title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: During human and all vertebrate development, a series of pharyngeal arch pairs form in the developing embryo. These project forward from the back of the embryo towards the front of the face and neck. Each arch develops its own artery, nerve that controls a distinct muscle group, and skeletal tissue. The arches are numbered from 1 to 6, with 1 being the arch closest to the head of the embryo, and the fifth arch only existing transiently.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: Arches 4 and 6 produce the laryngeal cartilages. The nerve of the sixth arch becomes the recurrent laryngeal nerve. The nerve of the fourth arch gives rise to the superior laryngeal nerve. The arteries of the fourth arch, which project between the nerves of the fourth and sixth arches, become the left-sided arch of the aorta and the right subclavian artery. The arteries of the sixth arch persist as the ductus arteriosus on the left, and are obliterated on the right.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: After birth, the ductus arteriosus regresses to form the ligamentum arteriosum. During growth, these arteries descend into their ultimate positions in the chest, creating the elongated recurrent paths.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: In roughly 1 out of every 100–200 people, the right inferior laryngeal nerve is nonrecurrent, branching off the vagus nerve around the level of the cricoid cartilage. Typically, such a configuration is accompanied by variation in the arrangement of the major arteries in the chest; most commonly, the right subclavian artery arises from the left side of the aorta and crosses behind the esophagus. A left nonrecurrent inferior laryngeal nerve is even more uncommon, requiring the aortic arch be on the right side, accompanied by an arterial variant which prevents the nerve from being drawn into the chest by the left subclavian.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: In about four people out of five, there is a connecting branch between the "inferior laryngeal nerve", a branch of the RLN, and the internal laryngeal nerve, a branch of the superior laryngeal nerve. This is commonly called the "anastomosis of Galen" (), even though anastomosis usually refers to a blood vessel, and is one of several documented anastomoses between the two nerves.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: As the recurrent nerve hooks around the subclavian artery or aorta, it gives off several branches. There is suspected variability in the configuration of these branches to the cardiac plexus, trachea, esophagus and inferior pharyngeal constrictor muscle.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: The recurrent laryngeal nerves control all intrinsic muscles of the larynx except for the cricothyroid muscle. These muscles act to open, close, and adjust the tension of the vocal cords, and include the posterior cricoarytenoid muscles, the only muscle to open the vocal cords. The nerves supply muscles on the same side of the body, with the exception of the interarytenoid muscle, which is innervated from both sides.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: The nerves also carry sensory information from the mucous membranes of the larynx below the lower surface of the vocal fold, as well as sensory, secretory and motor fibres to the cervical segments of the esophagus and the trachea.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: The recurrent laryngeal nerves may be injured as a result of trauma, during surgery, as a result of tumour spread, or due to other means. Injury to the recurrent laryngeal nerves can result in a weakened voice (hoarseness) or loss of voice (aphonia) and cause problems in the respiratory tract. Injury to the nerve may paralyze the posterior cricoarytenoid muscle on the same side. This is the sole muscle responsible for opening the vocal cords, and paralysis may cause difficulty breathing (dyspnea) during physical activity. Injury to both the right and left nerve may result in more serious damage, such as the inability to speak. Additional problems may emerge during healing, as nerve fibres that re-anastamose may result in "vocal cord motion impairment", uncoordinated movements of the vocal cord.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: The nerve receives close attention from surgeons because the nerve is at risk for injury during neck surgery, especially thyroid and parathyroid surgery; as well as esophagectomy. Nerve damage can be assessed by laryngoscopy, during which a stroboscopic light confirms the absence of movement in the affected side of the vocal cords. The right recurrent laryngeal nerve is more susceptible to damage during thyroid surgery because it is close to the bifurcation of the right inferior thyroid artery, variably passing in front of, behind, or between the branches. Similarly, thermal injury can occur with the use of radio frequency ablation to remove thyroid nodules. The nerve is permanently damaged in 0.3–3% of thyroid surgeries, and transient paralysis occurs in 3–8% of surgeries; accordingly, recurrent laryngeal nerve damage is one of the leading causes of medicolegal issues for surgeons.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: The RLN may be compressed by tumors. Studies have shown that 2–18% of lung cancer patients develop hoarseness because of recurrent laryngeal nerve compression, usually left-sided. This is associated with worse outcomes, and when found as a presenting symptom, often indicates inoperable tumors. The nerve may be severed intentionally during lung cancer surgery in order to fully remove a tumor. The RLN may also be damaged by tumors in the neck, especially with malignant lymph nodes with extra-capsular extension of tumor beyond the capsule of the nodes, which may invade the area that carries the ascending nerve on the right or left.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: In Ortner's syndrome or cardiovocal syndrome, a rare cause of left recurrent laryngeal nerve palsy, expansion of structures within the heart or major blood vessels impinges upon the nerve, causing symptoms of unilateral nerve injury.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: Horses are subject to "equine recurrent laryngeal neuropathy", a disease of the axons of the recurrent laryngeal nerves. The cause is not known, although a genetic predisposition is suspected. The length of the nerve is a factor since it is more common in larger horses, and the left side is affected almost exclusively. As the nerve cells die, there is a progressive paralysis of the larynx, causing the airway to collapse. The common presentation is a sound, ranging from a musical whistle to a harsh roar or heaving gasping noise (stertorous), accompanied by worsening performance. The condition is incurable, but surgery can keep the airway open. Experiments with nerve grafts have been tried.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: Although uncommon in dogs, bilateral recurrent laryngeal nerve disease may be the cause of wheezing (stridor) when middle-aged dogs inhale.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: In sauropod dinosaurs, the vertebrates with the longest necks, the total length of the vagus nerve and recurrent laryngeal nerve would have been up to long in "Supersaurus", but these would not be the longest neurons that ever existed: the neurons reaching the tip of the tail would have exceeded .


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: The extreme detour of the recurrent laryngeal nerves, about in the case of giraffes, is cited as evidence of evolution, as opposed to intelligent design. The nerve's route would have been direct in the fish-like ancestors of modern tetrapods, traveling from the brain, past the heart, to the gills (as it does in modern fish). Over the course of evolution, as the neck extended and the heart became lower in the body, the laryngeal nerve was caught on the wrong side of the heart. Natural selection gradually lengthened the nerve by tiny increments to accommodate, resulting in the circuitous route now observed.


title: Recurrent laryngeal nerve

text: Ancient Greek physician Galen demonstrated the nerve course and the clinical syndrome of recurrent laryngeal nerve paralysis, noting that pigs with the nerve severed were unable to squeal. Galen named the nerve the "recurrent nerve", and described the same effect in two human infants who had undergone surgery for goiter. In 1838, five years before he would introduce the concept of homology to biology, anatomist Richard Owen reported upon the dissection of three giraffes, including a description of the full course of the left recurrent laryngeal nerve. Anatomists Andreas Vesalius and Thomas Willis described the nerve in what is now regarded as an anatomically standard description, and doctor Frank Lahey documented a way for its interoperative identification during thyroid operations.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Within ghost hunting and parapsychology, electronic voice phenomena (EVP) are sounds found on electronic recordings that are interpreted as spirit voices. Parapsychologist Konstantīns Raudive, who popularized the idea in the 1970s, described EVP as typically brief, usually the length of a word or short phrase.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Enthusiasts consider EVP to be a form of paranormal phenomenon often found in recordings with static or other background noise. Scientists regard EVP as a form of auditory pareidolia (interpreting random sounds as voices in one's own language) and a pseudoscience promulgated by popular culture. Prosaic explanations for EVP include apophenia (perceiving patterns in random information), equipment artifacts, and hoaxes.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: As the Spiritualist religious movement became prominent in the 1840s–1940s with a distinguishing belief that the spirits of the dead can be contacted by mediums, new technologies of the era including photography were employed by spiritualists in an effort to demonstrate contact with a spirit world. So popular were such ideas that Thomas Edison was asked in an interview with "Scientific American" to comment on the possibility of using his inventions to communicate with spirits. He replied that if the spirits were only capable of subtle influences, a sensitive recording device would provide a better chance of spirit communication than the table tipping and ouija boards mediums employed at the time. However, there is no indication that Edison ever designed or constructed a device for such a purpose. As sound recording became widespread, mediums explored using this technology to demonstrate communication with the dead as well. Spiritualism declined in the latter part of the 20th century, but attempts to use portable recording devices and modern digital technologies to communicate with spirits continued.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: American photographer Attila von Szalay was among the first to try recording what he believed to be voices of the dead as a way to augment his investigations in photographing ghosts. He began his attempts in 1941 using a 78 rpm record, but it wasn't until 1956 — after switching to a reel-to-reel tape recorder — that he believed he was successful. Working with Raymond Bayless, von Szalay conducted several recording sessions with a custom-made apparatus, consisting of a microphone in an insulated cabinet connected to an external recording device and speaker. Szalay reported finding many sounds on the tape that could not be heard on the speaker at the time of recording, some of which were recorded when there was no one in the cabinet. He believed these sounds to be the voices of discarnate spirits. Among the first recordings believed to be spirit voices were such messages as "This is G!", "Hot dog, Art!", and "Merry Christmas and Happy New Year to you all". Von Szalay and Raymond Bayless's work was published by the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research in 1959. Bayless later went on to co-author the 1979 book, "Phone Calls From the Dead".


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 1959, Swedish painter and film producer Friedrich Jürgenson was recording bird songs. Upon playing the tape later, he heard what he interpreted to be his dead father's voice and then the spirit of his deceased wife calling his name. He went on to make several more recordings, including one that he said contained a message from his late mother.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Konstantin Raudive, a Latvian psychologist who had taught at the Uppsala University, Sweden and who had worked in conjunction with Jürgenson, made over 100,000 recordings which he described as being communications with people. Some of these recordings were conducted in an RF-screened laboratory and contained words Raudive said were identifiable. In an attempt to confirm the content of his collection of recordings, Raudive invited listeners to hear and interpret them. He believed that the clarity of the voices heard in his recordings implied that they could not be readily explained by normal means. Raudive published his first book, "Breakthrough: An Amazing Experiment in Electronic Communication with the Dead" in 1968 and it was translated into English in 1971.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 1980, William O'Neil constructed an electronic audio device called "The Spiricom". O'Neil claimed the device was built to specifications which he received psychically from George Mueller, a scientist who had died six years previously. At a Washington, DC press conference on April 6, 1982, O'Neil stated that he was able to hold two-way conversations with spirits through the Spiricom device, and provided the design specifications to researchers for free. However, nobody is known to have replicated the results O'Neil claimed using his own Spiricom devices. O'Neil's partner, retired industrialist George Meek, attributed O'Neil's success, and the inability of others to replicate it, to O'Neil's mediumistic abilities forming part of the loop that made the system work.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 2020 Kenny Biddle wrote a comprehensive article explaining the origins of the Spiricom as developed by O'Neil and Meek. He was prompted to do so by the re-emergence of the device on the television series "Ghosthunters". He comprehensively debunked the "science" behind the device in both the original development and the "Ghosthunters" episode.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Another electronic device specifically constructed in an attempt to capture EVP is "Frank's Box" or the "Ghost Box", created in 2002 by EVP enthusiast Frank Sumption for supposed real-time communication with the dead. Sumption claims he received his design instructions from the spirit world. The device is described as a combination white noise generator and AM radio receiver modified to sweep back and forth through the AM band selecting split-second snippets of sound. Critics of the device say its effect is subjective and incapable of being replicated, and since it relies on radio noise, any meaningful response a user gets is purely coincidental, or simply the result of pareidolia. Paranormal researcher Ben Radford writes that Frank's Box is a "modern version of the Ouija board... also known as the 'broken radio'".


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 1982, Sarah Estep founded the American Association of Electronic Voice Phenomena (AA-EVP) in Severna Park, Maryland, a nonprofit organization with the purpose of increasing awareness of EVP, and of teaching standardized methods for capturing it. Estep began her exploration of EVP in 1976, and says she has made hundreds of recordings of messages from deceased friends, relatives, and extraterrestrials whom she speculated originated from other planets or dimensions.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: The term Instrumental Trans-Communication (ITC) was coined by Ernst Senkowski in the 1970s to refer more generally to communication through any sort of electronic device such as tape recorders, fax machines, television sets or computers between spirits or other discarnate entities and the living. One particularly famous claimed incidence of ITC occurred when the image of EVP enthusiast Friedrich Jürgenson (whose funeral was held that day) was said to have appeared on a television in the home of a colleague, which had been purposefully tuned to a vacant channel. ITC enthusiasts also look at the TV and video camera feedback loop of the Droste effect.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 1979, parapsychologist D. Scott Rogo described an alleged paranormal phenomenon in which people report that they receive simple, brief, and usually single-occurrence telephone calls from spirits of deceased relatives, friends, or strangers. Rosemary Guiley has written "within the parapsychology establishment, Rogo was often faulted for poor scholarship, which, critics said, led to erroneous conclusions."


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 1995, the parapsychologist David Fontana proposed in an article that poltergeists could haunt tape recorders. He speculated that this may have happened to the parapsychologist Maurice Grosse who investigated the Enfield Poltergeist case. However, Tom Flynn a media expert for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry examined Fontana's article and suggested an entirely naturalistic explanation for the phenomena. According to the skeptical investigator Joe Nickell "Occasionally, especially with older tape and under humid conditions, as the tape travels it can adhere to one of the guide posts. When this happens on a deck where both supply and take-up spindles are powered, the tape continues to feed, creating a fold. It was such a loop of tape, Flynn theorizes, that threaded its way amid the works of Grosse's recorder."


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 1997, Imants Barušs, of the Department of Psychology at the University of Western Ontario, conducted a series of experiments using the methods of EVP investigator Konstantin Raudive, and the work of "instrumental transcommunication researcher" Mark Macy, as a guide. A radio was tuned to an empty frequency, and over 81 sessions a total of 60 hours and 11 minutes of recordings were collected. During recordings, a person either sat in silence or attempted to make verbal contact with potential sources of EVP. Barušs stated that he did record several events that sounded like voices, but they were too few and too random to represent viable data and too open to interpretation to be described definitively as EVP. He concluded: "While we did replicate EVP in the weak sense of finding voices on audio tapes, none of the phenomena found in our study was clearly anomalous, let alone attributable to discarnate beings. Hence we have failed to replicate EVP in the strong sense." The findings were published in the "Journal of Scientific Exploration" in 2001, and include a literature review.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 2005, the "Journal of the Society for Psychical Research" published a report by paranormal investigator Alexander MacRae. MacRae conducted recording sessions using a device of his own design that generated EVP.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In an attempt to demonstrate that different individuals would interpret EVP in the recordings the same way, MacRae asked seven people to compare some selections to a list of five phrases he provided, and to choose the best match. MacRae said the results of the listening panels indicated that the selections were of paranormal origin.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Portable digital voice recorders are currently the technology of choice for some EVP investigators. Since some of these devices are very susceptible to Radio Frequency (RF) contamination, EVP enthusiasts sometimes try to record EVP in RF- and sound-screened rooms.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Some EVP enthusiasts describe hearing the words in EVP as an ability, much like learning a new language. Skeptics suggest that the claimed instances may be misinterpretations of natural phenomena, inadvertent influence of the electronic equipment by researchers, or deliberate influencing of the researchers and the equipment by third parties. EVP and ITC are seldom researched within the scientific community, so most research in the field is carried out by amateur researchers who lack training and resources to conduct scientific research, and who are motivated by subjective notions.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Paranormal claims for the origin of EVP include living humans imprinting thoughts directly on an electronic medium through psychokinesis and communication by discarnate entities such as spirits, nature energies, beings from other dimensions, or extraterrestrials. Paranormal explanations for EVP generally assume production of EVP by a communicating intelligence through means other than the typical functioning of communication technologies. Natural explanations for reported instances of EVP tend to dispute this assumption explicitly and provide explanations which do not require novel mechanisms that are not based on recognized scientific phenomena.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: One study, by psychologist Imants Barušs, was unable to replicate suggested paranormal origins for EVP recorded under controlled conditions. Brian Regal in "Pseudoscience: A Critical Encyclopedia" (2009) has written "A case can be made for the idea that many EVPs are artifacts of the recording process itself with which the operators are unfamiliar. The majority of EVPs have alternative, nonspiritual sources; anomalous ones have no clear proof they are of spiritual origin."


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: There are a number of simple scientific explanations that can account for why some listeners to the static on audio devices may believe they hear voices, including radio interference and the tendency of the human brain to recognize patterns in random stimuli. Some recordings may be hoaxes created by frauds or pranksters.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: "Auditory pareidolia" is a situation created when the brain incorrectly interprets random patterns as being familiar patterns. In the case of EVP it could result in an observer interpreting random noise on an audio recording as being the familiar sound of a human voice. The propensity for an apparent voice heard in white noise recordings to be in a language understood well by those researching it, rather than in an unfamiliar language, has been cited as evidence of this, and a broad class of phenomena referred to by author Joe Banks as "Rorschach Audio" has been described as a global explanation for all manifestations of EVP.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In a 2019 investigation of a supposed haunted painting in a West Virginia museum, paranormal researcher Kenny Biddle investigated the claims made by the museum owner and ghost hunters that an EVP recording clearly saying the woman's name, "Annie", is really the voice of the woman in the portrait. The name Annie is written on the back of the portrait, which primes anyone listening for the name, to know what name to listen for. The EVP was created using a Radio Shack radio "modified to allow it to continually scan through the available AM or FM frequencies without muting the sound." Regarding a general question by the ghost hunter "What is your name?", Biddle writes, "I can guarantee sooner or later you'll hear something that sounds like a name, and there is a good chance of being a name, because you're listening to radio broadcasts, news reports, commercials, and so on—which often include names." Biddle lists words such as "company, anything, anyone, mahogany, many, or even any." as words that can be commonly heard while listening to the radio. The phrase '"...and he..."' would also sound like "Annie" to anyone primed to listen for the name Annie.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Skeptics such as David Federlein, Chris French, Terence Hines and Michael Shermer say that EVP are usually recorded by raising the "noise floor" – the electrical noise created by all electrical devices – in order to create white noise. When this noise is filtered, it can be made to produce noises which sound like speech. Federlein says that this is no different from using a wah pedal on a guitar, which is a focused sweep filter which moves around the spectrum and creates open vowel sounds. This, according to Federlein, sounds exactly like some EVP. This, in combination with such things as cross modulation of radio stations or faulty ground loops can cause the impression of paranormal voices. The human brain evolved to recognize patterns, and if a person listens to enough noise the brain will detect words, even when there is no intelligent source for them. Expectation also plays an important part in making people believe they are hearing voices in random noise.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: "Apophenia" is related to, but distinct from pareidolia. Apophenia is defined as "the spontaneous finding of connections or meaning in things which are random, unconnected or meaningless", and has been put forward as a possible explanation. According to the psychologist James Alcock what people hear in EVP recordings can best be explained by apophenia, cross-modulation or expectation and wishful thinking. Alcock concluded "Electronic Voice Phenomena are the products of hope and expectation; the claims wither away under the light of scientific scrutiny."


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Interference, for example, is seen in EVP recordings, especially those recorded on devices which contain RLC circuitry. These cases represent radio signals of voices or other sounds from broadcast sources. Interference from CB Radio transmissions and wireless baby monitors, or anomalies generated through cross modulation from other electronic devices, are all documented phenomena. It is even possible for circuits to resonate without any internal power source by means of radio reception.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: "Capture errors" are anomalies created by the method used to capture audio signals, such as noise generated through the over-amplification of a signal at the point of recording.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Artifacts created during attempts to boost the clarity of an existing recording might explain some EVP. Methods include re-sampling, frequency isolation, and noise reduction or enhancement, which can cause recordings to take on qualities significantly different from those that were present in the original recording.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: The very first EVP recordings may have originated from the use of tape recording equipment with poorly aligned erasure and recording heads, resulting in the incomplete erasure of previous audio recordings on the tape. This could allow a small percentage of previous content to be superimposed or mixed into a new 'silent' recording.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: For all radio transmissions above 30 MHz (which are not reflected by the ionosphere) there is a possibility of meteor reflection of the radio signal. Meteors leave a trail of ionised particles and electrons as they pass through the upper atmosphere (a process called ablation) which reflect transmission radio waves which would usually flow into space. These reflected waves are from transmitters which are below the horizon of the received meteor reflection. In Europe this means the brief scattered wave may carry a foreign voice which can interfere with radio receivers. Meteor reflected radio waves last between 0.05 seconds and 1 second, depending on the size of the meteor.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: There are a number of organizations dedicated to studying EVP and instrumental transcommunication, or which otherwise express interest in the subject. Individuals within these organizations may participate in investigations, author books or journal articles, deliver presentations, and hold conferences where they share experiences. In addition, organizations exist which dispute the validity of the phenomena on scientific grounds.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: The Association TransCommunication (ATransC), formerly the American Association of Electronic Voice Phenomena (AA-EVP), and the International Ghost Hunters Society conduct ongoing investigations of EVP and ITC including collecting examples of purported EVP available over the internet. The Rorschach Audio Project, initiated by sound artist Joe Banks, which presents EVP as a product of radio interference combined with auditory pareidolia and the Interdisciplinary Laboratory for Biopsychocybernetics Research, a non-profit organization dedicated to studying anomalous phenomena related to neurophysiological conditions. According to the AA-EVP it is "the only organized group of researchers we know of specializing in the study of ITC".


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Parapsychologists and Spiritualists have an ongoing interest in EVP. Many Spiritualists experiment with a variety of techniques for spirit communication which they believe provide evidence of the continuation of life. According to the National Spiritualist Association of Churches, "An important modern day development in mediumship is spirit communications via an electronic device. This is most commonly known as Electronic Voice Phenomena (EVP)". An informal survey by the organization's Department Of Phenomenal Evidence cites that 1/3 of churches conduct sessions in which participants seek to communicate with spirit entities using EVP.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: The James Randi Educational Foundation offered a million dollars for proof that any phenomena, including EVP, are caused paranormally.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In 2015, an investigation by Associate Professor of Sociology Marc Eaton on the demography of United States paranormal groups that used electronic voice phenomenon found an overrepresentation of white participants, raised in the Roman Catholic Church (which is only 21% of the U.S. population), mainly with some post-secondary education. Although a preponderance of research shows that women and "less socially integrated individuals" are more likely to believe in ghosts, the demographic samples in Eaton's research did not reflect this.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: The concept of EVP has influenced popular culture. It is popular as an entertaining pursuit, as in ghost hunting, and as a means of dealing with grief. It has influenced literature, radio, film, television, and music.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Investigation of EVP is the subject of hundreds of regional and national groups and Internet message boards. Paranormal investigator John Zaffis claims, "There's been a boom in ghost hunting ever since the Internet took off." Investigators, equipped with electronic gear—like EMF meters, video cameras, and audio recorders—scour reportedly haunted venues, trying to uncover visual and audio evidence of ghosts. Many use portable recording devices in an attempt to capture EVP.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: "Sylvio" is an indie-developed first-person horror adventure video game released on Steam in June 2015 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 4, Xbox One and, OS X, utilizing the Unity engine. The game is about an audio recordist called Juliette Waters, who records the voices of ghosts through electronic voice phenomenon. She finds herself trapped in an old family park, shut down since a landslide in 1971, and she now needs to use her recorder to survive the night. A sequel, "Sylvio 2", was released on October 11, 2017.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: "Phasmophobia" is a co-op horror video game, in which a team of one to four players play as ghost hunters who try to identify hostile ghosts in varying locations. The game features a Spirit Box item used to capture EVPs of certain ghost types, which helps the players identify the type of the ghost they're dealing with. EVPs in "Phasmophobia" consist of singular words, such as "here", "attack", "death", "adult", etc., each denoting a response to a player initiated question.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: It has been featured on television series like "Ghost Whisperer", "In Search Of… (1981)", "The Omega Factor", "A Haunting", "Ghost Hunters", "MonsterQuest", "Ghost Adventures", "The Secret Saturdays", "", "Supernatural", "Derren Brown Investigates", "Ghost Lab and Buzzfeed Unsolved: Supernatural"


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: "Legion", a 1983 novel by William Peter Blatty, contains a subplot where Dr. Vincent Amfortas, a terminally ill neurologist, leaves a "to-be-opened-upon-my-death" letter for Father Dyer detailing his accounts of contact with the dead, including the doctor's recently deceased wife, Ann, through EVP recordings. Amfortas' character and the EVP subplot do not appear in the film version of the novel, "The Exorcist III", although in Kinderman's dream dead people are seen trying to communicate with the living by radio.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In "Pattern Recognition", a 2003 novel by William Gibson, the main character's mother tries to convince her that her father is communicating with her from recordings after his death/disappearance in the September 11, 2001 attacks.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In "Nyctivoe", a 2001 vampire-inspired play by Dimitris Lyacos, the male character as well as his deceased companion are speaking from a recording device amidst a static/white noise background.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: In "With the people from the bridge", a 2014 play by Dimitris Lyacos based on the idea of the return of the dead, the voice of the female character NCTV is transmitted from a television monitor amidst a static/white noise background.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: EVP is the subject of Vyktoria Pratt Keating's song "Disembodied Voices on Tape" from her 2003 album "Things that Fall from the Sky", produced by Andrew Giddings of Jethro Tull.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: Laurie Anderson's "Example #22", from her 1981 album "Big Science," interposes spoken sentences and phrases in German with sung passages in English representing EVP.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: During the outro to "Rubber Ring" by The Smiths, a sample from an EVP recording is repeated. The phrase "You are sleeping, you do not want to believe," is a 'translation' of the 'spirit voices' from a 1970s flexitape. The original recording is from the 1971 record which accompanied Raudive's book 'Breakthrough', and which was re-issued as a flexi-disc in the 1980s free with The Unexplained magazine.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: The band Giles Corey, founded by Dan Barrett composed a song called "Empty Churches" which features track 2 called 'Raymond Cass', track 36 called 'Justified Theft' and track 38 called 'Tramping' from the album "An Introduction to EVP" by The Ghost Orchid which features excerpts from different EVP experiments produced by many researchers, although most are unknown, some have been pointed out to be more known researchers who studied EVP recordings including Friedrich Jurgenson, Raymond Cass and Konstantin Raudive.


title: Electronic voice phenomenon

text: The 2017 album "Katharsis (A Small Victory)" of Polish theatre group Teatr Tworzenia by Jarosław Pijarowski contains EVP recordings in the background of its second track "Katharsis – Pandemonium".


title: Lotus Emira

text: The Lotus Emira is a sports car manufactured by British automobile manufacturer Lotus Cars. It is intended to be the firm's final vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine.


title: Lotus Emira

text: The Emira was launched at Hethel, England on 6th July 2021 and then presented at the Goodwood Festival of Speed on 8th July 2021. It will replace the Evora, Exige and Elise. Following its debut, the Hethel-based company revealed the GT4 race car equivalent, which will make its track debut in 2022, replacing the older Evora GT4. Emira's design bears several similarities to that of Lotus' high-performance car Evija, which was presented in 2019.


title: Lotus Emira

text: It was confirmed that the new Emira will go on sale in March 2022 and will come with a 3.5 litre supercharged V6 sourced by Toyota. Power figures are and of torque. Available in either 6-speed manual or a 6-speed automatic. Later on, a smaller 2.0 litre turbocharged engine sourced from Mercedes-AMG with an 8-speed dual-clutch transmission (DCT) will be made available for the new Emira, with .


title: Lotus Emira

text: Pricing was announced on 20 September 2021 for the UK, starting at £59,995 for the base i4 and £75,995 including 20% VAT tax for the V6 First Edition. US pricing was announced on 1 October 2021 starting at $74,900 for the base i4 and $93,900 for the V6 First Edition. The V6 First Edition was expected to have been available by Spring 2022 with the i4 following in Autumn 2022.


title: Lotus Emira

text: In 2022, the Emira made its debut in Malaysia with the First Edition being the variant on offer. It will be powered by the 3.5 litre supercharged V6.


title: Lotus Emira

text: Global post-pandemic supply chain issues meant that the factory was unable to get to full production capacity during 2022. The first EU and UK V6 manual variants (including some UK dealer demonstrator V6 cars) were delivered to customers in Q4 2022. Plans for 2023 include the first V6 automatic deliveries for the EU and UK in Q1, and US V6 deliveries starting in Q2. i4 variant production for the UK is now planned to start in Q3.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: In mathematics, the Hadamard product (also known as the element-wise product, entrywise product or Schur product) is a binary operation that takes two matrices of the same dimensions and produces another matrix of the same dimension as the operands, where each element is the product of elements of the original two matrices. It is to be distinguished from the more common matrix product. It is attributed to, and named after, either French mathematician Jacques Hadamard or German Russian mathematician Issai Schur.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: The Hadamard product is associative and distributive. Unlike the matrix product, it is also commutative.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: For two matrices and of the same dimension , the Hadamard product formula_1 (or formula_2) is a matrix of the same dimension as the operands, with elements given by


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: formula_22 where formula_23 is Kronecker product, assuming formula_24 has the same dimensions of formula_25 and formula_26 with formula_27.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: The Hadamard product of two positive-semidefinite matrices is positive-semidefinite. This is known as the Schur product theorem, after Russian mathematician Issai Schur. For two positive-semidefinite matrices and , it is also known that the determinant of their Hadamard product is greater than or equal to the product of their respective determinants:


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: Hadamard multiplication is built into certain programming languages under various names. In MATLAB, GNU Octave, GAUSS and HP Prime, it is known as "array multiplication", or in Julia "broadcast multiplication", with the symbol codice_1. In Fortran, R, APL, J and Wolfram Language (Mathematica), it is done through simple multiplication operator codice_2, whereas the matrix product is done through the function codice_3, codice_4, codice_5, codice_6 and the codice_7 operators, respectively.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: In Python with the NumPy numerical library, multiplication of objects as codice_8 produces the Hadamard product, and multiplication as codice_9 produces the matrix product. With the SymPy symbolic library, multiplication of objects as both codice_8 and codice_9 will produce the matrix product, the Hadamard product can be obtained with codice_12.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: In C++, the Eigen library provides a codice_13 member function for the class (codice_14), while the Armadillo library uses the operator codice_15 to make compact expressions (codice_16; codice_17 is a matrix product). R package matrixcalc introduces function codice_18 for Hadamard Product of numeric matrices or vectors.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: The Hadamard product appears in lossy compression algorithms such as JPEG. The decoding step involves an entry-for-entry product, in other words the Hadamard product.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: In image processing, the Hadamard operator can be used for enhancing, suppressing or masking image regions. One matrix represents the original image, the other acts as weight or masking matrix.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: It is used in the machine learning literature, for example to describe the architecture of recurrent neural networks as GRUs or LSTMs.


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: Other Hadamard operations are also seen in the mathematical literature, namely the ' and ' (which are in effect the same thing because of fractional indices), defined for a matrix such that:


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: According to the definition of V. Slyusar the penetrating face product of the "p"×"g" matrix formula_37 and "n"-dimensional matrix formula_38 ("n" > 1) with "p"×"g" blocks (formula_39) is a matrix of size formula_38 of the form:


title: Hadamard product (matrices)

text: The penetrating face product is used in the tensor-matrix theory of digital antenna arrays. This operation can also be used in artificial neural network models, specifically convolutional layers.


title: Abraxas (album)

text: Abraxas is the second studio album by Latin rock band Santana. It was released on September 23, 1970 by Columbia Records and became the band's first album to reach number one in the United States.


title: Abraxas (album)

text: The title of the album originates from a line in Hermann Hesse's book "Demian", quoted on the album's back cover: "We stood before it and began to freeze inside from the exertion. We questioned the painting, berated it, made love to it, prayed to it: We called it mother, called it whore and slut, called it our beloved, called it Abraxas..."


title: Abraxas (album)

text: Carlos Santana had been interested in Fleetwood Mac's leader and songwriter Peter Green, having seen him perform at the Fillmore West in San Francisco, and decided to cover the band's song "Black Magic Woman". Both were influenced as guitarists by B.B. King. The band added a cover of Gabor Szabo's instrumental "Gypsy Queen" to the end. "Oye Como Va" was a hit by Tito Puente in the early 1960s and the group played it live regularly, as they realized it was good for audiences to dance to.


title: Abraxas (album)

text: "Incident at Neshabur" was co-written by Santana and his friend Alberto Gianquinto, who played piano on the track. Gregg Rolie played the other keyboards, contrasting with Gianquinto's jazz-influenced style. It ran through various time and key signatures.


title: Abraxas (album)

text: The instrumental, "Samba Pa Ti" ("Samba for You"), was written by Santana after he saw a jazz saxophonist performing in the street outside his apartment. It was later covered by José Feliciano, who added lyrics, and also by Angélique Kidjo, who put lyrics in Yoruba, on her album "Oyo". It is also one of the tracks featured in Nick Hornby's book "31 Songs".


title: Abraxas (album)

text: The album cover features the 1961 painting "Annunciation" by German-French painter Mati Klarwein. According to the artist, it was one of the first paintings he did after relocating to New York City. Carlos Santana reportedly noticed it in a magazine and asked that it be on the cover of the band's upcoming album. On the back of the record sleeve the cover art is just credited to 'MATI'. It is now considered a classic of rock album covers. Klarwein went on to design album artwork for many notable artists, including Miles Davis, Herbie Hancock, Earth, Wind & Fire, and Gregg Allman.


title: Abraxas (album)

text: In 2003 the album was ranked number 205 on "Rolling Stone" magazine's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, 207 on the 2012 list, and then at number 334 in a 2020 edition of the list. In 2000 it was voted number 202 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums". The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die". In 2015, the album was listed among "Billboard"s 50 Essential Latin Albums of the 50 Past Years.


title: Abraxas (album)

text: Rock critic Robert Christgau, in one of his capsule reviews in "The Village Voice", at the time of the album's release, gave it a rating of only C+, which denotes "a not disreputable performance, most likely a failed experiment or a pleasant piece of hackwork."


title: Abraxas (album)

text: "Abraxas" was deemed "culturally, historically, or artistically significant" by the Library of Congress and was selected for preservation in their National Recording Registry in 2015.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The 2018–19 season was Manchester United's 27th season in the Premier League and their 44th consecutive season in the top flight of English football. The season was the first since 2005–06 without club captain Michael Carrick, who retired after the 2017–18 season and joined the club's coaching staff. Assistant manager Rui Faria left the club at the conclusion of that season, with Carrick and Kieran McKenna replacing him as the club's first-team coaches.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: A disappointing Premier League campaign saw the club finish in sixth place. United were also eliminated early in the EFL Cup, losing on penalties to Championship side Derby County in the third round. The club reached the quarter-final stage of both the FA Cup and the UEFA Champions League, but were eliminated by Wolverhampton Wanderers and Barcelona respectively. This resulted in United's first consecutive trophyless seasons in 30 years. On 5 May 2019, following a draw at bottom-placed Huddersfield Town, United confirmed their place in the 2019–20 UEFA Europa League, making it the fourth time they had finished outside of the top four in the league since 2014.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: On 18 December 2018, with just seven wins in the first 17 league games, manager José Mourinho was sacked. His last game, two days earlier, ended in a 3–1 defeat to Liverpool. The following day, former United striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær was appointed as caretaker manager until the end of the season, assisted by former coach Mike Phelan, who had left the club in 2013 following the retirement of Sir Alex Ferguson. On 28 March 2019, Solskjær became full-time manager.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: United preceded their 2018–19 campaign with a tour of the United States. The first three games were announced on 3 April 2018, with the opposition provided by Club América, San Jose Earthquakes and Liverpool. The club later announced that the tour would see them compete in the International Champions Cup. In the 2018 competition, United played against Milan at the StubHub Center in Carson, California, Liverpool at the Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and Real Madrid at the Hard Rock Stadium in Miami Gardens, Florida. Alexis Sánchez's arrival in the United States was delayed as he was not issued with a visa due to the 16-month suspended jail sentence he accepted in February for tax fraud during his time in Spain. The final pre-season game saw Manchester United play away to Bayern Munich at the Allianz Arena on 5 August.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: As one of the 20 teams in the Premier League, Manchester United entered the FA Cup in the Third Round. The draw was made on 3 December 2018 and paired United with Reading, whom they had faced at the same stage two seasons earlier, when they won 4–0. United won the match 2–0; Juan Mata opened the scoring from the penalty spot after the video assistant referee ruled that Omar Richards had tripped Juan Mata in the penalty area, and another goal from Romelu Lukaku. 19-year-old winger Tahith Chong made his FA Cup debut, replacing Juan Mata in the 62nd minute. The draw for the Fourth Round was made on 7 January 2019 and United were drawn away to Arsenal; the last time the two sides had met in the FA Cup was in the Sixth Round of the 2014–15 season, when Arsenal won 2–1 at Old Trafford. This time Manchester United won 3–1; two goals in two minutes from former Arsenal forward Alexis Sánchez and Jesse Lingard put United 2–0 up with just over half an hour played, but Pierre-Emerick Aubameyang got one back for the Gunners shortly before half-time. Anthony Martial then came off the bench to seal the win for United with their third goal in the 82nd minute. The draw for the Fifth Round was made on 28 January 2019 and United were drawn away to Chelsea, whom they had faced in the final the previous season. Goals from Paul Pogba and Ander Herrera before half-time sealed a 2–0 win for United. They were then drawn away to Wolverhampton Wanderers in the quarter-finals. Goals from Raúl Jiménez and Diogo Jota gave Wolves a 2–1 win and a place in the semi-finals, with Marcus Rashford scoring a consolation goal for United in the 95th minute.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the third round of the EFL Cup was made on 30 August 2018, with Manchester United drawn at home to Derby County. United took the lead just three minutes in through Juan Mata, but an equaliser from Harry Wilson was followed by a red card for United keeper Romero. Marriot gave Derby the lead with five minutes to go, but Marouane Fellaini’s stoppage-time strike ensured penalties; however Derby won 8-7 on spot kicks.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the group stage of the 2018–19 UEFA Champions League was made in Monaco on 30 August 2018.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the round of 16 was held on 17 December 2018, 12:00 CET, at the UEFA headquarters in Nyon, Switzerland. After finishing second in their group and progressing to the round of 16, United were drawn against French champions Paris Saint-Germain in the first competitive meeting between the two sides. In the first leg at Old Trafford, goals from Presnel Kimpembe and Kylian Mbappé gave PSG a 2–0 lead to take back to the Parc des Princes. Needing to score three times to progress, Romelu Lukaku opened the scoring for United in the second minute of the second leg, before Juan Bernat restored PSG's two-goal aggregate lead less than 10 minutes later. Lukaku then scored again after half an hour, to bring United within a goal of the quarter-finals. Former Manchester United midfielder Ángel Di María had the ball in the back of the net early in the second half, only for the goal to be ruled out for offside, and Bernat hit the post late on after Mbappé had rounded David de Gea. In the 90th minute, referee Damir Skomina awarded United a penalty after using a VAR review to adjudge Kimpembe to have handled the ball in the penalty area. Marcus Rashford scored the spot-kick to make it 3–3 on aggregate and send United through to the quarter-finals on the away goals rule; this made them the first team in Champions League history to progress after losing by at least two goals at home in the first leg. Solskjær gave 17-year-old forward Mason Greenwood and 19-year-old winger Tahith Chong their European debuts, the former also playing his first senior game.


title: 2018–19 Manchester United F.C. season

text: The draw for the quarter-finals was held on 15 March 2019, with United paired with Barcelona. Both United and Manchester City were originally drawn to play their home legs in the same week; as United finished lower in the league the previous season, their tie was reversed. The first leg was played at Old Trafford on 10 April 2019. Barcelona won 1–0 thanks to an own goal by Luke Shaw that was originally ruled out for offside; the decision was later overturned after a VAR review. The second leg was played at Camp Nou on 16 April, with two goals from Lionel Messi and another from former Liverpool forward Philippe Coutinho giving the Spanish side a 3–0 win on the night, 4–0 on aggregate.


title: Debbi Morgan

text: Deborah Ann Morgan (born ) is an American film and television actress. She played the role of Angie Baxter–Hubbard on the ABC soap opera "All My Children" for which she was the first African-American to win the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series in 1989. She is also known for her role as the Seer in the fourth and fifth seasons of "Charmed". In film, she received critical acclaim for her performance as Mozelle Batiste-Delacroix in "Eve's Bayou" (1997) for which she won the Independent Spirit Award for Best Supporting Female. From 2014 to 2021 she played a recurring role as Estelle Green in the starz crime drama series "Power" and its spinoff "", and from 2021 to 2022 co-starred in the Fox drama series "Our Kind of People".


title: Debbi Morgan

text: Morgan was born in Dunn, North Carolina, the daughter of Lora, a teacher, and George Morgan, Jr., a butcher. She has a younger sister, Terry. The family relocated to the Bronx when Morgan was still a child. In a 1997 interview with "People", Morgan revealed that her father was an abusive alcoholic. While he never physically harmed his daughters, Morgan recalled her mother running from her father often. Her father died of leukemia in 1975. Morgan graduated from Aquinas High School.


title: Debbi Morgan

text: Morgan's earliest film role was in the movie "Monkey Hustle" in 1976. She played the role of Vi. Morgan's earliest recurring role was on "What's Happening!!" from 1976 to 1977 as Diane Harris, and also appeared on "Good Times". In 1979, she received critical acclaim for her portrayal of Alex Haley's great-aunt Elizabeth Harvey on the 1979 miniseries "", and her guest-starring role as Curtis Jackson's ex-girlfriend turned prostitute on "The White Shadow". Her most famous role was Angie Baxter Hubbard on the soap opera "All My Children", a role she originally played from January 1982 to July 1990. Her portrayal of Angie struck a chord with many Black viewers across America. Angie and her love interest, Jesse Hubbard (Darnell Williams), became the first African-American "supercouple" on the daytime serials. In 1989, Morgan won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (which she shares with "Santa Barbara" actress Nancy Lee Grahn). She and Williams also co-hosted a music video show titled "New York Hot Tracks" in the mid-1980s.


title: Debbi Morgan

text: After leaving "All My Children", Morgan played the role of Chantal Marshall on the NBC soap opera, "Generations" (replacing actress Sharon Brown) and remained with the show until it ended. She then reprised her role as Angie Hubbard on ABC's "Loving" in 1993. In 1995, she brought the same character to "The City" (a retooled version of "Loving"), making Morgan one of the few performers to portray the same character on three different soap operas. From 1997 to 1998, she also played Dr. Ellen Burgess on "Port Charles". In the 1980s and 1990s, Morgan became a "de facto" symbol for the possibilities for black women as all of her soap opera roles involved her playing a successful doctor.


title: Debbi Morgan

text: Morgan garnered much acclaim from movie critics for her portrayal of clairvoyant Mozelle Batiste Delacroix in director Kasi Lemmons' drama film "Eve's Bayou" (1997). For her portrayal, she won a Chicago Film Critics Association Award and an Independent Spirit Award and was nominated for an Image Award. She later left soap operas and began her film career with roles in "She's All That" (1999), "The Hurricane" (1999), "Love & Basketball" (2000), "Woman Thou Art Loosed" (2004), "Coach Carter" (2005), "Relative Strangers" (2006), and "Color of the Cross" (2006). On television, she had roles in "The Practice", "Strong Medicine", "Boston Public", "Providence", and "Soul Food".


title: Debbi Morgan

text: From 2002 to 2003, Morgan played lead character Lora Gibson, opposite Lea Thompson, on the Lifetime drama series "For the People". She also played the role of the Seer in the fourth and fifth seasons of "Charmed". Morgan returned to "All My Children" in January 2008; 10 years after leaving daytime television. In May 2009 and 2011, she was nominated for the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series. In 2011, ABC cancelled "All My Children", and Morgan joined the cast of "The Young and the Restless" as Yolanda "Harmony" Hamilton on October 7, 2011, exactly two weeks after "All My Children" aired its final television episode on September 23, 2011. In 2013, Morgan starred in the internet version of "All My Children", reprising her role of Angie Hubbard. The series premiered on April 29, 2013, and was cancelled after a single season. In November 2013, after "All My Children" was cancelled, Morgan was cast in Starz drama series, "Power", opposite Omari Hardwick and Naturi Naughton. In 2015, she co-starred alongside Richard Lawson and Vivica A. Fox in two TV One holiday movies: "Royal Family Thanksgiving" and "Royal Family Christmas". Morgan later played Toni Braxton's mother in the Lifetime biopic "".


title: Debbi Morgan

text: In 2017, Morgan appeared in the Marvel miniseries "The Defenders" playing Delores. The following year, she had a recurring role in the BET drama series "The Quad". In 2019, she appeared in the Netflix film "Sextuplets" starring Marlon Wayans. She starred with Kelly Rowland in the Lifetime movie "Merry Liddle Christmas" and its sequels. In 2021, she was cast in the Lee Daniels prime time soap opera, "Our Kind of People" opposite Yaya DaCosta.


title: Debbi Morgan

text: Morgan has been married four times and has no children. Her first marriage was to Charles Weldon from 1980 until 1984. In 1989, Morgan married actor Charles S. Dutton, divorcing in 1994. From 1997 until 2000, Morgan was married to photographer Donn Thompson. Morgan has been married to Jeffrey Winston since June 2009.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: The trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters was a criminal case against eleven alleged members and associates of the street gang Nine Trey Gangsters. The case is notable for its inclusion of rapper 6ix9ine and his associate Shotti as defendants.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: The men were indicted on charges related to racketeering, weapon possession, and conspiracy to commit murder. 6ix9ine was quickly made a person of interest in these charges and was apprehended alongside five other men on November 18, 2018, following a five-year joint investigation by the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), the New York Police Department (NYPD), and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF).


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: Upon his arrest, 6ix9ine was initially denied bail and pleaded not guilty to all charges. He later changed his plea to guilty after agreeing to a deal with law enforcement on February 1, 2019. The guilty plea resulted in 6ix9ine admitting his guilt and testifying against his co-defendants, as well as full co-operation and an insistence to commit no further crimes, in exchange for reduced prison time. On December 18, 2019, 6ix9ine was sentenced to two years in prison, pay a $35,000 fine, serve five years of supervised release upon him being released to the public, and complete 1,000 hours of community service. 6ix9ine ended up avoiding a potential minimum sentence of 47 years. 6ix9ine was originally set to be released on November 18, 2020, although his attorney Lance Lazzaro claimed "6ix9ine will be released ahead of schedule." His new release date was set for August 2, 2020, although reports surfaced saying he may be released as early as July 31, 2020. However, on April 1, 2020, federal judge Paul Engelmayer ordered 6ix9ine to serve the remainder of his sentence in home confinement starting the next day due to him suffering from asthma which makes him particularly vulnerable to COVID-19.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: In October 2018, 6ix9ine was sentenced to two years' probation and 1,000 hours of community service after pleading guilty to federal racketeering and firearms charges. To celebrate receiving probation instead of a jail sentence, 6ix9ine went to go have dinner with a music executive in New York City. His entourage was not allowed in by security, and this led to a fight that ended with one person being shot. Two members of 6ix9ine's entourage were charged with gang assault. 6ix9ine's manager Shotti later turned himself in on November 7, 2018, in relation to the fight and was also charged with gang assault.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: On November 15, 2018, three days prior to the arrests and a week prior to the scheduled release of his debut album "Dummy Boy", 6ix9ine unexpectedly announced on Instagram that he had fired his entire team, including his management. He also cancelled his upcoming tour and said, "Whoever is booking shows for Tekashi 6ix9ine, is stealing your fucking money."


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: On the night of November 18, 2018, six men were arrested by ATF agents in New York City: 6ix9ine, Shotti, Jamel "Mel Murda" Jones, Fuguan "Fu Banga" Lovick, Jesnel "Ish" Butler, and Faheem "Crippy" Walter. The next night while being detained at the Brooklyn Metropolitan Detention Center, 6ix9ine was confronted by inmates affiliated with the rival Crips gang. Prison staff intervened and quickly transferred 6ix9ine to a different facility to eliminate any future gang threats. On November 22, 2018, a seventh man, Roland "Ro Murda" Martin, was arrested and charged with crimes related to the case. 6ix9ine's arrest caused his highly anticipated debut album "Dummy Boy" to be delayed indefinitely a day before its scheduled release. After an online leak, "Dummy Boy" was released on November 27, 2018, and managed to reach number 2 on the "Billboard" 200 within only three days of charting.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: On November 26, 2018, 6ix9ine pleaded not guilty and was denied bail, with a court date set for September 4, 2019. 6ix9ine's lawyer continued to plea that his client was "...completely innocent of all charges being brought against him... An entertainer who portrays a 'gangster image' to promote his music does not make him a member of an enterprise." An eighth defendant, Aaron "Bat" Young, was charged on December 19, 2018.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: On January 22, 2019, three other members of the Nine Trey Gangsters were charged as part of the investigation: Kintea "Kooda B" McKenzie, Denard "Drama" Butler, and Anthony "Harv" Ellison. Kooda B was indicted for attempting to shoot American rapper Chief Keef in June 2018. 6ix9ine admitted that after becoming embroiled in an online feud with Chief Keef, he offered $20,000 to Kooda B to carry out the shooting. Kooda B carried out the attack outside the W Hotel in Manhattan, though no one was injured. After the shooting, Kooda B allegedly met with 6ix9ine and Shotti, settling for a payment of $10,000 for the attack.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: Drama was indicted for taking part in a separate attempted shooting of Chief Keef on July 16, 2018, where a bystander was injured by the gunfire.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: Harv was indicted for kidnapping and assaulting 6ix9ine on July 22, 2018, after he claimed 6ix9ine disrespected the Nine Treys. At the time, 6ix9ine reported the incident to police in July 2018, claiming that he had been pistol-whipped and forced in a car, but soon became uncooperative during the initial investigation.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: On January 23, 2019, 6ix9ine changed his plea to guilty to all nine charges against him, and admitted to being a member of the Nine Trey Gangsters. 6ix9ine pledged to cooperate with prosecutors against others. As part of the plea agreement, 6ix9ine will not be fully prosecuted for any of his nine charges as long as he fully cooperates in testifying against others and commits no further crimes. Following 6ix9ine's guilty plea, prosecutors leveled additional firearms and racketeering charges against Shotti.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: 6ix9ine's lawyer Dawn Florio began devising a plan to get him out of federal custody before September 2019 if the other co-defendants take plea deals to avoid a trial. On March 28, 2019, Shotti became the second co-defendant to enter a guilty plea. Shotti stated that "[6ix9ine] broke every code. But I forgive the little nigga after all that. It's all good", and noted that "Treyway still stands strong. I want that to be known." In September 2019, Shotti was sentenced to 15 years in prison after pleading guilty to one count of firearm possession during a crime and one count of firearm discharge during a crime.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: On April 2, 2019, Jesnel "Ish" Butler pleaded guilty to one firearms charge involving the April 2018 robbery of a backpack belonging to "Scum Lord D!zzy", the owner of 6ix9ine's label ScumGang. The next day, Crippy pleaded guilty for involvement in the robbery as well. Mel Murda also pleaded guilty to one count of racketeering conspiracy and one count of participating in a narcotics distribution conspiracy for helping to move heroin and fentanyl. On April 19, 2019, Bat pleaded guilty, becoming the sixth of the 11 defendants that have entered a guilty plea in the case.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: The trial and its testimonies began on September 16, 2019 with 6ix9ine testifying for the government the next day. He disclosed the gang's inner structure and activities and later mentioned fellow rappers Jim Jones and Cardi B as members of various gangs.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: On October 3, defendants Anthony "Harv" Ellison and Aljermiah "Nuke" Mack were found guilty on kidnapping and racketeering charges, and currently face up to life in prison.


title: Trial of the Nine Trey Gangsters

text: On December 18, 6ix9ine was sentenced to 2 years in prison minus the 13 months already served, and 5 years of supervised liberty. On Thursday, April 2, 2020, 6ix9ine's lawyer, Dawn Florio, confirmed with "XXL" magazine that the court decided to allow the rapper to be released from prison and into home confinement. This was after 6ix9ine requested to serve the remainder of his prison sentence at home stating he was at a higher risk of contracting the COVID-19 virus due to his pre-existing asthma and bronchitis conditions. He was originally set to be released on August 2, 2020.


title: Inuktitut

text: Inuktitut (; , ; from , "person" + , "like", "in the manner of"), also Eastern Canadian Inuktitut, is one of the principal Inuit languages of Canada. It is spoken in all areas north of the tree line, including parts of the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, to some extent in northeastern Manitoba as well as the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. It is one of the aboriginal languages written with Canadian Aboriginal syllabics.


title: Inuktitut

text: It is recognised as an official language in Nunavut alongside Inuinnaqtun, and both languages are known collectively as "Inuktut". Further, it is recognized as one of eight official native tongues in the Northwest Territories. It also has legal recognition in Nunavik—a part of Quebec—thanks in part to the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, and is recognised in the Charter of the French Language as the official language of instruction for Inuit school districts there. It also has some recognition in Nunatsiavut—the Inuit area in Labrador—following the ratification of its agreement with the government of Canada and the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. The 2016 Canadian Census reports that there are 65,030 Indigenous individuals who identify themselves as Inuit, of whom 35,215 self-reported Inuktitut as their mother tongue.


title: Inuktitut

text: The term "Inuktitut" is sometimes used more broadly to include Inuvialuktun and thus nearly all the Inuit dialects of Canada. However, Statistics Canada lists Inuvialuktun with Inuinnaqtun in the Canadian Census.


title: Inuktitut

text: Before contact, Inuit learned skills by example and participation. The Inuktitut language provided them with all the vocabulary required to describe traditional practices and natural features. Up to this point, it was solely an oral language. Colonialism brought the European schooling system over to Canada. The missionaries of the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches were the first ones to deliver formal education to Inuit in schools. The teachers used the Inuktitut language for instruction and developed writing systems.


title: Inuktitut

text: In 1928 the first residential school for Inuit opened, and English became the language of instruction. As the government's interests in the North increased, it started taking over the education of Inuit. After the end of World War II, English was seen as the language of communication in all domains. Officials expressed concerns about the difficulty for Inuit to find employment, if they were not able to communicate in English. Inuit were supposed to use English at school, work, and even at the playground. The Inuit themselves viewed Inuktitut as the way to express their feelings and be linked to their identity, while English was a tool for making money.


title: Inuktitut

text: In the 1960s, the European attitude towards the Inuktitut language started to change. Inuktitut was seen as a language worth preserving, and it was argued that knowledge, particularly in the first years of school, is best transmitted in the mother tongue. This set off the beginning of bilingual schools. In 1969, most Inuit voted to eliminate federal schools and replace them with programs by the (). Content was now taught in Inuktitut, English and French.


title: Inuktitut

text: Inuktitut became one of the official languages in the Northwest Territories in 1984. Its status is secured in the "Northwest Territories Official Language Act". With the split of the Territory into NWT and Nunavut in 1999, both territories kept the Language Act. The autonomous area Nunatsiavut in Labrador made Inuktitut the government language when it was formed in 2005. In Nunavik, the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement recognizes Inuktitut in the education system.


title: Inuktitut

text: Nunavut's basic law lists four official languages: English, French, Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun. It is ambiguous in state policy to what degree Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun can be thought of as separate languages. The words "Inuktitut", or more correctly Inuktut ('Inuit language') are increasingly used to refer to both Inuinnaqtun and Inuktitut together, or "Inuit Languages" in English.


title: Inuktitut

text: Nunavut is the home of some 24,000 Inuit, over 80% of whom speak Inuktitut. This includes some 3,500 people reported as monolinguals. The 2001 census data shows that the use of Inuktitut, while lower among the young than the elderly, has stopped declining in Canada as a whole and may even be increasing in Nunavut.


title: Inuktitut

text: The South Baffin dialect (, ) is spoken across the southern part of Baffin Island, including the territorial capital Iqaluit. This has in recent years made it a much more widely heard dialect, since a great deal of Inuktitut media originates in Iqaluit. Some linguists also distinguish an "East Baffin" dialect from either South Baffin or North Baffin, which is an Inuvialuk dialect.


title: Inuktitut

text: As of the early 2000s, Nunavut has gradually implemented early childhood, elementary, and secondary school-level immersion programmes within its education system to further preserve and promote the Inuktitut language. , "Pirurvik, Iqaluit's Inuktitut language training centre, has a new goal: to train instructors from Nunavut communities to teach Inuktitut in different ways and in their own dialects when they return home."


title: Inuktitut

text: Quebec is home to roughly 12,000 Inuit, nearly all of whom live in Nunavik. According to the 2001 census, 90% of Quebec Inuit speak Inuktitut.


title: Inuktitut

text: The Nunavik dialect (, ) is relatively close to the South Baffin dialect, but not identical. Because of the political and physical boundary between Nunavik and Nunavut, Nunavik has separate government and educational institutions from those in the rest of the Inuktitut-speaking world, resulting in a growing standardization of the local dialect as something separate from other forms of Inuktitut. In the Nunavik dialect, Inuktitut is called (). This dialect is also sometimes called or ( or ).


title: Inuktitut

text: Subdialects of Inuktitut in this region include Tarrarmiut and Itivimuit. Itivimuit is associated with Inukjuak, Quebec, and there is an Itivimuit River near the town.


title: Inuktitut

text: The Nunatsiavut dialect ( or, often in government documents, ) was once spoken across northern Labrador. It has a distinct writing system, developed in Greenland in the 1760s by German missionaries from the Moravian Church. This separate writing tradition, the remoteness of Nunatsiavut from other Inuit communities, has made it into a distinct dialect with a separate literary tradition. The Nunatsiavummiut call their language ().


title: Inuktitut

text: Although Nunatsiavut claims over 4,000 inhabitants of Inuit descent, only 550 reported Inuktitut to be their native language in the 2001 census, mostly in the town of Nain. Inuktitut is seriously endangered in Labrador.


title: Inuktitut

text: Nunatsiavut also had a separate dialect reputedly much closer to western Inuktitut dialects, spoken in the area around Rigolet. According to news reports, in 1999 it had only three very elderly speakers.


title: Inuktitut

text: Though often thought to be a dialect of Greenlandic, Inuktun or Polar Eskimo is a recent arrival in Greenland from the Eastern Canadian Arctic, arriving perhaps as late as the 18th century.


title: Inuktitut

text: Eastern dialects of Inuktitut have fifteen consonants and three vowels (which can be long or short). Consonants are arranged with six places of articulation: bilabial, labiodental, alveolar, palatal, velar and uvular; and three manners of articulation: voiceless stops, voiced continuants and nasals, as well as two additional sounds—voiceless fricatives. Natsalingmiutut has an additional consonant , a vestige of the retroflex consonants of Proto-Inuit. Inuinnaqtun has one fewer consonant, as and have merged into . All dialects of Inuktitut have only three basic vowels and make a phonological distinction between short and long forms of all vowels. In —Nunavut standard Roman orthography—long vowels are written as a double vowel.


title: Inuktitut

text: All voiceless stops are unaspirated, like in many other languages. The voiceless uvular stop is usually written as q, but sometimes written as r. The voiceless lateral fricative is romanized as ɬ, but is often written as &, or simply as l.


title: Inuktitut

text: Inuktitut, like other Eskimo–Aleut languages, has a very rich morphological system, in which a succession of different morphemes are added to root words to indicate things that, in languages like English, would require several words to express. (See also: Agglutinative language and Polysynthetic language.) All words begin with a root morpheme to which other morphemes are suffixed. Inuktitut has hundreds of distinct suffixes, in some dialects as many as 700. However, it is highly regular, with rules that do not have exceptions like in English and other Indo-European languages, though they are sometimes very complicated.


title: Inuktitut

text: The western part of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories use a Latin alphabet usually called or , reflecting the predispositions of the missionaries who reached this area in the late 19th century and early 20th.


title: Inuktitut

text: Moravian missionaries, with the purpose of introducing the Inuit to Christianity and the Bible, contributed to the development of an Inuktitut alphabet in Greenland during the 1760s that was based on the Latin script. (This alphabet is distinguished by its inclusion of the letter kra, ĸ.) They later travelled to Labrador in the 1800s, bringing the Inuktitut alphabet with them.


title: Inuktitut

text: The Alaskan Yupik and Inupiat (who additionally developed their own syllabary) and the Siberian Yupik also adopted Latin alphabets.


title: Inuktitut

text: Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using a scheme called or Inuktitut syllabics, based on Canadian Aboriginal syllabics.


title: Inuktitut

text: In the 1860s, missionaries imported this system of "Qaniujaaqpait", which they had developed in their efforts to convert the Cree to Christianity, to the Eastern Canadian Inuit. The Netsilik Inuit in Kugaaruk and north Baffin Island adopted by the 1920s.


title: Inuktitut

text: In September 2019, a unified orthography called Inuktut Qaliujaaqpait, based on the Latin alphabet without diacritics, was adopted for all varieties of Inuktitut by the national organization Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami, after eight years of work. It was developed by Inuit to be used by speakers of any dialect from any region, and can be typed on electronic devices without specialized keyboard layouts. It does not replace syllabics, and people from the regions are not required to stop using their familiar writing systems. Implementation plans are to be established for each region. It includes letters such as "ff", "ch", and "rh", the sounds for which exist in some dialects but do not have standard equivalents in syllabics. It establishes a standard alphabet but not spelling or grammar rules. Long vowels are written by doubling the vowel (e.g., "aa", "ii", "uu"). The apostrophe represents a glottal stop when after a vowel (e.g., ), or separates an "n" from an "ng" (e.g., ) or an "r" from an "rh" (e.g., ).


title: Inuktitut

text: In April 2012, with the completion of the Old Testament, the first complete Bible in Inuktitut, translated by native speakers, was published.


title: Inuktitut

text: Noted literature in Inuktitut has included the novels "Harpoon of the Hunter" by Markoosie Patsauq, and by Mitiarjuk Nappaaluk.


title: Inuktitut

text: The Inuktitut syllabary used in Canada is based on the Cree syllabary devised by the missionary James Evans. The present form of the syllabary for Canadian Inuktitut was adopted by the Inuit Cultural Institute in Canada in the 1970s. The Inuit in Alaska, the Inuvialuit, Inuinnaqtun speakers, and Inuit in Greenland and Labrador use Latin alphabets.


title: Inuktitut

text: Though conventionally called a syllabary, the writing system has been classified by some observers as an abugida, since syllables starting with the same consonant have related glyphs rather than unrelated ones.


title: Inuktitut

text: All of the characters needed for the Inuktitut syllabary are available in the Unicode block Unified Canadian Aboriginal Syllabics. The territorial government of Nunavut, Canada, has developed TrueType fonts called (ᐱᒋᐊᕐᓂᖅ ), (ᐅᖃᒻᒪᖅ ), and (ᐅᕓᒥᐊ ) for computer displays. They were designed by Vancouver-based Tiro Typeworks. Apple Macintosh computers include an Inuktitut IME (Input Method Editor) as part of keyboard language options. Linux distributions provide locale and language support for Inupiaq, Kalaallisut and Inuktitut.


title: Inuktitut

text: In 2012 Tamara Kearney, Manager of Braille Research and Development at the Commonwealth Braille and Talking Book Cooperative, developed a Braille code for the Inuktitut language syllabics. This code is based on representing the syllabics' orientation. Machine translation from Unicode UTF-8 and UTF-16 can be performed using the liblouis Braille translation system which includes an Inuktitut Braille translation table. The book ("The Orphan and the Polar Bear") became the first work ever translated into Inuktitut Braille, and a copy is held by the Nunavut Territorial Library at Baker Lake, Nunavut.


title: Inuktitut

text: Although as many of the examples as possible are novel or extracted from Inuktitut texts, some of the examples in this article are drawn from "Introductory Inuktitut" and "Inuktitut Linguistics for Technocrats".


title: Teen Wolf (season 6)

text: The sixth and final season of "Teen Wolf", an American supernatural drama created by Jeff Davis and to some extent based on the 1985 film of the same name, received an order of 20 episodes on July 9, 2015, and premiered on November 15, 2016. The second half of the season premiered on July 30, 2017.


title: Teen Wolf (season 6)

text: Unlike the previous season, instead of telling a single story, the season was split into two 10-episode arcs, following the same format of the third season. On July 21, 2016, the cast announced at Comic Con that the series would end after its sixth season. The final episode aired on September 24, 2017.


title: Teen Wolf (season 6)

text: Scott, Stiles, Lydia, Malia and the rest of the pack return to Beacon Hills High for the second semester of senior year. Everyone will be feeling a bit emotional and anxious as they inch closer to graduation and the thought of imminently parting ways almost becomes a reality. But their last semester in high school will not go without trouble. "Teen Wolf" executive producer Jeff Davis revealed that the sixth season will be a "ghost story".


title: Teen Wolf (season 6)

text: The sixth season of "Teen Wolf" received an order of 20 episodes on July 9, 2015. Instead of telling a single story, the season was broken into two 10 episode arcs. Filming for the season started on February 22, 2016.


title: Teen Wolf (season 6)

text: On April 11, 2016, Arden Cho announced she would not be returning for season 6. New recurring characters include Ross Butler as Nathan and Pete Ploszek as Garrett Douglas. Sibongile Mlambo joined the series as Beacon Hills' new humanities teacher and guidance counselor.


title: Teen Wolf (season 6)

text: Tyler Posey directed the thirteenth episode of the season, which was his first time directing an episode of "Teen Wolf". Linden Ashby, who portrays Sheriff Stilinski, directed the fourteenth episode for the season, which was also a first for Ashby.


title: Teen Wolf (season 6)

text: On March 7, 2017, Meagan Tandy confirmed that, while she was invited back to reprise her role as Braeden, she would not be able to do so due to scheduling conflicts with other television projects.


title: Teen Wolf (season 6)

text: The final season received positive reviews, though many expressed disappointment from Dylan O'Brien's absence in the final season and others criticized the show's pacing. The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported an approval rating of 83% and an average rating of 6.94/10 for the sixth season, based on 12 reviews. The website's critics consensus reads, "The full moon ends its lunar cycle in this fast-paced final season, bringing "Teen Wolf" to a narratively messy but emotionally satisfying conclusion."


title: Chromatin

text: Chromatin is a complex of DNA and protein found in eukaryotic cells. The primary function is to package long DNA molecules into more compact, denser structures. This prevents the strands from becoming tangled and also plays important roles in reinforcing the DNA during cell division, preventing DNA damage, and regulating gene expression and DNA replication. During mitosis and meiosis, chromatin facilitates proper segregation of the chromosomes in anaphase; the characteristic shapes of chromosomes visible during this stage are the result of DNA being coiled into highly condensed chromatin.


title: Chromatin

text: The primary protein components of chromatin are histones. An octamer of two sets of four histone cores (Histone H2A, Histone H2B, Histone H3, and Histone H4) bind to DNA and function as "anchors" around which the strands are wound. In general, there are three levels of chromatin organization:


title: Chromatin

text: Many organisms, however, do not follow this organization scheme. For example, spermatozoa and avian red blood cells have more tightly packed chromatin than most eukaryotic cells, and trypanosomatid protozoa do not condense their chromatin into visible chromosomes at all. Prokaryotic cells have entirely different structures for organizing their DNA (the prokaryotic chromosome equivalent is called a genophore and is localized within the nucleoid region).


title: Chromatin

text: The overall structure of the chromatin network further depends on the stage of the cell cycle. During interphase, the chromatin is structurally loose to allow access to RNA and DNA polymerases that transcribe and replicate the DNA. The local structure of chromatin during interphase depends on the specific genes present in the DNA. Regions of DNA containing genes which are actively transcribed ("turned on") are less tightly compacted and closely associated with RNA polymerases in a structure known as euchromatin, while regions containing inactive genes ("turned off") are generally more condensed and associated with structural proteins in heterochromatin. Epigenetic modification of the structural proteins in chromatin via methylation and acetylation also alters local chromatin structure and therefore gene expression. There is limited understanding of chromatin structure and it is active area of research in molecular biology.


title: Chromatin

text: Chromatin undergoes various structural changes during a cell cycle. Histone proteins are the basic packers and arrangers of chromatin and can be modified by various post-translational modifications to alter chromatin packing (histone modification). Most modifications occur on histone tails. The positively charged histone cores only partially counteract the negative charge of the DNA phosphate backbone resulting in a negative net charge of the overall structure. An imbalance of charge within the polymer causes electrostatic repulsion between neighboring chromatin regions that promote interactions with positively charged proteins, molecules, and cations. As these modifications occur, the electrostatic environment surrounding the chromatin will flux and the level of chromatin compaction will alter. The consequences in terms of chromatin accessibility and compaction depend both on the modified amino acid and the type of modification. For example, histone acetylation results in loosening and increased accessibility of chromatin for replication and transcription. Lysine trimethylation can either lead to increased transcriptional activity (trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 4) or transcriptional repression and chromatin compaction (trimethylation of histone H3 lysine 9 or 27). Several studies suggested that different modifications could occur simultaneously. For example, it was proposed that a bivalent structure (with trimethylation of both lysine 4 and 27 on histone H3) is involved in early mammalian development. Another study tested the role of H4K16ac on chromatin structure and found that homogeneous acetylation inhibited 30 nm chromatin formation and blocked adenosine triphosphate remodeling. This singular modification changed the dynamics of the chromatin which shows that acetylation of H4 at K16 is vital for proper intra- and inter- functionality of chromatin structure.


title: Chromatin

text: For additional information, see Chromatin variant, Histone modifications in chromatin regulation and RNA polymerase control by chromatin structure.


title: Chromatin

text: In nature, DNA can form three structures, A-, B-, and Z-DNA. A- and B-DNA are very similar, forming right-handed helices, whereas Z-DNA is a left-handed helix with a zig-zag phosphate backbone. Z-DNA is thought to play a specific role in chromatin structure and transcription because of the properties of the junction between B- and Z-DNA.


title: Chromatin

text: At the junction of B- and Z-DNA, one pair of bases is flipped out from normal bonding. These play a dual role of a site of recognition by many proteins and as a sink for torsional stress from RNA polymerase or nucleosome binding.DNA bases are stored as a code structure with four chemical bases such as "“Adenine (A), Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)”". The order and sequences of these chemical structures of DNA are reflected as information available for the creation and control of human organisms. "“A with T and C with G”" pairing up to build the DNA base pair. "Sugar and phosphate" molecules are also paired with these bases, making DNA nucleotides arrange 2 long spiral strands unitedly called "“double helix”". In eukaryotes, DNA consists of a cell nucleus and the DNA is providing strength and direction to the mechanism of heredity. Moreover, between the nitrogenous bonds of the 2 DNA, homogenous bonds are forming.


title: Chromatin

text: The basic repeat element of chromatin is the nucleosome, interconnected by sections of linker DNA, a far shorter arrangement than pure DNA in solution.


title: Chromatin

text: In addition to core histones, a linker histone H1 exists that contacts the exit/entry of the DNA strand on the nucleosome. The nucleosome core particle, together with histone H1, is known as a chromatosome. Nucleosomes, with about 20 to 60 base pairs of linker DNA, can form, under non-physiological conditions, an approximately 10 nm beads on a string fibre.


title: Chromatin

text: The nucleosomes bind DNA non-specifically, as required by their function in general DNA packaging. There are, however, large DNA sequence preferences that govern nucleosome positioning. This is due primarily to the varying physical properties of different DNA sequences: For instance, adenine (A), and thymine (T) is more favorably compressed into the inner minor grooves. This means nucleosomes can bind preferentially at one position approximately every 10 base pairs (the helical repeat of DNA)- where the DNA is rotated to maximise the number of A and T bases that will lie in the inner minor groove. (See nucleic acid structure.)


title: Chromatin

text: With addition of H1, the beads-on-a-string structure in turn coils into a 30 nm diameter helical structure known as the 30 nm fibre or filament. The precise structure of the chromatin fiber in the cell is not known in detail.


title: Chromatin

text: This level of chromatin structure is thought to be the form of heterochromatin, which contains mostly transcriptionally silent genes. Electron microscopy studies have demonstrated that the 30 nm fiber is highly dynamic such that it unfolds into a 10 nm fiber beads-on-a-string structure when transversed by an RNA polymerase engaged in transcription.


title: Chromatin

text: The existing models commonly accept that the nucleosomes lie perpendicular to the axis of the fibre, with linker histones arranged internally.


title: Chromatin

text: A stable 30 nm fibre relies on the regular positioning of nucleosomes along DNA. Linker DNA is relatively resistant to bending and rotation. This makes the length of linker DNA critical to the stability of the fibre, requiring nucleosomes to be separated by lengths that permit rotation and folding into the required orientation without excessive stress to the DNA.


title: Chromatin

text: In this view, different lengths of the linker DNA should produce different folding topologies of the chromatin fiber. Recent theoretical work, based on electron-microscopy images


title: Chromatin

text: The spatial arrangement of the chromatin within the nucleus is not random - specific regions of the chromatin can be found in certain territories. Territories are, for example, the lamina-associated domains (LADs), and the topologically associating domains (TADs), which are bound together by protein complexes. Currently, polymer models such as the Strings & Binders Switch (SBS) model and the Dynamic Loop (DL) model are used to describe the folding of chromatin within the nucleus. The arrangement of chromatin within the nucleus may also play a role in nuclear stress and restoring nuclear membrane deformation by mechanical stress. When chromatin is condensed, the nucleus becomes more rigid. When chromatin is decondensed, the nucleus becomes more elastic with less force exerted on the inner nuclear membrane. This observation sheds light on other possible cellular functions of chromatin organization outside of genomic regulation.


title: Chromatin

text: Chromatin and its interaction with enzymes has been researched, and a conclusion being made is that it is relevant and an important factor in gene expression. Vincent G. Allfrey, a professor at Rockefeller University, stated that RNA synthesis is related to histone acetylation. The lysine amino acid attached to the end of the histones is positively charged. The acetylation of these tails would make the chromatin ends neutral, allowing for DNA access.


title: Chromatin

text: When the chromatin decondenses, the DNA is open to entry of molecular machinery. Fluctuations between open and closed chromatin may contribute to the discontinuity of transcription, or transcriptional bursting. Other factors are probably involved, such as the association and dissociation of transcription factor complexes with chromatin. Specifically, RNA polymerase and transcriptional proteins have been shown to congregate into droplets via phase separation, and recent studies have suggested that 10 nm chromatin demonstrates liquid-like behavior increasing the targetability of genomic DNA. The interactions between linker histones and disordered tail regions act as an electrostatic glue organizing large-scale chromatin into a dynamic, liquid-like domain. Decreased chromatin compaction comes with increased chromatin mobility and easier transcriptional access to DNA. The phenomenon, as opposed to simple probabilistic models of transcription, can account for the high variability in gene expression occurring between cells in isogenic populations.


title: Chromatin

text: During metazoan spermiogenesis, the spermatid's chromatin is remodeled into a more spaced-packaged, widened, almost crystal-like structure. This process is associated with the cessation of transcription and involves nuclear protein exchange. The histones are mostly displaced, and replaced by protamines (small, arginine-rich proteins). It is proposed that in yeast, regions devoid of histones become very fragile after transcription; HMO1, an HMG-box protein, helps in stabilizing nucleosomes-free chromatin.


title: Chromatin

text: A variety of internal and external agents can cause DNA damage in cells. Many factors influence how the repair route is selected, including the cell cycle phase and chromatin segment where the break occurred. In terms of initiating 5’ end DNA repair, the p53 binding protein 1(53BP1) and BRCA 1 are important protein components that influence Double-strand break repair pathway selection. The 53BP1 complex attaches to chromatin near DNA break and activities downstream factors such as Rap1-Interacting Factor 1 (RIF1) and the Shieldin, which protects DNA ends against nucleolytic destruction. DNA damage process occurs within the condition of chromatin, and the constantly changing chromatin environment has a large effect on it. Accessing and repairing the damaged cell of DNA, the genome condenses into chromatin and repairing it through modifying the histone residues. Through altering the chromatin structure, histones residues are adding chemical groups namely phosphate, acetyl and one or more than one methyl group and these are controlling the expressions of gene building by proteins to acquire DNA. Moreover, resynthesis of the delighted zone, DNA will be repaired by processing and restructuring the damaged bases. In order to maintain genomic integrity, “homologous recombination and classical non-homologous end joining process” has been followed by DNA to be repaired.


title: Chromatin

text: The packaging of eukaryotic DNA into chromatin presents a barrier to all DNA-based processes that require recruitment of enzymes to their sites of action. To allow the critical cellular process of DNA repair, the chromatin must be remodeled. In eukaryotes, ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complexes and histone-modifying enzymes are two predominant factors employed to accomplish this remodeling process.


title: Chromatin

text: Chromatin relaxation occurs rapidly at the site of a DNA damage. This process is initiated by PARP1 protein that starts to appear at DNA damage in less than a second, with half maximum accumulation within 1.6 seconds after the damage occurs. Next the chromatin remodeler Alc1 quickly attaches to the product of PARP1, and completes arrival at the DNA damage within 10 seconds of the damage. About half of the maximum chromatin relaxation, presumably due to action of Alc1, occurs by 10 seconds. This then allows recruitment of the DNA repair enzyme MRE11, to initiate DNA repair, within 13 seconds.


title: Chromatin

text: γH2AX, the phosphorylated form of H2AX is also involved in the early steps leading to chromatin decondensation after DNA damage occurrence. The histone variant H2AX constitutes about 10% of the H2A histones in human chromatin. γH2AX (H2AX phosphorylated on serine 139) can be detected as soon as 20 seconds after irradiation of cells (with DNA double-strand break formation), and half maximum accumulation of γH2AX occurs in one minute. The extent of chromatin with phosphorylated γH2AX is about two million base pairs at the site of a DNA double-strand break. γH2AX does not, itself, cause chromatin decondensation, but within 30 seconds of irradiation, RNF8 protein can be detected in association with γH2AX. RNF8 mediates extensive chromatin decondensation, through its subsequent interaction with CHD4, a component of the nucleosome remodeling and deacetylase complex NuRD.


title: Chromatin

text: After undergoing relaxation subsequent to DNA damage, followed by DNA repair, chromatin recovers to a compaction state close to its pre-damage level after about 20 min.