title: Victorian fashion

text: During the early and middle 1860s, crinolines began decreasing in size at the top, while retaining their amplitude at the bottom. In contrast, the shape of the crinoline became flatter in the front and more voluminous behind, as it moved towards the back since skirts consisted of trains now. Bodices on the other hand, ended at the natural waistline, had wide pagoda sleeves, and included high necklines and collars for day dresses; low necklines for evening dresses. However, in 1868, the female silhouette had slimmed down as the crinoline was replaced by the bustle, and the supporting flounce overtook the role of determining the silhouette. Skirt widths diminished even further, while fullness and length remained at the back. In order to emphasise the back, the train was gathered together to form soft folds and draperies


title: Victorian fashion

text: The trend for broad skirts slowly disappeared during the 1870s, as women started to prefer an even slimmer silhouette. Bodices remained at the natural waistline, necklines varied, while sleeves began under the shoulder line. An overskirt was commonly worn over the bodice, and secured into a large bow behind. Over time though, the overskirt shortened into a detached basque, resulting in an elongation of the bodice over the hips. As the bodices grew longer in 1873, the polonaise was thus introduced into the Victorian dress styles. A polonaise is a garment featuring both an overskirt and bodice together. The tournure was also introduced, and along with the polonaise, it created an illusion of an exaggerated rear end.


title: Victorian fashion

text: By 1874, skirts began to taper in the front and were adorned with trimmings, while sleeves tightened around the wrist area. Towards 1875 to 1876, bodices featured long but even tighter laced waists, and converged at a sharp point in front. Bustles lengthened and slipped even lower, causing the fullness of the skirt to further diminish. Extra fabric was gathered together behind in pleats, thus creating a narrower but longer tiered, draped train too. Due to the longer trains, petticoats had to be worn underneath in order to keep the dress clean.


title: Victorian fashion

text: However, when 1877 approached, dresses moulded to fit the figure, as increasing slimmer silhouettes were favoured. This was allowed by the invention of the cuirass bodice which functions like a corset, but extends downwards to the hips and upper thighs. Although dress styles took on a more natural form, the narrowness of the skirt limited the wearer in regards to walking.


title: Victorian fashion

text: The early 1880s was a period of stylistic confusion. On one hand, there is the over-ornamented silhouette with contrasting texture and frivolous accessories. On the other hand, the growing popularity of tailoring gave rise to an alternative, severe style. Some credited the change in silhouette to the Victorian dress reform, which consisted of a few movements including the Aesthetic Costume Movement and the Rational Dress Movement in the mid-to-late Victorian Era advocating natural silhouette, lightweight underwear, and rejecting tightlacing. However, these movements did not gain widespread support. Others noted the growth in cycling and tennis as acceptable feminine pursuits that demanded a greater ease of movement in women's clothing. Still others argued that the growing popularity of tailored semi-masculine suits was simply a fashionable style, and indicated neither advanced views nor the need for practical clothes. Nonetheless, the diversification in options and adoption of what was considered menswear at that time coincided with growing power and social status of women towards the late-Victorian period.


title: Victorian fashion

text: The bustle made a re-appearance in 1883, and it featured a further exaggerated horizontal protrusion at the back. Due to the additional fullness, drapery moved towards the sides or front panel of the skirt instead. Any drapery at the back was lifted up into poufs. Bodices on the other hand, shortened and ended above the hips. Yet the style remained tailored, but was more structured.


title: Victorian fashion

text: However, by 1886, the silhouette transformed back to a slimmer figure again. Sleeves of bodices were thinner and tighter, while necklines became higher again. Furthermore, an even further tailored-look began to develop until it improved in the 1890s.


title: Victorian fashion

text: By 1890, the crinoline and bustle was fully abandoned, and skirts flared away naturally from the wearer's tiny waist. It evolved into a bell shape, and were made to fit tighter around the hip area. Necklines were high, while sleeves of bodices initially peaked at the shoulders, but increased in size during 1894. Although the large sleeves required cushions to secure them in place, it narrowed down towards the end of the decade. Women thus adopted the style of the tailored jacket, which improved their posture and confidence, while reflecting the standards of early female liberation.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Hats were crucial to a respectable appearance for both men and women. To go bareheaded was simply not proper. The top hat, for example, was standard formal wear for upper- and middle-class men. For women, the styles of hats changed over time and were designed to match their outfits.


title: Victorian fashion

text: During the early Victorian decades, voluminous skirts held up with crinolines, and then hoop skirts, were the focal point of the silhouette. To enhance the style without distracting from it, hats were modest in size and design, straw and fabric bonnets being the popular choice. Poke bonnets, which had been worn during the late Regency period, had high, small crowns and brims that grew larger until the 1830s, when the face of a woman wearing a poke bonnet could only be seen directly from the front. They had rounded brims, echoing the rounded form of the bell-shaped hoop skirts.


title: Victorian fashion

text: The silhouette changed once again as the Victorian era drew to a close. The shape was essentially an inverted triangle, with a wide-brimmed hat on top, a full upper body with puffed sleeves, no bustle, and a skirt that narrowed at the ankles (the hobble skirt was a fad shortly after the end of the Victorian era). The enormous wide-brimmed hats were covered with elaborate creations of silk flowers, ribbons, and above all, exotic plumes; hats sometimes included entire exotic birds that had been stuffed. Many of these plumes came from birds in the Florida everglades, which were nearly made entirely extinct by overhunting. By 1899, early environmentalists like Adeline Knapp were engaged in efforts to curtail the hunting for plumes. By 1900, more than five million birds a year were being slaughtered, and nearly 95 percent of Florida's shore birds had been killed by plume hunters.


title: Victorian fashion

text: The women's shoes of the early Victorian period were narrow and heelless, in black or white satin. By 1850s and 1860s, they were slightly broader with a low heel and made of leather or cloth. Ankle-length laced or buttoned boots were also popular. From the 1870s to the twentieth century, heels grew higher and toes more pointed. Low-cut pumps were worn for the evening.


title: Victorian fashion

text: During the 1840s, men wore tight-fitting, calf length frock coats and a waistcoat or vest. The vests were single- or double-breasted, with shawl or notched collars, and might be finished in double points at the lowered waist. For more formal occasions, a cutaway morning coat was worn with light trousers during the daytime, and a dark tail coat and trousers was worn in the evening. Shirts were made of linen or cotton with low collars, occasionally turned down, and were worn with wide cravats or neck ties. Trousers had fly fronts, and breeches were used for formal functions and when horseback riding. Men wore top hats, with wide brims in sunny weather.


title: Victorian fashion

text: During the 1850s, men started wearing shirts with high upstanding or turnover collars and four-in-hand neckties tied in a bow, or tied in a knot with the pointed ends sticking out like "wings". The upper-class continued to wear top hats, and bowler hats were worn by the working class.


title: Victorian fashion

text: In the 1860s, men started wearing wider neckties that were tied in a bow or looped into a loose knot and fastened with a stickpin. Frock coats were shortened to knee-length and were worn for business, while the mid-thigh length sack coat slowly displaced the frock coat for less-formal occasions. Top hats briefly became the very tall "stovepipe" shape, but a variety of other hat shapes were popular.


title: Victorian fashion

text: During the 1870s, three-piece suits grew in popularity along with patterned fabrics for shirts. Neckties were the four-in-hand and, later, the Ascot ties. A narrow ribbon tie was an alternative for tropical climates, especially in the Americas. Both frock coats and sack coats became shorter. Flat straw boaters were worn when boating.


title: Victorian fashion

text: During the 1880s, formal evening dress remained a dark tail coat and trousers with a dark waistcoat, a white bow tie, and a shirt with a winged collar. In mid-decade, the dinner jacket or tuxedo, was used in more relaxed formal occasions. The Norfolk jacket and tweed or woolen breeches were used for rugged outdoor pursuits such as shooting. Knee-length topcoats, often with contrasting velvet or fur collars, and calf-length overcoats were worn in winter. Men's shoes had higher heels and a narrow toe.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Starting from the 1890s, the blazer was introduced, and was worn for sports, sailing, and other casual activities.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Throughout much of the Victorian era most men wore fairly short hair. This was often accompanied by various forms of facial hair including moustaches, side-burns, and full beards. A clean-shaven face did not come back into fashion until the end of the 1880s and early 1890s.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Distinguishing what men really wore from what was marketed to them in periodicals and advertisements is problematic, as reliable records do not exist.


title: Victorian fashion

text: In Britain, black is the colour traditionally associated with mourning for the dead. The customs and etiquette expected of men, and especially women, were rigid during much of the Victorian era. The expectations depended on a complex hierarchy of close or distant relationship with the deceased. The closer the relationship, the longer the mourning period and the wearing of black. The wearing of full black was known as First Mourning, which had its own expected attire, including fabrics, and an expected duration of 4 to 18 months. Following the initial period of First Mourning, the mourner would progress to Second Mourning, a transition period of wearing less black, which was followed by Ordinary Mourning, and then Half-mourning. Some of these stages of mourning were shortened or skipped completely if the mourner's relationship to the deceased was more distant. Half-mourning was a transition period when black was replaced by acceptable colours such as lavender and mauve, possibly considered acceptable transition colours because of the tradition of Church of England (and Catholic) clergy wearing lavender or mauve stoles for funeral services, to represent the Passion of Christ.


title: Victorian fashion

text: The mourning dress on the right was worn by Queen Victoria, "it shows the traditional touches of mourning attire, which she wore from the death of her husband, Prince Albert (1819–1861), until her own death."


title: Victorian fashion

text: "Manners and Rules of Good Society, or, Solecisms to be Avoided" (London, Frederick Warne & Co., 1887) gives clear instructions, such as the following:


title: Victorian fashion

text: The complexity of these etiquette rules extends to specific mourning periods and attire for siblings, step-parents, aunts and uncles distinguished by blood and by marriage, nieces, nephews, first and second cousins, children, infants, and "connections" (who were entitled to ordinary mourning for a period of "1–3 weeks, depending on level of intimacy"). Men were expected to wear mourning black to a lesser extent than women, and for a shorter mourning period. After the mid-19th century, men would wear a black hatband and black suit, but for only half the prescribed period of mourning expected of women. Widowers were expected to mourn for a mere three months, whereas the proper mourning period expected for widows was up to four years. Women who mourned in black for longer periods were accorded great respect in public for their devotion to the departed, the most prominent example being Queen Victoria herself.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Women with lesser financial means tried to keep up with the example being set by the middle and upper classes by dyeing their daily dress. Dyers made most of their income during the Victorian period by dyeing clothes black for mourning.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Technological advancements not only influenced the economy but brought a major change in the fashion styles worn by men and women. As the Victorian era was based on the principles of gender, race and class. Much advancement was in favor of the upper class as they were the ones who could afford the latest technology and change their fashion styles accordingly. In 1830s there was introduction of horse hair crinoline that became a symbol of status and wealth as only the upper-class women could wear it. In 1850s there were more fashion technological advancements hence 1850s could rightly be called a revolution in the Victorian fashion industry such as the innovation of artificial cage crinoline that gave women an artificial hourglass silhouette this meant that women did not have to wear layers of petticoats anymore to achieve illusion of wide hips and it was also hygienic. Synthetic dyes were also introduced that added new bright colours to garments. These technological advancement gave women freedom and choices. In 1855's "Haute couture" was introduced as tailoring became more mainstream in years to follow.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Charles Frederick Worth, a prominent English designer, became popular amongst the upper class though its city of destiny always is Paris. Haute couture became popular at the same time when sewing machines were invented. Hand sewn techniques arose and were a distinction in compared to the old ways of tailoring. Princess Eugenie of France wore the Englishman dressmaker, Charles Frederick Worth's couture and he instantly became famous in France though he had just arrived in Paris a few years ago. In 1855, Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Britain welcomed Napoleon III and Eugenie of France to a full state visit to England. Eugenie was considered a fashion icon in France. She and Queen Victoria became instant friends. Queen Victoria, who had been the fashion icon for European high fashion, was inspired by Eugenie's style and the fashions she wore. Later Queen Victoria also appointed Charles Frederick Worth as her dress maker and he became a prominent designer amongst the European upper class. Charles Frederick Worth is known as the father of the haute couture as later the concept of labels were also invented in the late 19th century as custom, made to fit tailoring became mainstream.


title: Victorian fashion

text: By the 1860s, when Europe was all about made-to-fit tailoring, crinolines were considered impractical. In the 1870s, women preferred more slimmer silhouettes, hence bodices grew longer and the polonaise, a skirt and bodice made together, was introduced. In 1870s the Cuirass Bodice, a piece of armour that covers the torso and functions like a corset, was invented. Towards the end of Victoria's reign, dresses were flared naturally as crinolines were rejected by middle-class women. Designers such as Charles Frederick Worth were also against them. All these inventions and changes in fashion led to women's liberation as tailored looks improved posture and were more practical.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Home decor started spare, veered into the elaborately draped and decorated style we today regard as Victorian, then embraced the retro-chic of William Morris as well as pseudo-Japonaiserie.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Many myths and exaggerations about the period persist to the modern day. Examples include the idea of men's clothing is seen as formal and stiff, women's as elaborate and over-done; clothing covered the entire body, and even the glimpse of an ankle was scandalous. Critics contend that corsets constricted women's bodies and women's lives. Homes are described as gloomy, dark, cluttered with massive and over-ornate furniture and proliferating bric-a-brac. Myth has it that even piano legs were scandalous, and covered with tiny pantalettes.


title: Victorian fashion

text: In truth, men's formal clothing may have been less colourful than it was in the previous century, but brilliant waistcoats and cummerbunds provided a touch of color, and smoking jackets and dressing gowns were often of rich Oriental brocades. This phenomenon was the result of the growing textile manufacturing sector, developing mass production processes, and increasing attempts to market fashion to men. Corsets stressed a woman's sexuality, exaggerating hips and bust by contrast with a tiny waist. Women's evening gowns bared the shoulders and the tops of the breasts. The jersey dresses of the 1880s may have covered the body, but the stretchy novel fabric fit the body like a glove.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Home furnishing was not necessarily ornate or overstuffed. However, those who could afford lavish draperies and expensive ornaments, and wanted to display their wealth, would often do so. Since the Victorian era was one of increased social mobility, there were ever more "nouveaux riches" making a rich show.


title: Victorian fashion

text: The items used in decoration may also have been darker and heavier than those used today, simply as a matter of practicality. London was noisy and its air was full of soot from countless coal fires. Hence those who could afford it draped their windows in heavy, sound-muffling curtains, and chose colours that didn't show soot quickly. When all washing was done by hand, curtains were not washed as frequently as they might be today.


title: Victorian fashion

text: There is no actual evidence that piano legs were considered scandalous. Pianos and tables were often draped with shawls or cloths—but if the shawls hid anything, it was the cheapness of the furniture. There are references to lower-middle-class families covering up their pine tables rather than show that they couldn't afford mahogany. The piano leg story seems to have originated in the 1839 book, "A Diary in America" written by Captain Frederick Marryat, as a satirical comment on American prissiness.


title: Victorian fashion

text: Victorian manners may have been as strict as imagined—on the surface. One simply did not speak publicly about sex, childbirth, and such matters, at least in the respectable middle and upper classes. However, as is well known, discretion covered a multitude of sins. Prostitution flourished. Upper-class men and women indulged in adulterous liaisons.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Michael Ian Black (born Michael Ian Schwartz; August 12, 1971) is an American comedian, actor, writer, and director. He has starred in several TV comedy series, including "The State", "Viva Variety", "Stella", "", "Michael & Michael Have Issues", and "Another Period". In the late 1990s to early 2000s, he was the puppeteer and voice actor for the Pets.com sock puppet dog. He also appeared on "Celebrity Poker Showdown" several times. He released his first children's book, "Chicken Cheeks", in 2009, and has since released six more, in addition to four books for adults.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black was born in Chicago, Illinois, to Jill and Robert Schwartz, a store owner and an executive, respectively. His family is Jewish. He grew up in Hillsborough Township, New Jersey, where he attended Hillsborough High School. His parents divorced when he was three years old; his mother, Jill, later came out as a lesbian. Black's father died at age 39 due to a head injury apparently suffered in an assault and allergic reaction during subsequent surgery.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: His birth name, Schwartz, is derived from the German word "schwarz", which means black. He changed his name to Michael Ian Black to avoid confusion with the actor Mike Schwartz.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black briefly attended New York University, but dropped out to portray Raphael in the promotional campaign for the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles concert tour.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black began his career as a member of the comedy group The State and was featured on the television show of the same name on MTV. He continued working with members of that group on the show "Viva Variety" in the role of "Johnny Bluejeans", and in the film "Wet Hot American Summer", directed by frequent collaborator David Wain.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black also appeared on VH1's "I Love the..." series, his comedy troupe Stella, and in various TV series and films. From 1998 to 2000, he was the puppeteer and voice actor for the Pets.com sock puppet, was featured in commercials for Sierra Mist, hosted the first season of NBC's hidden-camera show "Spy TV", made several appearances in the film "Big Helium Dog", and had a supporting role on the NBC dramedy "Ed", later becoming the mascot for BarNone. He would later describe his experience as the sock puppet as “painful but fun”.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: His dry, sarcastically irreverent commentary on pop culture artifacts on VH1's "I Love the '70s/'80s/'90s/New Millennium" series added to his and the shows' popularity. Black stated several times on the show that he felt as if he was "doomed to an eternity" of doing the "I Love the..." series. He also made fun of himself for being a Jewish-American and sarcastically enforcing Jewish stereotypes.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black is a poker enthusiast and appeared in five episodes of "Celebrity Poker Showdown" beginning in 2003, playing for the Endeavor House charity. In 2004 and 2006 he played for the charity . In 2006, he came in third (receiving $100,000 for his charity). Black was praised for his humor and his skilled poker play by Dave Foley, host of "Celebrity Poker Showdown", and by poker experts Phil Gordon and Phil Hellmuth.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: In the latter part of 2004, he acted as guest host of CBS's "The Late Late Show" while auditioning for the permanent hosting role. He was a finalist for the position, but the job eventually went to Craig Ferguson. He is also an occasional contributor to the online edition of McSweeney's, where he writes a column titled "Michael Ian Black Is a Very Famous Celebrity".


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black, along with fellow "State" members Michael Showalter and David Wain, co-starred in and cowrote the Comedy Central series "Stella", a television adaptation of their popular stage show. The ten-episode first season debuted in June 2005 and was not renewed for a second season.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black wrote the screenplays for two feature film comedies —"Wedding Daze" (2006) and "Run, Fat Boy, Run" (2007, co-written with leading actor Simon Pegg). Black also directed "Wedding Daze" which stars Jason Biggs, Joe Pantoliano, and Isla Fisher.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black also has some minor screen credits. He appeared twice on the Adult Swim show "Tom Goes to the Mayor", was a guest voice on Seth Green's stop-motion show "Robot Chicken", and later did a bit for "Tim and Eric Awesome Show, Great Job!". He appeared on the Comedy Central shows "Crank Yankers" and "Reno 911!". He had a cameo in David Wain's 2007 film "The Ten" as a prison guard. In September 2007, he released his first stand-up comedy album, "I Am a Wonderful Man". In addition, he starred on the TV series "Reaper" as a gay demon trying to destroy the devil through acts of kindness. In 2008, Black published a book titled "My Custom Van ... And 50 Other Mind-Blowing Essays That Will Blow Your Mind All Over Your Face". Also in 2008, he hosted "Reality Bites Back", a scripted reality show on Comedy Central.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black then developed another show for Comedy Central, "Michael Ian Black Doesn't Understand". The concept was later retooled as "Michael & Michael Have Issues"; a pilot episode, featuring Michael Showalter, was shot in August 2008. Comedy Central confirmed in February 2009 that a seven-episode run of the show would air in July.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: His first children's book, "Chicken Cheeks", was published by Simon & Schuster Children's Publishing on January 6, 2009. The book is illustrated by Kevin Hawkes. In a starred review, Kirkus called the book "a perfect collaboration of text and illustration." An alternative review was aired on the "Michael Showalter Showalter".


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black appeared in several Sierra Mist and Klondike commercials, as well as an eBay commercial with Showalter.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: On February 21, 2009, Black instigated a "Celeb-Feud" — or as he called it, the "World's First Twitter War" — with LeVar Burton to see if he could muster more Twitter followers than Burton. Black dubbed the feud "LeWar."


title: Michael Ian Black

text: In 2010 Black started the podcast "Mike and Tom Eat Snacks" with his former "Ed" castmate Tom Cavanagh. Black and Meghan McCain cowrote the book "America, You Sexy Bitch: A Love Letter to Freedom" in June 2012. The two took a road trip across America during the summer of 2011, documenting how Americans were living.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: In 2012, he starred as the host Bill Tundle in the web series "Burning Love", a spoof of the TV series "The Bachelor" and "The Bachelorette". He also co-hosted G4 TV with Candace Bailey that year. He has occasionally appeared as a guest on "Red Eye with Greg Gutfeld". He stars in Adult Swim's late night infomercial parody, "You're Whole", as Randall Tyree Mandersohn. After a guest appearance in the pilot, it was announced in 2013 that Black would join the FOX comedy "Us & Them" in a regular role.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: In 2013, he and Michael Showalter launched the podcast "Topics". Alongside Jason Ritter, Alexis Bledel, and Kerri Kenney-Silver, Black appeared in the unaired 2013 Fox sitcom "Us & Them", a 13-episode US adaptation of the hit UK sitcom "Gavin & Stacey", which was canceled while the seventh episode was in production. Fox decided to not air any of the episodes. Black played the role of Brian.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: He co-hosted the single-season 2013 game show "Trust Me, I'm a Game Show Host" alongside D.L. Hughley. He was also a co-host on "Duck Quacks Don't Echo", and one of the guest stars on the short-lived Steve Carell 2014 improv sketch show "Riot". On June 11, 2014, he appeared on Ken Reid's "TV Guidance Counselor Podcast".


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black played Peepers, an uptight butler, on the Comedy Central series "Another Period". He also played the role of Daniel on the TVLand series "The Jim Gaffigan Show", as well as McKinley in the prequel to 2001's "Wet Hot American Summer", titled "".


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black hosts "How to Be Amazing", an in-depth interview podcast show, produced by Black, Jennifer Brennan and Mary Shimkin. It is largely recorded at Argot Studios in New York City. In June 2017, Black recorded an episode in Los Angeles with pop star Katy Perry for her livestream marathon, "".


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black appears in "" as Steve YouTube, the fictional germophobic creator and CEO of YouTube. The movie premiered on July 24, 2015, at VidCon 2015 in Los Angeles.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: In 2018, Black began hosting a new podcast titled "Obscure with Michael Ian Black" in which he reads works of classic literature and makes comments about the books as he reads. In Season 1 he reads "Jude the Obscure" by author Thomas Hardy. In Season 2 he reads Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein". In Season 3 he reads Emily Brontë's "Wuthering Heights".


title: Michael Ian Black

text: In May 2020 Black returned to a rebooted "Reno 911!" in a new recurring role as Captain Schwartz, named for his birthname. Schwartz is the commander of a heavily militarized parody of Hatzalah, the Jewish volunteer medical emergency service.


title: Michael Ian Black

text: Black married Martha Anne Hagen in 1998. They have two children, Elijah (born 2001), and Ruthie (born 2003). They reside in Savannah, Georgia.


title: Parth Samthaan

text: Parth Laghate (born 11 March 1991) known as Parth Samthaan is an Indian actor. He started off his acting career by featuring in as Siddharth and Best Friends Forever? as Prithvi Sanyal both in the same year. Samthaan rose to fame after portraying Manik Malhotra in "Kaisi Yeh Yaariaan" and Anurag Basu in "Kasautii Zindagii Kay".


title: Parth Samthaan

text: Samthaan started off his acting career by featuring in episodics like Life OK's "Savdhaan India", MTV India's "Webbed", Bindass's "Yeh Hai Aashiqui" and Zing's "Pyaar Tune Kya Kiya".


title: Parth Samthaan

text: In 2012, he portrayed Prithvi Sanyal in Channel V's "Best Friends Forever?" opposite Charlie Chauhan. From 2014 to 2015, he portrayed Manik Malhotra in MTV India's "Kaisi Yeh Yaariaan" opposite Niti Taylor. His character was reinstated for the second season.


title: Parth Samthaan

text: Samthaan signed his first Bollywood debut, "Googly Ho Gayi" in 2016. He also attempted playback singing for his second song "Jind Meri". In 2018, he returned to play Manik Malhotra in Voot's "Kaisi Yeh Yaariaan 3".


title: Parth Samthaan

text: From 2018 to 2020, Samthaan portrayed Anurag Basu opposite Erica Fernandes in Star Plus's "Kasautii Zindagii Kay" for which he won the Indian Telly Award for Best Jodi Popular and Kalakar Award for Best Actor Popular.


title: Parth Samthaan

text: In 2019, he played Faizal Alghazi in ALT Balaji's "Kehne Ko Humsafar Hain 2" opposite Pooja Banerjee.


title: Parth Samthaan

text: He was ranked 3rd in "Times of India"s 25 "Most Desirable Men on Television" List, 2018. In 2019, he was listed 2nd on the same list and maintained his position at 2nd rank in 2020 as well.


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: Hayes MacArthur (born April 16, 1977) is an American actor and stand-up comedian. He starred in the TBS comedy series "Angie Tribeca".


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: MacArthur was born in Chicago to Bruce and Shelley MacArthur. His stepfather is businessman William F. Farley. His younger brother is fellow actor and writer Scott MacArthur.


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: MacArthur attended Deerfield Academy and received a B.A. in Government from Bowdoin College in Brunswick, Maine, where he was quarterback on the football team. He has studied at the Groundlings Theater Company and Atlantic Theater Company.


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: MacArthur took first place at the 2003 Rebels of Comedy Competition. He has appeared on such TV shows as "Mad TV", Comedy Central's "Premium Blend", "Pushing Daisies", and "Medium".


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: In 2005, MacArthur co-wrote, produced and starred in a 16-minute short film, "The Adventures of Big Handsome Guy and His Little Friend", with Jason Winer. The short was produced as a pilot for TV in 2006. He also appeared as a waiter in the episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm where everyone chooses Larry's wife over him after the break-up. In 2007, MacArthur appeared with fiancée Ali Larter in "National Lampoon's Homo Erectus", and also appeared in a comedic supporting role in the Disney movie "The Game Plan". Along with recurring roles on the television shows "How I Met Your Mother" and "Worst Week", he appeared in supporting roles in the 2010 films "She's Out of My League" and "Life as We Know It".


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: In May 2010, NBC announced that MacArthur would star in the television series "Perfect Couples". The half-hour romantic comedy premiered in the second half of the 2010–2011 TV season. The show was cancelled in May 2011.


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: In 2012, MacArthur was featured in several episodes of "Whitney", as well as "Go On" and the Broken Lizard film The Babymakers.


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: MacArthur's first name was in honor of his great-aunt, actress Helen Hayes, who was married to Charles MacArthur, his grandfather Alexander MacArthur's brother.


title: Hayes MacArthur

text: MacArthur became engaged to "Heroes" actress Ali Larter, his girlfriend of three years, in December 2007. On August 1, 2009, MacArthur married Larter in a small ceremony at his parents' estate in Kennebunk, Maine. On July 20, 2010, it was announced that the couple were expecting their first child. Larter and MacArthur have a son Theodore Hayes McArthur born on December 20th 2010 and daughter Vivienne Margaret born on January 15th 2015. The couple also have two dogs Jackpot and Ella.


title: Shungite

text: Shungite is a black and lustrous mineraloid that was first described from a deposit near Shunga village, in Karelia, Russia, from where it gets its name. Shungite can be low-carbon (5% C), medium-carbon (5-25% C) and high-carbon (25-80% C) percent by weight of carbon and the carbon base of shungite is a multilayered fullerene-like globule with a diameter of 10-30 nm. Shungite has been reported to contain trace amounts of fullerenes (0.0001 < 0.001%).


title: Shungite

text: The term "shungite" was originally used in 1879 to describe a mineraloid with more than 98 per cent carbon. More recently the term has also been used to describe shungite-bearing rocks, leading to some confusion. Shungite-bearing rocks have also been classified purely on their carbon content, with shungite-1 having a carbon content in the range 98-100 weight per cent and shungite-2, -3, -4 and -5 having contents in the ranges 35-80 per cent, 20-35 per cent, 10-20 per cent and less than 10 per cent, respectively. In a further classification, shungite is subdivided into bright, semi-bright, semi-dull and dull on the basis of their luster (the terms lustrous and matte are also used for bright and dull).


title: Shungite

text: Shungite has two main modes of occurrence, disseminated within the host rock and as apparently mobilised material. "Migrated shungite", which is bright (lustrous) shungite, has been interpreted to represent migrated hydrocarbons and is found as either "layer shungite", layers or lenses near conformable with the host rock layering, or "vein shungite", which is found as cross-cutting veins. Shungite may also occur as clasts within younger sedimentary rocks.


title: Shungite

text: Shungite has to date mainly been found in Russia. The main deposit is in the Lake Onega area of Karelia, at Zazhoginskoye, near Shunga, with another occurrence at Vozhmozero. Two other much smaller occurrences have been reported in Russia, one in Kamchatka in volcanic rocks and the other formed by the burning of spoil from a coal mine at high temperature in Chelyabinsk. Other occurrences have been described from Austria, India, Democratic Republic of Congo and Kazakhstan.


title: Shungite

text: Shungite has been regarded as an example of abiogenic petroleum formation, but its biological origin has now been confirmed. Non-migrated shungite is found directly stratigraphically above deposits that were formed in a shallow water carbonate shelf to non-marine evaporitic environment. The shungite bearing sequence is thought to have been deposited during active rifting, consistent with the alkaline volcanic rocks that are found within the sequence. The organic-rich sediments were probably deposited in a brackish lagoonal setting. The concentration of carbon indicates elevated biological productivity levels, possibly due to high levels of nutrients available from interbedded volcanic material.


title: Shungite

text: The stratified shungite-bearing deposits that retain sedimentary structures are interpreted as metamorphosed oil source rocks. Some diapiric mushroom-shaped structures have been identified, which are interpreted as possible mud volcanoes. Layer and vein shungite varieties, and shungite filling vesicles and forming the matrix to breccias, are interpreted as migrated petroleum, now in the form of metamorphosed bitumen.


title: Shungite

text: The Shunga deposit contains an estimated total carbon reserve of more than 250 gigatonnes. It is found within a sequence of Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary and metavolcanic rocks that are preserved in a synform. The sequence is dated by a gabbro intrusion, which gives a date of 1980±27 Ma, and the underlying dolomites, which give an age of 2090±70 Ma. There are nine shungite-bearing layers within the Zaonezhskaya Formation, from the middle of the preserved sequence. Of these the thickest is layer six, which is also known as the "Productive horizon", due to its concentration of shungite deposits. Four main deposits are known from the area, the Shungskoe, Maksovo, Zazhogino and Nigozero deposits. The Shungskoe deposit is the most studied and is mainly mined out.


title: Shungite

text: Amongst ancient cultures, shungite was said to be related to allergies, skin diseases, diabetes mellitus, stomatitis, periodontal disease, hair loss, cosmetic flaws, and many other diseases.


title: Shungite

text: Shungite has been used as a folk medical treatment since the early 18th century. Peter the Great set up Russia's first spa in Karelia to make use of the water purifying properties of shungite, which he had himself experienced. He also instigated its use in providing purified water for the Russian army.


title: Shungite

text: The antibacterial properties of shungite have been confirmed by testing. These are possibly due to the extremely high heavy metal content of the mineral. Shungite exhibits antioxidant properties, but only at about 1000 times less activity than quercetin, for example. In 2017, research suggests that a fullerene-based compound within shungite has an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory action against UVB-induced skin damage.


title: Shungite

text: Shungite has been used since the middle of the 18th century as a pigment for paint, and is currently sold under the names "carbon black" or "shungite natural black".


title: Shungite

text: In the 1970s, shungite was exploited in the production of an insulating material, known as "shungisite". Shungisite is prepared by heating rocks with low shungite concentrations to 1090–1130 °C and is used as a low density filler. Shungite has applications in construction technologies.


title: Shungite

text: Crystal healing pseudoscience proponents and 5G conspiracy theorists have falsely alleged the misinformational belief that shungite may remove 5G radiation from their vicinity more efficiently than any material of similar electrical conductivity would do.


title: Shahed 129

text: The Shahed 129 (, English: "witness"; sometimes S129) is an Iranian single-engine medium-altitude long-endurance unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) designed by Shahed Aviation Industries for the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC). The Shahed 129 is capable of combat and reconnaissance missions and has an endurance of 24 hours; it is similar in size, shape and role to the American MQ-1 Predator and is widely considered as one of the most capable drones in Iranian service.


title: Shahed 129

text: The UAV has been used for airstrikes in the Syrian Civil War and for border patrol on Iran's eastern border. As of 2017 the Shahed 129 and Saegheh are expected to form the backbone of Iran's high-end UAV fleet for at least the next decade.


title: Shahed 129

text: Development began in 2005 when Iran Aircraft Manufacturing Industrial Company (HESA) began design work on the HESA-100 UAV. This was essentially the same design as the Shahed 129 but was shorter and with a squarish fuselage. Design responsibility was transferred to Shahed Aviation Industries Research Center, which renamed the HESA-100 the Shahed 123. Though little is known about it, the Shahed 123 is a production UAV in its own right, not a research project. The Shahed 123 was later developed into the Shahed 129. Both Shahed Aviation Industries and HESA have close ties to the IRGC. Alternatively, a number of sources have reported that the Shahed 129 was reverse engineered from an Israeli Hermes 450 UAV that crashed in Iran.


title: Shahed 129

text: Two prototypes were built. The first, with model number 129-001, first flew in spring 2012 and was first used operationally to livestream footage of ballistic missile tests on 13 July 2012. The second prototype, with airframe model 129–002, flew in June 2012. The Shahed 129 was first seen in Iran's "Great Prophet 7" war games exercise in September of that year. The UAV entered serial production in September 2013. However, it suffered problems with its planned armament and did not make any drone strikes until early 2016, when new Sadid-345 precision-guided munitions were integrated.


title: Shahed 129

text: The UAV is assembled by HESA. A total of 40 aircraft have been ordered, with deliveries scheduled to be completed by 2024. They are built at a rate of about three per year.


title: Shahed 129

text: The Shahed 129 is a large single-engine propeller-driven UAV with V-tail vertical stabilizers, high-mounted straight wings, and a pusher configuration, generally similar to the MQ-1 Predator. It has a long, narrow cylindrical fuselage approximately 65–75 cm in diameter, and is fabricated from large panels of composite material with an aluminum alloy superstructure. It has a chin-mounted gimbal electro-optic/infrared sensor for day/night missions, retractable landing gear, and a real-time video data link. There is also a payload bay under the drone's body, at the center of gravity. The Shahed 129 is powered by one Rotax 914 aircraft engine and has two twin hardpoints, for a total of up to four munitions.


title: Shahed 129

text: Originally, the Shahed 129 carried Sadid-1 anti-tank guided missiles, also known as Sadid-361 or Fat'h 362 missiles. This is a TV-guided anti-tank missile derived from Iran's Toophan missiles and is described by multiple sources as similar in design to the Israeli Spike-ER missile. The Sadid-361 was not operationally deployed; one source says this was due to problems with the launcher mechanism and guidance system, while others say R&D was not completed because American sanctions prevented Iran from obtaining necessary components. Later, this was replaced by the Sadid-345 precision-guided munition, also known as the Sadid guided bomb. Iranian sources claim the UAV can carry up to eight weapons, but in practice it is not seen with more than four. The Shahed 129 does not carry its weapons in canisters, a practice that was criticised by some aerospace experts, as it exposes the weapons' sensitive electronics to flight conditions.


title: Shahed 129

text: Given that Iran regularly makes misleading claims about their UAVs, and that Shahed-129 made no known drone strikes for its first four years of flight, there were long doubts about the Shahed-129's claim to be a legitimate strike UAV. Since 2016, there is a general consensus that it is in fact a legitimate UCAV capable of lethal force.


title: Shahed 129

text: Though the Shahed 129 airframe is likely capable of its claimed 1700 km combat range, it relies on a ground control station, which Iranian state media say is limited to a 200 km datalink. Independent analysts are more positive, saying the effective range is likely 300–400 km, but are clear that the drone's reliance on a ground station severely circumscribes its effective range. Other experts say the Shahed 129's datalink could likely not reach even 200 km. The drone can use an autopilot system, similar to that used on the Karrar UAV, to follow predefined way-points beyond its control station's communication range. The Shahed is claimed to have a 24-hour endurance, which is considered plausible but has not been independently verified.


title: Shahed 129

text: In May 2014, two Shahed 129 aircraft were disassembled and airlifted on an Ilyushin Il-76 strategic airlifter to Damascus International Airport, along with their ground control stations and associated support crews, for use in the Syrian Civil War. The UAVs' first mission was to support the Quds Force and its militia allies. On 10 April 2014, rebels in Syria recorded a UAV resembling a Shahed 129 flying over Eastern Ghouta, Damascus. The war in Syria proved a good environment to test the Shahed 129, and three more were later transferred to Syria, where they are operated from Syrian Air Force bases. A Shahed 129 with what appears to be a single munition was spotted in the sky south of Aleppo in November 2014. The Shahed 129 made its first known drone strike in February 2016, which was the first wartime drone strike by Iran. There is some evidence Shahed 129s may have made a drone strike with Sadid-1 missiles in November 2015. A Shahed 129 was also used to provide bomb damage assessment for the 2017 Deir ez-Zor missile strike. The Shahed 129s have since performed hundreds of sorties in Syria against the Islamic State and rebel forces.


title: Shahed 129

text: Two Shahed 129s were transferred to Iran's border with Pakistan in 2015, and were later supplemented by two more. Iranian military officials say that Shahed 129 UAV can increase Iran's surveillance capabilities in border areas such as the Persian Gulf and the Sea of Oman. Mohammad Ali Jafari described the UAV as "smart, accurate and inexpensive." Shahed 129s have been broadly dispersed and are not operated from any central airbase. As of 2017, two Shahed 129s were based in Damascus, Syria, three in Tactical Air Base 10 near Konarak, four in Bandar-Abbas, two on Abu Musa, and one in Urmia. Some number are also stationed in Semnan, and two are based in Kashan Air Base for training. In Syria, satellite imagery placed Shahed 129s at Hama Air Base and T4 airbase. In general, Iran has said little about the Shahed-129's use in Syria.


title: Shahed 129

text: On 7 June 2017, Hezbollah released video showing an American MQ-1 or MQ-9 UAV flying near al-Tanf. Experts said the footage was "consistent" with video from Shahed-129s.


title: Shahed 129

text: On 8 June 2017, one of the five Shahed 129s deployed to Syria attempted to conduct an airstrike against coalition personnel near al-Tanf, Syria, attacking them with one munition. Though the airstrike "was clearly meant as an attack on the coalition forces and partner forces in the area", it failed to damage any American or partner equipment and failed to injure or kill any American or partner personnel, because the munition failed to explode. The Shahed 129 was shot down by an American F-15E Strike Eagle.


title: Shahed 129

text: Days later, on 20 June 2017, another F-15E Strike Eagle shot down another Shahed 129 drone again near Al-Tanf. The drone approached in a similar manner to the previous incident and was shot down before it reached the range at which it could deploy its weapons.


title: Shahed 129

text: On the same day, on 20 June 2017, a Pakistani JF-17 shot down a Shahed 129 after it entered Pakistani airspace near Panjgur. It flew about 3–4 km into Pakistani airspace.


title: Shahed 129

text: Overall, three Shahed 129s were shot down. An additional aircraft crashed in 2015 near Chabahar and is believed to have been rebuilt.


title: Shahed 129

text: In spring 2019, Shahed 129s were used by the IRGC to assist in relief operations in flood-affected regions of Khuzestan Province, Iran.


title: Shahed 129

text: A new Shahed 129 variant distinguishable by a bulging nose was developed by Shahed Aviation Industries in 2015 and revealed in February 2016. Iranian sources say this variant is equipped with satellite navigation, which will extend the range of the UAV. On the other hand, sources hostile to Iran say that as Iran has no satellites, the bulbous nose is unrelated to satellite guidance. Iran has not commented on the purpose of the redesigned nose, and Jane's speculates it could house a Ku-band beyond-line-of-sight satellite link or synthetic aperture radar. In addition, the payload is increased by 100 kg and the range is increased to 3000 km, according to Iran. A naval version called Simorgh was presented in December 2019.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The Kingdom of Italy (1805–1814; ; ) was a kingdom in Northern Italy (formerly the Italian Republic) in personal union with Napoleon I's French Empire. It was fully influenced by revolutionary France and ended with Napoleon's defeat and fall. Its government was assumed by Napoleon as King of Italy and the viceroyalty delegated to his stepson Eugène de Beauharnais. It covered Savoy and the modern provinces of Lombardy, Veneto, Emilia-Romagna, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Trentino, South Tyrol, and Marche. Napoleon I also ruled the rest of northern and central Italy in the form of Nice, Aosta, Piedmont, Liguria, Tuscany, Umbria, and Lazio, but directly as part of the French Empire, rather than as part of a vassal state.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The Kingdom of Italy was born on 17 March 1805, when the Italian Republic, whose president was Napoleon Bonaparte, became the Kingdom of Italy, with the same man (now styled Napoleon I) as the new King of Italy and his 24-year-old stepson Eugène de Beauharnais as his viceroy. Napoleon I was crowned at the Duomo di Milano, Milan on 23 May, with the Iron Crown of Lombardy. His title was "Emperor of the French and King of Italy" (, ), showing the importance of this Italian kingdom to him.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: Even though the republican constitution was never formally abolished, a series of Constitutional Statutes completely altered it. The first one was proclaimed two days after the birth of the kingdom, on 19 March, when the Consulta declared Napoleon I as king and established that one of his natural or adopted sons would succeed him once the Napoleonic Wars were over, and once separated the two thrones were to remain separate. The second one, dating from 29 March, regulated the regency, the Great Officials of the kingdom, and the oaths.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The most important was the third, proclaimed on 5 June, being the real constitution of the kingdom: Napoleon I was the head of state and had the full powers of government; in his absence, he was represented by the Viceroy, Eugène de Beauharnais. The Consulta, Legislative Council, and Speakers were all merged into a Council of State, whose opinions became only optional and not binding for the king. The Legislative Body, the old parliament, remained in theory, but it was never summoned after 1805; the Napoleonic Code was introduced.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The fifth and the sixth Statutes, on 21 March 1808, separated the Consulta from the Council of State, and renamed it the Senate, with the duty of informing the king about the wishes of his most important subjects.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The seventh Statute, on 21 September, created a new nobility of dukes, counts and barons; the eighth and the ninth, on 15 March 1810, established the annuity for the members of the royal family. In 1812, a Court of Accounts was added.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: Originally, the Kingdom consisted of the territories of the Italian Republic: former Duchy of Milan, Duchy of Mantua, Duchy of Modena, the western part of the Republic of Venice, part of the Papal States in Romagna, and the Department of Agogna () centred on Novara.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: After the defeat of the Third Coalition and the consequent Treaty of Pressburg, on 1 May 1806, the Kingdom gained from Austria the eastern and remaining part of the Venetian territories, including Istria and Dalmatia down to Kotor (then called Cattaro), though it lost Massa and Carrara to Elisa Bonaparte's Principality of Lucca and Piombino. The Duchy of Guastalla was annexed on 24 May.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: With the Convention of Fontainebleau with Austria of 10 October 1807, Italy ceded Monfalcone to Austria and gained Gradisca, putting the new border on the Isonzo River.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The conquered Republic of Ragusa was annexed in spring 1808 by General Auguste de Marmont. On 2 April 1808, following the dissolution of the Papal States, the Kingdom annexed the present-day Marches. At its maximum extent, the Kingdom had 6,700,000 inhabitants and was composed by 2,155 communes.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The final arrangement arrived after the new defeat of Austria: Emperor Napoleon and King Maximilian I Joseph of Bavaria signed the Treaty of Paris on 28 February 1810, deciding an exchange of territories involving Italy too.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: On rewards in Germany, Bavaria ceded southern Tirol to the Kingdom of Italy, which in its turn ceded Istria and Dalmatia (with Ragusa) to France, incorporating the Adriatic territories into newly created the French Illyrian Provinces. Small changes to the borders between Italy and France in Garfagnana and Friuli came in act on 5 August 1811.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The Kingdom served as a theater in Napoleon's operations against Austria during the wars of the various coalitions. Trading with the United Kingdom was forbidden.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The kingdom was given a new national currency, replacing the local coins circulating in the country: the Italian lira, of the same size, weight, and metal of the French franc. Mintage being decided by Napoleon with an imperial decree on 21 March 1806, the production of the new coins began in 1807. The monetary unit was the silver lira, which was 5 grams heavy. There were multiples of £2 (10 grams of silver) and £5 (25 grams of silver), and precious coins of £20 (6.45 grams of gold) and £40 (12.9 grams of gold). The lira was basically divided in 100 cents, and there were coins of 1 cent (2.1 grams of copper), 3 cents (6.3 grams of copper), and 10 cents (2 grams of poor silver), but following the tradition, there was a division in 20 soldi, with coins of 1 soldo (10.5 grams of copper, in practice 5 cents), 5 soldi (1.25 grams of silver), 10 soldi (2.5 grams of silver), and 15 soldi (3.75 grams of silver).


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: In the course of its existence from 1805 to 1814 the "Kingdom of Italy" provided Napoleon I with roughly around 200,000 soldiers.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: In 1805 Italian troops served on garrison duty along the English Channel, during 1806–07 they took part in the sieges of Kolberg and Danzig and fought in Dalmatia. From 1808 to 1813 whole Italian divisions served in Spain, especially distinguishing themselves under Suchet at Tarragona and Saguntum.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: In 1809, Eugène's "Army of Italy" formed the right wing of Napoleon I's invasion of the Austrian Empire, winning a considerable victory at Raab and having a respectable share in the victory at Wagram.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: In 1812, Eugène de Beauharnais marched 27,000 troops of the "Kingdom of Italy" into Russia. The Italian contingent distinguished themselves at Borodino and Maloyaroslavets, receiving the recognition:


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: Only 1,000–2,000 Italians survived the Russian campaign, but they returned with most of their banners secured. In 1813, Eugène de Beauharnais held out as long as possible against the onslaught of the Austrians "(Battle of the Mincio)" and was later forced to sign an armistice in February 1814.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The administrative system of the Kingdom was firstly drawn by a law on 8 June 1805. The state was divided, following the French system, in 14 "départements", the twelve ones inherited from the republican era plus Adda (Sondrio) and Adige (Verona). The chief of the department, the prefect, was the State's representative in each province, improved the administrative decisions of the central government, controlled the local authorities, led of the police and, differently from the republican era, had all the executive powers in its territory. The local legislative body was the General Council, composed by the representatives of the communes.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The departments were divided in districts, equivalent to the French "arrondissements". The chief of the district was the vice-prefect, which had similar powers to the prefect, but over a smaller area. The local legislative body was the District Council, composed by eleven members. The districts were divided, as in France, in "cantons", seats of Tax collectors and Justices of the peace.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The cantons were divided in "communes". The communes had a City Council ("Consiglio Comunale") of fifteen, thirty or forty members, chosen by the king or the prefect depending by the commune size. The Council elected two, four or six Elders for the ordinary administration, helped by a City Secretary. The chief of biggest communes was the royal "Podestà", when in smaller communes there was a prefectoral Mayor. All the city offices were held only by owners and traders, and the leadership of the owners was assured.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: During the kingdom's life, the administrative system of the State changed for domestic and international reasons. Following the defeat of Austria and the Treaty of Pressburg, Napoleon annexed to Italy the territory of former Republic of Venice, as announced on 30 March 1806, and ratified on 1 May. Seven new departments were created, six in the Venetian mainland, and one in Istria (Capodistria), whereas Dalmatia received special institutions led by the General Provider Mr. Dandolo, and maintained its own laws. On 14 July 1807, the government passed a decree that reduced the number of the communes. Following the dissolution of the Papal States, the kingdom was extended along the Adriatic coast, and on 20 April 1808, three new departments were established. The final territorial change came in action on 10 June 1810, when, as announced by Napoleon on previous 28 May, Italy lost Istria and the never fully incorporated Dalmatia, gaining as reward all the southern Tirol up to the city of Bolzano, creating the 24th and last department: Haut Adige.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: The language used officially in the Kingdom of Italy was Italian. The French language was used for ceremonies and in all relationships with France.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: Education was made universal for all children, which was also conducted in Italian. By decree of the governor Vincenzo Dandolo, this was so even in Istria and Dalmatia, where local populations were more heterogeneous.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: During its last maximum extension (from 1809 to 1814), the Kingdom lost Istria/Dalmatia but got added Bolzano/Alto Adige and consisted of 24 departments.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: When Napoleon abdicated both the thrones of France and Italy on 11 April 1814, Eugène de Beauharnais was lined up on the Mincio River with his army to repel any invasion from Germany or Austria, and he attempted to be crowned king. The Senate of the Kingdom was summoned on 17 April, but the senators showed themselves undecided in that chaotic situation. When a second session of the assembly took place on 20 April, the Milan insurrection foiled the Viceroy's plan. In the riots, finance minister Count Giuseppe Prina was massacred by the crowd, and the Great Electors disbanded the Senate and called the Austrian forces to protect the city, while a "Provisional Regency Government" under the presidency of Carlo Verri was appointed.


title: Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)

text: Eugène surrendered on 23 April, and was exiled to Bavaria by the Austrians, who occupied Milan on 28 April. On 26 April, the Empire appointed Annibale Sommariva as "Imperial Commissioner" of Lombardy, while many taxes were abolished or reduced by the Provisional Regency. Finally, on 25 May, the Supreme Imperial Commissioner Count Heinrich von Bellegarde took all the powers in Lombardy, and former monarchies in Modena, Romagna and Piedmont were gradually re-established; on 30 May, the Treaty of Paris was signed, and the remains of the kingdom were annexed by the Austrian Empire, as announced by Count Bellegarde on 12 June.


title: Durak

text: Durak (, ""fool"") is a traditional Russian card game that is popular in many post-Soviet states. It is Russia's most popular card game, having displaced Preferans. It has since become known in other parts of the world. The objective of the game is to shed all one's cards when there are no more cards left in the deck. At the end of the game, the last player with cards in their hand is the "durak" or 'fool'.


title: Durak

text: The game is attributed to have appeared in late 18th century Russian Empire and was popularized by Imperial Army conscripts during the 1812 Russo-French war. Initially a social pastime of uneducated peasants and industrial workers, after the October Revolution Durak has spread to numerous social levels by mid-20th century to soon become the most popular Soviet card game.


title: Durak

text: The game is typically played with two to five people, with six players if desired, using a deck of 36 cards, for example a standard 52-card deck from which the numerical cards 2 through 5 have been removed. In theory, the limit for a game with one deck of 36 cards is six players, but this extends a considerable advantage to the player who attacks first, and a considerable disadvantage to the player who defends first. Variants exist that use more than one deck.


title: Durak

text: The deck is shuffled, and each player is dealt six cards. The bottom card of the stock is turned and placed face up on the table, its suit determining the trump suit for the current deal. For example, if it is the 7 of diamonds, then diamonds rank higher than all plain-suit cards. The rest of the pack is then placed on half over the turnup and at right angles to it, so that it remains visible. These cards form the "prikup" or talon. The turnup remains part of the talon and is drawn as the last card. Cards discarded due to successful defences are placed in a discard pile next to the talon.


title: Durak

text: The player who has the lowest trump card will be the first attacker (note that there is no obligation to play that lowest trump card as the first card). The player to the attacker's left is always the defender. After each round of attack play proceeds clockwise. If the attack succeeds (see below), the defender loses their turn and the attack passes to the player on the defender's left. If the attack fails, the defender becomes the next attacker.


title: Durak

text: Cards are ranked (ascending order). A trump card of any rank beats all cards in the other three suits. For example, a 6 of trumps beats an ace of any other suit.


title: Durak

text: The attacker opens their turn by playing a card face up on the table as an attacking card. The player to the attacker's left is the defender. They respond to the attack with a defending card.


title: Durak

text: The defender attempts to beat the attack card by playing a higher-ranking defending card from their hand. For example, if the attacker plays a the defender must play a higher spade such as the or a card from the trump suit to defend successfully. The defender must play a higher card of the same suit as the attack card or play a card of the trump suit (there is no obligation to play the card of the same suit, you can use trump cards to beat off the attack anytime). The defending cards are placed on top of the attack card overlapping it, so both cards are visible and it is clear which cards are attacking and defending cards.


title: Durak

text: After the first attack, if the defender is successful, the attacker may launch a new attack. If they cannot or if they pass, then the player to the left of the defender may start a new attack or pass the chance to attack to the next non-defender going clockwise around the table. For each new attack which is defended successfully by the defender, the player who led that attack (played the last attack card) may start a new attack. After the original attack, attacks can only be made if the new attack card matches the rank of any card which has already been played during that round. If the player who led the last attack chooses not to attack again (and all future attacks during the round of attacks) then the original attacker may make a new attack, if they pass on making an attack then players to the defenders left may attack or pass and so on going clockwise around the table. There cannot be more than six attacks in each round. Each new attack card is placed to the left of the last attack card and the defender plays their defending card on top of the new attack card creating a row of attack and defence cards. The defender must respond to the new attack in the same fashion as the first attack by playing a card of the same suit of the new attack card with a higher rank or a trump card. All other players may make a new attack if the defender has successfully defended the last attack. The original attacker has priority for making an attack, then the player to defender's left has priority and so forth going clockwise. Some variants only allow cards to be added to the attack once the first defending card has been played.


title: Durak

text: At any point during a round of attacks, if a defender is unwilling or unable to beat the most recent attack card, they may give up their defence and must pick up all the cards played during that round of attack (both defending and attacking). In addition the other players may choose to shed cards matching ranks of any card which have already been played in this round which the defender must also pick up. In this case the round of attacks ends and the player to the defender's left starts a new round of attacks.


title: Durak

text: If, however, the defender has beaten all attacking cards and no other players are willing to make another attack or if the defender beats the sixth attack card, the defender has won the round of attacks. In this case all cards from that round of attack are placed in the discard pile and the defender starts a new round of attacks as the attacker and the player to his or her left becomes the new defender.


title: Durak

text: At the end of each round of attacks against a defender, whether or not the defence was successful, each player draws new cards from the deck until they have six cards in their hand unless the deck has been exhausted. The main attacker draws as many cards as necessary first, followed by any other attackers in clockwise order, and finally the defender. The defender's final card must beat the last attack card, otherwise they must pick up all the cards played during that round of attacks. If the talon is exhausted, and a player has played all their cards, they are eliminated from the game.


title: Durak

text: The last person left with cards in their hand is the loser (the fool or "durak"). In some variants, this player becomes the dealer for the next round. The player to the fool's right may become the first attacker for the next round.


title: Durak

text: Some variants declare the winner of the round to be the first player to empty their hand and leave the game. In others, there are no winners, only the loser.


title: Durak

text: Four players can play as two pairs. Six can play as three teams of two, or two teams of three. The members of each team sit opposite one another (with two players on each team), or alternating (with three). In some variants, the team with the lowest trump starts the first round, but in subsequent rounds the winning team from the previous round begins.


title: Durak

text: If the last card played by an attacker is a six, and the defender loses, the defender is cheerfully pronounced "durak s galstukom" (), and the six card may be symbolically placed on his chest. This is worse than declaring the loser simply as a "durak", because of the handicap of having a low-value Six through the final part of the game. If the attacker plays two sixes, the loser is even called a "durak" with "epaulettes on both shoulders" in Russian "durak s pogonami".


title: Durak

text: Some variants use the ties as scoring points. If someone has a six as a tie, the opponents must next score against them using a seven, and so on until someone receives an ace as a tie. To score, the winning individual or team must not only end with the correct tie value, but must include at least one non-trump card in the final attack. As it goes with two sixes either.


title: Durak

text: In a common variation called "Perevodnoy" ("transferrable" or "reverible") durak, a defender may pass to the next player if they have a card of the same rank. The defender adds this card to the pile and the next player becomes the defender. The defender now becomes the new attacker, and the player to their left becomes the new defender and must beat all cards played by the attacker. Passing is not allowed if the new defender has fewer cards in their hand than would be in the passed attack. In games involving four or fewer players, it is possible for the attack to pass all the way around the table, so that the original attacker ends up defending against their own attack.


title: Durak

text: One variation of passing called "proyezdnoy" ("season ticket") or "pokaznoy" ("showing") allows a defender who holds the trump of the same rank to simply show the card to pass the attack on and become the new attacker. The holder of the trump card of the same rank may play it at any time during the attack. If playing with fewer than 4 players, it is possible for the attack to be passed all the way around and come back to the holder of the trump card again. In this case the holder cannot show or play the same card again in order to pass the attack a second time.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: The United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute (USP Terre Haute) is a maximum-security United States federal prison for male inmates in Terre Haute, Indiana. It is part of the Federal Correctional Complex, Terre Haute (FCC Terre Haute) and is operated by the Federal Bureau of Prisons, a division of the United States Department of Justice. USP Terre Haute houses a Special Confinement Unit for male federal inmates who have been sentenced to death as well as the federal execution chamber. Most inmates sentenced to death by the U.S. federal government are housed in USP Terre Haute prior to execution, with few exceptions.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: A new United States penitentiary was authorized by President of the United States Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1938 and established in Terre Haute, Indiana, in 1940 on of land. The opening of the prison in this city was partly due to heavy promotion by Terre Haute's Chamber of Commerce, which eventually went on to raise $50,000 to pay for the property on which the prison was built. The residents of Terre Haute initially embraced the prison due to the impression that it would provide jobs to local residents in addition to helping Terre Haute's economy while only housing non-violent offenders. E.B. Swope was the prison's first warden.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: The U.S. Public Works Administration issued a $3 million grant to pay for construction of USP Terre Haute in 1938. Construction cost of the institution at the time that it was built was $2,150,000. The architectural design of the prison is a modified telephone pole design with all housing and other facilities opening onto a long central corridor. It was the first penitentiary for adult felons ever to be constructed without a wall. In 2004, the new USP was built on adjoining property, with the old penitentiary becoming the medium-security Federal Correctional Institution, Terre Haute.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: USP Terre Haute was one of the first federal prisons to emphasize rehabilitation by providing psychological and psychiatric treatment, referring to prisoners by names as opposed to numbers, and allowing prisoners to talk during meals instead of eating in silence. The institution initiated the use of the word "inmate" as opposed to other less-appealing labels such as "convict" or "criminal". It also became one of the first federal prisons to implement educational programs in prisons with sessions devoted to improving the inmates' skills in reading, writing, maths, as well as trades.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: Camp 5, part of the Guantanamo Bay detention camps, on the island of Cuba, is reported to have been based on the design of USP Terre Haute.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: USP Terre Haute is a Care Level 3 facility, which means that any inmate sent to Terre Haute who has serious health problems that are not major enough to warrant hospitalization is sent to the USP. This facility is also a tobacco-free institution. This part of the FCC contains six housing units. One of the six housing units is a faith-based unit that can house 125 inmates. When the inmates are not working, they are partaking in faith-based activities. All of the inmates in the USP are allotted seven visit-days a month and 300 minutes of telephone time, which they have to use in increments of 30 minutes or less. The inmates housed here can work at UNICOR, which is a prison industry that makes towels and other accessories for the military. Inmates employed here earn an average of $6.50 to $7.50 a day and some can make up to $12 a day if they are paid by piece as opposed to by the hour.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: On July 19, 1993, the federal government designated USP Terre Haute as the site where federal death sentences would be carried out, including the establishment of the "Special Confinement Unit", the federal death row for men. The Bureau of Prisons modified USP Terre Haute in 1995 and 1996 so it could house death row functions. On July 13, 1999, the Special Confinement Unit at USP Terre Haute opened, and the BOP transferred male federal death row inmates from other federal prisons and from state prisons to USP Terre Haute.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: There are currently 44 men on federal death row. The vast majority of these are housed at USP Terre Haute, which currently houses 42 death row inmates. The federal government chose Terre Haute as the location of the men's death row due to its central location within the United States.


title: United States Penitentiary, Terre Haute

text: Since 1963, sixteen people have been executed by the United States federal government. All sixteen were executed at USP Terre Haute. Timothy McVeigh, who was convicted for his responsibility for the Oklahoma City bombing, was the first prisoner executed by the U.S. federal government since the moratorium on the death penalty was lifted in 1976. The method of execution used by the federal government is lethal injection.


title: Dominion theology

text: Dominion theology (also known as dominionism) is a group of Christian political ideologies that seek to institute a nation which is governed by Christians and based on their understandings of biblical law. Extents of rule and ways of acquiring governing authority are varied. For example, dominion theology can include theonomy, but it does not necessarily involve advocacy of adherence to the Mosaic Law as the basis of government. The label is primarily applied to groups of Christians in the United States.


title: Dominion theology

text: Prominent adherents of these ideologies include Calvinist Christian reconstructionism, Charismatic and Pentecostal Kingdom Now theology, and the New Apostolic Reformation. Most of the contemporary movements labeled dominion theology arose in the 1970s from religious movements asserting aspects of Christian nationalism. Roman Catholic integralism is also sometimes considered to fall under the dominionist umbrella, but the Catholic integralist movement is much older and theologically markedly different from Protestant dominionism, since it is tied to the doctrine of the Catholic Church as being the only true church.


title: Dominion theology

text: Some have applied the term "dominionist" more broadly to the whole Christian right. This usage is controversial. Some members of these communities claim to be concerned that this is a label being used to marginalize them from public discourse.


title: Dominion theology

text: Dominion theology is a reference to the King James Bible's rendering of , the passage in which God grants humanity "dominion" over the Earth.


title: Dominion theology

text: And God blessed them, and God said unto them, "Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it: and have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth."


title: Dominion theology

text: In the late 1980s, several prominent Evangelical authors used the phrase "dominion theology" (and other terms such as "dominionism") to label a loose grouping of theological movements that made direct appeals to this passage in Genesis. Christians typically interpret this passage as meaning that God gave mankind responsibility over the Earth, but one of the most distinctive aspects of dominion theology is that it is interpreted as a mandate for Christian stewardship in civil affairs, no less than in other human matters.


title: Dominion theology

text: An example of dominionism in reformed theology is Christian reconstructionism, which originated in the teachings of R. J. Rushdoony in the 1960s and 1970s. Rushdoony's theology focuses on theonomy (the rule of the Law of God), a belief that all of society should be ordered according to the laws that governed the Israelites in the Old Testament. His ideas on biblical law in civil government are laid out most comprehensively in "The Institutes of Biblical Law", although he wrote many other books dealing with the subject as well. Rushdoony's proposed system is strongly Calvinistic, emphasizing the sovereignty of God over human freedom and action, and denying the operation of charismatic gifts in the present day (cessationism); both of these aspects are in direct opposition to Kingdom Now theology (see below).


title: Dominion theology

text: Full adherents to reconstructionism are few and marginalized among most Christians. Dave Hunt, Albert James Dager, Hal Lindsey, and Thomas Ice specifically criticize Christian reconstructionism from a Christian viewpoint, disagreeing on theological grounds with its theocratic elements as well as its Calvinism and postmillennialism. J. Ligon Duncan, Sherman Isbell,


title: Dominion theology

text: and Sinclair Ferguson analyze reconstructionism as conservative Calvinists, primarily giving a theological critique of its theocratic elements. Michael J. McVicar has noted that many leading Christian reconstructionists are also leading writers in paleolibertarian circles.


title: Dominion theology

text: Some social scientists have used the word "dominionism" to refer to adherence to Christian reconstructionism.


title: Dominion theology

text: Catholic integralism has been characterized as a form of dominionist theology, though in reality it is much older and theologically distinct from the dominionism espoused by Protestants. Antonio Spadaro and Marcelo Figueroa have stated that Catholic integralists have entered into a non-traditional ecumenical alliance with Protestant reconstructionists who share "the same desire for religious influence in the political sphere". Likewise, in the "National Catholic Reporter", Joshua J. McElwee stated that Catholic integralists, along with their Protestant counterparts, wish to achieve the goal of establishing a "theocratic type of state". Ultimately, however, the goals of Protestant dominionists and Catholic integralists are divergent, as Catholic integralists adhere to the doctrine that the Catholic Church is the "only true church", and that every form of Protestantism is "heretical". That has not prevented mutual cooperation between the two, however, when it has been mutually beneficial.


title: Dominion theology

text: Catholic integralism has a much longer history than the Protestant dominionism that arose in the United States in the 1970s, and in fact has its root in traditional Catholic doctrine on church-state relations which developed when the governments of Europe were nearly all Catholic confessional states, having Catholicism established as the official religion of the state. Such a political conception was referred to as "Christendom", with the summit of political authority held by the Holy Roman Emperor and the summit of spiritual authority held by the Supreme Pontiff (Pope). After the movement towards liberal secularism and disestablishmentarianism, several modern states eventually reacted with a revived integralism, often in a fascistic or proto-fascistic form, such as Spain under the leadership of Franco, Portugal under Salazar, and Austria under Engelbert Dollfuß and the Fatherland Front. Today, only a handful of states remain with Catholicism as the official established religion of state, but there are still movements in other nations and among some in the Catholic hierarchy who support a revival of integralism in states which have become secular.


title: Dominion theology

text: In recent years a "revived Catholic integralism" has been noted among the younger generation of Catholics writing for websites such as "The Josias". Integralism could be said to merely be the modern continuation of the traditional Catholic conception of Church–State relations elucidated by Pope Gelasius I and expounded upon throughout the centuries up to the "Syllabus of Errors", which condemned the idea that the separation of Church and State is a moral good. For example, some Catholics have praised the actions of Pius IX in the 1858 Mortara case, in which he ordered the abduction of a six-year-old Jewish boy who had been baptized without his parents' consent. A systematic account of Catholic integralism as a coherent political philosophy has recently been written by the Catholic theologians Thomas Crean and Alan Fimister in their work, 'Integralism: a manual of political philosophy'.


title: Dominion theology

text: Today, the Catholic Church's political treaties with various countries, known as concordats, are criticized by some liberal and democratic human rights groups for advancing Catholic integralism. There are over 200 concordats currently in force. Some of these concordats explicitly guarantee that Catholicism is recognized as the official religion of state in several countries, while others grant historical recognition of the Catholic faith and grant certain rights and privileges to the Church.


title: Dominion theology

text: Kingdom Now theology is a branch of dominion theology which has had a following within Pentecostalism. It attracted attention in the late 1980s.


title: Dominion theology

text: Kingdom Now theology states that although Satan has been in control of the world since the Fall, God is looking for people who will help him take back dominion. Those who yield themselves to the authority of God's apostles and prophets will take control of the kingdoms of this world, being defined as all social institutions, the "kingdom" of education, the "kingdom" of science, the "kingdom" of the arts, etc. C. Peter Wagner, the founder of the New Apostolic Reformation, writes: "The practical theology that best builds a foundation under social transformation is dominion theology, sometimes called 'Kingdom Now'. Its history can be traced back through R. J. Rushdoony and Abraham Kuyper to John Calvin."


title: Dominion theology

text: Kingdom Now theology is influenced by the Latter Rain movement, and critics have connected it to the New Apostolic Reformation, "Spiritual Warfare Christianity," and Fivefold ministry thinking.


title: Dominion theology

text: Seven Mountains Dominionism (also known as the Seven Mountains Mandate, or 7M) has become a more prevalent manifestation of Kingdom Now theology since the early 2010s. Bill Bright, Loren Cunningham, and Francis Schaeffer are often credited as having been given the same divine vision revealing the Seven Mountain Mandate in 1975. The mandate proposes that there are seven "mountains" that Christians must control in order to establish a global Christian theocracy and prepare the world for Jesus' return. Those seven "mountains" are government, education, media, arts and entertainment, religion, family, and business. The mandate is based on two Biblical passages: Isaiah 2:2-3, which says, "In the last days the mountain of the Lord’s temple will be established as the highest of the mountains," and Revelation 17:1-18, which describes "a scarlet beast . . . [with] had seven heads and ten horns." Prominent Christian leaders who support Seven Mountains Dominionism include David Barton, James Dobson, John Hagee, Bill Johnson, Lance Wallnau, and Paula White, while notable politicians who have embraced it include Michele Bachmann, Sam Brownback, Ted Cruz, Newt Gingrich, Mike Huckabee, Charlie Kirk, Sarah Palin, and Rick Perry.


title: Dominion theology

text: Kingdom Now theology should not be confused with Kingdom theology, which is related to inaugurated eschatology.


title: Dominion theology

text: In the late 1980s, the sociologist Sara Diamond started to write about the intersection of dominion theology with the political activism of the Christian right. Diamond argued that "the primary importance of the [Christian reconstructionist] ideology is its role as a catalyst for what is loosely called 'dominion theology'". According to Diamond, "Largely through the impact of Rushdoony's and North's writings, the concept that Christians are Biblically mandated to 'occupy' all secular institutions has become the "central unifying ideology" for the Christian Right" in the United States.


title: Dominion theology

text: While acknowledging the small number of actual adherents, authors such as Diamond and Frederick Clarkson have argued that postmillennial Christian reconstructionism played a major role in pushing the primarily premillennial Christian right to adopt a more aggressive dominionist stance.


title: Dominion theology

text: Misztal and Shupe concur with Sara Diamond and Frederick Clarkson by arguing that "Reconstructionists have many more sympathizers who fall somewhere within the dominionist framework, but who are not card-carrying members". According to Diamond, "Reconstructionism is the most intellectually grounded, though esoteric, brand of dominion theology".


title: Dominion theology

text: defined "dominionism" as a movement that, while it includes dominion theology and reconstructionism as subsets, is much broader in scope, extending to much of the Christian right in the United States.


title: Dominion theology

text: In his 1992 study of dominion theology and its influence on the Christian right, Bruce Barron writes,


title: Dominion theology

text: In the context of American evangelical efforts to penetrate and transform public life, the distinguishing mark of a dominionist is a commitment to defining and carrying out an approach to building society that is "self-consciously defined as exclusively Christian," and dependent specifically on the work of Christians, rather than based on a broader consensus.


title: Dominion theology

text: Journalist Chip Berlet added in 1998 that, although they represent different theological and political ideas, dominionists assert a Christian duty to take "control of a sinful secular society".


title: Dominion theology

text: Essayist Katherine Yurica began using the term "dominionism" in her articles in 2004, beginning with "The Despoiling of America" (February 11, 2004), Authors who also use the term "dominionism" in the broader sense include journalist Chris Hedges, Marion Maddox, James Rudin, Michelle Goldberg, Kevin Phillips, Sam Harris, Ryan Lizza, Frank Schaeffer,


title: Dominion theology

text: and the group TheocracyWatch. Some authors have applied the term to a broader spectrum of people than have Diamond, Clarkson, and Berlet.


title: Dominion theology

text: Sarah Posner in "Salon" argues that there are various "iterations of dominionism that call on Christians to enter ... government, law, media and so forth ... so that they are controlled by Christians". According to Posner, "Christian right figures promoted dominionism ... and the GOP courted ... religious leaders for the votes of their followers". She added: "If people really understood dominionism, they’d worry about it between election cycles."


title: Dominion theology

text: Michelle Goldberg notes that George Grant wrote in his 1987 book "The Changing of the Guard: Biblical Principles for Political Action:"


title: Dominion theology

text: Writers including Chip Berlet and Frederick Clarkson distinguish between what they term "hard" and "soft" dominionism. Such commentators define "soft" dominionism as the belief that "America is a Christian nation" and opposition to separation of church and state, while "hard" dominionism refers to dominion theology and Christian reconstructionism.


title: Dominion theology

text: Michelle Goldberg uses the terms "Christian nationalism" and "dominionism" for the former view. According to Goldberg:


title: Dominion theology

text: In many ways, Dominionism is more a political phenomenon than a theological one. It cuts across Christian denominations, from stern, austere sects to the signs-and-wonders culture of modern megachurches. Think of it like political Islamism, which shapes the activism of a number of antagonistic fundamentalist movements, from Sunni Wahabis in the Arab world to Shiite fundamentalists in Iran.


title: Dominion theology

text: Berlet and Clarkson have agreed that "[s]oft Dominionists are Christian nationalists". Unlike "dominionism", the phrase "Christian nation" occurs commonly in the writings of leaders of the Christian right. Proponents of this idea (such as David Barton and D. James Kennedy) argue that the Founding Fathers of the United States were overwhelmingly Christian, that founding documents such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution are based on Christian principles, and that a Christian character is fundamental to American culture. They cite, for example, the U.S. Supreme Court's comment in 1892 that "this [the United States] is a Christian nation", after citing numerous historical and legal arguments in support of that statement.


title: Dominion theology

text: Kennedy characterized his perspective on Christian political involvement as more akin to participatory democracy than to dominionism. In an interview with NPR's Terry Gross, Kennedy was asked whether he wanted all public office holders to be Christians. Kennedy answered, "We have people who are secular and humanist and unbelievers who are constantly supporting in every way possible other people who share those views. And I don't object to that. That's their privilege. And I think that Christians should be allowed the same privilege to vote for people whom they believe share their views about life and government. And that's all I'm talking about."


title: Dominion theology

text: Those labelled dominionists rarely use the terms "dominionist" and "dominionism" for self-description, and some people have attacked the use of such words. Journalist and conservative commentator Stanley Kurtz, writing for the "National Review", labeled it "conspiratorial nonsense", "political paranoia", and "guilt by association", and decried Hedges' "vague characterizations" that allow him to "paint a highly questionable picture of a virtually faceless and nameless 'Dominionist' Christian mass". Kurtz also complained about a perceived link between average Christian evangelicals and extremism such as Christian reconstructionism:


title: Dominion theology

text: The notion that conservative Christians want to reinstitute slavery and rule by genocide is not just crazy, it's downright dangerous. The most disturbing part of the "Harper's" cover story (the one by Chris Hedges) was the attempt to link Christian conservatives with Hitler and fascism. Once we acknowledge the similarity between conservative Christians and fascists, Hedges appears to suggest, we can confront Christian evil by setting aside 'the old polite rules of democracy.' So wild conspiracy theories and visions of genocide are really excuses for the Left to disregard the rules of democracy and defeat conservative Christians—by any means necessary.


title: Dominion theology

text: [T]here is no "school of thought" known as "dominionism." The term was coined in the 1980s by Diamond and is never used outside liberal blogs and websites. No reputable scholars use the term for it is a meaningless neologism that Diamond concocted for her dissertation.


title: Dominion theology

text: Diamond has denied that she coined the broader sense of the term "dominionism", which appears in her dissertation and in "Roads to Dominion" solely to describe dominion theology. Nevertheless, Diamond did originate the idea that dominion theology is the "central unifying ideology for the Christian Right".


title: Dominion theology

text: Jeremy Pierce of "First Things" coined the word "dominionismist" to describe those who promote the idea that there is a dominionist conspiracy, writing:


title: Dominion theology

text: It strikes me as irresponsible to lump [Rushdoony] together with Francis Schaeffer and those influenced by him, especially given Schaeffer's many recorded instances of resisting exactly the kinds of views Rushdoony developed. Indeed, it strikes me as an error of the magnitude of some of Rushdoony's own historical nonsense to consider there to be such a view called Dominionism that Rushdoony, Schaeffer, James Dobson, and all the other people in the list somehow share and that it seeks to get Christians and only Christians into all the influential positions in secular society.


title: Dominion theology

text: Lisa Miller of "Newsweek" writes that dominionism' is the paranoid "mot du jour"" and that "certain journalists use 'dominionist' the way some folks on Fox News use the word "sharia". Its strangeness scares people. Without history or context, the word creates a siege mentality in which 'we' need to guard against 'them'." Ross Douthat of "The New York Times" noted that "many of the people that writers like Diamond and others describe as 'dominionists' would disavow the label, many definitions of dominionism conflate several very different Christian political theologies, and there's a lively debate about whether the term is even useful at all."


title: Dominion theology

text: Other criticism has focused on the proper use of the term. Berlet wrote that "just because some critics of the Christian Right have stretched the term dominionism past its breaking point does not mean we should abandon the term", and argued that, rather than labeling conservatives as extremists, it would be better to "talk to these people" and "engage them". Sara Diamond wrote that "[l]iberals' writing about the Christian Right's take-over plans has generally taken the form of conspiracy theory", and argued that instead one should "analyze the subtle ways" that ideas like Dominionism "take hold within movements and why". Authors Robert Gagnon and Edith Humphrey argued strongly against the use of the term in reference to US presidential candidate Ted Cruz in a 2016 op-ed for "Christianity Today".


title: The Wombats

text: The Wombats are an English indie rock band formed in Liverpool in 2003, consisting of Matthew Murphy (lead vocals, guitar, keyboards), Tord Øverland Knudsen (bass, backing vocals, keyboards), and Dan Haggis (drums, backing vocals, keyboards). They are independent and have distribution deals with AWAL and Warner Music Australia. They have sold over 1 million albums worldwide. They created several EPs before releasing their first full album, "Girls, Boys and Marsupials" (2006), which was released only in Japan.


title: The Wombats

text: The band's debut studio album, "A Guide to Love, Loss & Desperation" (2007), featured some tracks first released on "Girls, Boys and Marsupials". After releasing a self-titled EP in 2008 and touring for three years, the band released and toured for the albums "This Modern Glitch" (2011), "Glitterbug" (2015), and "Beautiful People Will Ruin Your Life" (2018). Their fifth album, "Fix Yourself, Not the World" (2022), became their first No. 1 album when it reached the top of the UK Albums Chart within a week of release.


title: The Wombats

text: The three band members met in 2003 while studying at the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts. Murphy and Haggis are both from Liverpool, with Murphy having grown up in Woolton and Haggis having grown up in Garston, while Knudsen is a native of Elverum in Norway. Over the course of 2004 to 2005, the band released many EPs such as "The Hangover Sessions", "No.3", and "The Daring Adventures of Sgt. Wimbo and His Pet Otter". Their first official release was "Lost in the Post", which was issued as a limited edition 7" single on 10 July 2006 on the London-based indie label KIDS Records and came with a distinctive additional second sleeve in the form of a FedEx ("WomEx") package. In 2006, the band's first album, "Girls, Boys and Marsupials", was released solely in Japan.


title: The Wombats

text: In January 2007, the band released a second limited edition 7" on KIDS called "Moving to New York" (again featuring a second sleeve, this time in the style of a suitcase), then in May that year they released a third single on KIDS entitled "Backfire at the Disco", which reached No. 35 on the UK Singles Chart. This was followed by the band's first full single after signing to 14th Floor Records, "Kill the Director", in late July. Their debut album, "A Guide to Love, Loss & Desperation", coincided with the release of "Let's Dance to Joy Division" (widely regarded as the band's signature song) in October 2007 and peaked at No. 11 on the UK Albums Chart. It was followed by a European tour ending with a Thanksgiving party at Liverpool Academy.