title: Dianthus

text: "Dianthus" species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including cabbage moth, double-striped pug, large yellow underwing and the lychnis. Also three species of "Coleophora" case-bearers feed exclusively on "Dianthus"; "C. dianthi", "C. dianthivora" and "C. musculella" (which feeds exclusively on "D. superbus").


title: Dianthus

text: Since 1717, dianthus species have been extensively bred and hybridised to produce many thousands of cultivars for garden use and floristry, in all shades of white, pink, yellow and red, with a huge variety of flower shapes and markings. They are often divided into the following main groups:


title: Dianthus

text: Over 100 varieties have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit (see the List of Award of Garden Merit dianthus).


title: Dianthus

text: "Dianthus gratianopolitanus" – the Cheddar pink – was chosen as the county flower of Somerset in 2002 following a poll by the wild flora conservation charity Plantlife. "Dianthus japonicus" is the official flower of Hiratsuka, Kanagawa, Japan.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov (, ; ) is the largest city and administrative center of Saratov Oblast, Russia, and a major port on the Volga River upstream (north) of Volgograd. Saratov had a population of 901,361, making it the 17th-largest city in Russia by population. Saratov is from Volgograd, from Samara, and southeast of Moscow.


title: Saratov

text: The city stands near the site of Uvek, a city of the Golden Horde. Tsar Feodor I of Russia likely developed Saratov as a fortress to secure Russia's southeastern border. Saratov developed as a shipping port along the Volga and was historically important to the Volga Germans, who settled in large numbers in the city before they were expelled after World War II.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov is home to a number of cultural and educational institutions, including the Saratov Drama Theater, Saratov Conservatory, Radishchev Art Museum, Saratov State Technical University, and Saratov State University.


title: Saratov

text: The name Saratov may be derived from "Sary Tau" (Сары Тау), meaning "Yellow Mountain" in the Tatar language. Another version of the name origin derives it from the words "Sar Atau", which means the "Boggy Island".


title: Saratov

text: Uvek, a city of the Golden Horde, stood near the site of the modern city of Saratov from the mid-13th century until its destruction by Tamerlane in 1395. While the exact date of the foundation of modern Saratov is unknown, plausible theories date it to ca. 1590, during the reign (1584–1598) of Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, who constructed several settlements along the Volga River in order to secure the southeastern boundary of his state. Town status was granted to it in 1708.


title: Saratov

text: By the 1800s, Saratov had grown to become an important shipping port on the Volga. The Ryazan-Ural Railroad reached Saratov in 1870. In 1896, the line crossed the Volga and continued its eastward expansion. A unique train-ferry, owned by the Ryazan-Ural railroad, provided the connection across the river between the two ends of the railroad for 39 years, before the construction of a railway bridge in 1935.


title: Saratov

text: During January 1915, with World War I dominating the Russian national agenda, Saratov became the destination for deportation convoys of ethnic Germans, Jews, Hungarians, Austrians and Slavs whose presence closer to the western front was perceived as a potential security risk to the state.


title: Saratov

text: During World War II, Saratov was a station on the north–south Volzhskaya Rokada, a specially designated military railroad supplying troops, ammunition and supplies to Stalingrad. In 1942-1943 the city was bombed by German aircraft. The main target was the Kirov oil refinery, which was heavily bombarded, seriously damaging the installation and destroying 80% of its plant and temporarily interrupting its work. The Luftwaffe was able to destroy all the fuel stock at bases in Saratov and eliminate the oil plant in the city.


title: Saratov

text: Until the end of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Soviet authorities designated Saratov a "closed city"; off-limits to all foreigners due to its military importance as the site of a vital facility manufacturing military aircraft.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov played a prominent role in the history of the Volga Germans. These Germans, who arrived in the region in response to the express invitation to populate these lands made to them by Tsarina Catherine II of Russia in 1763, had this city as the administrative center of the German community established on the left bank of the Volga River, along different agricultural colonies. Meanwhile, the Germans who settled in the lands to the right of the Volga, had the city of Samara as their administrative center. Catherine II, through her two edicts published in Germany, had promised the settlers that they would remain German, enjoying a great deal of autonomy, even if they moved to the Volga region, and they did so. There, the Germans continued with their German language, their own education, their churches, their publications, etc.


title: Saratov

text: However, after more than a century living in that region, the living conditions of the Germans began to change. Catherine II was no longer alive, and the government began to apply an aggressive Russification policy, which meant that from 1878 some groups of Volga Germans began to emigrate to the United States, Canada, Brazil and Argentina. Those who could not leave or who remained in the hope conditions would improve suffered greatly. Hostilities did not stop even after the confiscation of their assets. In 1941, Stalin ordered the deportation of all ethnic Germans of Russia to forced labor Gulag concentration camps located in Siberia and other areas of Soviet Central Asia, leading to genocide.


title: Saratov

text: After several decades, some survivors were allowed to return to the area, although all the properties had been occupied by Russian communists. Later, with the opening of the borders after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, several survivors chose to emigrate to Germany. This is a civilian population that suffered torture and other very traumatic experiences for decades, who have generally had all their relatives killed, who have been dispossessed by massive confiscations, and who have never been compensated for any of the crimes against humanity of which they have been victims.


title: Saratov

text: Today only a few reminders remain of the once prominent place for Volga Germans. The Roman Catholic St. Klemens Cathedral, which had been built by the Volga Germans on the main street of Saratov, the then called "German Street" (, ), has its steeples removed and was converted into the Pioneer Cinema by order of the Soviet government (religion was prohibited). Meanwhile, the old German Street, the pedestrian street of Saratov, was renamed "Kirov Prospect" in reference to the Bolshevik leader Sergei Kirov, a name that still retains. The city does not have any monument, street, or plaque that remembers the victims of the genocide.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov is the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Saratovsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of oblast significance of Saratov—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of oblast significance of Saratov is incorporated as Saratov Urban Okrug.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov has a moderately continental climate with warm and dry summers and an abundance of sunny days. The warmest month is July with daily mean temperature near ; the coldest is February, at .


title: Saratov

text: Summers are hot and dry in Saratov. Daytime temperatures of or higher are commonplace, up to during a heat wave in 2010.


title: Saratov

text: Snow and ice are dominant during the winter season. Days well above freezing and nights below both occur in the winter.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov Oblast is highly industrialized, due in part to the richness in natural and industrial resources of the area. The oblast is also one of the more important and largest cultural and scientific centers in Russia. Saratov possesses six institutes of the Russian Academy of Sciences, twenty-one research institutes, nineteen project institutes, as well as the Saratov State University, the Saratov State Socio-Economic University, the Saratov State Technical University, and many scientific and technological laboratories attached to some of the city's large industrial enterprises.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov is served by the Saratov Gagarin Airport (opened in 20 August 2019 replacing Saratov Tsentralny Airport). The airport serves flights to both international and domestic destinations. Saratov West is a general aviation airfield. The aerospace manufacturing industry is served by the Saratov South airport. Nearby Engels-2 (air base) is the main base for Russian strategic Tu-95 and Tu-160 bombers. Motorways link Saratov directly to Volgograd, Samara, and Voronezh. The railways also play an important role. The Privolzhskaya Railway is headquartered in Saratov. The Volga itself is an important inland waterway. Buses and trolleybuses form the backbone of public transport in the city.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov has a tram network, which opened in 1908. Currently, there are two depots, while a third was closed in 2001. The rolling stock currently consists of 71-605, 71-619, 71-608 and a number of refurbished Tatra T3, renamed to MTTE and MTTCh.


title: Saratov

text: A trolleybus network is also present in the city. On July 2, 2021, an intercity route over the Volga was opened, linking to the trolleybus network of Engels.


title: Saratov

text: Saratov is host to a number of colleges and universities. These include the Saratov State University (1909), Saratov State Technical University, Saratov State Medical University, Saratov State Academy of Law and Saratov State Agrarian University. In 2014 a newly renovated campus for the Saratov Regional College of Art was opened.


title: Saratov

text: One of the city's most prominent landmarks is the 19th century neo-Gothic Conservatory. When it was built in 1912, the Conservatory was Russia's third such institution (after Moscow and St. Petersburg). At the time, Saratov, with a population of 240,000, was the third-largest city in Russia. The main building of the conservatory had been built in 1902 by architect Alexander Yulyevich Yagn, and originally it housed a music school. Before the opening of the conservatory in 1912, the building was reconstructed by the architect Semyon Akimovich Kallistratov. When Saratov Conservatory opened in September 1912, it immediately had 1,000 students ready to begin their studies.


title: Saratov

text: The Saratov Drama Theater was founded in 1802, making it one of Russia's oldest. It is ranked as one of Russia's National Theaters. In Soviet times, the theater was renamed in honor of Karl Marx, but now carries the name of Ivan Slonov (1882–1945), an actor, theatrical director and educator, born in the city. The full name in Russian is The I. A. Slonov Saratov State Academic Theater ().


title: Saratov

text: Saratov is noted for several art museums, including the Radishchev Art Museum, named for Alexander Radishchev, Fedin Art Museum, named after Russian novelist Konstantin Fedin, Saratov Local History Museum, Chernyshevsky Estate Museum, named for Nikolay Chernyshevsky, and some others. The Radishchev Art Museum contains more than 20,000 exhibits, including ancient Russian icons, works by Camille Corot, Auguste Rodin, as well as works by some of the finest Russian painters (e.g. Ivan Kramskoy, Vasily Polenov, Ilya Repin, Ivan Shishkin, Aleksandra Ekster, Pavel Kuznetsov, Aristarkh Lentulov, Robert Falk, Pyotr Konchalovsky, Martiros Saryan, Fyodor Rokotov).


title: Saratov

text: More than 90% of the city's population are ethnic Russians. Among the remainder are Tatars, Ukrainians, Armenians, Kazakhs and others.


title: History of the Romani people

text: The Romani people, also referred to as Roma, Sinti or Sindhi, or Kale, depending on the sub-group, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group which primarily lives in Europe. The Romani may have migrated from what is the modern Indian state of Rajasthan, migrating to the northwest (the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent) around 250 BCE. Their subsequent westward migration, possibly in waves, is now believed to have occurred beginning in about 500 CE. It has also been suggested that emigration from India may have taken place in the context of the raids by Mahmud of Ghazni. As these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire. The author Ralph Lilley Turner theorised a central Indian origin of Romani followed by a migration to Northwest India as it shares a number of ancient isoglosses with Central Indo-Aryan languages in relation to realization of some sounds of Old Indo-Aryan. This is lent further credence by its sharing exactly the same pattern of northwestern languages such as Kashmiri and Shina through the adoption of oblique enclitic pronouns as person markers. The overall morphology suggests that Romani participated in some of the significant developments leading toward the emergence of New Indo-Aryan languages, thus indicating that the proto-Romani did not leave the Indian subcontinent until late in the second half of the first millennium.


title: History of the Romani people

text: There are many different theories about their origin, as example, including that the Roma and Sinti people came from Sindh.


title: History of the Romani people

text: The Romani have been described by Diana Muir Appelbaum as unique among peoples because they have never identified themselves with a territory; they have no tradition of an ancient and distant homeland from which their ancestors migrated, nor do they claim the right to national sovereignty in any of the lands where they reside. Rather, Romani identity is bound up with the ideal of freedom expressed, in part, in having no ties to a homeland. The absence of a written history has meant that the origin and early history of the Romani people was long an enigma. Indian origin was suggested on linguistic grounds as early as the late 18th century.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In the Roma language Rom means Husband, while Romliye means Housewife, "Roma" means "Human being". Theories suggest that the ancestors of the Romani were part of the military in Northern India. One modern theory is, when there were invasions by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi and these soldiers were defeated, they were moved west with their families into the Byzantine Empire between AD 1000 and 1030.


title: History of the Romani people

text: The genetic evidence identified an Indian origin for Roma. Genetic evidence connects the Romani people to the descendants who emigrated from South Asia towards Central Asia during the medieval period.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Until the mid-to-late 18th century, theories about the origin of the Romani were mostly speculative. In 1782, Johann Christian Christoph Rüdiger published his research findings in which he pointed out the relationship between the Romani language and Hindustani. Subsequent work supported the hypothesis that Romani shared a common origin with the Indo-Aryan languages of Northern India.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Domari was once thought to be the "sister language" of Romani, the two languages had split after the Romani departed from South Asia, but based on more recent research findings, they should be considered two separate languages within the Central zone (Hindustani) Saraiki language group of languages because the differences which exist between them are extremely significant. Therefore, the Dom and the Rom are probably the descendants of two different groups of people who migrated from the Indian subcontinent in two different waves, the waves of migration occurred several centuries apart.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Further evidence for the South Asian origin of the Romanies came in the late 1990s. Researchers doing DNA analysis discovered that Romani populations carried large frequencies of particular Y chromosomes (inherited paternally) and mitochondrial DNA (inherited maternally) that otherwise exist only in populations from South Asia.


title: History of the Romani people

text: 47.3% of Romani men carry Y chromosomes of haplogroup H-M82 which is rare outside South Asia. Mitochondrial haplogroup M, most common in Indian subjects and rare outside Southern Asia, accounts for nearly 30% of Romani people. A more detailed study of Polish Roma shows this to be of the M5 lineage, which is specific to India. Moreover, a form of the inherited disorder congenital myasthenia is found in Romani subjects. This form of the disorder, caused by the 1267delG mutation, is otherwise known only in subjects of Indian ancestry. This is considered to be the best evidence of the Indian ancestry of the Romanis.


title: History of the Romani people

text: The Romanis have been described as "a conglomerate of genetically isolated founder populations". The number of common Mendelian disorders found among Romanis from all over Europe indicates "a common origin and founder effect".


title: History of the Romani people

text: A study from 2001 by Gresham et al. suggests "a limited number of related founders, compatible with a small group of migrants splitting from a distinct caste or tribal group". Also the study pointed out that "genetic drift and different levels and sources of admixture, appear to have played a role in the subsequent differentiation of populations". The same study found that "a single lineage ... found across Romani populations, accounts for almost one-third of Romani males."


title: History of the Romani people

text: A 2004 study by Morar et al. concluded that the Romanies are descended from "a founder population of common origins that has subsequently split into multiple socially divergent and geographically dispersed Romani


title: History of the Romani people

text: The Burushos of Hunza have a paternal lineage genetic marker that is grouped with Pamiri speakers from Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and the Sinti ethnic group. This find of shared genetic haplogroups may indicate an origin of the Romani people in or around these regions.


title: History of the Romani people

text: According to a genetic study on the phylogeography of Y-chromosome haplogroup H1a1a-M82 in 2012, the ancestors of present scheduled tribes and scheduled caste populations of northern India, traditionally referred to collectively as the Ḍoma, are the likely ancestral populations of modern European Roma.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Mitochondrial or Y-chromosome haplotype studies provide valuable information, but a limitation of these types of studies is that they each represent only one instantiation of the genealogical process. Autosomal data permits simultaneous analysis of multiple lineages, which can provide novel information about population history. According to a genetic study on autosomal data on Roma the source of South Asian Ancestry in Roma is North-West India. The two populations showing closest relatedness to Roma were Punjabis and Kashmiris which also happen to have the highest West Eurasian related ancestry amongst South Asians. However according to a study on genome-wide data published in 2019 the putative origin of the proto Roma involves a Punjabi group with low levels of West Eurasian ancestry. The classical and mtDNA genetic markers suggested the closest affinity of the Roma with domba origin and Punjabi populations from Rajasthan and the Punjab respectively.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Early records of itinerant populations from India begin as early as the Sassanid period. British linguist Donald Kenrick notes the first recorded presence of "Zott" in Baghdad in AD 420, Khanaqin in AD 834.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Contemporary scholars have suggested one of the first written references to the Romanies, under the term ""Atsingani"", (derived from the Greek "ἀτσίγγανοι - atsinganoi"), dates from the Byzantine era during a time of famine in the 9th century. In the year AD 800, Saint Athanasia gave food to "foreigners called the Atsingani" near Thrace. Later, in AD 803, Theophanes the Confessor wrote that Emperor Nikephoros I had the help of the ""Atsingani"" to put down a riot with their "knowledge of magic". However, the Atsingani were a Manichean sect that disappeared from chronicles in the 11th century. ""Atsinganoi"" was used to refer to itinerant fortune tellers, ventriloquists and wizards who visited the Emperor Constantine IX in the year 1054.


title: History of the Romani people

text: The hagiographical text, "The Life of St. George the Anchorite," mentions that the ""Atsingani"" were called on by Constantine to help rid his forests of the wild animals which were killing off his livestock.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Roma skeletal remains exhumed from Castle Mall at Norwich, UK were radiocarbon dated by liquid scintillation spectrometry to circa 930-1050AD.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 1323 Simon Simeonis, an Irish Franciscan friar, described people in likeness to the "atsingani" living in Crete: "We also saw outside this city <nowiki>[</nowiki>Candia<nowiki>]</nowiki> a tribe of people, who worship according to the Greek rite, and assert themselves to be of the race of Cain. These people rarely or never stop in one place for more than thirty days, but always, as if cursed by God, are nomad and outcast. After the thirtieth day they wander from field to field with small, oblong, black, and low tents, like those of the Arabs, and from cave to cave, because the place inhabited by them becomes after the term of thirty days so full of vermin and other filth that it is impossible to live in their neighbourhood."


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 1350 Ludolf von Sudheim mentioned a similar people with a unique language whom he called "Mandapolos", a word which some theorize was possibly derived from the Greek word "Mantipolos - Μαντιπόλος" "frenzied" from "mantis - μάντις" (meaning "prophet, fortune teller") and "poleo - πολέω".


title: History of the Romani people

text: Around 1360, a fiefdom (called the "Feudum Acinganorum") was established in Corfu. It mainly used Romani serfs and the Romanies on the island were subservient.


title: History of the Romani people

text: By the 14th century, the Romanies had reached the Balkans and Bohemia; by the 15th century, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and Portugal; and by the 16th century, Russia, Denmark, Scotland and Sweden. (although DNA evidence from mid-11th century skeletons in Norwich suggest that at least a few individuals may have arrived earlier, perhaps due to Viking enslavement of Romani from the eastern Mediterranean or liaisons with the Varangians).


title: History of the Romani people

text: Some Romanies migrated from Persia through North Africa, reaching Europe via Spain in the 15th century. Romanies began immigrating to the United States in colonial times, with small groups in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale immigration began in the 1860s, with groups of Romnichal from Britain. The largest number immigrated in the early 20th century, mainly from the Vlax group of Kalderash. Many Romanies also settled in Latin America.


title: History of the Romani people

text: According to historian Norman Davies, a 1378 law passed by the governor of Nauplion in the Greek Peloponnese confirming privileges for the "atsingani" is "the first documented record of Romany Gypsies in Europe". Similar documents, again representing the Romanies as a group that had been exiled from Egypt, record them reaching Braşov, Transylvania in 1416; Hamburg, Holy Roman Empire in 1418; and Paris in 1427. A chronicler for a Parisian journal described them as dressed in a manner that the Parisians considered shabby, and reports that the Church had them leave town because they practiced palm-reading and fortune-telling.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Their early history shows a mixed reception. Although 1385 marks the first recorded transaction for a Romani slave in Wallachia, they were issued safe conduct by Sigismund of the Holy Roman Empire in 1417. Romanies were ordered expelled from the Meissen region of Germany in 1416, Lucerne in 1471, Milan in 1493, France in 1504, Aragon in 1512, Sweden in 1525, England in 1530 (see Egyptians Act 1530), and Denmark in 1536. In 1510, any Romani found in Switzerland was ordered to be executed, and in 1554 a statute was passed in England that mandated all Romani in the country leave or face execution. Similar legislation was passed in numerous European nations, including Denmark in 1589, Sweden in 1637, whereas Portugal began deportations of Romanies to its colonies in 1538.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Later, a 1596 English statute, however, gave Romanies special privileges that other wanderers lacked; France passed a similar law in 1683. Catherine the Great of Russia declared the Romanies "crown slaves" (a status superior to serfs), but also kept them out of certain parts of the capital. In 1595, Ştefan Răzvan overcame his birth into slavery, and became the Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In Wallachia, Transylvania and Moldavia, Romanies were enslaved for five centuries, until abolition in the mid-19th century.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In the late 19th century, the Romani culture inspired in their neighbors a wealth of artistic works. Among the most notable works are "Carmen" and "La Vie de Bohème".


title: History of the Romani people

text: In the Ottoman Empire, Muslim Romani people were preferred, in contrast to the Christian Roma. Muslim Roma were settled in Rumelia (Balkans) from Anatolia like the Arlije or Cyprus like the Gurbeti. There were also conversions to Islam in order to achieve better living conditions under Ottoman rule. There was a Sanjak of the Çingene, established for Muslim Roma in Rumelia from 1520 until the end of the Ottoman Empire, which was overseen by a Muslim Rom Baro. Muslim Roma were able to migrate from one part of the country to another within the vast Ottoman Empire. So Muslim Roma from Anatolia wandered to the Balkans, from the Balkans to Egypt, or migrated to the Crimean peninsula, there and back, again and again. In the case of the Zargari tribe, they migrated once from Ottoman Rumelia via Ottoman Damascus to the Persian Empire. The same Muslim Roma group did not always live in the same place; other groups often took their places. As an example, the popular belly dance came to Istanbul from Egypt with Roma groups after 1517.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In addition to their own native Balkan Romani, some Muslim Romani groups adopted the Turkish language, and deny their real Roma origin, and consider themselves as Turks. Other Muslim Romani groups adopted the Albanian language or one of the many South Slavic dialects, some mixed the language and create a Para-Romani, and others gradually forgot their mother tongue, and only speak the language of the majority population. Genetic studies showed the influence of the Ottoman empire of the Balkans. The Dom and Lom people also lived in the Ottoman Empire. Turkey is the only country where Romani, Domari and Lom people live in.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 1758, Maria Theresa of Austria began a program of assimilation to turn Romanies into "ujmagyar" (new Hungarians). The government built permanent huts to replace mobile tents, forbade travel, and forcefully removed children from their parents to be fostered by non-Romani. By 1894, the majority of Romanies counted in a Hungarian national census were sedentary. In 1830, Romani children in Nordhausen were taken from their families to be fostered by Germans.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Russia also encouraged settlement of all nomads in 1783, and the Polish introduced a settlement law in 1791. Bulgaria and Serbia banned nomadism in the 1880s.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 1783, racial legislation against Romanies was repealed in the United Kingdom, and a specific "Turnpike Act" was established in 1822 to prevent nomads from camping on the roadside, strengthened in the Highways Act of 1835.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 1530, England issued the Egyptians Act which banned Romani from entering the country and required those living in the country to leave within 16 days. Failure to do so could result in the confiscation of property, imprisonment and deportation. The act was amended with the Egyptians Act 1554, which ordered the Romani to leave the country within a month. Non-complying Romanies were executed.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 1538, the first anti-ziganist (anti-Romani) legislation was issued in Moravia and Bohemia, which were under Habsburg rule. Three years later, after a series of fires in Prague which were blamed on the Romani, Ferdinand I ordered them to be expelled. In 1545, the Diet of Augsburg declared that "whoever kills a Gypsy, will be guilty of no murder". The massive killing spree that resulted prompted the government to eventually step in and "forbid the drowning of Romani women and children".


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 1710, Joseph I issued a decree declaring the extermination of Romani ordering that "all adult males were to be hanged without trial, whereas women and young males were to be flogged and banished forever." In addition, they were to have their right ears cut off in the kingdom of Bohemia and their left ear in Moravia. In 1721, Charles VI, Joseph's brother and successor, amended the decree to include the execution of adult female Romani, while children were "to be put in hospitals for education".


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 1879, a national meeting of Romanies was held in the Hungarian town of Kisfalu (now Pordašinci, Slovenia). Romanies in Bulgaria held a conference in 1919 in an attempt to demand that they be given the right to vote, and a Romani journal, "Istiqbal" (Future) was founded in 1923.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In the Soviet Union, the All-Russian Union of Gypsies was organized in 1925 and a journal, "Romani Zorya" (Romani Dawn) was published two years later. The "Romengiro Lav" (Romani Word) writer's circle encouraged works by authors like Nikolay Aleksandrovich Pankov and Nina Dudarova.


title: History of the Romani people

text: A General Association of the Gypsies of Romania was established in 1933 with the holding of a national conference, and the publication of two journals, "Neamul Țiganesc" (Gypsy Nation) and "Timpul" (Time). An "international" conference was organized in Bucharest the following year.


title: History of the Romani people

text: During World War II and The Holocaust, the Nazis murdered 220,000 to 500,000 Romanies in a genocide which is referred to as the "Porajmos". Like the Jews, they were segregated and forced to move into ghettos before they were sent to concentration or extermination camps. They were frequently killed on sight by the Einsatzgruppen, especially on the Eastern Front. 25% of European Roma perished in the genocide.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In Communist Central and Eastern Europe, the Romanies experienced assimilation schemes and restrictions on their cultural freedom. In public, the speaking of the Romani language and the playing of Romani music were both banned in Bulgaria. In Czechoslovakia, tens of thousands of Romanies from Slovakia, Hungary and Romania were re-settled in the border areas of the Czech lands and their nomadic lifestyle was forbidden. In Czechoslovakia, where they were considered a “socially degraded stratum,” Romani women were sterilized as part of a state policy to reduce their population. This policy was implemented with large financial incentives, threats to withhold future social welfare payments, misinformation and involuntary sterilization.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In the early 1990s, Germany deported tens of thousands of migrants to central and eastern Europe. Sixty percent of some 100,000 Romanian nationals who were deported under a 1992 treaty were Romani.


title: History of the Romani people

text: During the 1990s and during the early 21st century, many Romanies from central and eastern Europe attempted to migrate to western Europe or Canada. The majority of them were rejected. Several of these countries established strict visa requirements in an attempt to prevent future migrations.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 2005, the Decade of Roma Inclusion was launched in nine Central and Southeastern European countries in an attempt to improve the socio-economic status and increase the social inclusion of the Romani minority across the region.


title: History of the Romani people

text: A decade of Roma Inclusion 2005 - 2015 was not successful. It initiated crucially important processes for Roma inclusion in Europe and it also provided the impetus for an EU-led effort to cover similar subject matter, the EU Framework for National Roma Integration Strategies up to 2020 (EU Framework).


title: History of the Romani people

text: Romanies began to immigrate to the United States during colonial times, with small groups of them settling in Virginia and French Louisiana. Larger-scale immigration began in the 1860s, with groups of Romnichal from Britain.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In August 1997, TV Nova, a popular television station in the Czech Republic, broadcast a documentary about the situation of Romanies who had emigrated to Canada. The short report claimed that Romanies in Canada were living comfortably with support from the state, and it also claimed that they were being sheltered from racial discrimination and violence. At the time, life was particularly difficult for many Romanies who were living in the Czech Republic. As a result of the dissolution of Czechoslovakia, many Romanies were left without citizenship in either the Czech Republic or Slovakia. Following the large flood in Moravia in July, many Romanies were left homeless but they were not welcome in other parts of the country.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Almost overnight, there were reports of Romanies preparing to emigrate to Canada. According to one report, 5,000 Romanies from the city of Ostrava intended to move. The mayors of some Czech towns encouraged the exodus, offering to help pay for flights so that Romanies could leave. The following week, the Canadian Embassy in Prague was receiving hundreds of calls from Romanies every day and flights between the Czech Republic and Canada were sold out until October. In 1997, 1,285 people from the Czech Republic arrived in Canada and claimed refugee status, a rather significant jump from the 189 Czechs who did so the previous year.


title: History of the Romani people

text: Lucie Cermakova, a spokesperson at the Canadian Embassy in Prague, criticized the program, claiming that it "presented only one side of the matter and picked out only nonsensical ideas." Marie Jurkovicova, a spokesperson for the Czech Embassy in Ottawa suggested that "the program was full of half-truths, which strongly distorted reality and practically invited the exodus of large groups of Czech Romanies. It concealed a number of facts."


title: History of the Romani people

text: President Václav Havel and Prime Minister Václav Klaus (after some hesitation) attempted to convince the Romanies not to leave. With the help of Romani leaders like Emil Scuka, Chairman of the Roma Civic Initiative, they urged Romanies to remain in the country and work to solve their problems with the larger Czech population.


title: History of the Romani people

text: The movement of Romanies to Canada had been fairly easy because visa requirements for Czech citizens had been lifted by the Canadian government in April 1996. In response to the influx of Romanies, the Canadian government reinstated the visa requirements for all Czechs as of 8 October 1997.


title: History of the Romani people

text: The first World Romani Congress was held near London in 1971, it was partially funded by the World Council of Churches and the Government of India. It was attended by representatives from India and 20 other countries. At the congress, the green and blue flag which was unfurled at the 1933 conference, embellished with the red, sixteen-spoked chakra, was reaffirmed as the national emblem of the Romani people, and the song , ""Gelem, Gelem"" was adopted as the national anthem of the Romani people.


title: History of the Romani people

text: The International Romani Union was officially established in 1977, and in 1990, the fourth World Congress declared that April 8 is the International Day of the Roma, a day to celebrate Romani culture and raise awareness of the issues which are affecting the Romani community.


title: History of the Romani people

text: In 2000, the 5th World Romani Congress issued an official declaration in which it stated that the Romany people are a non-territorial nation.


Prince Constantine Alexios of Greece and Denmark (; born 29 October 1998) is a member of the non-reigning Greek royal family, the eldest son and second child of Crown Prince Pavlos and Crown Princess Marie-Chantal of Greece. He is second in line, after his father, to the now defunct throne of Greece. He is the grandson of Constantine II and Anne-Marie of Denmark, who were the last King and Queen of Greece.


title: Prince Constantine Alexios of Greece and Denmark

text: Constantine Alexios was born on 29 October 1998 at Weill Cornell Medical Center in New York City. In traditional Greek naming practices, first sons are named for their paternal grandfathers. He is the younger brother of Princess Maria-Olympia and older brother of Prince Achileas-Andreas, Prince Odysseas-Kimon, and Prince Aristidis-Stavros.


text: Constantine Alexios was christened in a Greek Orthodox ceremony at St. Sophia's Cathedral, London, on 15 April 1999. His godparents are Prince Nikolaos of Greece and Denmark; Prince Dimitri of Yugoslavia; Frederik, Crown Prince of Denmark; King Felipe VI of Spain; William, Prince of Wales; Victoria, Crown Princess of Sweden; Princess Alexandra zu Fürstenberg; and Doris Robbs. Three of his godparents are prospective monarchs and one is a reigning king.


text: Constantine Alexios, known as 'Tino' and 'Alexios', grew up in London from the age of four, and began his education at Wetherby School in London but later he attended Wellington College where he graduated in 2017. At Wellington he also received military education. In August 2017 he matriculated at Georgetown University. The decision of studying in the United States was announced already a year before the graduation from Wellington College. Constantine Alexios is also known for his artistic skills both painting and sculpturing very often sculptures inspired by Greek mythology and has more than 100,000 followers on Instagram. Besides doing art he is also known to be interested in hunting, music and photography.


text: Constantine Alexios has also, together with his father, been a model for Dior modeling for fashion photographer Nikolai von Bismarck for the book ""The Dior Sessions"", which was the first book from Dior entirely with focus on men's fashion from Dior Homme. All proceeds from the sale of the book was for the benefit of the Teenage Cancer Trust.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Rodney Roy Jerkins (born July 29, 1977), also known by his stage name Darkchild, is an American record producer, rapper, and songwriter. He has collaborated with a broad range of popular artists.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Jerkins has won multiple Grammy Awards. Among his most successful productions are "The Boy Is Mine" and "What About Us?" by Brandy, "I Can Love You" and "Enough Cryin" by Mary J. Blige, "Daydreamin'" by Tatyana Ali, "Angel of Mine" by Monica, "It's Not Right but It's Okay" by Whitney Houston, "Say My Name" and "Cater 2 U" by Destiny's Child, "If You Had My Love" by Jennifer Lopez, "He Wasn't Man Enough" by Toni Braxton, "You Rock My World" by Michael Jackson, "One Wish" by Ray J, "Déjà Vu" by Beyoncé, "Telephone" by Lady Gaga, and "As Long as You Love Me" by Justin Bieber.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Jerkins' father, Frederick, is an Evangelical pastor and his mother was an housekeeper. Jerkins began playing piano at age five. He would follow his brother and father, who both played at church gatherings.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Raised in Galloway Township, New Jersey, Jerkins is one of four children: two boys and two girls. His brother is fellow producer Fred Jerkins III. Jerkins attended Absegami High School, and identifies as a Christian.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: At age 13, he was offered a chance to work at a studio in Atlantic City, New Jersey, but declined. At age 14, Jerkins was mentored by his idol, Teddy Riley, but he did not accept a contract offer to work with the producer due to an aspiration to build an "empire" without such support. He was also offered a chance to work at Bad Boy Records, but declined. At 16, he was approached by James Jones, formerly of Uptown Records, and moved in with him to Hackensack, New Jersey to work with him. One of their first sessions was with Patti LaBelle.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Jerkins' first recorded output was a "gospel rap" collaboration with his brother, Fred Jerkins III, entitled "On the Move". He later incorporated the name "Darkchild", at the age of 17, subsequently accepting a worldwide publishing deal with the EMI Music Corporation. The producer then proceeded to establish a commercial music career, initially working with artists such as Joe, Mary J. Blige and Brandy. Jerkins' stated his first big projects were Blige's "Share My World", Whitney Houston's "It's Not Right but It's Okay", and Brandy and Monica's "The Boy Is Mine".


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Over the course of his career, Jerkins has developed a "camp" of successful topline writers, including LaShawn Daniels, Kenisha Pratt, Toni Estes, Anesha & Antea Birchett, Delisha Thomas, Keli Nicole Price, Nora Payne, Michaela Shiloh, Isaac Phillips, Japhe Tejeda, LeToya Duggan, Andre Lindal, and Victoria Monét, among others.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Jerkins has produced and written for Brandy, Patti LaBelle, Joe, The Saturdays, Toni Braxton, Vanessa Williams, Will Smith, Keyshia Cole, Monica, Michael Jackson, Ayumi Hamasaki, Cher, Jessica Simpson, Jennifer Lopez, Ashanti, Aaliyah, Amerie, Britney Spears, Mary Mary, Kirk Franklin, Kierra Sheard, The Black Eyed Peas, Destiny's Child, Spice Girls, TLC, Janet Jackson, Danity Kane, Beyoncé, Linda Király, Lady Gaga, Cascada, Tamia, Pussycat Dolls, Whitney Houston, Natasha Bedingfield, Mary J. Blige, B5, Lionel Richie, Tiffany Evans, JYJ, Wonder Girls, Austin Brown, Kanye West, Katy Perry, Hikaru Utada, Keke Palmer, Hala Al Turk, Nelly Furtado, Justin Bieber, Brian McKnight and LMFAO.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: In the 2010s, he produced songs for Mariah Carey, Leona Lewis, JLS, Kylie Minogue, Ayumi Hamasaki, The Saturdays. Jerkins was a music executive and mentor on season 10 of "American Idol".


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: In 2013, Jerkins was hired on to be a producer for Michael Jackson's posthumous album Xscape. He originally worked on the title track for the album from 1999 to 2001. He is the only producer to work on the original version and reworking version of the title track.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: When asked by Ryan Seacrest in 2013 the favourite people he's produced for he said "Definitely The Saturdays. Without a doubt. I had a lot of fun working with them and was really impressed with their voices. They were very down to earth and I like that a lot in an artist. I wish them all the best in America and think they could end up as big as The Spice Girls."


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: In preparation for the 2014 FIFA World Cup opening ceremony, Jerkins produced a song featuring the Palestinian 2013 "Arab Idol" winner Mohammed Assaf.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: In 1999, Jerkins joined Sony/Epic Records to promote power vocalist Rhona, Pop/R&B girl group So Plush and rapper Fats. Fats appeared on two tracks Jerkins produced for Michael Jackson's album "Invincible", and So Plush released the single "Things I've Heard Before". Subsequently, So Plush's singles, "Damn" and "Things I've Heard Before", were pressed and made available as promos, and Rhona's album was even released in Japan. In 2005 Darkchild Records reappeared when Jerkins signed brand new acts including Shamari Fears, formerly of R&B group Blaque, female MC Asia Lee, dancehall artist Atiba, and gospel singer Anesha Birchett.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: In 2006, he was appointed VP of Artists & repertoire (A&R) for The Island Def Jam Group. Jerkins released his wife Joy Enriquez's second album "Atmosphere of Heaven", which features a religious direction, on his independent gospel imprint JoyFul Child Records. The Darkchild name has been loaned to Darkchild Gospel, a record company run by Jerkins' brother, Fred Jerkins III. which released the latest album from Virtue – "Testimony".


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: In late 2008, Jerkins joined Nicholas Longano, Ray Brown, and Jonathan E. Eubanks in creating Music Mogul, Inc. MusicMogul.com is an online portal where artists can communicate with their fans. Each quarter, members vote for the best video performances. The top performers are then flown to Los Angeles to compete in front of a panel of celebrity judges. The winner gets a demo deal with Darkchild Productions.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Jerkins has been married to singer Joy Enriquez since April 4, 2004. The two met when he worked on her debut album.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: The couple has four children. Rodney David Jerkins Jr(28 May 2008); Heavenly Joy Jerkins(17 November 17 2009); Hannah Joy Jerkins(19 October 2012); and Royal David Jerkins, in early 2015.


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: In 2015, his five-year-old daughter Heavenly Joy was a contestant on season 10 of "America's Got Talent".


title: Rodney Jerkins

text: Jerkins is currently starring with Johnny Wright in a number of episodes of the YOBI.tv "Take the Stage" web series.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: Dallas is an American prime time television soap opera developed by Cynthia Cidre and produced by Warner Horizon Television, that aired on TNT from June 13, 2012, to September 22, 2014. The series was a revival of the prime time television soap opera of the same name that was created by David Jacobs and which aired on CBS from 1978 to 1991. The series revolves around the Ewings, an affluent Dallas family in the oil and cattle-ranching industries.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: The series brought back several stars of the original series, including Patrick Duffy as Bobby Ewing, Linda Gray as Sue Ellen Ewing, and Larry Hagman as J.R. Ewing in major roles. Other stars of the original series made guest appearances, including Ken Kercheval as Cliff Barnes, Steve Kanaly as Ray Krebbs, and Charlene Tilton as Lucy Ewing, as well as Ted Shackelford as Gary Ewing, and Joan van Ark as Valene Ewing, who starred in the "Dallas" spin-off series "Knots Landing". They were joined by the next generation of characters, including Josh Henderson as John Ross Ewing III, the son of J.R. and Sue Ellen Ewing; Jesse Metcalfe as Christopher Ewing, the adopted son of Bobby and Pamela Barnes Ewing; and Julie Gonzalo as Pamela Rebecca Barnes, the daughter of Cliff Barnes and Afton Cooper.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: The series was made for TNT, sister company to Warner Bros. Television, which has owned the original series since its purchase of Lorimar Television (the original show's production company) in 1989. On July 8, 2011, after viewing the completed pilot episode, TNT gave a green light for the series with a 10-episode order, which premiered on June 13, 2012. On June 29, 2012, TNT renewed "Dallas" for a second season consisting of 15 episodes, which premiered on January 28, 2013. On April 30, 2013, TNT renewed "Dallas" for a third season consisting of 15 episodes that premiered on Monday, February 24, 2014. On October 3, 2014, the series was cancelled by TNT after three seasons, because of the declining ratings.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: The series revolves around the Ewings, an affluent Dallas family in the oil and cattle-ranching industries. It focuses mainly on Christopher Ewing (Jesse Metcalfe), the adopted son of Bobby (Patrick Duffy) and Pamela Barnes Ewing (Victoria Principal), and John Ross Ewing III (Josh Henderson), the son of J.R. (Larry Hagman) and Sue Ellen Ewing (Linda Gray). Both John Ross and Christopher were born during the original series' run and were featured in it as children (although played by different actors). Now grown up, John Ross has become almost a carbon copy of his father, bent on oil, money, and power. Christopher, meanwhile, has become a lot like Bobby, in that he is more interested in the upkeep of Southfork Ranch. As an additional point of contention, Christopher is also becoming a player in alternative energy (methane clathrate recovery), thereby eschewing the oil business. However, John Ross is determined to resurrect the Ewings' former position in the oil industry. John Ross states in season 1 that he is J.R.'s eldest child, which contradicts the storyline in the original series where J.R.'s first born son James Beaumont appeared in seasons 13–14.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: Alongside John Ross and Christopher, original series characters Bobby, J.R. and Sue Ellen return as full cast members for the new series. Additional familiar characters, including J.R.'s and Bobby's niece Lucy Ewing (Charlene Tilton), their half-brother Ray Krebbs (Steve Kanaly), and Ewing family rival Cliff Barnes (Ken Kercheval) appear occasionally as guest stars. Various other actors/characters from the original series also make appearances, including Audrey Landers (Afton Cooper), Cathy Podewell (Cally Harper Ewing) and Deborah Shelton (Mandy Winger). Ted Shackelford and Joan Van Ark, who first appeared on "Dallas" in the late 1970s before joining the spin-off series "Knots Landing", also return as Gary and Valene Ewing.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: New main characters that made their appearances in season 1 included Bobby's third wife, Ann (Brenda Strong); Christopher's new wife, introduced as "Rebecca Sutter" but later revealed to be Pamela Rebecca Barnes (Julie Gonzalo), the daughter of Cliff Barnes and Afton Cooper; and Elena Ramos (Jordana Brewster), the daughter of Ewing family cook Carmen Ramos (Marlene Forte), who is caught in a love triangle with Christopher and John Ross. Harris Ryland (Mitch Pileggi) plays Ann's villainous ex-husband. New main characters that made their appearances in season 2 included Ann and Harris's daughter, Emma Ryland (Emma Bell), and Elena Ramos's brother Drew Ramos (Kuno Becker). In season 2, Judith Brown Ryland (Judith Light) joined the cast as Harris Ryland's controlling mother, while in season 3, Nicolas Treviño (Juan Pablo Di Pace) joined as a childhood friend of Elena and Drew's who returns to help Cliff Barnes take over the Ewing oil company.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: The first season premiered on June 13, 2012, and introduces the central characters of the show: John Ross Ewing III, Christopher Ewing, Elena Ramos, Rebecca Sutter, Ann Ewing, Bobby Ewing, Sue Ellen Ewing and J.R. Ewing. The main focus of the season 1 is the discovery of oil reserves on Southfork by John Ross and attempts by him and his father, J.R. to wrest the land from Bobby. Other storylines in this season include the love triangle between John Ross, Christopher and Elena, Christopher's marriage to Rebecca, Sue Ellen's plans to run for Governor of Texas and Bobby's health problems.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: Prior to "Dallas", Cidre was best known for producing and writing episodes of "Cane", an American television drama that chronicled the lives and internal power struggles of a powerful and affluent Cuban-American family running an immensely successful rum and sugar cane business in South Florida. In 2010, TNT announced it would order a pilot for the continuation of the "Dallas" series. The pilot was filmed in and around the city of Dallas in early 2011. Production began in late August 2011 in Dallas on the remaining nine episodes in the first season order, based in studios constructed for the Fox television series "The Good Guys".


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: Executive producer Cynthia Cidre wrote the pilot script, while Michael M. Robin served as the director and executive producer for the pilot. David Jacobs reviewed Cidre's pilot script and gave his blessing to the new series though he has chosen not to participate in its production. A dispute erupted when the opening credits were originally planned to read "Developed by Cynthia Cidre, based on Dallas created by David Jacobs". But upon the determination of the Writers Guild of America's screenwriting credit system, there are currently two separate credits: one listing Jacobs as the show's sole creator and another listing Cidre as the new show's developer.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: A sneak preview of the series, including clips from the pilot episode, aired on July 11, 2011, during an episode of TNT's "Rizzoli & Isles". Patrick Duffy stated that the new show is "exactly the same [as the old show], but it's 2012. We consider this year 14 of the show. It's exactly as if [viewers] forgot which channel we were on."


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: The new series is a continuation of the old series following a 20-year break, during which the characters and their relationships continued unseen until today when the new series begins. It does not take the events of the reunion TV movies "" or "" into account. Instead, we find the characters having evolved over the last 20 years. Cynthia Cidre, show developer, has confirmed that the new series does not pick up from where the TV movies left off because the movies had tried to resolve lingering plotlines in less than two hours. It continues from the events of the 14th season, their development and consequences extrapolated to 2012.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: Cynthia Cidre, Bruce Rasmussen, Michael M. Robin, Ken Topolsky and Bryan J. Raber served as executive producers for the show. Rasmussen had previously worked as the supervising producer with the hit TV series "Roseanne", for which he was awarded the Golden Globe.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: In the first two seasons, Jesse Bochco and Michael M. Robin were the most prolific directors, each directing five episodes.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: Unlike the original series, which did limited location shooting in Texas but was filmed primarily in Los Angeles, principal photography for the new series takes place in and around Dallas. The new series also did location shooting at the actual Southfork Ranch in the northern Dallas suburb of Parker.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: The opening sequence features a shortened version of the original theme music, and echoes the original series opening with modernized shots of Dallas in sliding panels. Unlike the original series, the actors are not listed alphabetically and, for seasons 1 and 2, there are no images of the actors seen in the credits. Josh Henderson and Jesse Metcalfe alternate top billing, and the original stars are credited at the end ("with Patrick Duffy", "and Linda Gray", "and Larry Hagman as J.R. Ewing") until Hagman's death in season 2. The "Dallas" logo scrolls from right to left, rather than zooming upwards as it did on the original series. The sequence ends on a shot with the camera flying towards Southfork similar to the shot in the original titles where the camera flies over the gate towards Southfork. The season 3 titles feature the return of the iconic threeway split-screen opening, similar to those used in the original series for its first 11 years, with moving images of the actors. In addition, the "Dallas" season 3 logo zooms towards the screen as it did on the original series.


title: Dallas (2012 TV series)

text: Advance screening reviews of the series were generally positive from critics on Metacritic. On June 29, 2012, TNT renewed "Dallas" for a second season consisting of 15 episodes, which premiered on January 28, 2013. The second season received positive notice, with a score of 82/100 from reviews on Metacritic.


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: The literal English phrase "our day will come" has been used in unrelated contexts, for example as the title of a 1963 pop song by Ruby & the Romantics. A foreshadowing of the republican slogan is in James Joyce's "A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man", when the nationalist Michael Davin (based on George Clancy) says Irish republicans "died for their ideals, Stevie. Our day will come yet, believe me."


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: The Irish phrase is attributed to Provisional IRA prisoner Bobby Sands, who uses it in several writings smuggled out of the Maze Prison. It is the last sentence of the diary he kept of the 1981 hunger strike in which he died, published in 1983 as "One Day in my Life". However, Diarmait Mac Giolla Chríost has antedated the slogan to a pamphlet published 1975–77 by Gerry Adams of his experiences in the Maze. Adams himself has ascribed the slogan to republican prisoners generally, both men in the Maze and women in Armagh Prison. Many republicans learned Irish in prison (a phenomenon known as "Jailtacht", a pun on ), and conversed regularly with each other through Irish, both for cultural reasons and to keep secrets from the wardens. The Irish language revival movement has often overlapped with Irish nationalism, particularly in Northern Ireland. has been called "the battle cry of the blanketmen". Republican consciousness raising around the hunger strikes increased awareness of the Irish language in Northern Ireland's nationalist community.


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: Some Irish-language speakers, including Ciarán Carson, contend that is ungrammatical or at least unidiomatic, reflecting L1 interference from English, a phenomenon dubbed . Mac Giolla Chríost is less categorical, on the basis that ('the day will come') is standard Irish; on the other hand, he says typifies the "deviant" nature of Jailtacht Irish.


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: Patrick Magee said after being sentenced in 1986 for the 1984 Brighton hotel bombing, while his wife in the gallery wore a Katharine Hamnett-style T-shirt with the slogan. Loyalist paramilitary Michael Stone got past the republican security cordon to commit the 1988 Milltown Cemetery attack by saying . One of four loyalist paramilitaries shouted the phrase at a court sentencing in 2002. At the 2018 Sinn Féin ard fheis, new party leader Mary Lou McDonald concluded her speech with . The phrase, which was not on the script circulated in advance, was criticised by politicians from Fianna Fáil ("hark back to a very dark time"), Fine Gael ("irresponsible"), and the Ulster Unionist Party ("stale rhetoric").


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: The 1992 and 1993 editions of Macmillan's "The Student Book: The Indispensable Applicant's Guide to UK Colleges, Polytechnics and Universities" advised potential University of Ulster students that "Tiocfaioh ar la" [sic] was a common greeting on campus and meant "pleased to meet you". This error, suspected to be the result of a prank, was expunged from the 1994 edition. In "A Reality Tour", a 2003 concert filmed at the Point Depot in Dublin, David Bowie says during the applause after "Rebel Rebel". Gerry Leonard claims to have suggested it to Bowie.


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: In 2019, Una Mullally commented about an upsurge in the appropriation of Troubles-era slogans by young Irish people on both sides of the border: "There's a tacit understanding that a lot of the mindless repetition of IRA slogans such as 'Tiocfaidh ár lá', 'Up the RA' and 'Brits out' is purposefully goofy — even if the latter two at least are offensive." A performance the same year in University College Dublin by Kneecap, an Irish-language hip hop trio from West Belfast, was terminated when they led the audience in a chant of , breaching the university's policies for "Dignity", "Respect", and "Equality, Diversity & Inclusion". JD Sports apologised in 2020 when its online catalogue depicted branded kit for the Northern Ireland football team worn by a model with a visible tattoo reading "ticofaidh ár lá" . In 2021, a Derry charity video Christmas card was withdrawn after protests of its depiction of Gerry Adams singing "Deck the Halls" with "Fa, la, la, la, la, la ..." changed to "tiocfaidh ár lá, lá, lá ...".


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: The 2007 arrest of Irish-language activist Máire Nic an Bhaird in Belfast was allegedly in part for saying to Police Service of Northern Ireland officers, although she claimed to have said ("your day will come").


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: In 2014, a man who shouted the phrase outside a McDonald's in Belfast was convicted of disorderly behaviour when his defence of freedom of expression was rejected.


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: In 2017, the Fair Employment Tribunal awarded damages to a Catholic employee who had been dismissed after taking sick leave in response to a Protestant manager shouting at her.


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: Sinéad Morrissey's 2002 poem "Tourism", describing the economic boom that followed the peace process, states ironically "Our day has come." Gearóid Mac Lochlainn, a Belfast-born Irish-language poet, uses the phrase in a 2002 poem, "" ("Shopping"), characterised by Mac Giolla Chríost as "the voice of youthful rebellion, ... of hip-hop". In Mac Lochlainn's own English translation of his poem, is left untranslated. Paul Muldoon's 2011 poem "Barrage Balloons, Buck Alec, Bird Flu and You", dedicated to Dermot Seymour, contains the lines "Even Christ's checking us out from his observation post. / Even he can’t quite bend "Tiocfaidh Ár Lá" to the tune of 'Ghost / Riders in the Sky.'" Kevin Higgins' 2019 English-language poem "" ["your day will come"] is a satire directed at a unionist who will be forced to learn Irish.


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: Margo Harkin's Derry-set 1990 film "Hush-A-Bye Baby" has "a witty scene which nevertheless offended many nationalists": a republican youth confronts a British soldier with a disjointed mishmash of Irish-language names and phrases, ending with , only for the soldier to challenge him in fluent Irish. In 1993 Desmond Fennell charged the Dublin 4 establishment with neoliberalism and cultural cringe, ends with a call for a "deprovincialised, deimperialised world ... Tiocfaidh ár lá." Gerald Dawe said this "reads like the old 'Irish-Ireland' cultural missal". The introduction, by Stephen Brown of Ulster University, to a 2006 survey of "Celtic marketing" was titled "".


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: Commenting on unionist Peter Robinson's impending retirement at a 2015 meeting of the North/South Ministerial Council, Sinn Féin's Martin McGuinness said, "my day too will come at some stage", at which Robinson sparked laughter by responding, "It's Tiocfaidh ár Lá isn't it." Bookmaker Paddy Power advertised its odds for the outcome of Ireland's 2015 same-sex marriage referendum using a photo of kissing men wearing paramilitary-style balaclavas and the tagline .


title: Tiocfaidh ár lá

text: In October 2021, former UK Independence Party leader Nigel Farage unwittingly used republican slogans in several scripted video clips ordered via Cameo, including a putative birthday message to "Gerard" from "Con and Maggie" at "Chucky Arlaw's in Brighton".<ref>


title: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

text: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat and Other Clinical Tales is a 1985 book by neurologist Oliver Sacks describing the case histories of some of his patients. Sacks chose the title of the book from the case study of one of his patients who has visual agnosia, a neurological condition that leaves him unable to recognize faces and objects. The book became the basis of an opera of the same name by Michael Nyman, which premiered in 1986.


title: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

text: The book comprises twenty-four essays split into four sections ("Losses", "Excesses", "Transports", and "The World of the Simple"), each dealing with a particular aspect of brain function. The first two sections discuss deficits and excesses (with particular emphasis on the right hemisphere of the brain), while the third and fourth sections describe phenomenological manifestations with reference to spontaneous reminiscences, altered perceptions, and extraordinary qualities of mind found in people with intellectual disabilities.


title: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

text: In addition to describing the cases, Sacks comments on them, explains their pathophysiological background, discusses potential neuroscientific implications of such cases and occasionally makes reference to some psychological concepts, such as the soul, id, ego, and super-ego.


title: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

text: Christopher Rawlence wrote the libretto for a chamber opera—directed by Michael Morris with music by Michael Nyman—based on the title story. "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat" was first produced by the Institute of Contemporary Arts in London in 1986. A television version of the opera was subsequently broadcast in the UK.


title: The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat

text: Peter Brook adapted Sacks's book into an acclaimed theatrical production, "L'Homme Qui...", which premiered at the Théâtre des Bouffes du Nord, Paris, in 1993. An Indian theatre company performed a play entitled "The Blue Mug", based on the book, starring Rajat Kapoor, Konkona Sen Sharma, Ranvir Shorey, and Vinay Pathak.


title: Antibes

text: Antibes (, , ; ) is a coastal city in the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France, on the Côte d'Azur between Cannes and Nice.


title: Antibes

text: The town of Juan-les-Pins is in the commune of Antibes and the Sophia Antipolis technology park is northwest of it.


title: Antibes

text: Traces of occupation dating back to the early Iron Age have been found in the areas of the castle and cathedral. Remains beneath the Holy Spirit Chapel show there was an indigenous community with ties with Mediterranean populations, including the Etruscans, as evidenced by the presence of numerous underwater amphorae and wrecks off Antibes. However, most trade was with the Greek world, via the Phocaeans of Marseille.


title: Antibes

text: Antibes was founded as a Greek colony by Phocaeans from Massalia. They named it Antipolis (Greek: ',  "Opposite-City") from its position on the opposite side of the Var estuary from Nice (Greek: ').


title: Antibes

text: Current research suggests that Antipolis was founded relatively late in classical Greek period (4th century BC), to benefit from the protection of Marseille with its trade routes along the coast and strongholds like Olbia at Hyères, and trading posts such as Antipolis itself and later Nikaia; it is mentioned by Strabo.


title: Antibes

text: The exact location of the Greek city is not well known. Given Greek colonial practices, it is likely that it was set at the foot of the rock of Antibes, in today's old city. Traces of occupation in the Hellenistic period have been identified around the castle and the church (former cathedral). The goods unearthed during these excavations show the dominance of imported products of the Marseilles region, associated with Campanian and indigenous ceramics.


title: Antibes

text: Early in the second century BC the Ligurian Deceates and Oxybiens tribes launched repeated attacks against Nikaia and Antipolis. The Greeks of Marseille appealed to Rome as they had already done a few years earlier against the federation of Salyens. In 154 BC the consul Quintus Opimius defeated the Décéates and Oxybiens and took Aegythna from the Décéates.


title: Antibes

text: Rome gradually increased its hold over the Mediterranean coast. In 43 BC, Antipolis was officially incorporated in the propraetorial (senatorial from 27 BC) province of Narbonesian Gaul, in which it remained for the next 500 years. Antipolis grew into the largest town in the region and a main entry point into Gaul. Roman artifacts such as aqueducts, fortified walls, and amphoræ can still be seen today.


title: Antibes

text: Excavations in the old town have discovered well-preserved houses showing some luxury. Among them, the most monumental are those in the rectory garden of rue Clemenceau. These show a comparable level to that of the Gallo-Roman domus such as those of Saint-Romain-en-Gal. Large parts of the floor mosaic are organised around a courtyard with a marble fountain. The building dates from the late third century, although parts date from the end of the Hellenistic era or the end of the Roman Republic. Another house paved with porphyry and green stone was excavated between rue des Palmiers and the rue de la Blancherie. The finds at the Antibes Museum of Archaeology suggests the main occupation between the 2nd and 4th century. Finds from the end of the Hellenistic era and the end of the Roman Republic is present on both sites.


title: Antibes

text: The Fontvieille aqueduct rises in Biot, and eventually joins the coast below the RN7 and the railway track at the Fort Carré. It was rediscovered and restored in the 18th century by the Chevalier d'Aguillon to supply the modern city.


title: Antibes

text: The aqueduct called the Bouillide or Clausonnes rises near the town of Valbonne. Monumental remains of aqueduct bridges are located in the neighbourhood of Fugaret, in the forest of Valmasque and near the town of Vallauris.


title: Antibes

text: Like most Roman towns, Antipolis possessed buildings for shows and entertainment. A Roman theatre is attested by the tombstone of the child "Septentrion". The inscription says "he danced and was popular on the stage of the theatre". The theatre was located, like the amphitheatre, between Rue de la République and Rue de Fersen, near the Porte Royale. The back wall is positioned substantially next to Rue Fourmillère. A radial wall was found on the right side of the bus station. A plan of the theatre made in the 16th century is in the Marciana National Library of Venice.


title: Antibes

text: The remains of the amphitheatre were still visible at the end of the 17th century during the restructuring of the fortifications of the city. A concentric oval was still visible in many plans of the seventeenth century and in a map of Antibes from the early nineteenth century. These remains are now covered by the Fersen middle school.


title: Antibes

text: The Bishopric of Antibes was established c.450 by Pope Leo I, the first two bishops being Armentarius and Agroecius. Shortly after the bishopric was established the Western Roman Empire collapsed, and by the end of the century the Antibes region had become part of the Kingdom of the Franks, which later grew into the Carolingian Empire. The Frankish empire provided three centuries of stability but then fell apart itself in the mid-ninth century, leading to a further period of upheaval.


title: Antibes

text: The dust eventually settled to leave Antibes within the territory of the County of Provence, itself part of the Kingdom of Burgundy-Arles and from 1033 the Holy Roman Empire. In the tenth century the coastal areas of Provence were menaced by 'Saracen' raiders from Muslim Spain, who were finally driven out when Count William I of Provence captured their stronghold at Fraxinetum in 975. William rewarded the knights who had fought for him in this campaign by enfeoffing them with the liberated lands in southern Provence. One of these knights was a certain Rodoald, who became Lord of Antibes.


title: Antibes

text: Rodoald's great-grandson Raimbaud appears to have relocated inland to Grasse around 1050, and sold the Lordship of Antibes to the bishopric during the episcopate of Bishop Bertrand (fl.1166-76).


title: Antibes

text: During this period Antibes was still being raided periodically by Saracen pirates, and in 1124 they burned down Antibes Cathedral. The marauders continued to prey on the town over the following century, and in 1244 the Prince-Bishops of Antibes moved to Grasse to escape their depredations. They remained there for the next five centuries, despite an attempt to lure them back to Antibes by rebuilding the cathedral in 1250.


title: Antibes

text: When the Western Schism began in 1378, splitting the Catholic world between two rival popes, the Bishop of Grasse backed Pope Urban VI even though Marie de Blois, mother of and regent to the infant Count Louis II of Provence, was a supporter of Urban's enemy Antipope Clement VII. In 1383 Marie therefore confiscated the Lordship of Antibes from the Bishops of Grasse and two years later awarded it to the brothers Marc and Luc Grimaldi, of the Genoese House of Grimaldi. The new Grimaldi lords built the Château Grimaldi as their residence in the town.


title: Antibes

text: After the deaths of the Grimaldi brothers (Marc in 1398 and Luc in 1409), control of the Lordship of Antibes passed to five co-heirs. As a result of this fragmentation of power, the actions of individual local lords became increasingly irrelevant to the town's history, with the higher authority of the Count of Provence assuming greater significance instead.


title: Antibes

text: With the death in 1481 of Count Charles III, Provence was inherited by King Louis XI of France and thereby annexed to France. As Antibes was in the far southeast of the County of Provence it therefore became the border town at France's southeastern extremity, guarding the frontier with the County of Nice, which was part of the Savoyard state. As such it was on the front line during the Italian Wars waged by France against Emperor Charles V, and was sacked in 1536 by Andrea Doria, a Genoese admiral in imperial service. Henry II of France therefore ordered the construction of Fort Carré in 1550 to guard the town against any future attacks, and the citadel was later reinforced by the renowned French military engineer Vauban.


title: Antibes

text: In December 1746, during the War of the Austrian Succession, an Austro-Savoyard army under the command of Maximilian Ulysses Browne invaded France and besieged Antibes, subjecting the town to a heavy bombardment. The arrival of French reinforcements, and a revolt against the Austrian garrison at Genoa, obliged Browne to lift the siege on 1 February 1747, but by that point his guns had levelled 350 houses and also destroyed the cathedral again. The latter was subsequently rebuilt by Louis XV of France, and this version of the building is the one that has survived to the present day.


title: Antibes

text: On March 1, 1815, Napoléon Bonaparte landed on the beach at Golfe-Juan, 5 km southwest of Antibes, having escaped exile on the island of Elba. He hoped for a warm welcome in Antibes, which had been supportive of his regime, but the townspeople closed their gates to him and he was therefore obliged to move on northward without stopping. He successfully reached Paris and seized power again, only to be conclusively defeated at the Battle of Waterloo. Today Golfe-Juan marks the beginning of the Route Napoléon, which traces the path taken by the emperor on his return from exile.


title: Antibes

text: Under the Treaty of Turin (1860), Nice was ceded to France by the new Kingdom of Italy, and Antibes therefore ceased to be a border town as the frontier moved 50 km eastward to Menton.


title: Antibes

text: From around the middle of the 19th century the Antibes area regained its popularity, as wealthy people from around Europe discovered its natural environment and built luxurious homes there. It was transferred from its former department of Var to the new one of Alpes Maritimes in 1860. The harbor was again used for a "considerable" fishing industry and the area exported dried fruit, salt fish, and oil.


title: Antibes

text: By the First World War, it had been connected by rail with Nice and most of its fortifications had been demolished to make way for new residential districts. In 1926, the old Château Grimaldi was bought by the local municipality and later restored for use as a museum. Pablo Picasso came to the town in 1946, having visited his friend and fellow painter Gerald Murphy and his wife Sara there in 1923, and was invited to stay in the castle. During his six-month stay, Picasso painted and drew, as well as crafting ceramics and tapestries. When he departed, Picasso left a number of his works to the municipality. The castle has since become the Picasso Museum.


title: Antibes

text: On 25 May 1999, the town was the first in the départment to sign the State Environment Charter, which pledges to actively conserve the natural environment.


title: Antibes

text: Sport is an important part of the local culture; the town hosts the National Training Centre for basketball. The now demolished Jean Bunoz Sports Hall hosted several games of the 1999 FIBA EuroBasket. The city is home to Olympique Antibes, a professional basketball team of France's top division LNB Pro A, which plays its home games at the Azur Arena Antibes.


title: Antibes

text: The local football team is FC Antibes, who play at the Stade du Fort Carré, best known for when it hosted one game of the 1938 World Cup, between Sweden and Cuba.


title: Antibes

text: The old lighthouse of Antibes provides views from its lofty hilltop. To get here, you must walk about one kilometre up the Chemin de Calvaire from the Plage de la Salis. It makes for a nice half-day stroll.


title: Antibes

text: The cathedral in Antibes was first built by Bishop Armentarius in the fifth century. It was destroyed multiple times during its history, notably by Saracen pirates in 1124 and by Austrian bombardment during the 1746-7 Siege of Antibes. Its current façade dates to the rebuilding that followed the latter catastrophe, and blends Latin classical symmetry and religious fantasy. The interior houses some impressive pieces such as a Baroque altarpiece and life-sized wooden carving of Christ's death from 1447.


title: Antibes

text: This villa, set in "a forest" at the tip of the Cap d'Antibes peninsula, re-creates a nineteenth-century château. Since 1870 the glamorous white-walled Hotel du Cap on the French Riviera has been one of the most storied and luxurious resorts in the world. Guests who flocked there included Marlene Dietrich, the Duke and Duchess of Windsor and Winston Churchill. Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton conducted an affair and honeymooned there.


title: Antibes

text: There are many yachting harbours which provide moorings for a range of ships ranging from fishing vessels to full sized yachts.


title: Antibes

text: The Théâtre Antibea, Théâtre des Heures Bleues and Café Théâtre la Scène sur Mer all offer a variety of performances from orchestra music to dramatic plays. Music of all types, from live jazz to DJs spinning techno, can be found in the bars and nightclubs and there are a number of festivals and special outdoor concerts during the summer. Jazz is still the speciality around here, and the Juan les Pins Jazz Festival is one of the best in the world.


title: Antibes

text: Antibes and Juan les Pins host a number of festivals, mainly during the summer months. There's not much in the way of traditional cultural festivals in Antibes; most of the festivals focus on music and contemporary activities.


title: Antibes

text: The Antibes station is the railway station serving the town, offering connections to Nice, Cannes, Marseille, Grasse, St Raphael, Les Arcs, Milan, Ventimiliga, Paris and several other destinations. This railway station is in the centre of town. There is another railway station, Juan-les-Pins. The nearest airports are Nice Côte d'Azur Airport and Cannes Airport.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: Fábio Daniel Soares Silva (born 19 July 2002) is a Portuguese professional footballer who plays as a striker for Belgian First Division A club Anderlecht, on loan from club Wolverhampton Wanderers.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: Silva made his professional debut for Porto in August 2019, and set several club records relating to his young age.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: Born in Gondomar, Porto District, Silva began his career at FC Porto before transferring to rivals Benfica in 2015, then returning two years later. Silva was part of the squad that won the 2018–19 UEFA Youth League. With 20 goals in 26 games for the under-19 team by February 2019, he was called up by manager Sérgio Conceição to train with the first team.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: He made his Primeira Liga debut for Porto on 10 August 2019 in a 2–1 loss at Gil Vicente, playing the final 11 minutes in place of Otávio; at 17 years and 22 days, he surpassed Bruno Gama as the youngest league player in the club's history. On 19 September against Young Boys in the UEFA Europa League group stage, he became the club's youngest player in European competitions, beating Rúben Neves. Six days later, he became the club's youngest starter in any competition when he lined up against Santa Clara in the Taça da Liga group stage, beating a record held by Serafim Pereira since 1960.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: On 19 October, Silva scored his first goal to conclude a 5–0 win at neighbouring Coimbrões in the third round of the Taça de Portugal; with this goal he surpassed Neves as the youngest goalscorer in the club's history, by a month. Eight days later, he beat the same player's record as Porto's youngest league goalscorer in a 3–0 home win over Famalicão. On 10 November, in a 1–0 win at Boavista in the "Derby da Invicta", he became the youngest starter in the club's history, a record held since Serafim's days.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: On 9 February 2020, Silva dropped into Porto's reserve team in LigaPro, debuting as a starter in a 1–1 home draw with Farense, as one of three appearances at this level. He made two further appearances for Porto's first team following the resumption of the league after the coronavirus-enforced shutdown as the club won the league title.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: On 5 September 2020, Silva moved to English Premier League club Wolverhampton Wanderers in a five-year deal for a club record fee of a reported £35 million. He made his full club debut on 17 September 2020 in an EFL Cup defeat to Stoke City; four days later he made his Premier League debut as a second-half substitute in a 3–1 home loss to Manchester City.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: Silva scored his first two goals in a Wolves shirt for the under-21 team in a 2–1 away win over Doncaster Rovers in the EFL Trophy on 10 November 2020. His first league start was in a 1–0 home defeat against Aston Villa on 12 December, and eight days later he scored his first league goal through a penalty in a 2–1 away loss against Burnley. In doing so, Silva became Wolves' youngest ever Premier League goalscorer.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: On 16 January 2021, Silva scored his first goal from open play and his first goal at Molineux for Wolves against West Bromwich Albion in the first Black Country derby of the 2020–21 season. After scoring his fourth goal of the 2020–21 Premier League season against West Bromwich Albion at The Hawthorns on 3 May, he became the second-highest scoring Portuguese teenager in Premier League history, with only Cristiano Ronaldo (eight goals) having scored more in the competition before turning 20.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: Silva made his first start for Wolves in the 2021–22 Premier League season in a 2–1 away win over Brentford on 22 January 2022, due to Raúl Jiménez missing the game through injury.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: On 19 July 2022, Silva joined Belgian club Anderlecht on a season-long loan, as well as signing a contract extension with Wolves. On 24 July 2022, Silva scored on his league debut against Oostende after coming off the bench in a 2-0 win.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: Silva had his first international experience with Portugal's under-15 team in 2017. He was part of the under-17 team that reached the quarter-finals of the 2019 UEFA European Championship in the Republic of Ireland, scoring in a 4–2 group win over Iceland.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: On 11 October 2019, Silva scored a hat-trick for the under-19s in a 4–1 friendly win over Italy in Bragança.


title: Fábio Silva (footballer, born 2002)

text: Silva's father Jorge was a defensive midfielder who won the league in 2001 for Boavista and was capped twice by Portugal, and his older brother also named Jorge played that position for Lazio.


title: Éclair

text: An éclair (, ; ) is a pastry made with choux dough filled with a cream and topped with a flavored icing. The dough, which is the same as that used for profiterole, is typically piped into an oblong shape with a pastry bag and baked until it is crisp and hollow inside. Once cool, the pastry is filled with custard ("crème pâtissière"), whipped cream or chiboust cream, then iced with fondant icing. Other fillings include pistachio- and rum-flavoured custard, fruit-flavoured fillings, or chestnut purée. The icing is sometimes caramel, in which case the dessert may be called a bâton de Jacob. A similar pastry in a round rather than oblong shape is called a Religieuse.


title: Éclair

text: The word comes from the French "éclair", meaning "flash of lightning", so named because it is eaten quickly (in a flash); however some believe that the name is due to the glistening of the frosting resembling lightning.


title: Éclair

text: The éclair originated during the nineteenth century in France where it was called "pain à la Duchesse" or "petite duchesse" until 1850. The word is first attested both in English and in French in the 1860s.


title: Sectarianism

text: Sectarianism is a political or cultural conflict between two groups which are often related to the form of government which they live under. Prejudice, discrimination, or hatred can arise in these conflicts, depending on the political status quo and if one group holds more power within the government. Often, not all members of these groups are engaged in the conflict. But as tensions rise, political solutions require the participation of more people from either side within the country or polity where the conflict is happening. Common examples of these divisions are denominations of a religion, ethnic identity, class, or region for citizens of a state and factions of a political movement.


title: Sectarianism

text: While sectarianism is often labelled as 'religious' and/or 'political', the reality of a sectarian situation is usually much more complex. In its most basic form sectarianism has been defined as, 'the existence, within a locality, of two or more divided and actively competing communal identities, resulting in a strong sense of dualism which unremittingly transcends commonality, and is both culturally and physically manifest.'


title: Sectarianism

text: The term "sectarianism" is defined in the Oxford English Dictionary as "excessive attachment to a particular sect or party, especially in religion". The phrase "sectarian conflict" usually refers to violent conflict along religious or political lines such as the conflicts between Nationalists and Unionists in Northern Ireland (religious and class-divisions may play major roles as well). It may also refer to general philosophical, political disparity between different schools of thought such as that between Shia and Sunni Muslims. Non-sectarians espouse that free association and tolerance of different beliefs are the cornerstone to successful peaceful human interaction. They espouse political and religious pluralism.


title: Sectarianism

text: The ideological underpinnings of attitudes and behaviours labelled as sectarian are extraordinarily varied. Members of a religious, national or political group may believe that their own salvation, or the success of their particular objectives, requires aggressively seeking converts from other groups; likewise, adherents of a given faction may believe that the achievement of their own political or religious goals requires the conversion or purging of dissidents within their own sect.


title: Sectarianism

text: Sometimes a group that is under economic or political pressure will kill or attack members of another group which it regards as responsible for its own decline. It may also more rigidly define the definition of orthodox belief within its particular group or organization, and expel or excommunicate those who do not support this newfound clarified definition of political or religious orthodoxy. In other cases, dissenters from this orthodoxy will secede from the orthodox organization and proclaim themselves as practitioners of a reformed belief system, or holders of a perceived former orthodoxy. At other times, sectarianism may be the expression of a group's nationalistic or cultural ambitions, or exploited by demagogues.


title: Sectarianism

text: Some scholars identify the problems with using the term "sectarianism" in articles. Western mainstream media and politicians often presume "sectarianism" as ancient and long-lasting, for example, Obama in his final State of the Union address phrased the sectarian violence in the Middle East as "rooted in conflicts that dated back millennia", but many pointed out that some sectarian tensions don't even date back a decade. "Sectarianism" is also too ambiguous, which works as a slogan whose meanings are up to the observers. Scholars argued that the use of term "sectarianism" has become a catch-all explanation to conflicts, which drives analytical attention away from underlying political and socioeconomic issues, lacks coherence, and is often associated with emotional negativity. Many scholars find problematic with the term "sectarianism" and two alternatives are proposed.


title: Sectarianism

text: Hashemi and Postel and other scholars differentiate between "sectarianism" and "sectarianization". While "sectarianism" describes antipathy, prejudice, and discrimination between subdivisions within a group, e.g. based on their religious or ethnic identity, the latter describes a process mobilized by political actors operating within authoritarian contexts to pursue their political goals that involve popular mobilization around religious or identity markers. The use of the word "sectarianism" to explain sectarian violence and its upsurge in i.e. the Middle East is insufficient, as it does not take into account complex political realities. In the past and present, religious identities have been politicized and mobilized by state actors inside and outside of the Middle East in pursuit of political gain and power. The term "sectarianization" conceptualizes this notion. Sectarianization is an active, multi-layered process and a set of practices, not a static condition, that is set in motion and shaped by political actors pursuing political goals. The sectarianization thesis focuses on the intersection of politics and sectarian identity from a top-down state-centric perspective. While religious identity is salient in the Middle East and has contributed to and intensified conflicts across the region, it is the politicization and mobilization of popular sentiments around certain identity markers ("sectarianization") that explains the extent and upsurge of sectarian violence in the Middle East. The Ottoman Tanzimat, European colonialism and authoritarianism are key in the process of sectarianization in the Middle East.


title: Sectarianism

text: Haddad argues "sectarianism" cannot capture sectarian relations in reality nor represent the complex expressions of sectarian identities. Haddad calls for an abandonment of -"ism" in "sectarianism" in scholarly research as it "has overshadowed the root" and direct use of 'sectarian' as a qualifier to "direct our analytical focus towards understanding sectarian "identity"". Sectarian identity is "simultaneously formulated along four overlapping, interconnected and mutually informing dimensions: doctrinal, subnational, national, and transnational". The relevance of these factors is context-dependent and works on four layers in chorus. The multi-layered work provides more clarity and enables more accurate diagnoses of problems at certain dimensions to find more specific solutions.


title: Sectarianism

text: Sectarian tendencies in politics are visible in countries and cities associated with sectarian violence in the present, and the past. Notable examples where sectarianism affects lives are street-art expression, urban planning, and sports club affiliation.


title: Sectarianism

text: Across the United Kingdom, Scottish and Irish sectarian tendencies are often reflected in team-sports competitions. Affiliations are regarded as a latent representation of sectarianism tendencies. (Since the early 1900s, cricket teams were established via patronage of sectarian affiliated landlords. In response to the Protestant representation of the sport, many Catholic schools founded their own Cricket schools.) Modern day examples include tensions in sports such as football have led to the passing of the ""Offensive Behaviour at Football and Threatening Communications (Scotland) Act 2012"", incited by the chanting of Irish Republican Army (IRA) anthems in a match between "Inverness Caledonian Thistle" and "Celtic". Other general examples include the Gaelic sports in Ireland, established to serve as a counterweight to British traditional sports to preserve an Irish identity.


title: Sectarianism

text: World leaders have criticised the political ambitions of Iran and have condemned its involvement and support for opposition groups such as Hezbollah. The political authority of the Islamic Republic of Iran has extended into neighboring countries, and has led to an increase of tensions in the region.


title: Sectarianism

text: An important figure in this process of expansion was the major general of Iran's Quds Force (the foreign arm of the IRGC), Qasem Soleimani. Soleimani was assassinated in Iraq by an American drone in January 2020 leading to an increase of tension between the United States of America and Iran. Soleimani was responsible for strengthening Iran's ties with foreign powers such as Hezbollah in Lebanon, Syria's al-Assad, and Shia militia groups in Iraq. Soleimani was seen as the number-one commander of Iran's foreign troops and played a crucial role in the spread of Iran's ideology in the region. According to President Donald Trump, Soleimani was the world's most wanted terrorist and had to be assassinated in order to bring more peace to the Middle-East region and the rest of the world. Soleimani's death did not end Iran's political, sectarian and regional ambitions. Iran's use of religion continues to serve as an excuse to spread the regime's political power regionally.


title: Sectarianism

text: In recent years, authoritarian regimes have been particularly prone to sectarianization. This is because their key strategy of survival lies in manipulating sectarian identities to deflect demands for change and justice, and preserve and perpetuate their power. Christian communities, and other religious and ethnic minorities in the Middle East, have been socially, economically and politically excluded and harmed primarily by regimes that focus on "securing power and manipulating their base by appeals to Arab nationalism and/or to Islam". An example of this is the Middle Eastern regional response to the Iranian revolution of 1979. Middle Eastern dictatorships backed by the United States, especially Saudi Arabia, feared that the spread of the revolutionary spirit and ideology would affect their power and dominance in the region. Therefore, efforts were made to undermine the Iranian revolution by labeling it as a Shi’a conspiracy to corrupt the Sunni Islamic tradition. This was followed by a rise of anti-Shi’a sentiments across the region and a deterioration of Shi'a-Sunni relations, impelled by funds from the Gulf states. Therefore, the process of sectarianization, the mobilization and politicization of sectarian identities, is a political tool for authoritarian regimes to perpetuate their power and justify violence. Western powers indirectly take part in the process of sectarianization by supporting undemocratic regimes in the Middle East. As Nader Hashemi asserts:


title: Sectarianism

text: The U.S. invasion of Iraq; the support of various Western governments for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, which commits war crime upon war crime in Yemen and disseminates poisonous sectarian propaganda throughout the Sunni world; not to mention longstanding Western support for highly repressive dictators who manipulate sectarian fears and anxieties as a strategy of control and regime survival – the "ancient hatreds" narrative [between Sunnis and Shi’as] washes this all away and lays the blame for the regionʹs problems on supposedly trans-historical religious passions. Itʹs absurd in the extreme and an exercise in bad faith.