title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Many species extant today were present in areas either far to the south or west of their contemporary ranges- for example, all the arctic fauna on this list inhabited regions as south as the Iberian Peninsula at various stages of the Late Pleistocene. Recently extinct organisms are noted as †. Species extirpated from significant portions of or all former ranges in Europe and northern Asia during the Quaternary extinction event include-


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: During the last 60,000 years, including the end of the last glacial period, approximately 51 genera of large mammals have become extinct in North America. Of these, many genera extinctions can be reliably attributed to a brief interval of 11,500 to 10,000 radiocarbon years before present, shortly following the arrival of the Clovis people in North America . Prominent paleontological sites include Mexico and Panama, the crossroads of the American Interchange. Most other extinctions are poorly constrained in time, though some definitely occurred outside of this narrow interval. A genetic study published in 2021 indicates that horses, that were directly related to the modern horses, were still present in Yukon at least until 5,700 years ago or mid-Holocene. In contrast, only about half a dozen small mammals disappeared during this time. Previous North American extinction pulses had occurred at the end of glaciations, but not with such an ecological imbalance between large mammals and small ones (Moreover, previous extinction pulses were not comparable to the Quaternary extinction event; they involved primarily species replacements within ecological niches, while the latter event resulted in many ecological niches being left unoccupied). Such include the last native North American terror bird ("Titanis"), rhinoceros ("Aphelops") and hyena ("Chasmaporthetes"). Human habitation commenced unequivocally approximately 22,000 BCE north of the glacier, and 13,500 BCE south, however disputed evidence of southern human habitation exists from 130,000 BCE and 17,000 BCE onwards, described from sites in California and Meadowcroft in Pennsylvania. North American extinctions (noted as herbivores (H) or carnivores (C)) included:


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The survivors are in some ways as significant as the losses: bison (H), grey wolf (C), lynx (C), grizzly bear (C), American black bear (C), deer (e.g. caribou, moose, wapiti (elk), "Odocoileus" spp.) (H), pronghorn (H), white-lipped peccary (H), muskox (H), bighorn sheep (H), and mountain goat (H); the list of survivors also include species which were extirpated during the Quaternary extinction event, but recolonised at least part of their ranges during the mid-holocene from South American relict populations, such as the cougar (C), jaguar (C), giant anteater (C), collared peccary (H), ocelot (C) and jaguarundi (C). All save the pronghorns and giant anteaters were descended from Asian ancestors that had evolved with human predators. Pronghorns are the second-fastest land mammal (after the cheetah), which may have helped them elude hunters. More difficult to explain in the context of overkill is the survival of bison, since these animals first appeared in North America less than 240,000 years ago and so were geographically removed from human predators for a sizeable period of time. Because ancient bison evolved into living bison, there was no continent-wide extinction of bison at the end of the Pleistocene (although the genus was regionally extirpated in many areas). The survival of bison into the Holocene and recent times is therefore inconsistent with the overkill scenario. By the end of the Pleistocene, when humans first entered North America, these large animals had been geographically separated from intensive human hunting for more than 200,000 years. Given this enormous span of geologic time, bison would almost certainly have been very nearly as naive as native North American large mammals.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The culture that has been connected with the wave of extinctions in North America is the paleo-American culture associated with the Clovis people ("q.v."), who were thought to use spear throwers to kill large animals. The chief criticism of the "prehistoric overkill hypothesis" has been that the human population at the time was too small and/or not sufficiently widespread geographically to have been capable of such ecologically significant impacts. This criticism does not mean that climate change scenarios explaining the extinction are automatically to be preferred by default, however, any more than weaknesses in climate change arguments can be taken as supporting overkill. Some form of a combination of both factors could be plausible, and overkill would be a lot easier to achieve large-scale extinction with an already stressed population due to climate change.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The Neotropical realm was affected by the fact that South America had been isolated as an island continent for many millions of years, and had a wide range of fauna found nowhere else, although many of them became extinct during the Great American Interchange about 3 million years ago, such as the "Sparassodonta" family. Those that survived the interchange included the ground sloths, glyptodonts, litopterns, pampatheres, phorusrhacids (terror birds) and notoungulates; all managed to extend their range to North America. In the Pleistocene, South America remained largely unglaciated except for increased mountain glaciation in the Andes, which had a two-fold effect- there was a faunal divide between the Andes, and the colder, arid interior resulted in the advance of temperate lowland woodland, tropical savanna and desert at the expense of rainforest. Within these open environments, megafauna diversity was extremely dense, with over 40 genera recorded from the Guerrero member of Luján Formation alone. Ultimately, by the mid-Holocene, all the preeminent genera of megafauna became extinct- the last specimens of "Doedicurus" and "Toxodon" have been dated to 4,555 BCE and 3,000 BCE respectively. Their smaller relatives remain, including anteaters, tree sloths, armadillos; New World marsupials: opossums, shrew opossums, and the monito del monte (actually more related to Australian marsupials). Intense human habitation was established circa 11,000 BCE, however partly disputed evidence of pre-clovis habitation occurs since 46,000 BCE and 20,000 BCE, such as at the Serra da Capivara National Park (Brazil) and Monte Verde (Chile) sites. Today the largest land mammals remaining in South America are the wild camels of the "Lamini" group, such as the guanacos and vicuñas, and the genus "Tapirus", of which Baird's tapir can reach up to 400 kg. Other notable surviving large fauna are peccaries, marsh deer ("Capreolinae"), giant anteaters, spectacled bears, maned wolves, pumas, ocelots, jaguars, rheas, emerald tree boas, boa constrictors, anacondas, American crocodiles, caimans, and giant rodents such as capybaras.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: There exists two hypotheses regarding the extinction of the Australalasian megafauna, the first being that they went extinct with the arrival of the Aboriginal Australians on the continent, while he second hypothesis is that the Australian megafauna went extinct due to natural climate change.  The main reason this theory exists is that there is evidence of megafauna surviving up until 40,000 years ago, a full 30,000 years after homo sapiens first landed in Australia.  Implying that there was a significant period of homo sapiens and megafauna coexistence. Evidence of these animals existing at this time come from fossils records and ocean sediment.  To begin with, sediment core drilled in the Indian Ocean off the coast of the southwest Australia indicate the existence of a fungus called Sporormiella which survived off the dung of plant eating mammals.  The abundance of these spores in the sediment prior to 45,000 years ago indicates a lot of large mammals existed on the southwest Australian landscape up until that point.  The sediment data also indicated that the megafauna population collapsed within a few thousand years around the 45,000 years ago suggesting a rapid extinction event.  In addition, fossils found at South Walker Creek, which is the youngest megafauna site in northern Australia, indicate that at least 16 species of megafauna survived there up until 40,000 years ago.  Furthermore, there is no firm evidence of homo sapiens beings at South Walker Creek 40,000 years ago, therefore no human cause can be attributed to the extinction of these megafauna. However, there is evidence of major environmental deterioration of South Water Creek 40,000 years ago which the extinction can be attributed to. These changes include increased fire, reduction in grasslands, and the loss of freshwater.  The same environmental deterioration is seen across Australia at the time further strengthening the climate change argument.  Australia’s climate at the time could best be described as an overall drying of the landscape due to less mean annual precipitation causing less freshwater availability and more drought conditions across the landscape. Overall, this led to changes in vegetation, increased fires, overall reduction in grasslands, and a greater competition for already scarce amount of freshwater.  In turn all these environmental changes proved to be too much for the Australian megafauna to cope with causing 90% of megafauna species to go extinct.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The third hypothesis shared by some scientists is that human impacts and natural climate changes led to the extinction of Australian megafauna. To begin with it is important to note that approximately 75% of Australia is semi-arid or arid landscape, therefore it makes sense that megafauna species utilized the same freshwater resources as humans.  As a result, this could have increased the amount of megafauna hunted due to the competition for freshwater as the drought conditions persisted.  On top of the already dry conditions and diminishing grasslands, homo sapiens used fire agriculture to burn impassable land.  This further diminished the already disappearing grassland which contained plants that were key dietary component of herbivorous megafauna.  While there is no scientific consensus on the true cause of the extinction of Australian megafauna it is plausible that homo sapiens and natural climate change both had an impact because they were both in Australia at the time.  Overall, there is an immense amount of evidence pointing to humans being the culprit but by ruling out climate change completely as a cause of the Australian megafauna extinction we are not getting the whole picture.  The climate change that occurred in Australia 45,000 years ago destabilized the ecosystem making it particularly vulnerable to hunting and fire agriculture by humans; this is probably what led to the extinction of the Australian megafauna.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: In Sahul (a former continent composed of Australia and New Guinea), the sudden and extensive spate of extinctions occurred earlier than in the rest of the world. Most evidence points to a 20,000 year period after human arrival circa 63,000 BCE, but scientific argument continues as to the exact date range. In the rest of the Pacific (other Australasian islands such as New Caledonia, and Oceania) although in some respects far later, endemic fauna also usually perished quickly upon the arrival of humans in the late Pleistocene and early Holocene. This section does only include extinctions that took place prior to European discovery of the respective islands.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Some extinct megafauna, such as the bunyip-like "Diprotodon", may remain in folk memory or be the sources of cryptozoological legends.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: There is no general agreement on where the Holocene, or anthropogenic, extinction begins, and the Quaternary extinction event ends, or if they should be considered separate events at all. Some have suggested that anthropogenic extinctions may have begun as early as when the first modern humans spread out of Africa between 100,000 and 200,000 years ago, which is supported by rapid megafaunal extinction following recent human colonisation in Australia, New Zealand and Madagascar, in a similar way that any large, adaptable predator moving into a new ecosystem would. In many cases, it is suggested even minimal hunting pressure was enough to wipe out large fauna, particularly on geographically isolated islands. Only during the most recent parts of the extinction have plants also suffered large losses.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Overall, the Holocene extinction can be characterised by the human impact on the environment. The Holocene extinction continues into the 21st century, with overfishing, ocean acidification and the amphibian crisis being a few broader examples of an almost universal, cosmopolitan decline of biodiversity.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The hunting hypothesis suggests that humans hunted megaherbivores to extinction, which in turn caused the extinction of carnivores and scavengers which had preyed upon those animals. Therefore, this hypothesis holds Pleistocene humans responsible for the megafaunal extinction. One variant, known as "blitzkrieg", portrays this process as relatively quick. Some of the direct evidence for this includes: fossils of some megafauna found in conjunction with human remains, embedded arrows and tool cut marks found in megafaunal bones, and European cave paintings that depict such hunting. Biogeographical evidence is also suggestive: the areas of the world where humans evolved currently have more of their Pleistocene megafaunal diversity (the elephants and rhinos of Asia and Africa) compared to other areas such as Australia, the Americas, Madagascar and New Zealand without the earliest humans.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Circumstantially, the close correlation in time between the appearance of humans in an area and extinction there provides weight for this scenario. The megafaunal extinctions covered a vast period of time and highly variable climatic situations. The earliest extinctions in Australia were complete approximately 50,000 BP, well before the last glacial maximum and before rises in temperature. The most recent extinction in New Zealand was complete no earlier than 500 BP and during a period of cooling. In between these extremes megafaunal extinctions have occurred progressively in such places as North America, South America and Madagascar with no climatic commonality. The only common factor that can be ascertained is the arrival of humans.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: This phenomenon appears even within regions. The mammal extinction wave in Australia about 50,000 years ago coincides not with known climatic changes, but with the arrival of humans. In addition, large mammal species like the giant kangaroo "Protemnodon" appear to have succumbed sooner on the Australian mainland than on Tasmania, which was colonised by humans a few thousand years later.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Extinction through human hunting has been supported by archaeological finds of mammoths with projectile points embedded in their skeletons, by observations of modern naive animals allowing hunters to approach easily and by computer models by Mosimann and Martin, and Whittington and Dyke, and most recently by Alroy.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: A study published in 2015 supported the hypothesis further by running several thousand scenarios that correlated the time windows in which each species is known to have become extinct with the arrival of humans on different continents or islands. This was compared against climate reconstructions for the last 90,000 years. The researchers found correlations of human spread and species extinction indicating that the human impact was the main cause of the extinction, while climate change exacerbated the frequency of extinctions. The study, however, found an apparently low extinction rate in the fossil record of mainland Asia.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The overkill hypothesis, a variant of the hunting hypothesis, was proposed in 1966 by Paul S. Martin, Professor of Geosciences Emeritus at the Desert Laboratory of the University of Arizona.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: At the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, when scientists first realized that there had been glacial and interglacial ages, and that they were somehow associated with the prevalence or disappearance of certain animals, they surmised that the termination of the Pleistocene ice age might be an explanation for the extinctions.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Critics object that since there were glacial in the evolutionary history of many of the megafauna, it is rather implausible that only after the last glacial maximum would there be such extinctions. One study suggests that the Pleistocene megafaunal composition may have differed markedly from that of earlier interglacials, making the Pleistocene populations particularly vulnerable to changes in their environment.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Some evidence weighs against climate change as a valid hypothesis as applied to Australia. It has been shown that the prevailing climate at the time of extinction (40,000–50,000 BP) was similar to that of today, and that the extinct animals were strongly adapted to an arid climate. The evidence indicates that all of the extinctions took place in the same short time period, which was the time when humans entered the landscape. The main mechanism for extinction was probably fire (started by humans) in a then much less fire-adapted landscape. Isotopic evidence shows sudden changes in the diet of surviving species, which could correspond to the stress they experienced before extinction.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Evidence in Southeast Asia, in contrast to Europe, Australia, and the Americas, suggests that climate change and an increasing sea level were significant factors in the extinction of several herbivorous species. Alterations in vegetation growth and new access routes for early humans and mammals to previously isolated, localized ecosystems were detrimental to select groups of fauna.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Some evidence obtained from analysis of the tusks of mastodons from the American Great Lakes region appears inconsistent with the climate change hypothesis. Over a span of several thousand years prior to their extinction in the area, the mastodons show a trend of declining age at maturation. This is the opposite of what one would expect if they were experiencing stresses from deteriorating environmental conditions, but is consistent with a reduction in intraspecific competition that would result from a population being reduced by human hunting.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The most obvious change associated with the termination of an ice age is the increase in temperature. Between 15,000 BP and 10,000 BP, a 6 °C increase in global mean annual temperatures occurred. This was generally thought to be the cause of the extinctions.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: According to this hypothesis, a temperature increase sufficient to melt the Wisconsin ice sheet could have placed enough thermal stress on cold-adapted mammals to cause them to die. Their heavy fur, which helps conserve body heat in the glacial cold, might have prevented the dumping of excess heat, causing the mammals to die of heat exhaustion. Large mammals, with their reduced surface area-to-volume ratio, would have fared worse than small mammals.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: A study covering the past 56,000 years indicates that rapid warming events with temperature changes of up to had an important impact on the extinction of megafauna. Ancient DNA and radiocarbon data indicates that local genetic populations were replaced by others within the same species or by others within the same genus. Survival of populations was dependent on the existence of refugia and long distance dispersals, which may have been disrupted by human hunters.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Studies propose that the annual mean temperature of the current interglacial that we have seen for the last 10,000 years is no higher than that of previous interglacials, yet most of the same large mammals survived similar temperature increases.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: In addition, numerous species such as mammoths on Wrangel Island and St. Paul Island survived in human-free refugia despite changes in climate. This would not be expected if climate change were responsible (unless their maritime climates offered some protection against climate change not afforded to coastal populations on the mainland). Under normal ecological assumptions island populations should be more vulnerable to extinction due to climate change because of small populations and an inability to migrate to more favorable climes.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Other scientists have proposed that increasingly extreme weather—hotter summers and colder winters—referred to as "continentality", or related changes in rainfall caused the extinctions. The various hypotheses are outlined below.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: It has been shown that vegetation changed from mixed woodland-parkland to separate prairie and woodland. This may have affected the kinds of food available. Shorter growing seasons may have caused the extinction of large herbivores and the dwarfing of many others. In this case, as observed, bison and other large ruminants would have fared better than horses, elephants and other monogastrics, because ruminants are able to extract more nutrition from limited quantities of high-fiber food and better able to deal with anti-herbivory toxins. So, in general, when vegetation becomes more specialized, herbivores with less diet flexibility may be less able to find the mix of vegetation they need to sustain life and reproduce, within a given area.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Increased continentality resulted in reduced and less predictable rainfall limiting the availability of plants necessary for energy and nutrition. Axelrod and Slaughter have suggested that this change in rainfall restricted the amount of time favorable for reproduction. This could disproportionately harm large animals, since they have longer, more inflexible mating periods, and so may have produced young at unfavorable seasons (i.e., when sufficient food, water, or shelter was unavailable because of shifts in the growing season). In contrast, small mammals, with their shorter life cycles, shorter reproductive cycles, and shorter gestation periods, could have adjusted to the increased unpredictability of the climate, both as individuals and as species which allowed them to synchronize their reproductive efforts with conditions favorable for offspring survival. If so, smaller mammals would have lost fewer offspring and would have been better able to repeat the reproductive effort when circumstances once more favored offspring survival.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: In 2017 a study looked at the environmental conditions across Europe, Siberia and the Americas from 25,000–10,000 YBP. The study found that prolonged warming events leading to deglaciation and maximum rainfall occurred just prior to the transformation of the rangelands that supported megaherbivores into widespread wetlands that supported herbivore-resistant plants. The study proposes that moisture-driven environmental change led to the megafaunal extinctions and that Africa's trans-equatorial position allowed rangeland to continue to exist between the deserts and the central forests, therefore fewer megafauna species became extinct there.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The extinction of the megafauna could have caused the disappearance of the mammoth steppe. Alaska now has low nutrient soil unable to support bison, mammoths, and horses. R. Dale Guthrie has claimed this as a cause of the extinction of the megafauna there; however, he may be interpreting it backwards. The loss of large herbivores to break up the permafrost allows the cold soils that are unable to support large herbivores today. Today, in the arctic, where trucks have broken the permafrost grasses and diverse flora and fauna can be supported. In addition, Chapin (Chapin 1980) showed that simply adding fertilizer to the soil in Alaska could make grasses grow again like they did in the era of the mammoth steppe. Possibly, the extinction of the megafauna and the corresponding loss of dung is what led to low nutrient levels in modern-day soil and therefore is why the landscape can no longer support megafauna.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: It may be observed that neither the overkill nor the climate change hypotheses can fully explain events: browsers, mixed feeders and non-ruminant grazer species suffered most, while relatively more ruminant grazers survived. However, a broader variation of the overkill hypothesis may predict this, because changes in vegetation wrought by either Second Order Predation (see below) or anthropogenic fire preferentially selects against browse species.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The hyperdisease hypothesis, as advanced by Ross D. E. MacFee and Preston A. Marx, attributes the extinction of large mammals during the late Pleistocene to indirect effects of the newly arrived aboriginal humans. The hyperdisease hypothesis proposes that humans or animals traveling with them (e.g., chickens or domestic dogs) introduced one or more highly virulent diseases into vulnerable populations of native mammals, eventually causing extinctions. The extinction was biased toward larger-sized species because smaller species have greater resilience because of their life history traits (e.g., shorter gestation time, greater population sizes, etc.). Humans are thought to be the cause because other earlier immigrations of mammals into North America from Eurasia did not cause extinctions.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: Diseases imported by people have been responsible for extinctions in the recent past; for example, bringing avian malaria to Hawaii has had a major impact on the isolated birds of the island.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: If a disease was indeed responsible for the end-Pleistocene extinctions, then there are several criteria it must satisfy (see Table 7.3 in MacPhee & Marx 1997). First, the pathogen must have a stable carrier state in a reservoir species. That is, it must be able to sustain itself in the environment when there are no susceptible hosts available to infect. Second, the pathogen must have a high infection rate, such that it is able to infect virtually all individuals of all ages and sexes encountered. Third, it must be extremely lethal, with a mortality rate of c. 50–75%. Finally, it must have the ability to infect multiple host species without posing a serious threat to humans. Humans may be infected, but the disease must not be highly lethal or able to cause an epidemic.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: One suggestion is that pathogens were transmitted by the expanding humans via the domesticated dogs they brought with them, though this does not fit the timeline of extinctions in the Americas and Australia in particular.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The Second-Order Predation Hypothesis says that as humans entered the New World they continued their policy of killing predators, which had been successful in the Old World but because they were more efficient and because the fauna, both herbivores and carnivores, were more naive, they killed off enough carnivores to upset the ecological balance of the continent, causing overpopulation, environmental exhaustion, and environmental collapse. The hypothesis accounts for changes in animal, plant, and human populations.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: This has been supported by a computer model, the Pleistocene extinction model (PEM), which, using the same assumptions and values for all variables (herbivore population, herbivore recruitment rates, food needed per human, herbivore hunting rates, etc.) other than those for hunting of predators. It compares the overkill hypothesis (predator hunting = 0) with second-order predation (predator hunting varied between 0.01 and 0.05 for different runs). The findings are that second-order predation is more consistent with extinction than is overkill (results graph at left).


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The Pleistocene extinction model is the only test of multiple hypotheses and is the only model to specifically test combination hypotheses by artificially introducing sufficient climate change to cause extinction. When overkill and climate change are combined they balance each other out. Climate change reduces the number of plants, overkill removes animals, therefore fewer plants are eaten. Second-order predation combined with climate change exacerbates the effect of climate change. (results graph at right).


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The second-order predation hypothesis is supported by the observation above that there was a massive increase in bison populations.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: First publicly presented at the Spring 2007 joint assembly of the American Geophysical Union in Acapulco, Mexico, the Younger Dryas impact hypothesis suggests that the mass extinction was caused by fragments of a disintegrating asteroid or comet 12,900 years ago. Using photomicrograph analysis, research published in January 2009 has found evidence of nanodiamonds in the soil from six sites across North America including Arizona, Minnesota, Oklahoma, South Carolina and two Canadian sites. Similar research found nanodiamonds in the Greenland ice sheet.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: The discredited and controversial Younger Dryas impact hypothesis claims that a comet impact or air burst occurred in North America about 12,900 years ago as the mechanism that initiated the Younger Dryas cooling.


title: Quaternary extinction event

text: A spike in platinum was found in the Greenland ice cores by Petaev et al. (2013), which they view as a global signal. Confirmation came in 2017 with the report that the Pt spike had been found at "11 widely separated archaeological bulk sedimentary sequences." Wolbach et al. reported in 2018 that "YDB peaks in Pt were observed at 28 sites" in total, including the 11 reported earlier and the one from Greenland.


title: Power steering

text: A power steering is a mechanical device equipped on a motor vehicle that helps drivers steer the vehicle by reducing steering effort needed to turn the steering wheel, making it easier for the vehicle to turn or maneuver at lower speeds.


title: Power steering

text: Hydraulic or electric actuators add controlled energy to the steering mechanism, so the driver can provide less effort to turn the steered wheels when driving at typical speeds, and reduce considerably the physical effort necessary to turn the wheels when a vehicle is stopped or moving slowly. Power steering can also be engineered to provide some artificial feedback of forces acting on the steered wheels.


title: Power steering

text: Hydraulic power steering systems for cars augment steering effort via an actuator, a hydraulic cylinder that is part of a servo system. These systems have a direct mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the linkage that steers the wheels. This means that power-steering system failure (to augment effort) still permits the vehicle to be steered using manual effort alone.


title: Power steering

text: Electric power steering systems use electric motors to provide the assistance instead of hydraulic systems. As with hydraulic types, power to the actuator (motor, in this case) is controlled by the rest of the power steering system.


title: Power steering

text: Other power steering systems (such as those in the largest off-road construction vehicles) have no direct mechanical connection to the steering linkage; they require electrical power. Systems of this kind, with no mechanical connection, are sometimes called "drive by wire" or "steer by wire", by analogy with aviation's "fly-by-wire". In this context, "wire" refers to electrical cables that carry power and data, not thin wire rope mechanical control cables.


title: Power steering

text: Some construction vehicles have a two-part frame with a rugged hinge in the middle; this hinge allows the front and rear axles to become non-parallel to steer the vehicle. Opposing hydraulic cylinders move the halves of the frame relative to each other to steer.


title: Power steering

text: The first power steering system on a vehicle was apparently installed in 1876 by a man with the surname of Fitts, but little else is known about him. The next power steering system was put on a Columbia 5-ton truck in 1903 where a separate electric motor was used to assist the driver in turning the front wheels.


title: Power steering

text: Robert E. Twyford, a resident of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, included a mechanical power steering mechanism as part of his patent (U.S. Patent 646,477) issued on April 3, 1900 for the first four-wheel drive system.


title: Power steering

text: Francis W. Davis, an engineer of the truck division of Pierce-Arrow, began exploring how steering could be made easier, and in 1926 invented and demonstrated the first practical power steering system. Davis moved to General Motors and refined the hydraulic-assisted power steering system, but the automaker calculated it would be too expensive to produce. Davis then signed up with Bendix, a parts manufacturer for automakers. Military needs during World War II for easier steering on heavy vehicles boosted the need for power assistance on armored cars and tank-recovery vehicles for the British and American armies.


title: Power steering

text: Chrysler Corporation introduced the first commercially available passenger car power steering system on the 1951 Chrysler Imperial under the name "Hydraguide". The Chrysler system was based on some of Davis' expired patents. General Motors introduced the 1952 Cadillac with a power steering system using the work Davis had done for the company almost twenty years earlier.


title: Power steering

text: Charles F. Hammond from Detroit filed several patents for improvements of power steering with the Canadian Intellectual Property Office in 1958.


title: Power steering

text: Starting in the mid-1950s American manufacturers offered the technology as optional or standard equipment while it is widely offered internationally on modern vehicles, owing to the trends toward front-wheel drive, greater vehicle mass, reduced assembly line production costs, and wider tires, which all increase the required steering effort. Heavier vehicles, as are common in some countries, would be extremely difficult to maneuver at low speeds, while vehicles of lighter weight may not need power assisted steering at all.


title: Power steering

text: A study in 1999 on the perceptual fidelity of steering force feedback, found that ordinary real-world truck and car drivers naturally expect an increase in feedback torque as speed increases, and for this reason early forms of power steering, which lacked such effect, were met with disapproval.


title: Power steering

text: Hydraulic power steering systems work by using a hydraulic system to multiply force applied to the steering wheel inputs to the vehicle's steered (usually front) road wheels. The hydraulic pressure typically comes from a gerotor or rotary vane pump driven by the vehicle's engine. A double-acting hydraulic cylinder applies a force to the steering gear, which in turn steers the roadwheels. The steering wheel operates valves to control flow to the cylinder. The more torque the driver applies to the steering wheel and column, the more fluid the valves allow through to the cylinder, and so the more force is applied to steer the wheels.


title: Power steering

text: One design for measuring the torque applied to the steering wheel has a torque sensor – a torsion bar at the lower end of the steering column. As the steering wheel rotates, so does the steering column, as well as the upper end of the torsion bar. Since the torsion bar is relatively thin and flexible, and the bottom end usually resists being rotated, the bar will twist by an amount proportional to the applied torque. The difference in position between the opposite ends of the torsion bar controls a valve. The valve allows fluid to flow to the cylinder which provides steering assistance; the greater the "twist" of the torsion bar, the greater the force.


title: Power steering

text: Since the hydraulic pumps are positive-displacement type, the flow rate they deliver is directly proportional to the speed of the engine. This means that at high engine speeds the steering would naturally operate faster than at low engine speeds. Because this would be undesirable, a restricting orifice and flow-control valve direct some of the pump's output back to the hydraulic reservoir at high engine speeds. A pressure relief valve prevents a dangerous build-up of pressure when the hydraulic cylinder's piston reaches the end of its stroke.


title: Power steering

text: The steering booster is arranged so that should the booster fail, the steering will continue to work (although the wheel will feel heavier). Loss of power steering can significantly affect the handling of a vehicle. Each vehicle owner's manual gives instructions for inspection of fluid levels and regular maintenance of the power steering system.


title: Power steering

text: The working liquid, also called "hydraulic fluid" or "oil", is the medium by which pressure is transmitted. Common working liquids are based on mineral oil.


title: Power steering

text: Some modern systems also include an electronic control valve to reduce the hydraulic supply pressure as the vehicle's speed increases; this is variable-assist power steering.


title: Power steering

text: In this power steering system, the force steering the wheels comes from the car's high pressure hydraulic system and is always the same no matter what the road speed is. Turning the steering wheel moves the wheels simultaneously to a corresponding angle via a hydraulic cylinder. In order to give some artificial steering feel, there is a separate hydraulically operated system that tries to turn the steering wheel back to centre position. The amount of pressure applied is proportional to road speed, so that at low speeds the steering is very light, and at high speeds it is very difficult to move more than a small amount off centre.


title: Power steering

text: As long as there is pressure in the car's hydraulic system, there is no mechanical connection between the steering wheel and the roadwheels. This system was first introduced in the Citroën SM in 1970, and was known as 'VariPower' in the UK and 'SpeedFeel' in the U.S.


title: Power steering

text: Electro-hydraulic power steering systems, sometimes abbreviated EHPS, and also sometimes called "hybrid" systems, use the same hydraulic assist technology as standard systems, but the hydraulic pressure comes from a pump driven by an electric motor instead of a drive belt at the engine.


title: Power steering

text: In 1965, Ford experimented with a fleet of "wrist-twist instant steering" equipped Mercury Park Lanes that replaced the conventional large steering wheel with two rings, a fast 15:1 gear ratio, and an electric hydraulic pump in case the engine stalled.


title: Power steering

text: In 1988, the Subaru XT6 was fitted with a unique Cybrid adaptive electro-hydraulic steering system that changed the level of assistance based on the vehicle's speed.


title: Power steering

text: In 1990, Toyota introduced its second-generation MR2 with electro-hydraulic power steering. This avoided running hydraulic lines from the engine (which was behind the driver in the MR2) up to the steering rack.


title: Power steering

text: In 1994 Volkswagen produced the Golf Mk3 Ecomatic, with an electric pump. This meant that the power steering would still operate while the engine was stopped by the computer to save fuel. Electro-hydraulic systems can be found in some cars by Ford, Volkswagen, Audi, Peugeot, Citroën, SEAT, Škoda, Suzuki, Opel, MINI, Toyota, Honda, and Mazda.


title: Power steering

text: Electric power steering (EPS) or motor-driven power steering (MDPS) uses an electric motor instead of a hydraulic system to assist the driver of the vehicle. Sensors detect the position and torque exerted inside the steering column, and a computer module applies assistive torque via the motor, which connects either to the steering gear or steering column. This allows varied amounts of assistance to be applied depending on driving conditions. Engineers can therefore tailor steering-gear response to variable-rate and variable-damping suspension systems, optimizing ride, handling, and steering for each vehicle. This new technological feature also gave engineers the ability to add new driver assistance features. This include features such as lane assist, wind drift correction, etc. On Fiat group cars the amount of assistance can be regulated using a button named "CITY" that switches between two different assist curves, while most other EPS systems have variable assist. These give more assistance as the vehicle slows down, and less at faster speeds.


title: Power steering

text: A mechanical linkage between the steering wheel and the steering gear is retained in EPS. In the event of component failure or power failure that causes a failure to provide assistance, the mechanical linkage serves as a back-up. If EPS fails, the driver encounters a situation where heavy effort is required to steer. This heavy effort is similar to that of an inoperative hydraulic steering assist system. Depending on the driving situation, driving skill and strength of the driver, steering assist loss may or may not lead to a crash. The difficulty of steering with inoperative power steering is compounded by the choice of steering ratios in assisted steering gears vs. fully manual. The NHTSA has assisted car manufacturers with recalling EPS systems prone to failure.


title: Power steering

text: Electric systems have an advantage in fuel efficiency because there is no belt-driven hydraulic pump constantly running, whether assistance is required or not, and this is a major reason for their introduction. Another major advantage is the elimination of a belt-driven engine accessory, and several high-pressure hydraulic hoses between the hydraulic pump, mounted on the engine, and the steering gear, mounted on the chassis. This greatly simplifies manufacturing and maintenance. By incorporating electronic stability control electric power steering systems can instantly vary torque assist levels to aid the driver in corrective maneuvers.


title: Power steering

text: In 1986, NSK put the world’s first electric power steering system for battery forklifts into practical use. In 1988, Koyo Seiko (currently JTEKT) and NSK co-developed a column system exclusively for minicars sold only in the domestic market of Japan. The first-ever electric power steering system for mass-produced passenger cars appeared on the Suzuki Cervo in 1988. However, this simple method was not widely adopted by other automakers in the initial years due to the unnatural steering feel of the motor caused by the inertia at the time of rapid steering for danger avoidance in slower speed driving, as well as at the time of faster speed driving in which the electromagnetic clutch makes the steering force smaller, returning to the manual steering mode. In the year 1990, a direct full control system of a rack assist without a clutch was put into practical use in the Honda NSX (initially installed in automatics only). Since then, there has been a transition of trend from brush-attached motors to brushless motors in the rack type for ordinary vehicles and this method has become the mainstream.


title: Power steering

text: Other electric power steering systems (including 4WS) later appeared on the Honda NSX after 1990, the Honda Prelude and the Subaru SVX in 1991, the Nissan 300ZX (Z32; after the Version 3 onwards), Silvia, Skyline, and the Laurel in 1993, the MG F, the FIAT Punto Mk2 in 1999, the Honda S2000 in 1999, Toyota Prius in 2000, the BMW Z4 in 2002, and the Mazda RX-8 in 2003.


title: Power steering

text: The system has been used by various automobile manufacturers, and most commonly applied for smaller cars to reduce fuel consumption and manufacturing costs.


title: Power steering

text: In 2000, the Honda S2000 Type V featured the first electric power variable gear ratio steering (VGS) system. In 2002, Toyota introduced the "Variable Gear Ratio Steering" (VGRS) system on the Lexus LX 470 and Landcruiser Cygnus, and also incorporated the electronic stability control system to alter steering gear ratios and steering assist levels. In 2003, BMW introduced "active steering" system on the 5 Series.


title: Power steering

text: This system should not be confused with variable assist power steering, which varies steering assist torque, not steering ratios, nor with systems where the gear ratio is only varied as a function of steering angle. These last are more accurately called non-linear types (e.g. Direct-Steer offered by Mercedes-Benz); a plot of steering-wheel position versus axle steering angle is progressively curved (and symmetrical).


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Scott Ronald Garland (born July 2, 1973) is an American professional wrestler who was most recently signed to WWE as a trainer at the WWE Performance Center. He also competed under the ring names "Too Hot" Scott Taylor (1991–1999) and Scotty 2 Hotty (1999–2007) for WWE. During his WWF/WWE career, Garland held the WWF World Tag Team Championship, WWE Tag Team Championship and WWF Light Heavyweight Championship.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: At approximately 14 or 15 years old, Garland wrote to Sue Aitchison, the Community Relations Specialist of the World Wrestling Federation, inquiring from which professional wrestling school the company recruited the majority of their employees. Aitchison responded by telling him that they did not recruit from any particular school and wished him luck. Garland then attempted to call Vince McMahon, but was unable to speak to McMahon directly.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Garland began attending shows at the Cumberland County Civic Center in Portland, Maine, helping the ring crew to construct the wrestling ring. After an independent promoter saw Garland wrestling with his friends, he offered Garland a job. In his first match, Garland wrestled Steve Ramsey in a Portland armory on November 23, 1989, the same night the Survivor Series was taking place. In the same year, Garland began wrestling for the Massachusetts-based New England Wrestling.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: In August 1991, Garland was introduced to the WWF by fellow NEW wrestler Phil Apollo. Garland made his first appearance with the World Wrestling Federation in October 1991 while still a junior in high school, teaming with Sonny Blaze and using the ring name "Scott Taylor". Garland appeared sporadically with the WWF as an enhancement talent over the next six years, losing to wrestlers such as The Berzerker, Yokozuna and The Ringmaster.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Garland continued to attend college throughout his early tenure, and in 1994, he supplemented his income by working as a Fleet Bank bank teller and as the assistant manager of a Spencer's Gifts outlet.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Garland made two appearances for Extreme Championship Wrestling in February 1997 losing both matches to Tazz.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: In 1997, Garland, now working for an insurance company, planned to wrestle tryout matches for Extreme Championship Wrestling. Upon hearing of his plans, President of the WWF Talent Relations Bruce Prichard signed him to a contract. Garland began wrestling in the Light Heavyweight division as Scott Taylor. In late 1997, he took part in an eight-man tournament for the vacant WWF Light Heavyweight Championship, but was eliminated in the second round after being chokeslammed by Kane.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: On March 29, 1998 at WrestleMania XIV, Taylor and "Too Sexy" Brian Christopher teamed together for the first time, taking part in a tag team battle royal. Following WrestleMania XIV, Taylor and Christopher continued to team together on the WWF's syndicated Saturday wrestling shows, with Taylor playing the straight man to Christopher's over-the-top, egotistical antics. Soon, Taylor adopted Christopher's flamboyant actions and in-ring mannerisms and became known as Scott "Too Hot" Taylor, with the duo dubbed "Too Much".


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: In June 1999, they were renamed "Too Cool" and given the characteristics of hip hop aficionados, delivering raps aimed at their opponents and parodying aspects of the hip hop culture.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Shortly after debuting their new gimmicks, the team was temporarily separated after Christopher tore his anterior cruciate ligament and was sidelined for five months. During this time, Taylor began incorporating breakdancing moves into his matches. In late 1999, Taylor was renamed Scotty 2 Hotty and Christopher was renamed Grandmaster Sexay. They aligned themselves with Rikishi Fatu (whom they quickly renamed Rikishi), forming a faction. Following their matches, they would dance in the center of the ring.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: In early 2000, the group began feuding with The Radicalz, culminating with Too Cool teaming with Chyna to defeat Eddie Guerrero, Perry Saturn and Dean Malenko at WrestleMania 2000. After Grandmaster re-injured his leg, Scotty briefly returned to the Light Heavyweight division, and on April 17, 2000, he defeated Radicalz member Dean Malenko to win the WWF Light Heavyweight Championship. He held the title for only 10 days before dropping it back to Malenko on April 27, 2000. Scotty challenged Malenko for the title once more at Backlash, but was defeated. Grandmaster returned in mid-2000, and on May 29, Too Cool defeated Edge and Christian for the WWF World Tag Team Championship with the assistance of rapper Joe C. They held the title until King of the Ring, when Edge and Christian regained the title.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Too Cool and Rikishi separated in late 2000 after Rikishi was revealed to have run over Stone Cold Steve Austin. Rikishi subsequently easily defeated his former allies in a handicap match. In March 2001, the intervertebral disc between Scotty's C5, and C6, C7 vertebrae bulged, and he was forced to take time off and do physical therapy 5 days a week. His absence was explained that he suffered a (kayfabe) broken ankle at the hands of Kurt Angle. While Scotty was recuperating, Grandmaster was released from the company for illegally conveying drugs across the Canada–United States border.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Scotty returned to the ring in June 2001, taking part in the rivalry between Team WWF and The Alliance. During this time, he formed a tag team with Albert, who subsequently adopted the nickname "The Hip Hop Hippo", and they collectively became known as the "Zoo Crew". The team competed in the tag team division until April 2002, when Albert betrayed Scotty by attacking him. Soon thereafter, Scotty began experiencing pains in his previously injured neck, and on May 7, 2002, Dr. Lloyd Youngblood performed neck surgery (cervical fusion) on him.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Scotty spent 18 months recuperating, returning to the ring on television in October 2003. Wrestling on the "SmackDown!" brand, Scotty formed a tag team with his former ally Rikishi. Together, they competed in the tag team division and ultimately defeated the Basham Brothers to win the WWE Tag Team Championship on February 5, 2004. Scotty and Rikishi successfully defended their titles in a four-way tag team match at WrestleMania XX. Their reign ended on April 22, 2004 when they were defeated by Charlie Haas and Rico. On July 16, 2004, WWE released Rikishi, leaving Scotty on his own.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: After Rikishi's release, Scotty wrestled mainly on "Velocity" and in dark matches until early 2007. He also teamed with Funaki from 2005 to 2006. In late 2004, Scotty was diagnosed with testicular cancer, but he quickly recovered and was back wrestling within a couple of months. In February 2007 he returned briefly to the "Raw" roster, competing in a handful of matches on "WWE Heat". Before this, he was the last person drafted in 2002 to remain on his original show. He was released from the company on May 18, 2007.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Seven months after his release, on the December 10, 2007 15-Year Anniversary special episode of "Raw", Scotty would take part in a "15-Year Flashback Battle Royal", lasting to the final four before being eliminated by Skinner. On the August 15, 2012 episode of "NXT", Scotty would make a surprise appearance, defeating Heath Slater. On the January 6, 2014 episode of "Raw", Scotty would reunite with Grand Master Sexay and Rikishi, defeating 3MB (Heath Slater, Drew McIntyre and Jinder Mahal) in a six-man tag team match. On February 24, at NXT Arrival, Scotty would team with Sexay, challenging The Ascension for the NXT Tag Team Championship in a losing effort.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: On September 7, 2016, Garland made his return to WWE as a trainer at the WWE Performance Center. According to "Pro Wrestling Torch" in 2017, Garland taught the middle class at the WWE Performance Center, the second of four levels of classes. He would stay with WWE until November 23, 2021, when Garland reportedly asked for his release from the company.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: After leaving WWE, Garland worked two shows for Puerto Rico's International Wrestling Association (IWA) in mid-June 2007. He then wrestled on the independent circuit, working for at least 31 promotions in 11 countries as Scotty 2 Hotty and Scotty the Hotty. In 2014 and 2015 Garland continued teaming with Grand Master Sexay in the independents, England and Germany. On December 6, 2014, Garland, as Scotty 2 Hotty, made his debut for the Japanese Pro Wrestling Noah promotion, teaming with Funaki and Super Crazy in a six-man tag team match, where they defeated Pesadilla, Yoshinari Ogawa and Zack Sabre Jr., with Scotty pinning Pesadilla for the win. On New Year’s Day 2022, he made his return to independent wrestling for the first time since 2016 for Game Changer Wrestling’s Die For This pay per view where he lost to Joey Janela. Recently he has trained wrestlers and wrestled matches in the United Kingdom, Ireland and Norway.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: In February 2013, Garland began training as a firefighter. In June 2013, he graduated from the Lake Tech Fire Academy in Florida. He subsequently began training as an emergency medical technician.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Garland lives in the Orlando, Florida area with his two children. Garland is a fan of Disney (Mick Foley has called him a "Disney psychotic"), and has been to Disneyland and Walt Disney World many times. He bought a Dumbo Halloween costume, among much other merchandise, for his daughter, Taylor before she was even born.


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Garland appeared in-character, alongside Kid Kash in the December 2009 video for the Irish band, Fight Like Apes' single "Do You Karate". In 2010, he completed filming a movie called "Ultimate Death Match 3", which also featured other wrestlers. In 2017, the American music group, Migos, paid homage to Garland's WWE character with their song titled "Too Hotty".


title: Scotty 2 Hotty

text: Garland deleted his Twitter account on November 17, 2022 following controversy regarding his stance on intergender wrestling matches. He stated: "I DO NOT 'fight' women. I'm 49 & have a 20 year old daughter. 'Hurting' women isn't appealing to me." The comment drew backlash from female wrestlers and fans, some of whom pointed out that he had wrestled women in the past.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Agatha of Sicily () is a Christian saint. Her feast is on 5 February. Agatha was born in Catania, part of the Roman Province of Sicily, and was martyred . She is one of several virgin martyrs who are commemorated by name in the Canon of the Mass.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Agatha is the patron saint of Catania, Molise, Malta, San Marino, Gallipoli in Apulia, and Zamarramala, a municipality of the Province of Segovia in Spain. She is also the patron saint of breast cancer patients, martyrs, wet nurses, bell-founders, and bakers, and is invoked against fire, earthquakes, and eruptions of Mount Etna.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Agatha is buried at the Badia di Sant'Agata, Catania. She is listed in the late 6th-century associated with Jerome, and the , the calendar of the church of Carthage, . Agatha also appears in one of the of Venantius Fortunatus.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Two early churches were dedicated to her in Rome; Sant'Agata in via della Lugaretta, Trastevere, and notably the Church of Sant'Agata dei Goti in Via Mazzarino, a titular church with apse mosaics of and traces of a fresco cycle, overpainted by Gismondo Cerrini in 1630. In the 6th century AD, the church was adapted to Arianism, hence its name "Saint Agatha of Goths", and later reconsecrated by Gregory the Great, who confirmed her traditional sainthood.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Agatha is also depicted in the mosaics of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, where she appears, richly dressed, in the procession of female martyrs along the north wall. Her image forms an initial 'I' in the Sacramentary of Gellone, which dates from the end of the 8th century.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: One of the most highly venerated virgin martyrs of Christian antiquity, Agatha was put to death during the Decian persecution (250–253) in Catania, Sicily, for her determined profession of faith.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Her written legend comprises "straightforward accounts of interrogation, torture, resistance, and triumph which constitute some of the earliest hagiographic literature", and are reflected in later recensions, the earliest surviving one being an illustrated late 10th-century "passio" bound into a composite volume in the Bibliothèque nationale de France, originating probably in Autun, Burgundy; in its margin illustrations Magdalena Carrasco detected Carolingian or Late Antique iconographic traditions.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: According to the 13th-century "Golden Legend" (III.15) by Jacobus de Voragine, 15-year-old Agatha, from a rich and noble family, made a vow of virginity and rejected the amorous advances of the Roman prefect Quintianus, who thought he could force her to turn away from her vow and marry him. His persistent proposals were consistently spurned by Agatha. This was during the persecutions of Decius, so Quintianus, knowing she was a Christian, reported her to the authorities. Quintianus himself was governor of the district.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Quintianus expected Agatha to give in to his demands when faced with torture and possible death, but Agatha simply reaffirmed her belief in God by praying: "Jesus Christ, Lord of all, you see my heart, you know my desires. Possess all that I am. I am your sheep: make me worthy to overcome the devil." To force her to change her mind, Quintianus sent Agatha to Aphrodisia, the keeper of a brothel, and had her imprisoned there; however, the punishment failed, with Agatha remaining a Christian.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Quintianus sent for Agatha again, arguing with her and threatening her, before finally having her imprisoned and tortured. She was stretched on a rack to be torn with iron hooks, burned with torches, and whipped. Her breasts were torn off with tongs. After further dramatic confrontations with Quintianus, represented in a sequence of dialogues in her "passio" that document her fortitude and steadfast devotion, Agatha was then sentenced to be burnt at the stake; however, an earthquake prevented this from happening, and she was instead sent to prison, where St. Peter the Apostle appeared to her and healed her wounds.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Agatha died in prison, probably in the year 251 according to the . Although the martyrdom of Agatha is authenticated, and her veneration as a saint had spread beyond her native place even in antiquity, there is no reliable information concerning the details of her death.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: According to Maltese tradition, during the persecution of Roman Emperor Decius (AD 249–251), Agatha, together with some of her friends, fled from Sicily and took refuge in Malta. Some historians believe that her stay on the island was rather short, and she spent her days in a rock-hewn crypt at Rabat, praying and teaching Christianity to children. After some time, Agatha returned to Sicily, where she faced martyrdom. Agatha was arrested and brought before Quintianus, praetor of Catania, who condemned her to torture and imprisonment.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: The crypt of St. Agatha is an underground basilica, which from early ages was venerated by the Maltese. At the time of St. Agatha's stay, the crypt was a small natural cave, which, later on, during the 4th or 5th century, was enlarged and embellished.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: After the Reformation era, Agatha was retained in the calendar of the Church of England's Book of Common Prayer with her feast on 5 February. Several Church of England parish churches are dedicated to her.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: A feast day to honor Agatha on 5 February was given final authorization in the Episcopal Church in 2022.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: The Festival of Saint Agatha in Catania is a major festival in the region, it takes place in the first five days of February. The Catania Cathedral (also known as ) is dedicated to her.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Saint Agatha is the patron saint of rape victims, breast cancer patients, wet nurses, and bellfounders (due to the shape of her severed breasts). She is also considered to be a powerful intercessor when people suffer from fires. Her feast day is celebrated on 5 February.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: She is also a patron saint of Malta, where in 1551 her intercession through a reported apparition to a Benedictine nun is said to have saved Malta from Turkish invasion.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: She became the patron saint of the Republic of San Marino after Pope Clement XII restored the independence of the state on her feast day of 5 February 1740.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: She is also the patron saint of Catania, Sorihuela del Guadalimar (Spain), Molise, San Marino and Kalsa, a historical quarter of Palermo.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: She is claimed as the patroness of Palermo. The year after her death, the stilling of an eruption of Mount Etna was attributed to her intercession. As a result, apparently, people continued to ask her prayers for protection against fire.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Saint Agatha is often depicted iconographically carrying her excised breasts on a platter, as in Bernardino Luini's "Saint Agatha" (1510–1515) in the Galleria Borghese, Rome, in which Agatha contemplates the breasts on a standing salver held in her hand.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: The tradition of making shaped pastry on the feast of St. Agatha, such as Agatha bread or buns, or so-called ("Breasts of St. Agatha") or ("Breasts of the virgin"), is found in many countries.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: The Basque people have a tradition of gathering on Saint Agatha's Eve () and going round the village. Homeowners can choose to hear a song about her life, accompanied by the beats of their walking sticks on the floor or a prayer for the household's deceased. After that, the homeowner donates food to the chorus. This song has varying lyrics according to the local tradition and the Basque language. An exceptional case was that of 1937, during the Spanish Civil War, when a version appeared that in the Spanish language praised the Soviet ship "Komsomol", which had sunk while carrying Soviet weapons to the Second Spanish Republic.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: An annual festival to commemorate the life of Saint Agatha takes place in Catania, Sicily, from 3 to 5 February. The festival culminates in an all-night procession through the city.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: St. Agatha's Tower is a former Knight's stronghold located in the north west of Malta. The seventeenth-century tower served as a military base during both World Wars and was used as a radar station by the Maltese army.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: St. Agatha is also commemorated in literature. The Italian poet Martha Marchina wrote an epigram in that commemorates her martyrdom. In it, Marchina characterizes Agatha as powerful and she reclaims that power because she has become more beautiful through her wounds.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Agatha of Sicily is honored with a Lesser Feast on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States of America on 5 February.


title: Agatha of Sicily

text: Agatha is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's 1979 installation piece "The Dinner Party", being represented as one of the 999 names on the "Heritage Floor".


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Kerala has a reputation of being, communally, one of the most religiously diverse states in India. According to 2011 Census of India figures, 54.73% of Kerala's population are Hindus, 26.56% are Muslims, 18.38% are Christians, and the remaining 0.33% follow other religions or have no religion. Hindus represent the biggest religious group in all districts except Malappuram, where they are outnumbered by Muslims. Various tribal people in Kerala have retained the religious beliefs of their ancestors. In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively little sectarianism.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Several saints and movements existed. Adi Shankara was a Hindu philosopher who contributed to Hinduism and propagated philosophy of Advaita. He was instrumental in establishing four mathas at Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri and Jyotirmath. Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri was another religious figure who composed Narayaniyam, a collection of verses in praise of Krishna.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Some of the most notable temples are: Ananthapura Lake Temple, Angadipuram Thirumandhamkunnu Temple, Alathiyoor Hanuman Temple, Bhayankavu Bhagavathi Temple, Kadampuzha Devi Temple, Keraladeshpuram Temple, Panniyur Sri Varahamurthy Temple, Sukapuram Dakshinamoorthy Temple, Thirunavaya Navamukunda Temple, Triprangode Siva Temple, Tali Shiva Temple, Trikkandiyur Siva Temple, Thrissur Vadakkunnathan Temple, Guruvayur Temple, Thriprayar Temple, Lokanarkavu Temple, Thirunelli Temple, Sabarimala Ayyappa Temple, Thiruvananthapuram Padmanabhaswamy Temple, Aranmula Parthasarathy Temple, Chottanikkara Temple, Chengannur Mahadeva Temple, Parassinikadavu Muthappan Temple, Chettikulangara Devi Temple, Mannarasala Temple, Chakkulathukavu Temple, Thiruvalla Sreevallabha Temple, Kaviyoor Mahadevar Temple, Parumala Panayannarkavu Temple, Sree Poornathrayesa Temple, Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple, Trikkur Mahadeva Temple, Manalarkavu Devi Temple and Rajarajeshwara Temple. Temples in Kerala follow elaborate rituals and traditionally only priests from the Nambudiri caste could be appointed as priests in major temples. But in 2017 as per the state government's decision, the priests from the historically backward caste communities are now being appointed as priests.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Malayali Hindus practice ceremonies such as "Chorunu" (first feeding of rice to a child) and Vidyāraṃbhaṃ.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs, Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period. Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices. The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries. They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East. The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Islam arrived in Kerala, a part of the larger Indian Ocean rim, via spice and silk traders from the Middle East. Historians do not rule out the possibility of Islam being introduced to Kerala as early as the seventh century CE. Notable has been the occurrence of Cheraman Perumal Tajuddin, the Hindu King that moved to Arabia to meet the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and converted to Islam. Kerala Muslims are generally referred to as the Mappilas. Mappilas are but one among the many communities that forms the Muslim population of Kerala. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals, the first Indian mosque was built in 624 AD at Kodungallur with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal) of Chera dynasty, who converted to Islam during the lifetime of Prophet Muhammad (c. 570–632). According to "Qissat Shakarwati Farmad", the "Masjids" at Kodungallur, Kollam, Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam, Panthalayini, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik Dinar, and they are among the oldest "Masjid"s in the Indian subcontinent. It is believed that Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town. According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep islands, situated just to the west of Malabar Coast, by Ubaidullah in 661 CE. His grave is believed to be located on the island of Andrott. A few Umayyad (661–750 AD) coins were discovered from Kothamangalam in the eastern part of Ernakulam district.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates of the 9th century CE, granted by the ruler of Kollam. A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the Malabar Coast. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 AD), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100-1165 AD), Abulfeda (1273-1331 AD), and Al-Dimashqi (1256-1327 AD) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia. Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE) appears to be the first writer to call Malabar Coast as "Malabar". Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place "Malibar", "Manibar", "Mulibar", and "Munibar". "Malabar" is reminiscent of the word "Malanad" which means "the land of hills". According to William Logan, the word "Malabar" comes from a combination of the Malayalam word "Mala" (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word "Barr" (country/continent). The Kodungallur Mosque, has a granite foundation exhibiting 11th-12th century architectural style. The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the Madayi Mosque in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 CE.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The Muslims were a major financial power to be reckoned with in the old kingdoms of Kerala and had great political influence in the Hindu royal courts. Travellers have recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. Immigration, intermarriage and missionary activity/conversion — secured by the common interest in the spice trade — helped in this development. Muslim merchant magnates owning ships, spread their shipping and trading business interests across the Indian Ocean. The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of "Vatteluttu" and Grantha scripts which dates back to the 10th century CE. It is a rare surviving document recording patronage by a Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the Muslims of Kerala. A 13th century granite inscription, written in a mixture of Old Malayalam and Arabic, at Muchundi Mosque in Kozhikode mentions a donation by the king to the mosque.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The Moroccan traveller Ibn Battutah (14th century) has recorded the considerably huge presence of Muslim merchants and settlements of sojourning traders in most of the ports of Kerala. By the early decades of the 14th century, travellers speak of Calicut (Kozhikode) as the major port city in Kerala. Some of the important administrative positions in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut, such as that of the port commissioner, were held by Muslims. The port commissioner, the "Shah Bandar", represented commercial interests of the Muslim merchants. In his account, Ibn Battutah mentions Shah Bandars in Calicut as well as Quilon (Ibrahim Shah Bandar and Muhammed Shah Bandar). The Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom, based at Kannur, ruled the Lakshadweep Islands. Arabs had the monopoly of trade in Malabar Coast and Indian Ocean until the Portuguese Age of Discovery.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The arrival of the Portuguese traders in Malabar Coast in the late 15th century checked the then well-established and wealthy Muslim community's progress. Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled the seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon. The "Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen" written by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani during 16th-century CE is the first-ever known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite. It is written in Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to colonize Malabar coast. It was first printed and published in Lisbon. A copy of this edition has been preserved in the library of Al-Azhar University, Cairo. "Tuhfatul Mujahideen" also describes the history of Mappila Muslim community of Kerala as well as the general condition of Malabar Coast in the 16th century CE. With the end of Portuguese era, Arabs lost their monopoly of trade in Malabar Coast. By the mid-18th century the majority of the Muslims of Kerala became landless labourers, poor fishermen and petty traders, and the community was in "a psychological retreat". The subsequent partisan rule of English East India Company authorities brought the land-less Muslim peasants of Malabar District into a condition of destitution, and this led to a series of uprisings (against the Hindu landlords and British administration). The series of violence eventually exploded as the infamous Mappila Uprising (1921–22).


title: Religion in Kerala

text: A large number of Muslims of Kerala found extensive employment in the Persian Gulf countries in the following years (c. 1970s). This widespread participation in the "Gulf Rush" produced huge economic and social benefits for the community. Great influx funds from the earnings of the employed followed. Issues such as widespread poverty, unemployment and educational backwardness began to change.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Politically speaking, Muslims in Kerala have exhibited more unanimity than any other major community in modern-day Kerala.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Judaism arrived in Kerala with spice traders, possibly as early as the 7th century BC. There is no consensus of opinion on the date of the arrival of the first Jews in India. The tradition of the Cochin Jews maintains that after 72 AD, after the destruction of the Second Temple of Jerusalem, 10,000 Jews migrated to Kerala.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The only verifiable historical evidence about the Kerala Jews goes back only to the Jewish Copper Plate Grant of Bhaskara Ravi Varman in 1000 AD. This document records the royal gift of rights and privileges to the Jewish Chief of Anjuvannam Joseph Rabban. Later in the 16th century many Jews from Portugal and Spain settled in Cochin. These Jews were called "white Jews" as opposed to the native "black Jews".The Portuguese did not look favorably on the Jews. They destroyed the Jewish settlement in kodungallur and sacked the Jewish town in Cochin and partially destroyed the famous Cochin Synagogue in 1661. However, the Dutch were more tolerant and allowed the Jews to pursue their normal life and trade in Cochin. According to the testimony of the Dutch Jew, Moses Pereira De Paiva, in 1686 there were 10 synagogues and nearly 500 Jewish families in Cochin. Later Britishers too were tolerant. The Jews were protected. After the creation of the State of Israel in 1948, most Jews decided to emigrate to Israel. Most of the emigrants to Israel between 1948 and 1955 were from the community of "black Jews" and "brown Jews"; they are known as Cochini in Israel. Since the 1960s, only a few hundred Jews (mostly "white Jews") remained in Kerala with only two synagogues open for service: the Pardesi Synagogue in Matancherry built in 1567 and the synagogue in Parur.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Jainism, one of the three most ancient Indian religious traditions still in existence, has very small presence (0.01%) in Kerala, in south India. According to the 2011 India Census, Kerala only has around 4500 Jains, most of them in the city of Cochin and in Wayanad district.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Medieval Jain inscriptions are mostly found on the borders of Kerala proper, such Wynad in north-east, Alathur in the Palghat Gap and Chitharal in Kanyakumari District. Epigraphical evidence suggests that the shrine at "Tirukkunavay", perhaps located near Cochin, was the major Jain temple in medieval Kerala (from c. 9th century AD). The so-called "Rules of the Tirukkunavay Temple" provided model and precedent for all other Jain temples of Kerala. A number of images of Mahavira, Padmavati, and Parsvanatha have been recovered from Kerala.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Some of the Jain temples in Kerala were taken over by the Hindus at a later stage. The temple images are worshiped as Hindu gods and considered as part of the Hindu pantheon. It is not uncommon for Hindus and Jains to worship their deities in the same temple.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Christianity is followed by 18.38% of the population of Kerala. The Christianity in Kerala has long traditions from first century AD many of which is similar to the Malabari Jews, the latter has settled in Kerala since the King Solomon. According to traditional accounts, Saint Thomas the Apostle visited Muziris in Kerala in the first century around 52 AD and proselytized some of the then settled Cochin Jewish families and some Upper castes, they became the present ""Mar Thoma Suriyani Nasrani"" or Saint Thomas Syrian Christians. According to traditional accounts, on the onset of an invasion Thomas is believed to have left northwest India traveled by vessel to the Malabar Coast, possibly visiting southeast Arabia and Socotra en route, and landing at the former flourishing port of Muziris (modern-day North Paravur and Kodungalloor). Evidence such as the Acts of Thomas, one of the first accounts of the life of Thomas, say he died in Northwest India in the Indo-Parthian Kingdom, at the hands of the monarch Misdaeus, thought to be Abdagases I, a viceroy of the Gondopharnes in Sistan, modern day southern Afghanistan. This conclusion is supported by Ephrem the Syrian and his contemporaries, Eusebius and Origen, who testify that Thomas evangelized the Parthians. Modern scholars also support this point of view, and there is no evidence suggesting Thomas was ever in Kerala, or South India in general. According to Knanaya Christians, an endogamous ethnic group found among the Saint Thomas Christian community of Kerala, their existence in Kerala is traced back to the arrival of the Syrian merchant Thomas of Cana (Knāi Thoma) who led a migration of Syriac Christians (Jewish-Christians) from Mesopotamia to India in the 4th or 9th century. The Knanaya claim descent from Thomas of Cana and those who came with him. The communities arrival was recorded on the Thomas of Cana copper plates which existed in Kerala until the 17th century after which point they were taken to Portugal by the Franciscan Order. Before the arrival of Europeans in Kerala there were only Marthoma Nasranis also called as Malankara Syrian Christians due to its historical, religious, and liturgical connection to Syriac Christianity. Marthoma Nasranis remained as an independent group, and they got their bishops from Church of the East until the advent of Portuguese and British colonialists. The first Roman Catholic Diocese in India was founded at Quilon in the year 1329 with the Catalan Dominican friar Jordanus Catalani as first Bishop. The caste system became prevalent in Kerala later than any other parts of India after fourth and fifth century AD. The Nasranis were given special status outside the Varna system. Like Brahmins they were allowed to sit in front of Kings, ride on horse or elephants, to collect taxes. The Marthoma Nasranis back then also has the role of pollution neutralizers i.e., if a lower caste person hand over a substance to a Nasrani and if he in turn gives it to an upper caste, say for example Brahmin, then there would be no pollution for that Brahmin.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The arrival of Europeans in the 15th century and discontent with Portuguese interference in religious matters fomented schism into Catholic and Orthodox communities. Further schism and rearrangements led to the formation of the other Indian Churches. Latin Catholics of Kerala has protracted over eleven centuries and the work of evangelization was revived by the western missionaries in the 13th century. Further schism and rearrangements led to the formation of the other Indian Churches. Anglo-Indian Christian communities formed around this time as Europeans and natives intermarried. Protestantism took a stronghold in Kerala with missionary activity during British rule.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The 2011 Indian census found a total of 6,411,269 Christians in Kerala, with their various denominations as stated: Saint Thomas Christians (Syro-Malabar Church, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, CSI Syrian Christians, Mar Thoma Syrian Church, Pentecostal Syrian Christians, St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India, Chaldean Syrian Church and Malabar Independent Syrian Church) constituted 70.73% of the Christians of Kerala, followed by Latin Catholics at 13.3%, Pentecostals at 4.3%, CSI at 4.5%, Dalit Christians at 2.6% and other Protestant groups (such as Lutheran, Calvinist and other charismatic churches) at 5.9%.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The Saint Thomas Christians (Nasrani) of Kerala primarily belongs to the churches which use the East Syriac Rite (Syro Malabar Church and Chaldean Syrian Church) and West Syriac Rite (Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, Mar Thoma Syrian Church, St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India, Syro-Malankara Catholic Church and the Malabar Independent Syrian Church). CSI Syrian Christians follow the Anglican rite. Pentecostal Saint Thomas Christians, like other Pentecostals, are riteless (nonliturgical). The Saint Thomas Christians form 70.73% of the Christians of Kerala and 12.5% of the total population of Kerala.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Around 61% of Christians in the state are Catholics which includes the Eastern Syrian Catholics (Syro-Malabar Church and Syro-Malankara Catholic Church) and the Latin Catholics of Kerala. The Oriental Orthodox Churches are Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and Malankara Jacobite Syriac Orthodox Church. The Malankara Marthoma Syrian Church is an Oriental Protestant church. The Church of South India belong to the Anglican Communion. Major Pentecostal denominations in Kerala include the India Pentecostal Church of God, Assemblies of God in India, Church of God (Full Gospel) in India, and The Pentecostal Mission. There has been a strong presence of other Protestant groups in southern Kerala such as the Church of South India and The Salvation Army that are typically based on Anglican beliefs and trace their origins to British rule. They have a significant presence in Neyyattinkara taluk and Pathanamthitta district.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Buddhism probably flourished for 200 years (650-850) in Kerala. The Paliyam Copper Plate of the Ay King, Varaguna (885-925 AD) shows that the Buddhists benefited from royal patronage in the 10th century.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: The religion's popularity declined following the onset of Advaita Vedanta propagated by sage Shankaracharya.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: There were a number of Parsi families settled in Kerala, particularly around Kozhikode and Thalassery area.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: They practiced Zoroastrianism and even built the 160-year-old dadgah (fire temple) at S. M. Street, Kozhikode which is still in existence. They were mostly wealthy families who immigrated during the 18th century from Gujarat and Bombay. The community included famous families such as the Hirjis or Marshalls. Some famous Malayali Parsis included the reputed Dr. Kobad Mogaseb, who was the first medical doctor from Kozhikode who graduated from London, as well as Kaikose Rudreshan who funded the Basel Evangelical Mission Parsi High School, Thalassery.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Various groups classified as tribes in Kerala still dominate various remote and hilly areas of Kerala. They have retained various rituals and practices of their ancestors despite influences of mainstream religions.


title: Religion in Kerala

text: Dinkoism in a parody religion created by atheist communities in the state, centred around the 'worship' of Dinkan, a mouse superhero from the discontinued children's magazine Balamangalam.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Lynda Bellingham, OBE ( ; 31 May 194819 October 2014) was an English actress, broadcaster and author. She acted in television series such as "All Creatures Great and Small", "Doctor Who", "Second Thoughts" and "Faith in the Future". She was also known for her appearances as the mother in the long-running series of "Oxo Family" British TV advertisements between 1983 and 1999, and as a panellist on the ITV lunchtime chat show "Loose Women" between 2007 and 2011.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Bellingham was born Meredith Hughes in Montreal to a single mother, but was given up for adoption because she was born out of wedlock in a strict church-going family. She was adopted when she was four months old. Bellingham was educated at Aylesbury High School and trained at the Central School of Speech and Drama.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Bellingham made her television début as a nurse in an ITV afternoon soap opera of the 1970s, "General Hospital". Her early film credits included roles in "Confessions of a Driving Instructor" (1976), "Stand Up, Virgin Soldiers" (1977) and "Riding High" (1981) with Eddie Kidd. She also appeared in the comedy short "The Waterloo Bridge Handicap" (1978) with Leonard Rossiter. Prior to her brief role in "Sweeney!" (1977), the first big-screen adaptation of the TV police drama series "The Sweeney", she had appeared in the "Sweeney" episode "Trojan Bus" (1975) in which she played Nancy King, accomplice to two Australian robbers. In 1981, she appeared in the ITV comedy-drama "Funny Man" set in the music hall of the late 1920s.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Her other roles included Helen Herriot in the James Herriot drama "All Creatures Great and Small" (in which she was the second actress to play the role on television, replacing Carol Drinkwater), the 1980 Andrea Newman drama series "Mackenzie", "Blake's 7" (1981) and the situation comedy "Second Thoughts" and its sequel, "Faith in the Future". With her Oxo Family co-star, Michael Redfern she appeared in an episode of "Filthy Rich and Catflap".


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Bellingham appeared as the Inquisitor in the 14-part "Doctor Who" serial "The Trial of a Time Lord" in 1986. She reprised the character for the Big Finish Productions audio series "Gallifrey", and in the Big Finish Productions audio drama "Trial of the Valeyard," (which she recorded only a few months before announcing her cancer). She starred as Emily Marlowe in the film "The Scarlet Tunic" in 1998, and appeared in Gleb Panfilov's "" as Empress Alexandra the following year. She was in "Waking the Dead A Simple Sacrifice" (2001) parts one and two playing Mary Mantel.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: From 2000 to 2003, Bellingham played Pauline Farnell, the compassionate accountant in "At Home with the Braithwaites" with Amanda Redman and former "All Creatures Great and Small" colleague Peter Davison. She had a recurring role in "The Bill" as villainess Irene Radford for several months in 2004, and appeared as Marlene in "Devil's Gate" the same year. She also appeared in Midsomer Murders “The Fisher King” as Jane Willows. She had a role in the ITV comedy "Bonkers" playing Mrs Wadlow, a man-eating suburban housewife who seduces her neighbour's teenage son and turns him into her gigolo. Later that year, she filmed guest appearances in episodes of "Love Soup" and "Robin Hood". She played DCI Karen Hardwick in a 2007 episode of "New Tricks" (S4:E1).


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Bellingham played the central character in the long-running "Oxo Family" series of TV commercials, starting in 1983, playing a mother who binds her family together by cooking them meals featuring Oxo products. The advertisements typically featured the family sitting down to a meal at which Oxo gravy would be served. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the family was seen to grow older. When the campaign was retired in 1999, the family moved out of the house.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: In 2012, she presented her own cookery series called "My Tasty Travels with Lynda Bellingham". The following year, she presented the ITV programme "Country House Sunday".


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Bellingham joined "Loose Women" on 10 April 2007, appearing alongside Carol McGiffin and Coleen Nolan, and continued as a regular on the show until 2011. In all, Bellingham made more than 300 appearances on the show, including a special appearance in 2014 shortly before her death. Two editions of "Loose Women" were dedicated to Bellingham after her death.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: In 2009, Bellingham was one of the contestants in the seventh series of "Strictly Come Dancing", where she was partnered with Darren Bennett. However, she was voted out by the judges in the fourth week.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: In 1993, Bellingham was the subject of "This Is Your Life" when she was surprised by Michael Aspel on the set of "Second Thoughts".


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: In February 1999, she was part of the "Heated Rollers" comedy team alongside Gwyneth Strong and Joanna Monro, with the "Heated Rollers" programme being the first all-women sketch show broadcast on BBC Radio 2.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: In 2011, Bellingham featured in a short film entitled "Too Close for Comfort", playing the character of a mother to her real-life son, actor and celebrity butler Michael Peluso (from ITV's fly-on-the-wall documentary series "The Savoy"). Bellingham and Peluso reprised their roles for the follow-up web series of the same name in 2014. Mirroring Bellingham's personal life, her character had developed cancer.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: In January 2005, she appeared in a play entitled "Losing Louis" at Hampstead Theatre before transferring to the Trafalgar Studios in London. Her performance received critical acclaim, especially from Michael Billington.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: From September 2008 to July 2009, Bellingham played the role of Chris Harper in the stage version of the hit film "Calendar Girls" on tour and at the Noël Coward Theatre in the West End. She returned to the show for further tours in 2010, 2011 and 2012.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Over the Christmas/New Year period of 2011/12, she played the Fairy Godmother in the pantomime "Cinderella" at the Birmingham Hippodrome. She played the role again at the Alhambra Theatre, Bradford over the Christmas/New Year period of 2012/13.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Bellingham was due to star in Kay Mellor's play "A Passionate Woman" at the Sheffield Crucible, followed by a national tour, however, it was announced in July 2013 that the show had to be postponed owing to Bellingham's cancer treatment.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: In 2010, Bellingham launched her book "Lost and Found", a story of her life and career and toured the country for private readings. Her novel "Tell Me Tomorrow" was published in 2013. In 2014, Bellingham's autobiography, "There's Something I'm Dying to Tell You", was issued shortly before her death. Her final story, "The Boy I Love" was published posthumously in November 2014.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Bellingham was married three times, first in 1975 to film and theatre producer Greg Smith. According to Bellingham in her 2010 autobiography, the marriage was one driven primarily by sex, with Smith later admitting to numerous affairs with other actresses, including some who sent nude photos to their home.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Her second marriage (1981–96) was to restaurateur Nunzio Peluso, with whom she had two sons, Michael and Robbie. The couple were introduced to each other at the Italian restaurant La Famiglia in Chelsea, London in the early 1980s by friend and fellow actor Christopher Biggins. After a whirlwind courtship and romance, the couple married but the relationship was marred by Peluso's jealousy of Bellingham's former lovers leading to a series of altercations, fights and domestic abuse towards her. Around the same time as Bellingham was being abused by Peluso, she was starring in the Oxo adverts and felt bound to hide the truth about her marriage for fear of spoiling her image in the commercials. As Bellingham revealed in her 2010 autobiography "Lost & Found: My Story": "maybe if my private life had been happier I would have enjoyed doing it more. As it was, I felt I was living a lie. Being the nation's favourite mum on screen and going home to an abusive relationship was heartbreaking [...] the irony was horrific. Here I was, the Oxo mum, hiding behind closed doors, isolated from her friends and family." The couple divorced in 1996, Bellingham giving her former husband half of everything she owned, although he continued to intimidate her. A restraining order was granted in 2000 to keep Peluso away from his former wife. On 31 May 2008, Bellingham married her boyfriend, Spain-based timeshare salesman, Michael Pattemore (known on "Loose Women" as "Mr Spain"), at St Stephen Walbrook on her 60th birthday.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: Bellingham was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2014 New Year Honours for voluntary service to charitable giving.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: On 16 July 2013, it was announced that Bellingham had been diagnosed with colorectal cancer. She released a statement saying she was "not going to die."


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: In September 2014, Bellingham confirmed that her cancer had metastasised to her lungs and liver and that she had "months to live". She announced that she had made the choice in August 2014 to stop chemotherapy in November, so that she could have "one last Christmas" with her family and die in January 2015. Bellingham died in a London hospital on 19 October 2014 with her husband Michael by her side.


title: Lynda Bellingham

text: On 3 November 2014, her funeral took place at St Bartholomew's Church in Crewkerne. Bellingham was buried in Crewkerne Townsend Cemetery. Her headstone names her as Lynda Bellingham-Pattemore.


title: Steve Gleason

text: Stephen Michael "Steve" Gleason (born March 19, 1977) is a former professional American football safety with the New Orleans Saints of the National Football League (NFL). Originally signed by the Indianapolis Colts as an undrafted free agent in 2000, he played for the Saints through the 2006 season. As a free agent in 2008, Gleason retired from the NFL after eight seasons.


title: Steve Gleason

text: Gleason is particularly known for his block of a punt early in a 2006 game, which became a symbol of recovery in New Orleans in the team's first home game after Hurricane Katrina.


title: Steve Gleason

text: In 2011, Gleason revealed that he was battling amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease). His experiences while living with the disease were captured on video over the course of a five-year period and featured in the 2016 documentary "Gleason".


title: Steve Gleason

text: Born and raised in Spokane, Washington, Gleason attended high school at Gonzaga Prep, where he earned consecutive defensive MVP awards as a linebacker in the Greater Spokane League (GSL). He also played on offense as a fullback.


title: Steve Gleason

text: Following graduation in 1995, he accepted a scholarship to play college football at Washington State in Pullman. Gleason was a starting linebacker for the 1997 team that advanced to the Rose Bowl. He was a four-year starter for the WSU baseball team in center field and holds the school record for triples.


title: Steve Gleason

text: Gleason was signed by the Indianapolis Colts as an undrafted free agent in 2000. He was released by the team after the preseason and was signed to the New Orleans Saints' practice squad in November. He was chosen by the Birmingham Thunderbolts with the 191st pick of the 2001 XFL Draft.