya controller is a typical gamepad with dual analog sticks, a directional pad, 4 face buttons (labeled O, U, Y, and A) and pairs of back bumpers and triggers. It also includes a single-touch touchpad in the center of the controller. The Ouya controller also has magnetically attached faceplates which enclose the 2 AA batteries, one on each side of the removable plates.


title: Ouya

text: Alternate controllers may be used with the console (including those from the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii) but only for compatible games.


title: Ouya

text: While initial reception of the Ouya was positive, raising $3.7 million on Kickstarter in the first two days, there were a number of vocal critics who were skeptical of the ability of the fledgling company to deliver a product at all. On July 12, 2012, "PC Magazine"s Sascha Segan ran an op-ed entitled "Why Kickstarter's Ouya Looks Like a Scam" which was critical not only of the Ouya but of all Kickstarter-funded hardware projects. "Unreality Magazine" defended the Ouya, stating "A scam implies some sort of intentionally illegal deceit. [...] Tapping multiple investors from multiple sources isn't a scam, it's not even illegal, it's business."


title: Ouya

text: "Engadget" reviewed the Kickstarter pre-release version of the Ouya on April 3, 2013. While praising the low cost and ease of hacking the console, it reported issues with controller buttons becoming stuck beneath the controller plating and the right analog stick snagging on the plating. It also reported a slight lag between the controller and the console and went on to say the controller was "usable, but it's far from great."


title: Ouya

text: "The Verge" reported similar issues with the controller and questioned its construction quality. While they praised the hacking and openness of the console, calling it "a device with lots of potential and few true limitations", the review was mostly negative and was critical of the interface and game launch choice and stated that "Ouya isn't a viable gaming platform, or a good console, or even a nice TV interface."


title: Ouya

text: "Engadget" reviewed the retail version of the Ouya, and noted a largely improved experience as compared to what they found with their pre-release unit. Improvements to the gamepad were "huge", and they found "that the UI has been cleaned up and sped up". Engadget concluded that their "latest experience with the Android-based gaming device [left them] feeling optimistic" and that the company was "taking customer feedback seriously".


title: Ouya

text: "Digital Trends" called the final retail console "a device with a lot of potential built with love", and called the design a "sleek and cool-looking cube filled with gamingy goodness". The mostly positive review cited a lot of potential for the future, but was tempered by noting deficiencies in performance ("as powerful as many current smartphones"), and pointing out that the Ouya won't be able to compete with the "big three" console makers on performance, but must rely on carving out a niche in the market.


title: Ouya

text: "ExtremeTech" found that Ouya "has a number of serious faults". They mentioned the sub-par controller, the connectivity issues, and games which worked flawlessly on smartphones but stuttered on the console. Also, they remarked that "there just aren’t enough worthwhile games to play".


title: Ouya

text: Market analyst NPD Group described Ouya sales in its first month as "relatively light", while several outlets noted low sales of games on the service in initial reports from developers. In April 2014, developer Maddy Thorson stated that their title "TowerFall", the Ouya's most popular game at the time, had only sold 7,000 copies for the console. The Ouya in total sold around 200,000 units.


title: Ouya

text: In July 2013, Ouya announced the "Free the Games Fund", a scheme to help fund developers, where Ouya would match any Kickstarter campaign if a minimum target of $50,000 was reached, and provided the game remained Ouya exclusive for six months. Suspicions were raised concerning the first two games to reach the target. Commentators noticed the small number of backers each pledging a high value amount, the large number of those who had never backed a project before, as well as the use of duplicate names and avatars that included those of celebrities. This led some to suggest that the projects were artificially inflating their project's backing in order to receive extra money from Ouya. In addition, one project had a backer whose identity appeared to be taken from that of a missing person's case.


title: Ouya

text: Nevertheless, Ouya rejected any suspicion regarding the backing of the projects, and planned to continue with providing funding. In September 2013, funding for one of the games that had reached its target ("Elementary, My Dear Holmes") was later suspended by Kickstarter. The developers of the other funded game, "Gridiron Thunder", threatened litigation against a commenter on the Kickstarter page, and further dismissed concerns that they would have no rights to official NFL branding, a license currently held by Electronic Arts. In the same month, another project, "Dungeons the Eye of Draconus", caused controversy by openly stating that a relative of one developer had provided substantial additional backing in order to have the project qualify for money from the Free the Games fund. The project was removed by Ouya from the Free the Games fund, resulting in the developers removing the project from Kickstarter.


title: Ouya

text: Many developers criticized the fund's rules. Sophie Houlden removed her game, "Rose and Time", from the Ouya marketplace in protest. Matt Gilgenbach, who was trying to finance his game "Neverending Nightmares" with help from the fund, said, "It would kill me if due to other projects abusing the Free the Games Fund, people lost confidence in our project and what we are trying to do...While I believe in the idea of the Free the Games Fund, I think it definitely could use some reform in light of the potential avenues for abuse." A month later, Sophie revealed that she and several other developers had been in talks with Ouya boss Julie Uhrman, who accepted their criticism, saying: "Developers were telling us over and over, 'You're being too idealistic, and you're being too naive.' That was the part that personally took me a while to understand." Ouya changed the fund rules, including adding a dollar-per-backer limit. Satisfied the matter was resolved, "Rose and Time" was returned to the Ouya marketplace, and "Neverending Nightmares" qualified for funding under the new rules.


title: Ouya

text: On September 18, 2013, Ouya modified the exclusivity clause of the fund. Developers would still not be able to release their software on mobile devices, video game consoles, and set-top boxes during the six-month exclusivity period, but they would be allowed to release on other personal computer systems, such as Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux, during that time.


title: Bergman Island

text: Bergman Island is a 2021 romantic drama film written and directed by Mia Hansen-Løve. It stars Vicky Krieps, Tim Roth, Mia Wasikowska and Anders Danielsen Lie.


title: Bergman Island

text: Krieps and Roth play a married couple of filmmakers spending a working retreat on Fårö where cracks begin to appear in their marriage.


title: Bergman Island

text: It had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on 11 July in 2021. It was released in France on 14 July in 2021 by Les Films du Losange. It was released in Sweden on 1 October in 2021.


title: Bergman Island

text: A filmmaking couple, Chris and Tony Sanders, travel to Fårö, the island where Ingmar Bergman lived and worked, to attend a film screening. Tony is an admirer of Bergman and is inspired by the island. Chris struggles with a dislike for Bergman for his personal failings, specifically in how he treated the women in his life and as a father, despite loving his movies.


title: Bergman Island

text: During the Q&A after a screening of Tony's film, Chris sneaks out. At the church where Bergman is buried she meets Hampus, a Swedish film student also participating in a residency. She decides to take him up on his offer to explore the island, leaving Tony to take the touristy Bergman Safari alone.


title: Bergman Island

text: The next day after Chris realizes how productive Tony has found his time on the island she reveals she is struggling with her work and has only a rough outline. She decides to share her work with Tony, hoping he can help her. Tony isn't at his desk in a neighboring cottage, so Chris sneaks a look at Tony's journal. She discovers that Tony has hand drawn a number of provocative and abusive pictures of female figures in painful, subjugated positions.


title: Bergman Island

text: In the screenplay Chris is writing, Amy (Mia Wasikowska), an American filmmaker in her late 20s, is travelling to Fårö for the wedding of a friend. Another one of the guests is a man named Joseph (Anders Danielsen Lie). Amy and Joseph had a love affair as teens and then rekindled their relationship as adults before breaking up once more. During the pre-wedding celebrations they spend the day together and then, after the wedding, go skinny dipping before having sex. The two discuss still being in love with each other despite both being in relationships and loving other people. Amy is crushed when she realizes that Joseph has been repeatedly unfaithful to his girlfriend. The following morning Joseph expresses regret that they slept together while Amy is unrepentant. Amy tries to continue their affair during the brief time they have left but Joseph repeatedly brushes her off. After asking if he can see her in her room on the final night, Joseph fails to come and Amy later learns he left the island without telling her. Amy returns to her rented home and Chris confesses this is where she is stuck on her screenplay offering the morbid idea that Amy could possibly attempt suicide. Several times during Chris' telling Tony interrupts Chris, takes phone calls, or is otherwise disengaged, and ultimately says he can't help her with the ending.


title: Bergman Island

text: Tony leaves Fårö to collect June and bring her to the island. Chris heads to her study to work on her screenplay.


title: Bergman Island

text: Chris travels to the Bergman Estate and runs into Hampus on his way out. He leaves her the key and she falls asleep. She is woken up by Anders Danielsen Lie who reveals that despite wrapping up his scenes for the day he has stayed in order to see Bergman's house. He expresses disappointment Chris did not write a scene in which he could appear in Bergman's house and Chris shows him the library. Later they attend a dinner with Mia Wasikowska. Anders Danielsen Lie and Chris play a game of Ludo late into the night. He thanks her for casting him in her movie before encouraging her to go to sleep before the busy day ahead.


title: Bergman Island

text: In May 2017, it was announced Greta Gerwig, John Turturro, and Mia Wasikowska had joined the cast of the film, with Mia Hansen-Løve directing from a screenplay she wrote. Charles Gillibert will serve as producer on the film, under his CG Cinema banner. In May 2018, Anders Danielsen Lie joined the cast of the film, with Rodrigo Teixeira joining as a producer, under his RT Features banner. In August 2018, it was announced Vicky Krieps had joined the cast of the film, replacing Gerwig who had to drop out due to scheduling conflicts. Piano also served as a producer on the film, along with co-producer Charlotte Dauphin of Dauphin Films. In May 2019, Tim Roth joined the cast of the film.


title: Bergman Island

text: Principal photography began on 9 August 2018 on Fårö, an island in Sweden. Production paused on 11 September 2018 and recommenced on 17 June 2019.


title: Bergman Island

text: "Bergman Island" had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on 11 July 2021. It was released in France on 14 July 2021 by Les films du losange, in Germany on 4 November 2021 by Weltkino Filmverleih, in Mexico on 6 January 2022 by Cinépolis Distribución, and in Brazil on 24 February 2022 by Pandora Filmes. In June 2021, IFC Films acquired US distribution rights to the film, while Mubi acquired the rights for UK and Ireland distribution. It was also selected in the Icon section of the 26th Busan International Film Festival and was screened in the festival in October 2021. The film had its North American premiere at the 2021 Toronto International Film Festival on 13 September 2021.


title: Bergman Island

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, "Bergman Island" holds an approval rating of 84% based on reviews from 160 critics, with an average rating of 7.5/10. The site's critics consensus reads, "Minor but charming, the well-acted "Bergman Island" uses the titular filmmaker's legacy as the launchpad for a dreamlike rumination on romance and creativity." On Metacritic, the film holds a rating of 80 out of 100, based on 32 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Ronald Frederick Atkinson (born 18 March 1939), commonly known as "Big Ron" or "Mr. Bojangles", is an English former football player and manager. In the 1990s and early 2000s, he was regarded as one of Britain's best-known football pundits.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Nicknamed "The Tank" during his playing career, he represented Oxford United for 12 years, and still holds the club record for appearances. As a manager, he won the FA Cup with Manchester United in 1983 and 1985 and the Football League Cup with Sheffield Wednesday in 1991 and Aston Villa in 1994.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson was born in Liverpool but his family moved to Shard End (then in Warwickshire, now an area of Birmingham). He attended Lea Village Secondary School. After beginning his career as a ground staff boy at Wolverhampton Wanderers, he was signed by Aston Villa from works team BSA Tools at the age of 17, but never played a first-team match for them. He has referred to then Villa coach Jimmy Hogan as his biggest influence.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: He was transferred to Oxford United (then called Headington United) in the summer of 1959 on a free transfer. There he played alongside his younger brother Graham Atkinson. He went on to make over 500 appearances in all competitions as a wing-half for the club, earning, in his playing days the nickname: "The Tank", and scoring a total of 14 goals. He was United's captain through their rise from the Southern League to the Second Division, achieved in only six years from 1962 to 1968, an impressive achievement. He was the first ever footballer to captain a club from the Southern League through three divisions of the Football League and played three seasons in the second division.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: After retiring from playing, Atkinson became manager player of non-league Kettering Town in 1971, aged only 32. His success there led to a move to the league with Cambridge United, in November 1974, going on to win the Fourth Division in 1977 and leaving them when they were on the verge of promotion to the Second Division which they later achieved that season under Atkinson's assistant John Docherty.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In January 1978, Atkinson moved to manage First Division West Bromwich Albion. He soon signed Brendon Batson from his former club, to play alongside Laurie Cunningham and Cyrille Regis. Never before had a team in the top division of English football simultaneously fielded three black players on a regular basis.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson led West Bromwich Albion to third place in the league in the season 1978–79 and also to the UEFA Cup quarter-finals. On 30 December 1978 they achieved a famous 5–3 victory over Manchester United at Old Trafford. The club were second in the table at the time, only beaten off top spot from Liverpool by goal difference. They finished fourth in 1981, and shortly after this Atkinson was appointed the manager of Manchester United after the dismissal of Dave Sexton.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson was seen as the man who could bring the spark to Manchester United that had been so sorely lacking under his predecessor. Dave Sexton had taken them to second place in the league in 1980 but did not win a major trophy in his four years at the club.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: United had finished eighth in the season before Atkinson's appointment, and Atkinson had actually missed out of the chance of overseeing a UEFA Cup campaign by departing from Albion and taking over at United.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In the 1981–82 season, United finished third in the First Division, to qualify for the UEFA Cup, though for much of the season they were one of several teams who topped the table before a late surge from Liverpool saw Bob Paisley's team seal the title. Early in the season he had paid a national record £1.5 million for Bryan Robson from his old club West Bromwich Albion, and shortly afterwards also added midfielder Remi Moses (also from West Bromwich Albion) and Arsenal striker Frank Stapleton to his ranks. He also gave a debut to promising young forward Norman Whiteside in April 1982, just before the player's 17th birthday.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In the 1982–83 season, two appearances at Wembley, one of which was an FA Cup victory against Brighton & Hove Albion, coupled with another third-place finish in the league, fuelled speculation that United were back in a big way. During the first half of the season, they had topped the league more than once but a storming run of form by Liverpool beginning before Christmas meant that the title headed for Anfield for the second year running. 1982–83 also saw the breakthrough of young Norman Whiteside as one of the best performing players in the First Division. Whiteside was also on the scoresheet for the FA Cup final replay as United beat Brighton 4–0 after drawing the first game 2–2.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In the 1983–84 season, Atkinson's side reached the semi-finals of the European Cup Winners' Cup although their defence of the FA Cup ended at the first hurdle with a shock 2–0 defeat at Third Division team AFC Bournemouth. They finished fourth in the league, having topped the table at several stages once again, before injuries to key players counted against them and they dropped points.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: The end of the season saw the sale of key midfielder Ray Wilkins to A.C. Milan of Italy for £1.5 million, while the duration of the season had seen the breakthrough of young striker Mark Hughes. Rather than plunge into the transfer market for a big name, Atkinson shifted Norman Whiteside into midfield to fill the gap left by Wilkins and allowed Hughes to form a partnership with the experienced Frank Stapleton.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In the 1984–85 season, United again won the FA Cup. However, Atkinson and his team were denied the chance of another European Cup Winners Cup campaign as the Heysel disaster at the European Cup final that year resulted in an indefinite ban on all English clubs in European competitions (ultimately lasting five years).


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In the 1985–86 season, they won their first 10 games of the league season and were unbeaten after their first 15 games to build a comfortable lead at the top of the table that lasted into the new year. However, their form tailed off badly and they again finished fourth, with Liverpool finishing the season as league champions. With the ban on English clubs in European competitions continuing, there was not even the consolation of a UEFA Cup place. United's title chances were not helped by the fact that captain Bryan Robson was only available for half of United's league games due to injuries. It is also worth noting that most of the teams that United defeated in their 10-match winning start to the season failed to finish anywhere near the top of the league, and two of them finished the season relegated. United only took 10 points out of a possible 30 from the five other teams who finished in the top six.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: There was more disappointment for United's fans when the sale of Mark Hughes to Spanish club Barcelona was announced at the end of the season. Atkinson had prepared for Hughes's departure in March 1986 by paying Nottingham Forest £570,000 for England striker Peter Davenport. Although Davenport was their top scorer in the 1986–87 season, he failed to achieve the same success as Hughes and was not a popular figure among fans, even when performing well.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Despite media speculation that Atkinson would be sacked in favour of Aberdeen manager Alex Ferguson or Barcelona manager Terry Venables, the 1986–87 season began with Atkinson still at the helm. His two FA Cup wins and five successive top four league finishes had made him more successful than any manager at Manchester United since Matt Busby, but the pressure to build on the earlier successes was becoming more intense than ever. The 1986–87 season opened disastrously with three successive defeats, and despite a minor upturn in September and October which included a 5–1 home win over Southampton in the league, the pressure on Atkinson remained intense and the board finally ran out of patience on 6 November 1986 when he was dismissed as manager two days after a 4–1 exit at the hands of Southampton in the League Cup. United were still in the bottom four of the First Division with a third of the season already gone.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson returned to West Brom in the autumn of 1987, by which time they had fallen into the Second Division and were battling against relegation to the Third Division. Survival was achieved, as Albion finished the 1987–88 season in 20th place, and they began the 1988–89 season well, looking like serious promotion contenders.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Following his time at Manchester United, Atkinson was due to take charge of Atlético Madrid, however internal politics at Atlético delayed his appointment, with Atkinson returning to manage West Brom in the meantime. In October 1988, Atkinson was finally appointed manager of Atlético Madrid, winning his first game in charge 6–1 against Espanyol.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson's tenure at Atlético was quite a turbulent one and despite relative moderate success in terms of league position, a clash of personalities with the then-owner of the club, Jesús Gil, led to Atkinson being sacked after just three months as manager. His right-hand man at West Bromwich Albion, Colin Addison, was appointed – much to the distaste of Atkinson, who went on record in the English media as saying Addison had "stabbed him in the back". The pair never worked together again following the events at Atlético.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson went on to manage Sheffield Wednesday from February 1989 to June 1991. Although the club were relegated to the Second Division in May 1990 after a 3–0 home defeat against Nottingham Forest, Atkinson secured promotion back to the First Division the following season. They also won the League Cup that year, beating Manchester United 1–0 at Wembley. On 31 May 1991 Atkinson stated he would be remaining as Wednesday's manager, only to leave for Aston Villa a week later, a move that upset many Sheffield Wednesday fans.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Taking over from Jozef Venglos, Atkinson led Aston Villa to second place in the inaugural FA Premier League season in 1992–93 and to victory in the League Cup in 1994, securing (ultimately short-lived) UEFA Cup campaigns for both of these successes. As of 2021, Atkinson's second place remains the highest-ever finish by an English manager in the Premier League, subsequently equalled by Kevin Keegan in 1995–96.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Despite leading Villa to their first major success since their 1982 European Cup triumph, a mutual dislike between Villa chairman Doug Ellis and Atkinson that developed from 1992, inevitably resulted in him being sacked on 10 November 1994 following a 4–3 defeat at the hands of Wimbledon – three days after Ellis had given Ron a 'vote of confidence' in the media, stating that Atkinson was one of England's top three football managers. By this stage, an ageing Villa side that had so nearly won the league title 18 months earlier were now among the relegation battlers. He was replaced by Brian Little, who kept Villa in the top flight and built a new younger team.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Three months after being sacked by Villa, Atkinson became manager at Coventry City replacing Phil Neal, who was purposely and acrimoniously sacked to make way for him. He took over in mid-February 1995, with the Sky Blues just above the Premier League relegation zone. His new team managed some good results, including a 4–2 home win over local rivals Leicester City, a 3–2 away win over Liverpool and a point against a Blackburn Rovers side who ended the season as champions. With survival looking certain several games before the season ended, Atkinson was named Premier League Manager of the Month for March 1995. The penultimate game of the season brought another fine result when the Sky Blues travelled to North London and beat Tottenham Hotspur 3–1. Survival was finally confirmed as Atkinson guided the Sky Blues to a 16th-place finish.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In December 1995, Atkinson guided the Sky Blues to one of their best results of the 1990s – a 5–0 home win over defending champions Blackburn Rovers. During his spell as manager of Coventry, he brought in high-profile players including Gordon Strachan, Noel Whelan and Gary McAllister (although in his autobiography he states that this latter signing was Strachan's initiative and he was opposed for tactical reasons) but they continued to struggle in the Premier League and by November 1996 he had become Director of Football, handing over managerial duties to Strachan, who by then had retired as a player and had become assistant manager.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In November 1997, he returned to Sheffield Wednesday following the sacking of David Pleat. Wednesday had made a poor start to the 1997–98 season, including a 7–2 loss at Blackburn and a 6–1 loss at Manchester United. Under Atkinson, Wednesday's form picked up immediately and they pulled well clear of relegation trouble, but he was not rewarded with a permanent contract, as revenge by the chairman for leaving the club 7 years prior.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson's last managerial job came with Nottingham Forest, for the final four months of the 1998–99 season. This spell was not a success and at his first home game against Arsenal he even climbed into the wrong dug-out. He also angered a number of Forest fans following an 8–1 defeat at home to Manchester United, when he stated in an interview after the game that his team had given the fans a "nine-goal thriller".


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson took over as manager on 11 January 1999 and Forest's relegation was confirmed on 24 April with a 2–0 defeat at his old club Aston Villa. He announced his resignation as manager within hours of the final whistle, with effect from the final game of the league season on 16 May, and said that he would be retiring from football management altogether.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson was already working as a pundit for ITV Sport and after leaving management he continued in this role. For a number of years he covered most of the channel's live matches, sometimes as a studio guest, but more often as the "ex-football insider" member of a two-man commentary team. His commentaries with Brian Moore and then Clive Tyldesley provided the basis for the 1990s and early-2000s ITV Champions League nights. He was also the main co-commentator for ITV's coverage of the European Championships and the World Cup during this period. He also fronted two series of "Extra Time With Ron Atkinson" for Central ITV with Ron interviewing football personalities like Kevin Keegan, Terry Venables and Martin O'Neill.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In August 2013, Atkinson became a housemate on the twelfth series of "Celebrity Big Brother". He was the second housemate to be evicted on Day 9 after receiving the fewest votes to save him against Charlotte Crosby, Courtney Stodden, Lauren Harries and Louie Spence.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In 2002, Atkinson released a Christmas song, "It's Christmas – Let's Give Love a Try", but this failed to gain chart success. The following year, Ron Atkinson guested on an episode of TV chat show "Room 101" and host Paul Merton played the video as outro to the show.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Following his sacking from Atlético Madrid, club president Jesús Gil claimed Atkinson had racially abused his own player, Donato, during his final game in charge of the club, against Barcelona in January 1989.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson resigned from ITV on 21 April 2004, after he broadcast a racial remark live on air about the black Chelsea player Marcel Desailly; believing the microphone to be switched off, he said, "...he [Desailly] is what is known in some schools as a fucking lazy, thick nigger". Although transmission in the UK had finished, the microphone gaffe meant that his comment was broadcast to various countries in the Middle East. He also left his job as a columnist for "The Guardian" "by mutual agreement" as a result of the comment.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Carlton Palmer, one of Atkinson's players while he was manager at Sheffield Wednesday, defended his former boss by saying, "I'm black and I'm sitting here and I'm gonna stand up for Big Ron not because he's a friend of mine; I'm standing up for him because I know what he's like as a bloke. If we're going to deal with racism then let's deal with the bigger picture of racism not about a throwaway comment that wasn't meant in that manner." A BBC Radio documentary about Batson, Cunningham and Regis, entitled "Three Degrees West", repeated on 16 May 2004, was cancelled owing to Atkinson's central contributions.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Also in 2004, Atkinson said to an audience at Hillsborough Stadium: "The Chinese people have the best contraception in the world - their women are so ugly. I can't understand why there are so many of them."


title: Ron Atkinson

text: On "Celebrity Big Brother" in 2013, he jokingly asked fellow contestant, Irish doctor Danielle Marr, "you're not carrying a bomb with you, are you?", when she draped her jumper over her head like a headscarf.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: It was reported Atkinson was being brought in to support Iffy Onuora at Swindon Town in December 2005, and Atkinson and the club appeared to confirm this. It later transpired that Atkinson's role was as part of a Sky One documentary about the club being filmed at the County Ground. In late January 2006, Atkinson and Swindon Town parted company, with Swindon manager Onuora citing interference as the main reason for stopping the documentary from going ahead. Just a week later the cameras turned up at Peterborough United's ground, London Road, to begin filming for the documentary called "Big Ron Manager". Peterborough were paid £100,000 to allow the filming to take place.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson spent the 2006 World Cup recording an amateur video blog and distributing it through the UK-based video sharing site SelfcastTV.com. He also provided commentary on the World Cup for the UK digital channel UKTV G2.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In 2006, Atkinson took part in the BBC Two programme "Excuse My French". Atkinson, comedian Marcus Brigstocke and television presenter Esther Rantzen were immersed in the French language by staying in a remote town in the Provence region, being compelled to adapt to the French lifestyle and speak the language. His assignment at the end of the course was to provide a match analysis on a football match (Paris Saint-Germain – AS Monaco) in French for a French radio station. Being a complete beginner to the French language, he found the experience a considerable challenge, although he succeeded. The assignment was made more difficult by the fact that the match was a dull goalless draw, leaving him with little to talk about.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: He briefly made a return to television, appearing as a pundit on "Football Italia" broadcast on Bravo. Since Serie A coverage has been shown on Five and ESPN, Atkinson has not been invited as a pundit.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson returned to the screen on 16 August 2009 on the Channel 4 reality show "Celebrity Wife Swap". When questioned about his controversial comments by swappee Tessa Sanderson, he refused to discuss it.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson brought out an autobiography "60 Minutes with Ron Atkinson", in which he talks about his controversial comments and his football career.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: Atkinson is currently a pundit on William Hill's "The Punt" podcast and on Manchester United's channel MUTV. In October 2019, he made a return to broadcasting, commentating on 6 a side World Cup final in Crete, alongside UK commentator John Gwynne.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: On 23 January 2007, Atkinson returned to Kettering Town, the club he had managed more than 30 years previously, as director of football. It was announced on 19 April 2007 that he had left the post at the Conference North club following his disapproval over the sacking of manager Morell Maison.


title: Ron Atkinson

text: In December 2018, Atkinson was announced as an ambassador for worldwide 6-a-side football firm, Leisure Leagues, as part of the deal he was to act as Director Of Football for the England 6-a-side team.


title: Daniel Webber (actor)

text: Daniel Peter Webber (born 28 June 1988) is an Australian actor. Among his best known roles, Webber has portrayed Mötley Crüe lead singer Vince Neil in the 2019 film "The Dirt", Lee Harvey Oswald in the American science fiction thriller miniseries "11.22.63" and Lewis Wilson in the Netflix original series "The Punisher".


title: Daniel Webber (actor)

text: Webber grew up on the New South Wales Central Coast and attended Green Point Christian College. He was a trampolinist and performed in the 2000 Summer Olympics closing ceremony.


title: Daniel Webber (actor)

text: Webber worked as a rope access technician on wind turbines. His first acting experience was on the 2009 film "The Combination". From 2009–2010, he portrayed Darius Pike on the TV series "K-9". He also had roles on "All Saints" and in the miniseries "Devil's Dust".


title: Daniel Webber (actor)

text: Webber's role on the J. J. Abrams-produced "11.22.63" was his first in the United States. He got the role after sending in an audition tape, which he had two days to prepare for, including watching newsreels of Oswald and listening to clips of his voice. After he was cast, he then read the novel on which it was based, as well as other books about the assassination. Webber received praise for "mastering Oswald's peculiar speech pattern and growing sense of paranoia."


title: Daniel Webber (actor)

text: In 2016, he starred alongside Lena Headey and fellow Australian Eliza Taylor in the police drama film "Thumper".


title: Daniel Webber (actor)

text: Webber played a distraught United States Army veteran who suffers from PTSD in the Netflix television series "The Punisher."


title: Daniel Webber (actor)

text: In 2019, Webber portrayed Mötley Crüe lead singer Vince Neil in the 2019 Netflix film "The Dirt". He also appeared in the feature film "Danger Close," directed by Kriv Stenders.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: Darjeeling tea is a tea made from "Camellia sinensis var. sinensis" that is grown and processed in Darjeeling or Kalimpong Districts in West Bengal, India. Since 2004, the term "Darjeeling tea" has been a registered geographical indication referring to products produced on certain estates within Darjeeling and Kalimpong. The tea leaves are processed as black tea, though some estates have expanded their product offerings to include leaves suitable for making green, white and oolong teas.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: The tea leaves are harvested by plucking the plant's top two leaves and the bud, from March to November, a time span that is divided into four flushes. The first flush consists of the first few leaves grown after the plant's winter dormancy and produce a light floral tea with a slight astringency; this flush is also suitable for producing a white tea. Second flush leaves are harvested after the plant has been attacked by a leafhopper and the camellia tortrix so that the leaves create a tea with a distinctive muscatel aroma. The warm and wet weather of monsoon flush rapidly produces leaves but they are less flavorful and often used for blending. The autumn flush produces teas similar, but more muted, to the second flush.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: Tea plants were first planted in the Darjeeling region in the mid-1800s. At the time, the British were seeking an alternative supply of tea apart from China and attempted growing the plant in several candidate areas in India. Both the newly discovered "assamica" variety and the "sinensis" variety were planted but the sloped drainage, cool winters and cloud cover favoured "var. sinensis". The British established numerous tea plantations, with the majority of workers being Gorkhas and Lepchas from Nepal and Sikkim. After independence, the estates were all subsequently sold to businesses in India and regulated under the laws of India. The Soviet Union replaced the British as the primary consumers of tea from Darjeeling. As Darjeeling tea gained a reputation for its distinctiveness and quality, it was marketed more to Western Europe with many estates acquiring organic, biodynamic and Fairtrade certifications and the Tea Board of India pursuing authentication and international promotion of Darjeeling teas.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: "Camellia sinensis" was first planted in the Darjeeling area in 1841 by Archibald Campbell who was working for the East India Company in this jungle-covered, sparsely-populated area to develop a hill station for use by the British stationed in Kolkata. At the time, the British were seeking a source of tea outside of China and had both recently discovered a second variety of the plant growing in the wilderness of Assam and smuggled seeds and plantings out of China. The Chinese variety ("sinensis") was planted in Saharanpur Botanical Gardens and propagated in other Himalayan gardens where Campbell had acquired seeds from Kumaun via Nathaniel Wallich. While the original plantings succeeded, Campbell moved to Lebong where he and several other residents planted a new batch, in 1846, of both varieties ("sinensis" and "assamica"). A year after planting the first three Company experimental tea gardens in 1852, at Tukvar, Steinthal and Alubari, they reported having 2,000 tea plants and Robert Fortune was sent to provide an expert opinion on the "suitableness of the climate and soil of the Hills for the cultivation and manufacture of Tea". While both varieties grew, the "sinensis" variety was flourishing, as it was found "assamica" preferred warmer and wetter growing conditions while "sinensis" had been selectively cultivated for higher elevations. The first commercial tea gardens were established in 1856 and by 1866 there were 39 tea gardens in Darjeeling, including the Makaibari Tea Estate which had established the region's first processing factory for withering and oxidation, necessary for the product to survive the months long journey down to Kolkata and over to Britain. Success of "assamica" at the nearby Dooars-Terai tea gardens led to infrastructure investments that would be extend up the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region, allowing more machinery and supplies to reach the tea gardens. Darjeeling's population had grown from less than a 100 in the 1830s to 95,000 people with 100 tea gardens in 1885, predominantly Indian Gorkha and Lepcha migrants from Nepal and Sikkim, as the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway, the use of steamships and the Suez Canal reduced shipping times.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: After the British nationalized the East India Company it only ever leased the lands to tea garden owners on 30 year basis and maintained the practice of only permitting 40% to be used for tea crops with 40% being left natural and 20% for housing and facilities. Following Indian independence in 1947, practices shifted as British began to sell their stakes in the gardens to Indians and the 1953 "Tea Act" put the tea industry under the regulatory jurisdiction of the Tea Board of India. With more area being opened for tea crops at the expense of natural area and the introduction of pesticides and fertilizers, yields increased from 7.8 to 10 million kilograms between 1950 and 1960, though this came at the cost of increased soil instability. Despite a limited exemption for the tea industry the 1973 "Foreign Exchange Regulations Act" the new foreign ownership limitations resulted in Indian nationals becoming majority owners of the Darjeeling tea industry. As the Soviet Union replaced the United Kingdom as India's largest tea customers, Darjeeling gardens were supplemented with "assamica" plantings to accommodate their preference for that variety.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: Production methods again shifted in the 1990s as Western Europe and Japan replaced the collapsed Soviet Union as Darjeeling's principal customers and new garden managers were bringing the principles of biodynamic agriculture to their practices. In 1988, Makaibari became the first tea estate in India to attain organic certification, followed by Tumsong, and the first to gain biodynamic certification, in 1993, followed by Ambootia. Darjeeling could not compete with other tea regions in terms of quantity or price (due to its geographic limitations, remoteness, slower plant growth, inability to mechanize, among other factors) or so it focused on quality. While the certifications provided an indication of a superior product, its practices also helped the gardens cope with erosion, slope instability and soil depletion that had become prevalent with pesticide and artificial fertilizer applications on the rainy hillsides. Yields had reached 14 million kilograms in 1994 but, with organic practices over much of the tea gardens, yields fell to an average of 9 million kilograms in the late-2010s. In pursuit of differentiating Darjeeling tea, the Darjeeling Planter's Association had been established in 1983, to promote the product in other countries.ccording to estimate by Tea Board of India, of Darjeeling tea was produced in 2021; this constitutes about 0.005% of total produced in India.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: In 1983 a logo was created, currently property of the Tea Board of India, consisting of the side profile of a woman holding two leaves and a bud. It is registered as a certification trade mark in the UK, USA, Australia and Taiwan, as a collective trade mark in the EU and registered internationally in the Madrid system. In 2000, the Tea Board created new licensing requirements for Darjeeling tea exporters, including product authentication and a prohibition on blending, which allowed them to issue certificates of origin. In 2004, Darjeeling tea became India's first product to receive legal geographical indication protection under the World Trade Organization's TRIPS Agreement and in 2011 it was given Protected Geographical Indication status in the European Union.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: Environmental factors combined with a history of organized cultivation and processing has created a terroir unique to Darjeeling tea. It has been marketed as the "Champagne of teas" and been subject to undisclosed blending with other teas or purposeful mis-labelling. Relative to other teas, Darjeeling tea is most similar to Nepali tea.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: Darjeeling tea is grown in the Darjeeling and Kalimpong districts, an area bound by Nepal to the west, Bhutan to the east and Sikkim to the north. The Tea Board of India defines "Darjeeling Tea" as having "been cultivated, grown, produced, manufactured and processed in tea gardens in the hilly areas of Sadar Subdivision, only hilly areas of Kalimpong District..., and Kurseong subdivision...of the District of Darjeeling in the State of West Bengal, India." The tea gardens are located on the hillsides of the Eastern Himalaya, between 600 and 2,000 metres in elevation. That physical geography of the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region, between the Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal, results in the land experiencing cool air with dry winter months from November to February followed by monsoon weather in the summer months between July and September. The subtropical and wet temperate forest cover that developed under these conditions left slightly acidic loamy soils with high organic materials. Being on steep slopes, the soil is well-drained and deep enough for long root systems, necessary for anchoring soil on slopes. Being on the sides of the hills, at high elevations where cool dry air interacts with warm moist air, there can be persistent fog or cloud cover during the growing months. These are ideal conditions for the "Camellia sinensis sinensis" plant which flourishes with well-drained, slightly acidic soils, with periods of dormancy, and limited direct sunlight.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: The "Camellia sinensis" seeds originally planted came from China but new plantings come predominantly from saplings taken from a few cultivars, such as Bannockburn 157, Phoobsering 312 and Ambari Vegetative 2, which have been specifically adapted for Darjeeling. The climate creates four distinct periods of cultivation, each of which has unique characteristics. The plants are plucked by hand every five to ten days, most typically of their top two leaves and a bud, however, based on growing conditions and desired product just the bud or the bud and top leaf may sometimes be plucked.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: The first pluckings in Spring, generally March into May, are referred to as the first flush. These first leaves following the winter dormancy are the most tender leaves the plant will produce and result in a tea that has a gentle, very light colour and aroma, and a mild astringency (or briskness). The second flush is harvested in May and June, after the "Empoasca" and "Homona coffearia" have attacked the plant, releasing compounds that create a distinctive full-bodied muscatel flavour in the tea. The attacks by the leafhopper and moth release defensive chemicals from the plant and naturally begins oxidation process within the leaves. These first two flushes are the most sought after by tea connoisseurs.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: The plant rapidly grows during the monsoon flush from July to September with larger and less flavourful leaves. The persistent rain also results in less complete withering and oxidization during the processing stage. Some estates create green or white teas from these as they demand less withering and no oxidation, however, when completed as black tea this flush is often sold below the cost of production for use in blending and domestic consumption. After the rainy season, the final leaves grown before the plant's winter dormancy are referred to as the autumnal flush. They are harvested in October–November and provides a herbaceous and soft muscatel flavour but with a fuller body and darker colour than previous flushes, and is compared favorably with Nepali teas.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: With few exceptions, Darjeeling produces black teas. Each tea estate operates their own equipment so that processing can begin the same day as plucking. The leaves are first brought indoors where they are air blown overnight to dry them sufficiently so that their cells can be ruptured, initiating oxidation, when rolled without breaking the leaf. Darjeeling teas, especially the first flush, tend to be withered longer than other black teas; a hard wither can reduce a leaf's water content by more than half, affecting polyphenol oxidase activity and leaving a more green appearance. Some tea estates will produce a batch of Darjeeling oolong tea by limiting the amount of oxidation. After rolling, the leaves are left to oxidize on trays before being fired to reduce the moisture level down to approximately 2% and sealing the ruptures which will be reopened with consumer's hot water. The sorting of the dried product according to tea leaf grading is completed and shipped to Kolkata for auctioning, though many estates sell privately under contracts.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: With the exception of the first flush, orthodox (i.e. not crush, tear, curl) Darjeeling teas are generally prepared in the same manner as other black teas. Tea connoisseurs recommend a water temperature ranging between to in a single infusion of 3 to 4 minutes, whereas first flushes, like other early spring teas such as Jin Jun Mei tea, use water of slightly lower temperature at 85 to 90 °C and an infusion time of 2 to 3 minutes. For every 150 milliliters ( cup) of water used, 2 to 3 grams (one tablespoon) of loose leaf tea is added. As Darjeeling teas are low in malt and bitter characteristics and are appreciated for delicate floral and fruit aromas, milk and sweeteners are typically not added. Their high tannin content allows them to be paired well with carbohydrate-rich foods, such as baked goods and pasta.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: Darjeeling teas are best known for the muscatel flavour, described as a "musky spiciness", "a unique muscat-like fruitiness in aroma and flavour", that develops in the second flush and is present to a lesser degree in the subsequent autumnal flush. While general tea flavours are created by thearubigins and theaflavins, chemical analysis on Darjeeling teas show their unique muscatel flavour is the result of 3,7-dimethyl-1,5,7-octatrien-3-ol and 2,6-dimethyl-3,7-octa-diene-2,6-diol, with other aromatic compounds coming from linalool, benzyl alcohol, cis-3-hexenol, α-farnesene, benzyl nitrile, indole, nerolidol and ocimene. Otherwise, Darjeeling teas are described as possessing a flowery fragrance and fruity (grapes, plums, apricots, peaches, pineapple, guava, or citrus fruits), flowery and woody aroma notes, and a little more astringency than their Chinese counterparts.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: The Tea Board of India recognizes 87 tea estates (also called "tea gardens") as producers of Darjeeling tea. Cumulatively, they cover 17,500 hectares of land. Apart from these estates, a relatively small amount of tea is produced in farm cooperatives but they lack processing and quality control infrastructure. Some of the notable tea estates include:


title: Darjeeling tea

text: The Government of West Bengal owns the land on which the estates are located and administer 30 to 90 year leases under the "West Bengal Estates Acquisition Act" to companies operating the estates. The West Bengal government is also involved in providing regulatory supervision of numerous aspects of estate operations, including land use and labour agreements. The Darjeeling Tea Association (affiliated with the Indian Tea Association) is the trade association that represents the tea estates and exporters in business and labour affairs. They jointly negotiate together with the various unions and the government so that workers across numerous tea estates receive the same compensation.


title: Darjeeling tea

text: Labour relations are complex as, in addition to the seasonal influx of temporary workers, the permanent workers can be permanent residents of the estates where, pursuant to the "Plantations Labour Act", housing, education, health and other services are provided by the estate, in addition to a base salary. Because the provision of these services are required by law, fair trade organizations, such as the Fairtrade International, allow their fair trade premiums be paid to plantation owners, rather than the workers, on condition that the owners can only use the premium to offset some of the costs of providing these services. Studies of this arrangement have suggested that this has negatively effected the livelihoods of labourers, as owners have more than correspondingly reduced their contributions to the required services. This also complicates wage negotiations as marginal increases are feared to come at the expense of a loss of social services. However, the low wages contribute to a high rate of absenteeism of workers seeking higher paying work elsewhere. The tea estate workers have historically relied on workers coming from Nepal as a source of inexpensive labour. Consequently, Darjeeling, Kalimpong and Kurseong and their tea estates are populated predominantly by Indian Gorkha people. They have developed a unified ethnic identity and advocated for independence from West Bengal. Occasionally, actions of the Gorkhaland movement have disrupted operations of the Darjeeling tea estates, such as the 2017 bandh.


title: Dan + Shay

text: Dan + Shay (the plus symbol substituting for an ampersand as an 'and' indicator) is an American country pop music duo composed of vocalists and songwriters Dan Smyers and Shay Mooney. They are signed to Warner Records Nashville and have released four albums, "Where It All Began", "Obsessed", "Dan + Shay," and "Good Things". Of their nine singles, five have topped the Country Airplay chart and two have topped the Hot Country Songs chart. In addition to their own material, the group's members have collaborated with Justin Bieber, Rascal Flatts, Lindsey Stirling, RaeLynn, and Kelly Clarkson. From 2019 to 2021, the duo won three consecutive Grammy Awards for Best Country Duo/Group Performance for the songs "Tequila", "Speechless", and "10,000 Hours".


title: Dan + Shay

text: Before the duo's foundation, Mooney was a solo artist on T-Pain's Nappy Boy Entertainment label and Smyers was a member of a group called Bonaventure as well as a previous member of the band Transition on Floodgate Records. The two met in Nashville, Tennessee, in December 2012 at Dan's house during a party. There they would perform together for the first time and started writing the day after they met. The first song they ever wrote together got put on hold for Rascal Flatts. Within two months, the duo had multiple publishing offers and signed with Warner/Chappell Music.