title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: "First Dream", a long philosophical and descriptive "silva" (a poetic form combining verses of 7 and 11 syllables), "deals with the shadow of night beneath which a person falls asleep in the midst of quietness and silence, where night and day animals participate, either dozing or sleeping, all urged to silence and rest by Harpocrates. The person's body ceases its ordinary operations, which are described in physiological and symbolical terms, ending with the activity of the imagination as an image-reflecting apparatus: the Pharos. From this moment, her soul, in a dream, sees itself free at the summit of her own intellect; in other words, at the "apex" of an own pyramid-like mount, which aims at God and is luminous.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: There, perched like an eagle, she contemplates the whole creation, but fails to comprehend such a sight in a single concept. Dazzled, the soul's intellect faces its own shipwreck, caused mainly by trying to understand the overwhelming abundance of the universe, until reason undertakes that enterprise, beginning with each individual creation, and processing them one by one, helped by the Aristotelic method of ten categories.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: The soul cannot get beyond questioning herself about the traits and causes of a fountain and a flower, intimating perhaps that his method constitutes a useless effort, since it must take into account all the details, accidents, and mysteries of each being. By that time, the body has consumed all its nourishment, and it starts to move and wake up, soul and body are reunited. The poem ends with the Sun overcoming Night in a straightforward battle between luminous and dark armies, and with the poet's awakening.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Sor Juana's first volume of poetry, , was published in Spain by the Vicereine Maria Luisa Manrique de Lara y


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Gonzága, Countess of Paredes, Marquise de la Laguna. Many of her poems dealt with the subject of love and sensuality. Colombian-American translator Jaime Manrique described her poetry thus: "her love poems are expressions of a complex and ambivalent modern psyche, and because they are so passionate and ferocious that when we read them we feel consumed by the naked intensity she achieves." One of Sor Juana's sonnets:


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: In addition to the two comedies outlined here ("House of Desires" [Los empeños de una casa]) and "Love is but a Labyrinth" [Amor es mas laberinto]), Sor Juana is attributed as the author of a possible ending to the comedy by Agustin de Salazar: "The Second Celestina" (La Segunda Celestina). In the 1990s, Guillermo Schmidhuber found a release of the comedy that contained a different ending than the otherwise known ending. He proposed that those one thousand words were written by Sor Juana. Some literary critics, such as Octavio Paz, Georgina Sabat-Rivers, and Luis Leal) have accepted Sor Juana as the co-author, but others, such as Antonio Alatorre and José Pascual Buxó, have refuted it.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Scholars have debated the meaning of Juana's comedies. Julie Greer Johnson describes how Juana protested against the rigorously defined relationship between genders through her full-length comedies and humor. She argues that Juana recognized the negative view of women in comedy which was designed to uphold male superiority at the expense of women. By recognizing the power of laughter, Juana appropriated the purpose of humor, and used it as a socially acceptable medium with which to question notions of men and women.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: The work was first performed on October 4, 1683, during the celebration of the Viceroy Count of Paredes’ first son's birth. Some critics maintain that it could have been set up for the Archbishop Francisco de Aguiar y Seijas’ entrance to the capital, but this theory is not considered reliable.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: The story revolves around two couples who are in love but, by chance of fate, cannot yet be together. This comedy of errors is considered one of the most prominent works of late baroque Spanish-American literature. One of its most peculiar characteristics is that the driving force in the story is a woman with a strong, decided personality who expresses her desires to a nun. The protagonist of the story, Dona Leonor, fits the archetype perfectly.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: It is often considered the peak of Sor Juana's work and even the peak of all New-Hispanic literature. "Pawns of a House" is considered a rare work in colonial Spanish-American theater due to the management of intrigue, representation of the complicated system of marital relationships, and the changes in urban life.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: The work premiered on February 11, 1689, during the celebration of the inauguration of the viceroyalty Gaspar de la Cerda y Mendoza. However, in his Essay on Psychology, Ezequiel A. Chavez mentions Fernandez del Castillo as a coauthor of this comedy.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: The plot takes on the well-known theme in Greek mythology of Theseus: a hero from Crete Island. He fights against the Minotaur and awakens the love of Ariadne and Phaedra. Sor Juana conceived Theseus as the archetype of the baroque hero, a model also used by her fellow countryman Juan Ruiz de Alarcón. Theseus’ triumph over the Minotaur does not make Theseus proud, but instead allows him to be humble.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Besides poetry and philosophy, Sor Juana was interested in science, mathematics and music. The latter represents an important aspect, not only because musicality was an intrinsic part of the poetry of the time but also for the fact that she devoted a significant portion of her studies to the theory of instrumental tuning that, especially in the Baroque period, had reached a point of critical importance. So involved was Sor Juana in the study of music, that she wrote a treatise called "El Caracol" (which is lost now) that sought to simplify musical notation and solve the problems that Pythagorean tuning suffered.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: In the writings of Juana Inés, it is possible to detect the importance of sound. We can observe this in two ways. First of all, the analysis of music and the study of musical temperament appears in several of her poems. For instance, in the following poem, Sor Juana delves into the natural notes and the accidentals of musical notation:


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Professor Sarah Finley argues that the visual is related with patriarchal themes, while the sonorous offers an alternative to the feminine space in the work of Sor Juana. As an example of this, Finley points out that Narciso falls in love with a voice, and not with a reflection.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: One musical work attributed to Sor Juana survives from the archive of Guatemala Cathedral. This is a 4-part villancico, "Madre, la de los primores".


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Octavio Paz is credited with re-establishing the importance of the historic Sor Juana in modern times, and other scholars have been instrumental in translating Sor Juana's work to other languages. The only translations of "Carta Atenagorica" are found in "Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz: Selected Writings" by Pamela Kirk Rappaport and "The Tenth Muse: Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz" by Fanchon Royer. Translations of Sor Juana's "La Respuesta" are credited to Electa Arenal and Amanda Powell, Edith Grossman, Margaret Seyers Peden, and Alan S. Trubeblood. These translations are respectively found in "The Answer/La Respuesta, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz: Selected Works", "A Woman of Genius: The Intellectual Biography of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz" and "Poems, Protest, and a Dream", and "A Sor Juana Anthology".


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Since Sor Juana's works were rediscovered after her death, scholarly interpretations and translations are both abundant and contrasting.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Octavio Paz was a Mexican Nobel Prize laureate and scholar. In his 1982 book, "" (translated to English by Margaret Sayers Peden as "Sor Juana: Or, The Traps of Faith"), Paz examines and contemplates Sor Juana's poetry and life in the context of the history of New Spain, particularly focusing on the difficulties women then faced while trying to thrive in academic and artistic fields. Primarily, Paz aims to explain why Sor Juana chose to become a nun. In Juana Ramírez, Octavio Paz and Diane Marting find that Sor Juana's decision to become a nun stemmed from her refusal to marry; joining the convent, according to Paz and Marting, was a way for Juana to obtain authority and freedom without marrying.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: In his analyses of Sor Juana's poetry, Octavio Paz traces some of her influences to the Spanish writers of the Golden Age and the Hermetic tradition, mainly derived from the works of a noted Jesuit scholar of her era, Athanasius Kircher. Paz interprets Sor Juana's most ambitious and extensive poem, "First Dream" ("Primero Sueño") as a representation of the desire of knowledge through a number of hermetic symbols, albeit transformed in her own language and skilled image-making abilities. In conclusion, Paz makes the case that Sor Juana's works were the most important body of poetic work produced in the Americas until the arrival of 19th-century figures such as Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Tarsicio Herrera Zapién, a classical scholar, has also devoted much of his career to the study of Sor Juana's works. Some of his publications (in Spanish) include "Buena fe y humanismo en Sor Juana: diálogos y ensayos: las obras : los sorjuanistas recientes" (1984); "López Velarde y sor Juana, feministas opuestos: y cuatro ensayos sobre Horacio y Virgilio en México" (1984); "Poemas mexicanos universales: de Sor Juana a López Velarde" (1989) and "Tres siglos y cien vidas de Sor Juana" (1995).


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Scholars such as Scout Frewer argue that because Juana's advocacy for religious and intellectual authority would now be associated with feminism, she was a protofeminist. In the twenty-first century, Latin American philosophers and scholars generally interpret Sor Juana as a feminist before the time of feminism.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: For instance, scholars like Rachel O’Donnell argue that Sor Juana occupied a special place in between socially acceptable and socially unacceptable roles in seventeenth century Mexico. By examining Sor Juana intersectionally, they prioritize the context of New Spain, specifically the influence of religion, race, and social norms, in understanding Sor Juana as a female theologian and poet.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: According to O’Donnell, in colonial Mexico, education was an undertaking reserved for men, especially activities like writing and reading. Consequently, scholars like Octavio Paz argue, religion became a way for women to avoid marriage. Since Sor Juana was opposed to marriage, Paz argues, entering the convent was a socially acceptable way to be a single woman in seventeenth century Mexico. Entering the convent also meant that Sor Juana could read and write about religion despite the barriers to formal education for women. O’Donnell argues that Sor Juana was called a rare bird because although theology was only an acceptable pursuit for men in the Catholic Church, she actively studied religion. Sor Juana likely perceived wisdom and religion as inseparable, so she probably also believed that to follow God was to pursue wisdom. Other scholars, like Alicia Gaspar de Alba, offer instead the possibility that Sor Juana was located on the lesbian continuum and that the convent was a place where having relations with other women was socially acceptable. A fourth perspective suggests that considering the colonial context of New Spain and Sor Juana's background as a "criolla", she represented colonial knowledge in a way that defied colonial religious structures.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Luis Felipe Fabre criticized 'Sorjuanista' scholarship as a whole, arguing that the discourse is binary rather than complex and multilayered.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Alicia Gaspar de Alba's historical novel, "Sor Juana's Second Dream" (1999), rejects Octavio Paz's view that Sor Juana was ambivalent to sexuality, which he portrays as an explanation of her entering the convent. Instead, Gaspar de Alba interprets Sor Juana as homoerotic. According to Gaspar de Alba, it was Sor Juana's attraction to other women, which was repressed by the "patriarchal and heteronormative society outside of the convent", that led her to become a nun. She criticizes Paz for his portrayal of what she calls "Sorjuanistas", whom she claims stem from a Mexican, rather than "Indigenous viewpoint", and are "homophobic".


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: , a Mexican writer and scholar, ridicules other scholars, whom he collectively calls Sorjuanistas, who idolize Sor Juana. In his book, "Sor Juana and Other Monsters", Fabre argues that the appropriation and recontextualization imminent in scholars' interpretations of Sor Juana construct Sor Juana as either a heretic or a lesbian. Fabre suggests that such representations constitute Sor Juana as a monstrosity or abnormality rather than as a complex woman. He suggests that rather than locating Sor Juana in a fixed identity, scholarship on Sor Juana should be a fluctuating and multilayered conversation.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Margaret Sayers Peden's 1982 "A Woman of Genius: The Intellectual Autobiography of Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz", was the first English translation of Sor Juana's work. As well, Peden is credited for her 1989 translation of "Sor Juana: Or, the Traps of Faith". Unlike other translations, Peden chose to translate the title of Sor Juana's best known work, "First Dream", as "First I Dream" instead. Peden's use of first person instills authority in Sor Juana as an author, as a person with knowledge, in a male-dominated society. Peden also published her English translations of Sor Juana's work in an anthology called "Poems, Protest, and a Dream". This work includes her response to authorities censuring her, "La Respuesta", and "First Dream".


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: An equally valuable feminist analysis and interpretation of Sor Juana's life and work is found in "The Answer/La Respuesta by Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz" by Electa Arenal, a Sor Juana scholar who is recognized among feminists who changed America, and Amanda Powell, a poet and translator. The original publication, released in 1994 by The Feminist Press, was re-released in an updated second edition in 2009, also by The Feminist Press. The bilingual publication includes poems, an annotated publication of Sor Juana's response to Church officials and her impassioned plea for education of women, analysis and a bibliography. "The Answer" applies a valuable gender lens to Sor Juana's writings and life. In their feminist analysis, Powell and Arenal translate the viewpoint of Sor Juana's writing as gender-ambiguous. Released in an updated second edition in 2009, also by The Feminist Press, the bilingual publication includes poems, an annotated publication of Sor Juana's response to Church officials and her impassioned plea for education of women, analysis and a bibliography.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Theresa A. Yugar, a feminist theologian scholar in her own right, wrote her Master's and Doctoral theses on Sor Juana. Her book, "Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz: Feminist Reconstruction of Biography and Text," discusses the life of Sor Juana through a feminist lens and analysis of her texts, "La Respuesta" (The Answer) and "El Primero Sueño" (First Dream).


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Yugar aims to understand why individuals in Mexico in the twenty-first century have more knowledge of Frida Kahlo than Sor Juana. She celebrates poet Octavio Paz for crossing national borders with his internationally acclaimed work on "Sor Juana: Or, The Traps of Faith". However, while Paz establishes Sor Juana's historical relevance, Yugar expands on his work to establish Sor Juana's importance in the twenty-first century.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Yugar argues that Sor Juana is the first female bibliophile in the New World. She also argues that Sor Juana's historic focus on gender and class equality in education (the public sphere) and the household (the private sphere), in addition to her advocacy for language rights, and the connection between indigenous religious traditions and ecological protection were paramount in the seventeenth century. Today's similar advocacy ignores her primal position in that work which is currently exclusively associated with ecofeminism and feminist theology.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: The Sor Juana Inés Services for Abused Women was established in 1993 to pay Sor Juana's dedication to helping women survivors of domestic violence forward. Renamed the Community Overcoming Relationship Abuse (CORA), the organization offers community, legal, and family support services in Spanish to Latin American women and children who have faced or are facing domestic violence.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: The San Jerónimo Convent, where Juana lived the last 27 years of her life and where she wrote most of her work is today the University of the Cloister of Sor Juana in the historic center of Mexico City. The Mexican government founded in the university in 1979.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: While Sor Juana was a famous and controversial figure in the seventeenth century, she is also an important figure in modern times.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: During renovations at the cloister in the 1970s, bones believed to be those of Sor Juana were discovered. A medallion similar to the one depicted in portraits of Juana was also found. Margarita López Portillo, the sister of President José López Portillo (1976-1982), kept the medallion. During the tercentennial of Sor Juana's death in 1995, a member of the Mexican congress called on Margarita López Portillo to return the medallion, which she said she had taken for safekeeping. She returned it to Congress on November 14, 1995, with the event and description of the controversy reported in "The New York Times" a month later. Whether or not the medallion belonged to Juana, the incident sparked discussions about Juana and abuse of official power in Mexico.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Amanda Powell locates Sor Juana as a contributor to the Querelles des Femmes, a three-century long literary debate about women. Central to this early feminist debate were ideas about gender and sex, and, consequently, misogyny.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Powell argues that the formal and informal networks and pro-feminist ideas of the Querelles des Femmes were important influences on Sor Juana's work, La Respuesta. For women, Powell argues, engaging in conversation with other women was as significant as communicating through writing. However, while Teresa of Ávila appears in Sor Juana's "La Respuesta", Sor Juana makes no mention of the person who launched the debate, Christine de Pizan. Rather than focusing on Sor Juana's engagement with other literary works, Powell prioritizes Sor Juana's position of authority in her own literary discourse. This authoritative stance not only demonstrates a direct counter to misogyny, but was also typically reserved for men. As well, Sor Juana's argument that ideas about women in religious hierarchies are culturally constructed, not divine, echoes ideas about the construction of gender and sex.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Yugar connects Sor Juana to feminist advocacy movements in the twenty-first century, such as religious feminism, ecofeminism, and the feminist movement in general.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Although the current religious feminist movement grew out of the Liberation Theology movement of the 1970s, Yugar uses Sor Juana's criticism of religious law that permits only men to occupy leadership positions within the Church as early evidence of her religious feminism. Based on Sor Juana's critique of the oppressive and patriarchal structures of the Church of her day, Yugar argues that Sor Juana predated current movements, like Latina Feminist Theology, that privilege Latina women's views on religion. She also cites modern movements such as the Roman Catholic Women Priest Movement, the Women's Ordination Conference, and the Women's Alliance for Theology, Ethics and Ritual, all of which also speak out against the patriarchal limitations on women in religious institutions.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Yugar emphasizes that Sor Juana interpreted the Bible as expressing concern with people of all backgrounds as well as with the earth. Most significantly, Yugar argues, Sor Juana expressed concern over the consequences of capitalistic Spanish domination over the earth. These ideas, Yugar points out, are commonly associated with modern feminist movements concerned with decolonization and the protection of the planet.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Alicia Gaspar de Alba connects Sor Juana to the modern lesbian movement and Chicana movement. She links Sor Juana to criticizing the concepts of compulsory heterosexuality and advocating the idea of a lesbian continuum, both of which are credited to well-known feminist writer and advocate Adrienne Rich. As well, Gaspar de Alba locates Sor Juana in the Chicana movement, which has not been accepting of "Indigenous lesbians".


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: As a woman in religion, Sor Juana has become associated with the Virgin of Guadalupe, a religious symbol of Mexican identity, but was also connected to Aztec goddesses. For example, parts of Sor Juana's "Villancico 224" are written in Nahuatl, while others are written in Spanish. The Virgin of Guadalupe is the subject of the "Villancico", but depending on the language, the poem refers to both the Virgin of Guadalupe and Cihuacoatl, an Indigneous goddess. It is ambiguous whether Sor Juana prioritizes the Mexican or indigenous religious figure, or whether her focus is on harmonizing the two.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Sor Juana's connection to indigenous religious figures is also prominent in her "Loa to Divine Narcissus", (Spanish ""El Divino Narciso"") (see Jauregui 2003, 2009). The play centers on the interaction between two Indigenous people, named Occident and America, and two Spanish people, named Religion and Zeal. The characters exchange their religious perspectives, and conclude that there are more similarities between their religious traditions than there are differences. The loa references Aztec rituals and gods, including Huitzilopochtli, who symbolized the land of Mexico.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Scholars like Nicole Gomez argue that Sor Juana's fusion of Spanish and Aztec religious traditions in her "Loa" "to Divine Narcissus" aims to raise the status of indigenous religious traditions to that of Catholicism in New Spain. Gomez argues that Sor Juana also emphasizes the violence with which Spanish religious traditions dominated indigenous ones. Ultimately, Gomez argues that Sor Juana's use of both colonial and indigenous languages, symbols, and religious traditions not only gives voice to indigenous peoples, who were marginalized, but also affirms her own indigenous identity.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Through their scholarly interpretations of Sor Juana's work, Octavio Paz and Alicia Gaspar de Alba have also incorporated Sor Juana into discourses about Mexican identity. Paz's accredited scholarship on Sor Juana elevated her to a national symbol as a Mexican woman, writer, and religious authority. On the contrary, Gaspar de Alba emphasized Sor Juana's indigenous identity by inserting her into Chicana discourses.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: Paul Allatson emphasizes that women like Sor Juana and Frida Kahlo masculinized their appearances to symbolically complicate the space marked for women in society. Sor Juana's decision to cut her hair as punishment for mistakes she made during learning signified her own autonomy, but was also a way to engage in the masculinity expected of male-dominated spaces, like universities. According to Paul Allatson, nuns were also required to cut their hair after entering the convent. These ideas, Allatson suggests, are echoed in Frida Kahlo's 1940 self-portrait titled "Self-Portrait with Cropped Hair", or "Autorretrato con cabellos corto".


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: As well, the University of the Cloister of Sor Juana honored both Frida Kahlo and Sor Juana on October 31, 2018, with a symbolic altar. The altar, called "Las Dos Juanas", was specially made for the Day of the Dead.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: In 1995, Sor Juana's name was inscribed in gold on the wall of honor in the Mexican Congress in April 1995. In addition, Sor Juana is pictured on the obverse of the 200 pesos bill issued by the Banco de Mexico, and the 1000 pesos coin minted by Mexico between 1988 and 1992. The town where Sor Juana grew up, San Miguel Nepantla in the municipality of Tepetlixpa, State of Mexico, was renamed in her honor as Nepantla de Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz.


title: Juana Inés de la Cruz

text: In 2022, the Episcopal Church of the United States gave final approval and added her feast to the liturgical calendar. Her feast day is April 18.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: The Cherokee syllabary is a syllabary invented by Sequoyah in the late 1810s and early 1820s to write the Cherokee language. His creation of the syllabary is particularly noteworthy as he was illiterate until the creation of his syllabary. He first experimented with logograms, but his system later developed into a syllabary. In his system, each symbol represents a syllable rather than a single phoneme; the 85 (originally 86) characters provide a suitable method for writing Cherokee. Although some symbols resemble Latin, Greek, Cyrillic, and Glagolitic letters, they are not used to represent the same sounds.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Each of the characters represents one syllable, as in the Japanese "kana" and the Bronze Age Greek Linear B writing systems. The first six characters represent isolated vowel syllables. Characters for combined consonant and vowel syllables then follow.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: The charts below show the syllabary in recitation order, left to right, top to bottom as arranged by Samuel Worcester, along with his commonly used transliterations. He played a key role in the development of Cherokee printing from 1828 until his death in 1859.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: The transliteration working from the syllabary uses conventional consonants like "qu, ts...", and may differ from the ones used in the phonological orthographies (first column in the below chart, in the "d/t system").


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: The Cherokee character Ꮩ (do) "does" have a different orientation in old documents, resembling a Greek Λ (or barless A) rather than a Latin V as in modern documents.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: There is also a handwritten cursive form of the syllabary; notably, the handwritten glyphs bear little resemblance to the printed forms.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: The phonetic values of these characters do not equate directly to those represented by the letters of the Latin script. Some characters represent two distinct phonetic values (actually heard as different syllables), while others may represent multiple variations of the same syllable. Not all phonemic distinctions of the spoken language are represented:


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: As with some other underspecified writing systems (like Arabic), adult speakers can distinguish words by context.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: If a labial consonant such as "p" or "b" appears in a borrowed word or name, it is written using the "qu" row. This ~ correspondence is a known linguistic phenomenon that exists elsewhere (cf. P-Celtic, Osco-Umbrian).


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Some Cherokee words pose a problem for transliteration software because they contain adjacent pairs of single letter symbols that (without special provisions) would be combined when doing the back-conversion from Latin script to Cherokee. Here are a few examples:


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: For these examples, the back conversion is likely to join "s-a" as "sa" or "s-i" as "si". One solution is to use an apostrophe to separate the two, as is sometimes done in Japanese according to the modified Hepburn standard: "itsalis'anedi".


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Other Cherokee words contain character pairs that entail overlapping transliteration sequences. Examples:


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: If the Latin script is parsed from left to right, longest match first, then without special provisions, the back conversion would be wrong for the latter. There are several similar examples involving these character combinations: "naha nahe nahi naho nahu nahv".


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: A further problem encountered in transliterating Cherokee is that there are some pairs of different Cherokee words that transliterate to the same word in the Latin script. Here are some examples:


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Ꭰ (a), Ꭶ (ga), Ꭷ (ka), Ꭽ (ha), Ꮃ (la), Ꮉ (ma), Ꮎ (na), Ꮏ (hna), Ꮐ (nah), Ꮖ (qua), Ꮝ (s), Ꮜ (sa), Ꮣ (da), Ꮤ (ta), Ꮬ (dla), Ꮭ (tla), Ꮳ (tsa), Ꮹ (wa), Ꮿ (ya),


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Ꭱ (e), Ꭸ (ge), Ꭾ (he), Ꮄ (le), Ꮊ (me), Ꮑ (ne), Ꮗ (que), Ꮞ (se), Ꮥ (de), Ꮦ (te), Ꮮ (tle), Ꮴ (tse), Ꮺ (we), Ᏸ (ye),


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Ꭲ (i), Ꭹ (gi), Ꭿ (hi), Ꮅ (li), Ꮋ (mi), Ꮒ (ni), Ꮘ (qui), Ꮟ (si), Ꮧ (di), Ꮨ (ti), Ꮯ (tli), Ꮵ (tsi), Ꮻ (wi), Ᏹ (yi),


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Ꭳ (o), Ꭺ (go), Ꮀ (ho), Ꮆ (lo), Ꮌ (mo), Ꮓ (no), Ꮙ (quo), Ꮠ (so), Ꮩ (do), Ꮰ (tlo), Ꮶ (tso), Ꮼ (wo), Ᏺ (yo),


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Ꭴ (u), Ꭻ (gu), Ꮁ (hu), Ꮇ (lu), Ꮍ (mu), Ꮔ (nu), Ꮚ (quu), Ꮡ (su), Ꮪ (du), Ꮱ (tlu), Ꮷ (tsu), Ꮽ (wu), Ᏻ (yu),


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Cherokee generally uses Arabic numerals (0–9). In the late 1820s, several years after the introduction and adoption of his syllabary, Sequoyah proposed a set of number signs for Cherokee; however, these were never adopted and never typeset. In 2012, the Cherokee Language Consortium agreed to begin using Sequoyah's numerals in some instances.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Sequoyah developed unique characters for 1 through 19, and then characters for the "tens" of 20 through 100. Additional symbols were used to note thousands and millions, and Sequoyah also used a final symbol to mark the end of a number. The glyphs for 1 through 20 can be grouped into groups of five that have a visual similarity to each other (1–5, 6–10, 11–15, and 16–20). The Cherokee Language Consortium has created an additional symbol for zero along with symbols for billions and trillions. As of Unicode 13.0, Cherokee numerals are not encoded within Unicode.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Sequoyah's proposed numeral system has been described as having a "ciphered-additive structure," using combinations of the characters for 1 through 9 with the characters for 20 through 100 to create larger numbers. For example, instead of writing 64, the Cherokee numerals for 60 and 4 () would be written together. To write 10 through 19, unique characters for each number are employed. For numbers larger than 100, the system takes on features of a multiplicative-additive system, with the digits for 1 through being placed before the hundred, thousand, or million sign to indicate large numbers; for example, for 504, the Cherokee numerals for 5, 100, and 4 () would be written together.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Around 1809, impressed by the "talking leaves" of European written languages, Sequoyah began work to create a writing system for the Cherokee language. After attempting to create a character for each word, Sequoyah realized this would be too difficult and eventually created characters to represent syllables. He worked on the syllabary for twelve years before completion and dropped or modified most of the characters he originally created.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: After the syllabary was completed in the early 1820s, it achieved almost instantaneous popularity and spread rapidly throughout Cherokee society. By 1825, the majority of Cherokees could read and write in their newly developed orthography.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Some of Sequoyah's most learned contemporaries immediately understood that the syllabary was a great invention. For example, when Albert Gallatin, a politician and trained linguist, saw a copy of Sequoyah's syllabary, he believed it was superior to the English alphabet in that literacy could be easily achieved for Cherokee at a time when only one-third of English-speaking people achieved the same goal. He recognized that even though the Cherokee student must learn 85 characters instead of 26 for English, the Cherokee could read immediately after learning all the symbols. The Cherokee student could accomplish in a few weeks what students of English writing might require two years to achieve.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: In 1828, the order of the characters in a chart and the shapes of the characters were modified by Cherokee author and editor Elias Boudinot to adapt the syllabary to printing presses. The 86th character was dropped entirely. Following these changes, the syllabary was adopted by the "Cherokee Phoenix" newspaper, later "Cherokee Advocate", followed by the "Cherokee Messenger", a bilingual paper printed in Indian Territory in the mid-19th century.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: In 1834, Worcester made changes to several characters in order to improve the readability of Cherokee text. Most notably, he inverted the "do" character (Ꮩ) so that it could not be confused with the "go" character (Ꭺ). Otherwise, the characters remained remarkably invariant until the advent of new typesetting technologies in the 20th century.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: In the 1960s, the Cherokee Phoenix Press began publishing literature in the Cherokee syllabary, including the "Cherokee Singing Book". A Cherokee syllabary typewriter ball was developed for the IBM Selectric in the late 1970s. Computer fonts greatly expanded Cherokee writers' ability to publish in Cherokee. In 2010, a Cherokee keyboard cover was developed by Roy Boney, Jr. and Joseph Erb, facilitating more rapid typing in Cherokee. The keyboard cover is now used by students in the Cherokee Nation Immersion School, where all coursework is written in syllabary.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: In August 2010, the Oconaluftee Institute for Cultural Arts in Cherokee, North Carolina acquired a letterpress and had the Cherokee syllabary recast to begin printing one-of-a-kind fine art books and prints in syllabary. Artists Jeff Marley and Frank Brannon completed a collaborative project on October 19, 2013, in which they printed using Cherokee syllabary type from Southwestern Community College in the print shop at New Echota. This was the first time syllabary type has been used at New Echota since 1835.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: In 2015 the Unicode Consortium encoded a lowercase version of the script, since typists would often set Cherokee with two different point sizes, so as to mark beginnings of sentences and given names (as in the Latin alphabet). Handwritten Cherokee also shows a difference in lower- and uppercase letters, such as descenders and ascenders. Lowercase Cherokee has already been encoded in the font Everson Mono.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: The syllabary is finding increasingly diverse usage today, from books, newspapers, and websites to the street signs of Tahlequah, Oklahoma and Cherokee, North Carolina. An increasing corpus of children's literature is printed in Cherokee to meet the needs of students in Cherokee language immersion schools in Oklahoma and North Carolina.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: In the 1960s evidence emerged suggesting that the Cherokee syllabary of North America provided a model for the design of the Vai syllabary in Liberia. The Vai syllabary emerged about 1832/33. This was at a time when American missionaries were working to use the Cherokee syllabary as a model for writing Liberian languages. Another link appears to have been Cherokee who emigrated to Liberia after the invention of the Cherokee syllabary (which in its early years spread rapidly among the Cherokee) but before the inventions of the Vai syllabary. One such man, Austin Curtis, married into a prominent Vai family and became an important Vai chief himself. It is perhaps not coincidence that the "inscription on a house" that drew the world's attention to the existence of the Vai script was in fact on the home of Curtis, a Cherokee. There also appears to be a connection between an early form of written Bassa and the earlier Cherokee syllabary.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Cherokee language classes typically begin with a transliteration of Cherokee into Roman letters, only later incorporating the syllabary. The Cherokee language classes offered through Haskell Indian Nations University, Northeastern State University, the University of Oklahoma, the University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma, Western Carolina University, the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and the immersion elementary schools offered by the Cherokee Nation and the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, such as New Kituwah Academy, all teach the syllabary. The fine arts degree program at Southwestern Community College incorporates the syllabary in its printmaking classes.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Cherokee was added to the Unicode Standard in September, 1999 with the release of version 3.0. On June 17, 2015, with the release of version 8.0, Cherokee was redefined as a bicameral script; the character repertoire was extended to include a complete set of lowercase Cherokee letters as well as the archaic character (Ᏽ).


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: The first Unicode block for Cherokee is U+13A0–U+13FF. It contains all 86 uppercase letters, together with six lowercase letters:


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: A single Cherokee Unicode font, Plantagenet Cherokee, is supplied with macOS, version 10.3 (Panther) and later. Windows Vista also includes a Cherokee font.


title: Cherokee syllabary

text: Several free Cherokee fonts are available including Digohweli, Donisiladv, and Noto Sans Cherokee. Some pan-Unicode fonts, such as Code2000, Everson Mono, and GNU FreeFont, include Cherokee characters. A commercial font, Phoreus Cherokee, published by TypeCulture, includes multiple weights and styles.


title: Inkscape

text: Inkscape is a free and open-source vector graphics editor used to create vector images, primarily in Scalable Vector Graphics (SVG) format. Other formats can be imported and exported.


title: Inkscape

text: Inkscape can render primitive vector shapes (e.g. rectangles, ellipses, polygons, arcs, spirals, stars and 3D boxes) and text. These objects may be filled with solid colors, patterns, radial or linear color gradients and their borders may be stroked, both with adjustable transparency. Embedding and optional tracing of raster graphics is also supported, enabling the editor to create vector graphics from photos and other raster sources. Created shapes can be further manipulated with transformations, such as moving, rotating, scaling and skewing.


title: Inkscape

text: Inkscape began in 2003 as a code fork of the Sodipodi project. Sodipodi, developed since 1999, was itself based on Raph Levien's Gill (GNOME Illustration Application). One of the main priorities of the Inkscape project was interface consistency and usability by following the GNOME human interface guidelines.


title: Inkscape

text: Four former Sodipodi developers (Ted Gould, Bryce Harrington, Nathan Hurst, and "MenTaLguY") led the fork, citing differences over project objectives, openness to third-party contributions, and technical disagreements. They said that Inkscape would focus development on implementing the complete SVG standard, whereas Sodipodi development emphasized developing a general-purpose vector graphics editor, possibly at the expense of SVG.


title: Inkscape

text: Following the fork, Inkscape's developers changed the programming language from C to C++; adopted the GTK (formerly GIMP Toolkit) toolkit C++ bindings (gtkmm); redesigned its user interface, and added a number of new features. Inkscape's implementation of the SVG standard, although incomplete, has shown gradual improvement.


title: Inkscape

text: Up until the end of November 2007, Inkscape's source code repository was hosted by SourceForge. Thereafter it moved to Launchpad. In June 2017, it moved to GitLab.


title: Inkscape

text: Inkscape workflow is based around vector objects. Tools allow manipulating primitive vector shapes: simple ones like rectangles, ellipses and arcs, as well as more complex objects like 3D boxes with adjustable perspectives, stars, polygons and spirals. Rendering feature that can create objects like barcodes, calendars, grids, gears and roulette curves (using the spirograph tool). These objects may be filled with solid colors, patterns, radial or linear color gradients and their borders may be stroked, both with adjustable transparency. All of those can be further edited by transformations—such as moving, rotating, scaling and skewing—or by editing paths.


title: Inkscape

text: Other tools allow creating Bézier curves, freehand drawing of lines (pencil), or calligraphic (brush-like) strokes which support a graphics tablet.


title: Inkscape

text: Inkscape is able to write and edit text with tools available for changing font, spacing, kerning, rotation, flowing along the path or into a shape. Text can be converted to paths for further editing. The program also has a layers (as well as an objects) feature that allows the user to organize objects in a preferred stacking order in the canvas. Objects can be made visible/invisible and locked/unlocked through these features.


title: Inkscape

text: Symbol libraries enable Inkscape to use existing symbols like logic-gate symbols or DOT pictograms. Additional libraries can be included by the user.


title: Inkscape

text: Clones are child objects of an original parent object. Different transformations can be applied to them, such as: size, position, rotation, blur, opacity, color and symmetry. Clones are updated live whenever the parent object changes.


title: Inkscape

text: Every object in the drawing can be subjected to arbitrary affine transformations: moving, rotating, scaling, skewing and a configurable matrix. Transformation parameters can be specified numerically. Transformations can snap to angles, grids, guidelines and nodes of other objects, or be aligned in specified direction, spaced equally, scattered at random.


title: Inkscape

text: Objects can be grouped together. Groups of objects behave similarly to objects. Objects in a group can be edited without having to ungroup them first.


title: Inkscape

text: The Z-order determines the order in which objects are drawn on the canvas. Objects with a high Z-order are drawn on top of objects lower in the Z-order. Order of objects can be managed either using layers, or by manually moving the object up and down in the Z-order. Layers can be locked or hidden, preventing modifying and accidental selection.


title: Inkscape

text: The "Create Tiled Clones" tool allows symmetrical or grid-like drawings using various plane symmetries.


title: Inkscape

text: Appearance of objects can be further changed by using masks and clipping paths, which can be created from arbitrary objects, including groups.


title: Inkscape

text: The style attributes are 'attached' to the source object, so after cutting/copying an object onto the clipboard, the style's attributes can be pasted to another object.


title: Inkscape

text: Objects can also be moved by manually entering the location coordinates in the top toolbar. Even additions and subtractions can be done this way.


title: Inkscape

text: Inkscape has a comprehensive tool set to edit paths (as they are the basic element of a vector file):


title: Inkscape

text: Inkscape includes a feature called "Live Path Effects" (LPE), which can apply various modifiers to a path. Envelope Deformation is available via the Path Effects and provides a perspective effect. There are more than a dozen of these live path effects. LPE can be stacked onto a single object and have interactive live on canvas and menu-based editing of the effects.


title: Inkscape

text: Inkscape's primary format is SVG 1.1, meaning that it can create and edit with the abilities and within the constraints of this format. Any other format must either be imported (converted to SVG) or exported (converted from SVG). The SVG format is using the Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) standard internally. Inkscape's implementation of SVG and CSS standards is incomplete. Most notably, it does not support animation natively. Inkscape has multilingual support, particularly for complex scripts. Formats that used the UniConvertor library are not supported beyond the 1.0 release. A workaround is to have a parallel installation of version 0.92.x.


title: Inkscape

text: The latest version of Inkscape 1.0.x (and older line 0.92.x) is available for Linux, Windows 7+, and macOS 10.11-10.15 platforms. Inkscape is packaged with AppImage, Flatpak, PPA, Snap and source by all major Linux distributions (including Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora, OpenSUSE) with GTK+ 3.24+ (0.92.x with GTK+ 2.20+ for older Linux).


title: Inkscape

text: , Wacom tablet support for GTK 3 is in a reviving project. Version 1.0.x includes GTK 3 and Wacom support depending necessary Wacom Linux or Unix driver.


title: Inkscape

text: In Jan. 2020, "TechRadar" gave Inkscape a positive rating of four stars out of five. It lauded the wide range of editing tools and support for many file formats, but noted that the application's processing can be slow. It considered Inkscape to be a good free alternative to proprietary graphics editors such as Adobe Illustrator. "PC Magazine"s review was rather mixed, giving the application three out of five. It criticized the interface's graphics and lack of optimization for stylus support, the application's poor interoperability with other graphics editors, unwieldy text formatting controls, and the quality of the Mac version. However, it did praise the ability to add custom filters and extensions, the Inkscape community's passion for creating and sharing them, and the precise path and placement tools. It found Inkscape to have limited uses in profession compared to Adobe Illustrator and CorelDRAW. In its 2012 Best of Open Source Software Awards, "InfoWorld" gave Inkscape an award for being one of the best open-source desktop applications, commending its typographic controls and ability to directly edit the XML text of its documents.


title: Sting discography

text: The discography of British singer Sting. Born Gordon Sumner in 1951, he was a member of the jazz group Last Exit, who released a cassette album in 1975. With The Police (1977-1986, occasional reunions thereafter), Sting sold over 100 million records and singles. As a solo performer, he has released 15 albums between 1985 and 2021, most of which have sold millions of copies worldwide.


title: Colors (film)

text: Colors is a 1988 American police procedural action crime film starring Sean Penn and Robert Duvall, and directed by Dennis Hopper. The film takes place in the gang ridden neighborhoods of Los Angeles: late-1980s South Central Los Angeles, Echo Park, Westlake and East Los Angeles. The film centers on Bob Hodges (Duvall), an experienced Los Angeles Police Department C.R.A.S.H. officer, and his rookie partner, Danny McGavin (Penn), who try to stop the gang violence between the Bloods, the Crips, and Hispanic street gangs. "Colors" relaunched Hopper as a director 19 years after "Easy Rider", and inspired discussion over its depiction of gang life and gang violence.


title: Colors (film)

text: Two policemen, Bob "Uncle Bob" Hodges, a respected LAPD officer and Vietnam veteran, and rookie officer Danny McGavin have just been teamed together in the C.R.A.S.H. unit that patrols Northwest L.A., East L.A. and South Central L.A.


title: Colors (film)

text: The older cop is appreciated on the local streets. He is diplomatic on the surface, preaching "rapport" to gang members to encourage them to offer help when it is truly needed. Hodges recognizes that every action cops take is scrutinized by the people they are trying to help. Hodges explains his view on policing to his young partner with a joke about bulls and cows.


title: Colors (film)

text: Although the pair bond quickly, life lessons are seemingly lost on the aggressive, cavalier McGavin, whose stunts soon bring him notoriety among the gang members and the people, such as attacking a graffiti artist by spraying his eyes with the paint can. McGavin wrecks their first unmarked car during a pursuit. Its replacement is vivid yellow, resulting in McGavin being nicknamed "Pac-Man" by officers and gang members alike.


title: Colors (film)

text: McGavin has a short-lived romance with a waitress named Louisa who, like the offended Hodges, feels the weight of the Pac-Man persona. Amidst the strain of these relationships, the murder of a Bloods gang member escalates tension between two other street gangs. A series of seemingly random incidents culminates with the two partners in the middle of the Crips, Bloods and Hispanic barrio war.


title: Colors (film)

text: The 21st Street Gang, led by a criminal named Frog, attempts to negotiate a peace similar to Hodges and steer clear of the melee. To protect his partner, Hodges unwittingly exposes Frog as his source on the Crips leader Rocket's scheme to kill McGavin. Each group attempts to right the wrongs against their respective crews as police strive to prevent the hit and stand their authority over the fall out.


title: Colors (film)

text: In the end, the unit moves in on the would-be last crew standing—the 21st Street Gang. While arresting Frog, Hodges is fatally wounded by a 21st Street Gang gunman, nicknamed “Bird”, trying to do the hit on McGavin. With medics en route, McGavin comforts Hodges and breaks down with regret as the elder partner falls into delirium and dies.


title: Colors (film)

text: Sometime later, a more reserved McGavin has a rookie partner, a black cop who grew up in the neighborhood where they patrol and sports an attitude like the "Pac-Man". McGavin tells him the same joke about the bulls that Hodges taught him, and the younger officer reciprocates in the same way as the young McGavin. The film ends with McGavin considering the cycle as the pair drive on and continue their patrol.


title: Colors (film)

text: The movie was filmed entirely in Los Angeles in 1987. The original script by Richard Di Lello took place in Chicago and was more about drug dealing than gang members. Dennis Hopper ordered changes, so Michael Schiffer was hired and the setting was changed to Los Angeles and the focus of the story became more about the world of gang members.


title: Colors (film)

text: The joke that Hodges tells McGavin regarding the two bulls was lifted from the Pat Conroy novel "The Great Santini" (which was made into a movie that also starred Duvall) and explains how the character Lt. Col. "Bull" Meechum got his nickname.


title: Colors (film)

text: Real gang members were hired as "on-location security" as well as actors/extras by producer Robert H. Solo. Two of them were shot during filming.


title: Colors (film)

text: On April 2, 1987, Sean Penn was arrested for punching an extra on the set of this film who was taking photos of him without permission. Penn was sentenced to 33 days in jail for this assault.


title: Colors (film)

text: A soundtrack containing mainly hip hop music was released on April 15, 1988, by Warner Bros. Records. It peaked at 31 on the "Billboard" 200 and was certified gold on July 12, 1988.


title: Colors (film)

text: The theme song, "Colors", was written and performed by American rapper Ice-T, and issued as the title track for the soundtrack to the film.


title: Colors (film)

text: The movie received both praise and criticism. The film has a 74% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 39 reviews, with the consensus; ""Colors" takes a hard-hitting yet nuanced look at urban gang violence, further elevated by strong performances from a pair of well-matched leads."


title: Colors (film)

text: Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" stated that it "has a superb eye for the poisonous flowering of gang culture amid ghetto life, and an ear to match; along with brilliant cinematography by Haskell Wexler, it's also got a fierce, rollicking sense of motion."


title: Colors (film)

text: Roger Ebert hailed it as "a special movie – not just a police thriller, but a movie that has researched gangs and given some thought to what it wants to say about them."


title: Colors (film)

text: "The Washington Post"'s critics, Desson Howe and Hal Hinson were split, with Howe stating that Hopper "covers the mayhem with unadorned, documentary immediacy that transcends otherwise formulaic cop-fare" and Hinson stating that it "must be the least incendiary film about gang life ever made."


title: Colors (film)

text: One of the more negative reviews of the film appeared on the BBC's Ceefax service, on which critic Louise Hart remarked: "The main weakness of the film is that it concentrates far less on the street gangs than on the growing relationship between the two cops."


title: Colors (film)

text: The film has been credited with inspiring gang violence in the country of Belize, with many members of the Crips and Bloods deported to the country from the United States in the 1990s bringing the film - and their own gang affiliations - with them to the country.


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil were an English experimental music group formed in 1982 in London and dissolved in 2005. Initially envisioned as a solo project by musician John Balance (of the band Psychic TV), Coil evolved into a full-time project with the addition of his partner and Psychic TV bandmate Peter Christopherson, formerly of pioneering industrial music group Throbbing Gristle. Coil's work explored themes related to the occult, sexuality, alchemy, and drugs while influencing genres such as gothic rock, neofolk and dark ambient. AllMusic called the group "one of the most beloved, mythologized groups to emerge from the British post-industrial scene."


title: Coil (band)

text: After the release of their 1984 debut EP "How to Destroy Angels", Coil joined Some Bizzare Records, through which they released two full-length albums, "Scatology" (1984) and "Horse Rotorvator" (1986). In 1985, the group began working on a series of soundtracks, among them the rejected score for the first "Hellraiser" film. After departing from Some Bizzare, Coil established their own record label, Threshold House, through which they produced and released "Love's Secret Domain" (1991). Financial difficulties slowed the group's work in the early 1990s before they returned to the project on releases such as "Astral Disaster" (1999), and the "Musick to Play in the Dark" series composed of "Vol. 1" (1999) and "Vol. 2" (2000), as well as releasing several projects under aliases such as Black Light District, ELpH, and Time Machines.


title: Coil (band)

text: Balance and Christopherson were the only constant members; other contributors throughout the band's career included Stephen Thrower, Danny Hyde, Drew McDowall, William Breeze, Thighpaulsandra and Ossian Brown. With involvement from these members, the group also started several smaller independent vanity labels, including Eskaton and Chalice. The group's first live performance in 16 years occurred in 1999, and began a series of mini-tours that would last until 2004. Following the accidental death of John Balance on 13 November 2004, Christopherson formally announced that Coil as a creative entity had ceased to exist, ending the Coil discography with "The Ape of Naples" (2005). Posthumous releases and compilations of unreleased material have since followed this, with Drew McDowall and Danny Hyde leading the project's archive.


title: Coil (band)

text: In 1978, John Balance (born Geoff[rey] Burton; also known as Rushton, by his stepfather's surname) was a teenage zine journalist, writing—along with his schoolmate Tom Craig, a grandson of Edward Carrick and grand-grandson of Edward Gordon Craig—under a moniker "Stabmental", through which he published the articles on UK underground artists, including seminal industrial bands Throbbing Gristle and Cabaret Voltaire. A Throbbing Gristle fan, Balance had contacted them via mail, and thus befriended the Throbbing Gristle frontperson Genesis P-Orridge. In February 1980, Balance had attended a Throbbing Gristle gig recorded and released as "Heathen Earth", where he had first met P-Orridge's bandmate Peter Christopherson and befriended him as well.


title: Coil (band)

text: Following the dissolution of Throbbing Gristle in 1981, P-Orridge, Christopherson, and Alex Fergusson (formerly of Alternative TV) went on to form the new project, titled Psychic TV, along with the accompanying fellowship titled Thee Temple ov Psychick Youth. Balance, who had attended the University of Sussex for a short time and participated in Brian Williams' Lustmord project, returned in London to live with Christopherson—with whom a romantic partnership had begun. As a Psychic TV member, Balance participated in the recording of the single "Just Drifting" (from the album "Force the Hand of Chance") and, the following year, of the album "Dreams Less Sweet".


title: Coil (band)

text: Already having an experience of performing and recording previous to his tenure in Psychic TV, Balance went on to use the name Coil in 1982, originally envisioned for a solo project. In 1983, Balance wrote a manifesto titled "The Price of Existence Is Eternal Warfare" and sent a tape of the song "On Balance", dated 5 May 1982, to Gary Levermore's label Third Mind Records for an inclusion on a compilation album "Rising From The Red Sand"; Levermore, however, had rejected the track. Despite this, Balance had recorded three more new tracks—"S for Sleep", "Red Weather", and "Here to Here (Double-Headed Secret)"—on 11 May 1983. On 4 August 1983, Coil—as the duo of Balance and Christopherson—had played its first gig in London at the Magenta Club, during a screening of films by Cerith Wyn Evans and Derek Jarman. Since Christopherson's commitments for Psychic TV—in which he had become disillusioned due to growing conflict with P-Orridge—still limited his participation in Coil, Balance approached John Gosling—also Psychic TV member who fronted his own project Zos Kia—to work with. Balance's and Gosling's collaboration resulted in the next three gigs during 1983, with the last one being performed in December on Berlin Atonal festival, where Balance participated as both Psychic TV and Coil member. The recordings from aforementioned gigs, as well as "On Balance", were later included on Zos Kia/Coil split album "Transparent", released in February 1984 by Austrian label Nekrophile Records. Since January 1984, Balance and Christopherson had departed from Psychic TV and the Temple of Psychic Youth, in order to make Coil as a full-time concern.


title: Coil (band)

text: The band's official recording debut, an extended play titled "How to Destroy Angels", was released on the Good Friday (20 April) of 1984 by a Belgian-based label L.A.Y.L.A.H. Antirecords. Recorded on 19 February 1984 at Britannia Row Studios, the album was dedicated to Mars as the god of spring and war, using predominantly iron and steel instruments.


title: Coil (band)

text: Shortly after in May 1984, Coil went on to record their first full-length studio album, eventually titled "Scatology", approaching JG Thirlwell as a co-producer and co-composer; several others contributors, including Stephen Thrower, Alex Fergusson and Gavin Friday, took part in its recording. "Scatology"'s themes echoed those of "How to Destroy Angels", while focusing mainly on alchemy as an idea of transforming matter.


title: Coil (band)

text: "Scatology" was released in early 1985 with a 1984 copyright date by the band's own label, Force & Form, and K.422 (a Some Bizzare Records sublabel), to mainly positive feedback. Shortly after, a single featuring a remix of "Panic" and a cover of "Tainted Love" was released, with the profits being donated to the Terrence Higgins Trust; hailed since then as the first AIDS benefit music release, it was supported with the "Tainted Love" video directed by Christopherson, which was purchased by The Museum of Modern Art in New York, U.S.


title: Coil (band)

text: "Horse Rotorvator" followed in 1986 as the next full-length release. Although songs such as "The Anal Staircase" and "Circles of Mania" sound like evolved versions of "Scatology" material, the album is characterized by slower tempos, and represented a new direction for the group. The album has a darker theme than previous releases, according to Balance:


title: Coil (band)

text: Horse Rotorvator was this vision I'd had of this mechanical/flesh thing that ploughed up the earth and I really did have a vision of it—a real horrible, burning, dripping, jaw-like vision in the night ... The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse killed their horses and use their jawbones to make this huge earth-moving machine."


title: Coil (band)

text: The artwork features a photograph of the location of a notorious IRA bombing, in which a bomb was detonated on a military orchestra pavilion. "Horse Rotorvator" was in part influenced by the AIDS-related deaths of some of their friends. Furthermore, the song "Ostia (The Death of Pasolini)" is about the mysterious death of Pier Paolo Pasolini, as well as what Balance described as "the number one suicide spot in the world", the white cliffs of Dover.


title: Coil (band)

text: After the release of "Horse Rotorvator", Coil left Some Bizzare Records, since they fell out with its owner Stevo Pearce. "Gold Is the Metal (With the Broadest Shoulders)" followed as a full-length release in 1987, marking the beginning of the band's own label, Threshold House—the album is described in the liner notes as "not the follow-up to "Horse Rotorvator", but a completely separate package – a stopgap and a breathing space – the space between two twins", which refers to "Horse Rotorvator" and "Love's Secret Domain".


title: Coil (band)

text: The 13-track "Unnatural History" compilation was then released on Threshold House in 1990. The first three songs on the album were first released as one half of the "Nightmare Culture" mini-album.


title: Coil (band)

text: "Love's Secret Domain" (abbreviated "LSD") followed in 1991 as the next "proper" Coil album, although a few minor releases had been produced since "Horse Rotorvator". "LSD" represents a progression in Coil's style and became a template for what would be representative of newer waves of post-industrial music, blended with their own style of acid house. Although the album was more upbeat, it was not intended as a dance record, as Christopherson explained "I wouldn't say it's a party atmosphere, but it's more positive." "Windowpane" and a Jack Dangers remix of "The Snow" were released as singles, both of which had music videos directed by Christopherson. The video for "Windowpane" was shot in the Golden Triangle, where, Balance claimed, "the original Thai and Burmese drug barons used to exchange opium for gold bars with the CIA." Christopherson recalled "John [Balance] discovered while he was performing that where he was standing was quicksand! In the video you can actually see him getting deeper and deeper." Furthermore, Thai friends of the group commented that they had known of several people that died where Coil had shot footage for the music video.


title: Coil (band)

text: A music video for the song "Love's Secret Domain" was also shot, which was initially unreleased due to its nature: as Christopherson explained, "We shot 'Love's Secret Domain' in a go-go boy bar in Bangkok; with John [Balance] performing on stage with about 20 or 30 dancing boys, which probably won't get played on MTV, in fact!" As of January 2015, the music video is viewable on more than one YouTube channel. "Stolen & Contaminated Songs" followed as a full-length release in 1992. However, as with "Gold Is the Metal...", it is a collection of outtakes and demos from the "LSD" era.


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil separated their works into many side projects, publishing music under different names and a variety of styles. The pre-Coil aliases, Zos Kia and Sickness of Snakes, formed the foundation of a style that would evolve to characterize their initial wave of releases.


title: Coil (band)

text: Before embarking on their second wave of side projects and pseudonyms, Coil created a soundtrack for the movie "Hellraiser", although they withdrew from the project when they suspected their music would not be used. Furthermore, Coil claimed inspiration for Pinhead was partly drawn from the piercing magazines that director Barker borrowed from the group. Balance explained after the release of "Stolen and Contaminated Songs", in around 1992:


title: Coil (band)

text: Yeah it would have been brilliant but we wouldn't have carried on, because they were changing everything and they weren't being very nice to us, the actual film people. They were keeping us in the dark a lot. We said we'd had enough just at the same time they decided they wanted to use Howard Shore. They just wanted normal film music. They didn't want anything too scary which is sad and ridiculous for a horror film.


title: Coil (band)

text: Also in 1992, Threshold House released a "Remixes And Re-Recordings" version of "How to Destroy Angels". Nurse with Wound's Steven Stapleton contributed a remix of the song, "How To Destroy Angels II".


title: Coil (band)

text: In 1993, Coil contributed music to Derek Jarman's film "Blue". Their 1985 score for Jarman's "The Angelic Conversation" was released on CD in 1994. In addition, they recorded soundtracks for the documentary "Gay Man's Guide to Safer Sex" as well as "Sarah Dales Sensuous Massage".


title: Coil (band)

text: Much like the pre-Coil aliases, Coil's series of side projects represented a diverse basis from which the group evolved a different style of sound. While "Nasa Arab"—credited to the group's project "The Eskaton"—was Coil's farewell to the acid house genre, the following projects, ELpH, Black Light District, and Time Machines, were all based heavily on experimentation with drone, an ingredient that would define Coil's following work. These releases also launched the start of Coil's new label Eskaton.


title: Coil (band)

text: "Transparent" was reissued in CD format in 1997 on Threshold House. A disc and booklet were packaged in a "thick" slipcase, which was released


title: Coil (band)

text: After the wave of experimental side projects, Coil's sound was completely redefined. Before releasing new material, the group released the compilations "Unnatural History II", "Windowpane & The Snow" and "Unnatural History III". In March 1998, Coil began to release a series of four singles which were timed to coincide with the equinox and solstices of that year. The singles are characterized by slow, drone-like instrumental rhythms, and electronic or orchestral instrumentation. The first single, "", featured two versions of the same song, the second version of which included an electric viola contribution from a newly inducted member, William Breeze. The second single, "", also featured performances by Breeze, and also included the industrial-noise song "A Warning from the Sun (For Fritz)", which was dedicated to a friend of Balance and Christopherson's who had committed suicide earlier that year. The third single, "", includes the track "Rosa Decidua", which features vocals by Rose McDowall. The single also features the song "Amethyst Deceivers", later reworked and performed throughout most of Coil's tour—it was eventually re-made into an alternate version on the LP "The Ape of Naples". The fourth single, "", also includes a track sung by McDowall, and is partially credited to the side project Rosa Mundi. The series would later be re-released as the double-CD set, "Moon's Milk (In Four Phases)".


title: Coil (band)

text: "Astral Disaster" was created with the assistance from new band member Thighpaulsandra, and was released in January 1999 via Sun Dial member Gary Ramon's label, Prescription. Although the album was initially limited to just 99 copies, it would later be re-released in a substantially different form. "Musick To Play In The Dark Vol. 1" followed in September 1999, and a few months later Coil performed their first concert in 16 years.


title: Coil (band)

text: "Queens Of The Circulating Library" followed in April 2000, with production credit given to Thighpaulsandra. The single-track, full-length drone album is the only Coil release made without the assistance of Christopherson. "Musick To Play In The Dark Vol. 2" followed in September 2000, and Coil began to perform live more intensively, a period that also included writing the music for "Black Antlers" in between a series of mini-tours. Coil also released a series of live albums around this time. "Constant Shallowness Leads To Evil", a noise-driven experimental album reminiscent of Christopherson's work with Throbbing Gristle, was first sold at a live performance in September 2000. Coil finally released "Black Antlers" in June 2004.


title: Coil (band)

text: In contrast to many of their earlier releases, Coil's later material is characterized by a slower sound which relies more on drone than acid house. This change in sound was reflected in their live performances, as songs like "Ostia" and "Slur" were slowed down from their original pace, as well as re-recordings of "Teenage Lightning" and "Amethyst Deceivers" that were later released on "The Ape Of Naples".


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil's live incarnation is associated with a distinct legacy. The first live shows took place in 1983, but after only four performances, 15 years would pass before they would play live again.


title: Coil (band)

text: On 14 December 1999, Coil performed "elph.zwölf" at Volksbuehne in Berlin. Although the performance lasted just under 18 minutes, it marked the beginning of a new era of live performances. Coil would go on to perform close to 50 additional concerts, with varied set lists as well as performers.


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil performed twice at the Royal Festival Hall in 2000. The first concert was in April, as part of a weekend curated by Julian Cope, when they first performed as the full band line-up – and wearing the "fluffy suits" that would become a staple of live performances for the first time – performing "Time Machines". They performed again in September, sharing a bill with Jim Thirlwell (as Foetus) on that occasion. Both performances were full sets.


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil's performances were surrealistic visually and audibly. The signature fluffy suits, an idea inspired by Sun Ra, played a foremost role at the live shows. The suits would later be used as album covers for the release "Live One", while other costumes appear on the covers of "Live Two" and "Live Three"—straitjacket and mirror-chested hooded jumpsuit, respectively. Video screens projected footage and animations created by Christopherson, while fog machines created an eerie atmosphere. Balance would often screech and howl during performances, which would add to the effect.


title: Coil (band)

text: The band's performance at the 2003 All Tomorrow's Parties festival was released as "...And the Ambulance Died in His Arms". Released on Threshold House in 2005 as a digipak, a Thai version was released the following year. "...And the Ambulance Died in His Arms" was released under a name chosen by Balance before his death in November 2004.


title: Coil (band)

text: Many Coil performances were released, including the widely available releases of "Live Four", "Live Three", "Live Two", "Live One" and "...And The Ambulance Died In His Arms", as well as several very limited editions, such as "Selvaggina, Go Back Into The Woods" and "Megalithomania!". Video recordings of several concerts were released on the DVD box set, "Colour Sound Oblivion", in 2010.


title: Coil (band)

text: Balance died on 13 November 2004, after he fell from a second-floor landing in his home. Christopherson announced Balance's death on the Threshold House website, and provided details of the circumstances of the death. Balance's memorial service was held near Bristol on 23 November 2004, and was attended by approximately 100 people.


title: Coil (band)

text: The final studio album, "The Ape of Naples", was released on 2 December 2005. In August 2006, the rare CD-R releases "The Remote Viewer" and "Black Antlers" were "sympathetically remastered" and expanded into two-disc versions, which included new and recently remixed material. A comprehensive 16-DVD boxset, titled "Colour Sound Oblivion", was released in July 2010. A "Patron Edition" was pre-orderable in November 2009 and sold out in three hours. Christopherson also discussed the possibility of releasing Coil's entire back catalogue on a single Blu-ray disc.


title: Coil (band)

text: In November 2006, the official Coil website posted the following announcement: "Following the success of Thai pressings of "The Remote Viewer" and "Black Antlers", and after many requests, we are planning to expand the CD catalog still further." A few days later "Duplais Balance" and "Moon's Milk in Six Phases" were announced. Furthermore, an expanded vinyl version of "The Ape of Naples", which includes the album "The New Backwards", has been released, and a two-disc version of "Time Machines" has been announced.


title: Coil (band)

text: Six years after the death of Balance, Christopherson died in his sleep on 24 November 2010 in Bangkok, Thailand.


title: Coil (band)

text: While their work became increasingly difficult to describe as their career progressed, Coil's musical style encompassed genres such as industrial music, noise music, ambient music and dark ambient, neofolk, spoken word, drone music and minimalism. They often considered their works more as magical rituals than as musical pieces; Balance explicitly referred to this approach as "magickal music". Balance described the first half of the Coil discography as "solar" and their later work as "moon musick".


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil incorporated many exotic and rare instruments into their recordings and performances. The group expressed particular interest in vintage electronic instruments including the Moog synthesizer, the ANS synthesizer, the Mellotron and the Optigan. During Coil's later period, marimba player Tom Edwards joined the group, and performed on the live albums "Live Two" and "Live Three", as well as on the studio albums "Black Antlers" and "The Ape of Naples".


title: Coil (band)

text: Often ensuing from improvisation and intuition, Coil utilized experimental techniques such as the cut-up technique, ritual drug use, sleep deprivation, lucid dreaming, tidal shifts, John Dee-like methods of scrying, technical glitches, SETI synchronization and chaos theory.


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil's distribution sometimes included releasing limited editions of albums, thereby making them collectors' items among fans. Including quirks such as "art objects", sigil-like autographs and even stains of blood in the packaging of their albums, Coil claimed that this made their work more personal for true fans, turning their records into something akin to occult artifacts. This practice was markedly increased in the later half of Coil's career. Due to this, critics accused Coil and its record company of price gouging. However, Balance expressed interest in having regular Coil albums in every shop that wanted them. In 2003, Coil began re-releasing many rare works, mostly remixed. They also launched a download service, where a large amount of their out-of-print music was made available.


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil held pagan and alchemical beliefs, as well as a fixation on chaos magic, but were sometimes labelled as Satanic. Balance explicitly referred to himself as a "Born Again Pagan", and described his paganism as a "spirituality within nature." Christopherson, however, described the beliefs of Coil as unassociated:


title: Coil (band)

text: We don't follow any particular religious dogma. In fact, quite the reverse, we tend to discourage the following of dogmas, or false prophets, as it were. And we don't have a very sympathetic view of Christians up to this point. The thing we follow is our own noses; I don't mean in a chemical sense.


title: Coil (band)

text: Although Coil expressed interest in many musical groups, they rarely, if ever, claimed to be influenced by them. Coil explicitly stated the influence of such non-musical sources as William Burroughs, Aleister Crowley, Brion Gysin and Austin Spare. Furthermore, the group were friends with Burroughs and owned some of Spare's original artwork.


title: Coil (band)

text: Balance encouraged fans to trade, discuss and discover new and different forms of music, stressing the importance of variety. Music that Coil expressed interest in is diverse and wide-ranging, from musique concrète to folk music to hardcore punk to classical to techno. Among the musicians Coil expressed interest in were early electronic, experimental and minimalist artists: Harry Partch, La Monte Young, Karlheinz Stockhausen (once referred to by Balance as "an honorary member of Coil"), Alvin Lucier, and Arvo Pärt. Coil also expressed interest in krautrock groups including Cluster, Amon Düül II, Can, Kraftwerk and Tangerine Dream. Rock musicians and groups Coil have expressed interest in are: Angus Maclise, Captain Beefheart, Flipper, Leonard Cohen, Lou Reed, Nico, Pere Ubu, Butthole Surfers, Napalm Death, The Birthday Party, The Velvet Underground and The Virgin Prunes. Coil expressed an interest in the Russian composer Igor Stravinsky, and used a sample from his ballet "Rite of Spring" on the "Horse Rotorvator" song "The Anal Staircase". Furthermore, on the album "Black Antlers" Coil dedicated a song to Sun Ra and covered a song by Bam Bam.


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil's influence on electronic music has become more evident since the death of Balance, with electronic musicians from all over the world collaborating on a series of tribute albums. Some notable artists who appear on these albums are Alec Empire, Chris Connelly and KK Null (see "...It Just Is"). Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor also expressed the significant influence that the group had on his work in February 2014:


title: Coil (band)

text: [Coil's] 'Tainted Love' video remains one of the greatest music videos of all time. I was always more attracted to Coil than Throbbing Gristle; the darkness and the scatology really chimed with me. If it's not immediately obvious: Horse Rotorvator was deeply influential on me. What they did to your senses. What they could do with sound. What Jhonn was doing lyrically. The exotic darkness of them permeated their work.


title: Coil (band)

text: The track "At the Heart of It All" (found on "Scatology") later lent its name to an Aphex Twin track on the Nine Inch Nails remix album "Further Down the Spiral"; Coil also provided remixes for "Further Down the Spiral" as well as "Gave Up" on the remix album "Fixed". Furthermore, in 2010, Reznor, Mariqueen Maandig and Atticus Ross started a new band called How to Destroy Angels—named after the Coil song—which received Christopherson's blessing after Reznor made contact with him.


title: Coil (band)

text: Coil's rapid musical output over two decades resulted in a large number of releases, side projects and remixes as well as collaborations.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier (; ; 21 March 1768 – 16 May 1830) was a French mathematician and physicist born in Auxerre and best known for initiating the investigation of Fourier series, which eventually developed into Fourier analysis and harmonic analysis, and their applications to problems of heat transfer and vibrations. The Fourier transform and Fourier's law of conduction are also named in his honour. Fourier is also generally credited with the discovery of the greenhouse effect.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: Fourier was born at Auxerre (now in the Yonne département of France), the son of a tailor. He was orphaned at the age of nine. Fourier was recommended to the Bishop of Auxerre and, through this introduction, he was educated by the Benedictine Order of the Convent of St. Mark. The commissions in the scientific corps of the army were reserved for those of good birth, and being thus ineligible, he accepted a military lectureship on mathematics. He took a prominent part in his own district in promoting the French Revolution, serving on the local Revolutionary Committee. He was imprisoned briefly during the Terror but, in 1795, was appointed to the "École Normale" and subsequently succeeded Joseph-Louis Lagrange at the "École Polytechnique".


title: Joseph Fourier

text: Fourier accompanied Napoleon Bonaparte on his Egyptian expedition in 1798, as scientific adviser, and was appointed secretary of the Institut d'Égypte. Cut off from France by the British fleet, he organized the workshops on which the French army had to rely for their munitions of war. He also contributed several mathematical papers to the Egyptian Institute (also called the Cairo Institute) which Napoleon founded at Cairo, with a view of weakening British influence in the East. After the British victories and the capitulation of the French under General Menou in 1801, Fourier returned to France.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: In 1801, Napoleon appointed Fourier Prefect (Governor) of the Department of Isère in Grenoble, where he oversaw road construction and other projects. However, Fourier had previously returned home from the Napoleon expedition to Egypt to resume his academic post as professor at École Polytechnique when Napoleon decided otherwise in his remark


title: Joseph Fourier

text: Hence being faithful to Napoleon, he took the office of Prefect. It was while at Grenoble that he began to experiment on the propagation of heat. He presented his paper "On the Propagation of Heat in Solid Bodies" to the Paris Institute on December 21, 1807. He also contributed to the monumental "Description de l'Égypte".


title: Joseph Fourier

text: In 1822, Fourier succeeded Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre as Permanent Secretary of the French Academy of Sciences. In 1830, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: Fourier was buried in the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris, a tomb decorated with an Egyptian motif to reflect his position as secretary of the Cairo Institute, and his collation of "Description de l'Égypte". His name is one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: A bronze statue was erected in Auxerre in 1849, but it was melted down for armaments during World War II. Joseph Fourier University in Grenoble is named after him.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: In 1822, Fourier published his work on heat flow in "Théorie analytique de la chaleur" ("The Analytical Theory of Heat"), in which he based his reasoning on Newton's law of cooling, namely, that the flow of heat between two adjacent molecules is proportional to the extremely small difference of their temperatures. This book was translated, with editorial 'corrections', into English 56 years later by Freeman (1878). The book was also edited, with many editorial corrections, by Darboux and republished in French in 1888.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: There were three important contributions in this work, one purely mathematical, two essentially physical. In mathematics, Fourier claimed that any function of a variable, whether continuous or discontinuous, can be expanded in a series of sines of multiples of the variable. Though this result is not correct without additional conditions, Fourier's observation that some discontinuous functions are the sum of infinite series was a breakthrough. The question of determining when a Fourier series converges has been fundamental for centuries. Joseph-Louis Lagrange had given particular cases of this (false) theorem, and had implied that the method was general, but he had not pursued the subject. Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet was the first to give a satisfactory demonstration of it with some restrictive conditions. This work provides the foundation for what is today known as the Fourier transform.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: One important physical contribution in the book was the concept of dimensional homogeneity in equations; i.e. an equation can be formally correct only if the dimensions match on either side of the equality; Fourier made important contributions to dimensional analysis. The other physical contribution was Fourier's proposal of his partial differential equation for conductive diffusion of heat. This equation is now taught to every student of mathematical physics.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: Fourier left an unfinished work on determining and locating real roots of polynomials, which was edited by Claude-Louis Navier and published in 1831. This work contains much original matter—in particular, Fourier's theorem on polynomial real roots, published in 1820. François Budan, in 1807 and 1811, had published independently his theorem (also known by the name of Fourier), which is very close to Fourier's theorem (each theorem is a corollary of the other). Fourier's proof is the one that was usually given, during 19th century, in textbooks on the theory of equations. A complete solution of the problem was given in 1829 by Jacques Charles François Sturm.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: In the 1820s, Fourier calculated that an object the size of the Earth, and at its distance from the Sun, should be considerably colder than the planet actually is if warmed by only the effects of incoming solar radiation. He examined various possible sources of the additional observed heat in articles published in 1824 and 1827. While he ultimately suggested that interstellar radiation might be responsible for a large portion of the additional warmth, Fourier's consideration of the possibility that the Earth's atmosphere might act as an insulator of some kind is widely recognized as the first proposal of what is now known as the greenhouse effect, although Fourier never called it that.


title: Joseph Fourier

text: In his articles, Fourier referred to an experiment by de Saussure, who lined a vase with blackened cork. Into the cork, he inserted several panes of transparent glass, separated by intervals of air. Midday sunlight was allowed to enter at the top of the vase through the glass panes. The temperature became more elevated in the more interior compartments of this device. Fourier concluded that gases in the atmosphere could form a stable barrier like the glass panes. This conclusion may have contributed to the later use of the metaphor of the "greenhouse effect" to refer to the processes that determine atmospheric temperatures. Fourier noted that the actual mechanisms that determine the temperatures of the atmosphere included convection, which was not present in de Saussure's experimental device.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: Silent Hill: Downpour is a 2012 survival horror game developed by Vatra Games and published by Konami Digital Entertainment. First released in March 2012, "Downpour" is set in the series' eponymous fictitious American town and centers on Murphy Pendleton, a prisoner who enters the town, periodically entering the otherworld, leading him to unlock repressed memories. The game uses a third-person view and can be played in 3D.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: "Silent Hill: Downpour" received mixed reviews from gaming critics, who praised its atmosphere, story and return to the series' survival horror and exploration roots after the action-heavy linearity of "", but criticised its monster design, combat and technical performance. A patch since release has fixed many of the technical issues.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: "Silent Hill: Downpour" is a survival horror game played from the over-the-shoulder, third-person perspective, in which the player controls Murphy Pendleton, an escaped convict, as he navigates the titular supernatural town. While the extent to which the game is an open-world environment is debated, "Downpour" allows for more environmental exploration than previous installments in the series. While Murphy explores the town on foot, he can use the abandoned subway tunnels as a short-cut to various parts of the town. At times, Murphy will need to directly interact with the environment to progress, pulling down fire escapes with hooks or destroying boarded-up doors, for example. Parts of his backstory can be learned from in-game notes and flashbacks; secret messages can be uncovered through the use of a UV flashlight, while clues and maps are stored in his journal to access freely. The player also can shape Murphy's character through several moral choices presented throughout the game, by allowing him to either act on or refuse opportunities to save non-player characters.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: While exploring, Murphy may periodically encounter monsters, either alone or in groups. The monsters can harm him, causing his "health" to decline; as it does so, his clothes take on a bloodied and torn appearance to reflect this damage. Items to replenish his health can be found throughout the game. Murphy can obtain a range of melee weapons, including chairs, bottles, shovels, and axes to defend himself, although he can only carry one at a time, which will gradually deteriorate with use and eventually break. Firearms and ammunition are limited, and Murphy has difficulty aiming guns. Murphy can also fight with his fists, although this prevents him from blocking attacks. Additionally, phantom police cruisers roam the streets of Silent Hill; if one spots Murphy, a group of monsters will appear and attack him. The game also features a weather system which alternates fog with varying degrees of rainfall; during heavy rainfall, monsters appear more frequently and behave more violently towards Murphy.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: At scripted intervals, Murphy will find himself in the Otherworld, a supernatural, rusty location where he may have to solve a puzzle to progress, navigate traps, or successfully evade the red, indestructible light chasing him. The light causes him harm in close proximity, and being caught by it will produce a "game over". Murphy can attempt to slow it down by knocking items into its path. Other monsters can damage him as he attempts to escape, while the environment will often change during these sequences: doors may suddenly close when Murphy runs towards them, for example.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: The game offers fourteen optional side quests, one of which is unlocked in a second playthrough. These are intended to replace the fetch quests in earlier "Silent Hill" games, which were necessary to progress and often involved a thematically related side story. In "Downpour", some of the side quests consist of investigating a local murder scene, freeing caged birds, or returning stolen items to the unseen inhabitants of a local apartment complex. The side quests often end in a tangible reward for Murphy, and after a certain point in the narrative, they are no longer accessible.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: "Silent Hill: Downpour" focuses on Murphy Pendleton (David Boyd Konrad), who has been incarcerated for several years for stealing a police cruiser and crossing state borders. The game opens with his murder of the sequestered child molester and murderer, Patrick Napier (John Grace), in prison. After a riot, Murphy is placed under the supervision of officer Anne Cunningham (Kristin Price), who has significant animosity toward him, and is in the process of being transported to another penitentiary when the transport vehicle crashes near Silent Hill. Surviving the impact, Murphy finds himself unexpectedly free and decides to flee. Unknown to him, the town draws upon the psyche of its visitors, forming alternative versions of itself with symbols from their unconscious minds, mental states, and thoughts.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: In his journey through the largely abandoned town, he encounters the cryptic postman, Howard Blackwood (William Tate), and travels to the Devil's Pit, a tourist attraction, where he encounters the suicidal park ranger J.P. Sater (Andy Hendrickson). Indirectly responsible for the deaths of eight children, Sater is eventually consumed by guilt and commits suicide. As the game progresses, it is revealed that Murphy made a deal with the corrupt corrections officer George Sewell (Joel Bernard), to gain access to Napier, who had abused and drowned Murphy's son, Charlie. Murphy eventually locates DJ Bobby Ricks (Antoine L. Smith), who has been dedicating songs to him to attract his attention. Although he has been trapped by the town, Ricks proposes a plan to escape by boat; his keys, however, have been lost. Before they can leave, Anne confronts them, and all three are attacked by monsters. Murphy regains consciousness to find himself alone again. Led to a monastery on the premise of collecting a deceased relative, Murphy encounters the Bogeyman, a sledge-hammer-wielding monster who murders a child in front of him. Murphy finds it again, seemingly lifeless, and learns that it is the relative he is intended to collect. Murphy confesses Napier's murder did not bring him any solace. Spotting the keys to Ricks's boat around its neck, Murphy seizes them and is drawn into a confrontation with the monster.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: After defeating it, Murphy tries to leave the town by boat, only to be stopped by Anne. She shoots him when he refuses to return to the town. He wakes in a prison in the Otherworld and eventually kills the Wheelman, a massive, mute creature in a wheelchair by disabling its life support. Afterwards, Murphy relives the favor he had to repay Sewell, which required him to kill Frank Coleridge (Leer Leary), another corrections officer who was planning to testify against Sewell's corruption and who believed in Murphy. Anne reveals that Coleridge was her father, and after the attack, he lived in a vegetative state until his death years later. Motivated by revenge, Anne had arranged for Murphy's transfer to her prison. In the final sequence of the game, Murphy transforms into the Bogeyman and follows her as she attempts to kill him.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: There are six endings available, based on choices made throughout the game. If Murphy does not kill Anne, the "Forgiveness" and "Truth and Justice" endings show that Sewell framed Murphy for his attack on Coleridge. In "Forgiveness", Anne forgives Murphy, and the pair are transported outside of Silent Hill where Anne reports Murphy's death, allowing him to escape. In "Truth and Justice", Anne is also seen seeking revenge against Sewell by confronting him in his office. If Murphy kills Anne, the "Full Circle" and "Execution" endings reveal that Murphy did kill Coleridge. In "Full Circle", Murphy commits suicide out of guilt, only to awake in an Otherworld prison to relive the events again, observed by the Wheelman. In "Execution", Murphy is executed for the murder of Charlie by Sewell. If Anne kills Murphy, the "Reversal" ending has her awaken as a prison inmate in events mirroring scenes of Murphy in prison, with Murphy taking Sewell's role. A joke ending can be obtained that shows Murphy tunneling out of his cell, to be greeted on the other side by a party in his honor, with various characters from the game and series present.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: "Silent Hill: Downpour" was developed by Vatra Games, using the Unreal Engine 3. Given the working title "Silent Hill 8" at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010, the game was speculated to potentially be a first-person shooter, which would have marked a dramatic shift from the usual gameplay format of the series, though the first-person perspective had been used in some segments of and in the . While this speculation was untrue, an option for multiplayer gaming had been discussed in "Downpour"s early stages of development.


title: Silent Hill: Downpour

text: The narrative of "Downpour" was intended to be a self-contained story in the same vein as "Silent Hill 2": while in development, the only requirement was that the story should focus on visitors to the titular town, rather than being part of any overarching narrative involving Alessa and the town's cult.<ref name="VG24/7"></ref> Early on, the decision had been made to feature a criminal as the protagonist in a "Silent Hill" game for its potential to surprise players who had become accustomed to the usual tropes and plot developments of the series, namely that a seemingly ordinary character is revealed to have an unsettling secret in their backstory or becomes entangled in the town's dark past. Murphy was intended to evoke a measure of discomfort for the player, whether that be through his criminal background, or the questions raised by his presence in Silent Hill. The concept of a criminal protagonist met with some objections when first suggested to the developers at Vatra Games, some of whom did not want the game to center around a "bad guy". Murphy's criminality also divided participants in early focus testing, with it having a negative impact on players who found "certain elements" of it to be off-putting, while others were unconcerned or enjoyed it.