title: Brownian noise

text: The graphic representation of the sound signal mimics a Brownian pattern. Its spectral density is inversely proportional to "f" , meaning it has higher intensity at lower frequencies, even more so than pink noise. It decreases in intensity by 6 dB per octave (20 dB per decade) and, when heard, has a "damped" or "soft" quality compared to white and pink noise. The sound is a low roar resembling a waterfall or heavy rainfall. See also violet noise, which is a 6 dB "increase" per octave.


title: Brownian noise

text: Strictly, Brownian motion has a Gaussian probability distribution, but "red noise" could apply to any signal with the 1/"f" frequency spectrum.


title: Brownian noise

text: A Brownian motion, also called a Wiener process, is obtained as the integral of a white noise signal:


title: Brownian noise

text: meaning that Brownian motion is the integral of the white noise formula_2, whose power spectral density is flat:


title: Brownian noise

text: Note that here formula_4 denotes the Fourier transform, and formula_5 is a constant. An important property of this transform is that the derivative of any distribution transforms as


title: Brownian noise

text: An individual Brownian motion trajectory presents a spectrum formula_8, where the amplitude formula_5 is a random variable, even in the limit of an infinitely long trajectory.


title: Brownian noise

text: Brown noise can be produced by integrating white noise. That is, whereas (digital) white noise can be produced by randomly choosing each sample independently, Brown noise can be produced by adding a random offset to each sample to obtain the next one. A leaky integrator might be used in audio or electromagnetic applications to ensure the signal does not "wander off", that is, exceed the limits of the system's dynamic range.


title: Brownian noise

text: Brown noise can also be computer-generated by first generating a white noise signal, Fourier-transforming it, then dividing the amplitudes of the different frequency components by the frequency (in one dimension), or by the frequency squared (in two dimensions) etc. Matlab programs are available to generate brown and other power-law coloured noise in one or any number of dimensions.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: Apparent retrograde motion is the apparent motion of a planet in a direction opposite to that of other bodies within its system, as observed from a particular vantage point. Direct motion or prograde motion is motion in the same direction as other bodies.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: While the terms "direct" and "prograde" are equivalent in this context, the former is the traditional term in astronomy. The earliest recorded use of "prograde" was in the early 18th century, although the term is now less common.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: The term "retrograde" is from the Latin word – "backward-step", the affix meaning "backwards" and "step". "Retrograde" is most commonly an adjective used to describe the path of a planet as it travels through the night sky, with respect to the zodiac, stars, and other bodies of the celestial canopy. In this context, the term refers to planets, as they appear from Earth, stopping briefly and reversing direction at certain times, though in reality, of course, we now understand that they perpetually orbit in the same uniform direction.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: Although planets can sometimes be mistaken for stars as one observes the night sky, the planets actually change position from night to night in relation to the stars. Retrograde (backward) and prograde (forward) are observed as though the stars revolve around the Earth. Ancient Greek astronomer Ptolemy in 150 AD believed that the Earth was the center of the Solar System and therefore used the terms "retrograde" and "prograde" to describe the movement of the planets in relation to the stars. Although it is known today that the planets revolve around the sun, the same terms continue to be used in order to describe the movement of the planets in relation to the stars as they are observed from Earth. Like the sun, the planets appear to rise in the East and set in the West. When a planet travels eastward in relation to the stars, it is called "prograde". When the planet travels westward in relation to the stars (opposite path) it is called "retrograde".


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: When standing on the Earth looking up at the sky, it would appear that the Moon travels from east to west, just as the Sun and the stars do. Day after day however, the Moon appears to move to the east with respect to the stars. In fact, the Moon orbits the Earth from west to east, as do the vast majority of manmade satellites such as the International Space Station. The apparent westward motion of the Moon from the Earth's surface is actually an artifact of its being in a supersynchronous orbit. This means that the Earth completes one sidereal rotation before the Moon is able to complete one orbit. As a result, it looks like the Moon is travelling in the opposite direction, otherwise known as apparent retrograde motion. This phenomenon also occurs on Mars, which has two natural satellites, Phobos and Deimos. Both moons orbit Mars in an eastward (prograde) direction; however, Deimos has an orbital period of 1.23 Martian sidereal days, making it supersynchronous, whereas Phobos has an orbital period of 0.31 Martian sidereal days, making it subsynchronous. Consequently, although both moons are traveling in an eastward (prograde) direction, they appear to be traveling in opposite directions when viewed from the surface of Mars due to their orbital periods in relation to the rotational period of the planet.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: All other planetary bodies in the Solar System also appear to periodically switch direction as they cross Earth's sky. Though all stars and planets appear to move from east to west on a nightly basis in response to the rotation of Earth, the outer planets generally drift slowly eastward relative to the stars. Asteroids and Kuiper Belt objects (including Pluto) exhibit apparent retrogradation. This motion is normal for the planets, and so is considered direct motion. However, since Earth completes its orbit in a shorter period of time than the planets outside its orbit, it periodically overtakes them, like a faster car on a multi-lane highway. When this occurs, the planet being passed will first appear to stop its eastward drift, and then drift back toward the west. Then, as Earth swings past the planet in its orbit, it appears to resume its normal motion west to east. Inner planets Venus and Mercury appear to move in retrograde in a similar mechanism, but as they can never be in opposition to the Sun as seen from Earth, their retrograde cycles are tied to their inferior conjunctions with the Sun. They are unobservable in the Sun's glare and in their "new" phase, with mostly their dark sides toward Earth; they occur in the transition from evening star to morning star.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: The more distant planets retrograde more frequently, as they do not move as much in their orbits while Earth completes an orbit itself. The retrogradation of a hypothetical extremely distant (and nearly non-moving) planet would take place during a half-year, with the planet's apparent yearly motion being reduced to a parallax ellipse.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: The center of the retrograde motion occurs at the planet's opposition which is when it is exactly opposite the Sun.  This is halfway or 6 months around the ecliptic from the Sun.  The planet's height in the sky is opposite that of the Sun's; if it occurs around the Winter Solstice when the Sun passes lowest in the sky, the retrograde will pass high in the sky at midnight, and conversely it will pass low in the sky when retrograde occurs around the Summer Solstice.  Since the planet's opposition retrograde motion is when the Earth passes closest, the planet appears at its brightest for the year.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: This apparent retrogradation puzzled ancient astronomers, and was one reason they named these bodies 'planets' in the first place: 'Planet' comes from the Greek word for 'wanderer'. In the geocentric model of the Solar System proposed by Apollonius in the third century BCE, retrograde motion was explained by having the planets travel in deferents and epicycles. It was not understood to be an illusion until the time of Copernicus, although the Greek astronomer Aristarchus in 240 BCE proposed a heliocentric model for the Solar System.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: Galileo's drawings show that he first observed Neptune on December 28, 1612, and again on January 27, 1613. On both occasions, Galileo mistook Neptune for a fixed star when it appeared very close—in conjunction—to Jupiter in the night sky, hence, he is not credited with Neptune's discovery. During the period of his first observation in December 1612, Neptune was stationary in the sky because it had just turned retrograde that very day. Since Neptune was only beginning its yearly retrograde cycle, the motion of the planet was far too slight to be detected with Galileo's small telescope.


title: Apparent retrograde motion

text: From any point on the daytime surface of Mercury when the planet is near perihelion (closest approach to the Sun), the Sun undergoes apparent retrograde motion. This occurs because, from approximately four Earth days before perihelion until approximately four Earth days after it, Mercury's angular orbital speed exceeds its angular rotational velocity. Mercury's elliptical orbit is farther from circular than that of any other planet in the Solar System, resulting in a substantially higher orbital speed near perihelion. As a result, at specific points on Mercury's surface an observer would be able to see the Sun rise part way, then reverse and set before rising again, all within the same Mercurian day.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Vanessa-Mae (陈美 Chén Měi; born 27 October 1978) also called Vanessa-Mae Vanakorn Nicholson, is a Singaporean-born British violinist with album sales reaching several million, having made her the wealthiest entertainer under 30 in the United Kingdom in 2006. She competed under the name Vanessa Vanakorn (; her father's surname) for Thailand in alpine skiing at the 2014 Winter Olympics. She was initially banned from skiing by the International Ski Federation (FIS) after participating in a qualifying race allegedly organised to enable her to qualify for the Winter Olympics. An appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport led to the ban being nullified, citing lack of evidence for her own wrongdoing or any manipulation. The FIS later issued an apology to her.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Vanessa-Mae was born on 27 October 1978 in Singapore, to Singaporean mother Pamela Soei Luang Tan and Thai father Vorapong Vanakorn. After adoption by a British father, she moved to London at the age of 4 where she began playing the violin, having already started the piano in Singapore. At the age of eight Vanessa-Mae embarked upon a period of study with Professor Lin Yao Ji at the National Conservatoire of Music in Beijing. Vanessa-Mae returned to London and entered London's Royal College of Music.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: At age thirteen, Vanessa-Mae became the youngest soloist to record both the Beethoven and Tchaikovsky violin concertos, according to "Guinness World Records".


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Her first pop-style album, "The Violin Player", was released in 1995. She appeared on the 1997 Janet Jackson album "The Velvet Rope" playing a violin solo on the song "Velvet Rope".


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Vanessa-Mae appeared in producer George Martin's compilation and covers album "In My Life" in 1998. She is featured on Track #5 with her violin rendition of the 1969 Beatles song ""Because"".


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: On 7 March 2002 Vanessa-Mae performed a variation of Antonio Vivaldi: "The Four Seasons" – "Summer: III. Presto" during the opening ceremonies of the 2002 Winter Paralympics.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: In April 2006, Vanessa-Mae was ranked as the wealthiest young entertainer under 30 in the UK in the Sunday Times Rich List 2006, having an estimated fortune of about £32 million.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: In October 2011, Vanessa Mae performed for Chechnya's leader Ramzan Kadyrov during his birthday celebration in "Grozny" reportedly receiving for her appearance.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Vanessa-Mae has occasionally recorded her own compositions. Her 1997 album "" included two pieces in which she shared a writing credit: "Violin Fantasy on Puccini's 'Turandot"' and "Reunification Overture", marking the reunification of China and Hong Kong.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: In 2017, ClassicFM compiled a list of the 300 best selling classical albums in the 25 years it has been running. Vanessa-Mae entered three times. "The Classical Album 1" reached 244, "Storm" reached 135 and her debut mainstream album "The Violin Player" is the 76th best selling. The site claims that her total album sales make "her the biggest-selling solo violinist in the chart".


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Vanessa-Mae stated that she "started skiing around the same time as I began playing the piano, at around four, before moving to the violin at five", and that it had been her "dream to be a ski bum since I was 14." In 2009 Vanessa-Mae took up residence in the Swiss alpine resort of Zermatt. In August 2010, she told "The Telegraph", "I am British, but realistically there is no way I could represent my own country, but because my natural father is Thai, they have accepted me." She registered as a Thai alpine skier.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: In 2014, Thailand had no Alpine skiers in the top 500, and Olympic rules allowed such countries to send one man and one woman to the Olympics slalom and giant slalom, based on alternative criteria: The skier must have 140 points or less, smaller scores being better under the International Ski Federation (FIS) system, while starting at least five internationally recognised slalom or giant slalom events.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: At the request of Vanessa-Mae's management and the Thai Olympic Committee, a giant slalom competition was organised by the Alpine Ski Club Triglav and took place on 18 and 19 January 2014 at Krvavec in Slovenia, and would be the last chance for Vanessa-Mae to achieve the FIS-recognised score to qualify for the February 2014 Olympics. The event included a national junior championship, in which she was 14 years older than any of the competition.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: The event put her score under the 140-point average, dropping it from 269.44 on 11 January to 131.15 at the end of 19 January. Her manager Giles Holland said "It would appear that she's done it. She's done it by a whisker, but she's done it." FIS confirmed her eligibility to compete in the 2014 Olympics, with Ana Jelusic of the FIS mentioning that the Krvavec results "ticks all the boxes".


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: She was one of two alpine skiers who represented Thailand at the 2014 Winter Olympics, where she competed under the name of "Vanessa Vanakorn" (วาเนสซ่า เมย์ ตัน วรรณกร; Vanessa May Tan Vanakorn).


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: On 18 February 2014, Vanakorn finished 67th of 90 skiers, with a time of 1:44.86 on her first run at giant slalom, 26.98 seconds behind the leader. She started in the 87th position, representing her relative ranking in the world giant slalom rankings. In run 2, she had a time of 1:42.11, 24.21 seconds behind the leader of run 2. She started 74th in run 2, the last starter for run 2. At the end of the event, she had a total time of 3:26.97, 50.10 seconds behind the gold medal winner, Tina Maze of Slovenia. She was last of the 67 racers who finished, although 23 other racers failed to complete the race.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: On 10 July 2014 four Slovenian ski competition organisers were reported to have each been given four-year bans on working with Slovenian Ski Union (Smučarska zveza Slovenije) and FIS competitions because of supposedly fixed Sochi Winter Olympics qualifications for the Thai ski team at Krvavec in January 2014 – with the only goal to successfully qualify Vanessa Mae. However, no formal bans were ever handed out.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: On 11 November 2014, the FIS Hearing Panel issued its own findings about the Krvavec event less than 10 months earlier: The weather was such that no regular race could be held; the competition's referee said that "any comparable competition in Slovenia would have been cancelled". A previously retired competitor took part in the alleged competition solely to lower (improve) the scores of the participants. The official results of "approximately 23 competitors" for the two races on 18 January included results at least two people who in fact did not attend. The official results for two giant slalom races on 19 January also included results for a person who was not even present at the Krvavec competition. One competitor who fell was given an official timing 10 seconds better than reality, and put in second place in the official results. At least one participant started outside the starting wand; afterward, the starter manually triggered the starting wand.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: The Hearing Panel issued a worldwide four-year ban against Vanessa-Mae, two-year ban against the Chief of Race Borut Hrobat, and one-year bans against the FIS Technical Delegate, Chief of Timing, Referee, and Starter. FIS president Gian-Franco Kasper commented to Associated Press concerning the violations: "Those who have been sanctioned have been sanctioned for good reason. At first we were laughing when we heard it. But then we realised it's quite a serious thing."


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: As two or more participants worked in combination to violate the rules, the FIS Hearing Panel recommended that all four events during the Krvavec competition be annulled. The Hearing Panel noted that, if the results were to be annulled by the FIS Council, it will mean that Vanessa-Mae, Federica Selva of San Marino, and Ieva Januškevičiūtė of Lithuania will have not qualified for the 2014 Olympic Games. Vanessa-Mae issued a statement calling the ban "nonsensical" and saying "we will" appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: The FIS Council met on 18 November and cancelled the results of "all four giant slalom races" at Krvavec and issued a press release saying that "Vanessa Vanakorn (THA) who competed in the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games therefore did not qualify and should not have been participating in the Sochi 2014 Games." The FIS Council was of the opinion that Federica Selva and Ieva Januškevičiūtė "were victims of the manipulated races", and forwarded the information to the International Olympic Committee. Vanessa-Mae filed appeals with the Court of Arbitration for Sport on 4 December 2014 against both the FIS Hearing Panel and the FIS Council.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: On 19 June 2015 the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) voided Vanessa-Mae's four-year ban, saying there was a lack of evidence that she herself manipulated the races; but the CAS dismissed her appeal to restore the qualifying results, confirming that the qualifying races "were so defective that their results and qualification points gained therefrom could not stand", and therefore "Vanessa Vanakorn remains ineligible to compete in the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games". The CAS's decision also awarded an amount of money to be paid by the FIS to Vanessa-Mae.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Despite Vanessa-Mae's successful result in nullifying the FIS race ban at the CAS appeal, there was still some doubt over the status of her races at the 2014 Winter Olympics. However, in January 2016 the media announced that the International Olympic Committee had confirmed that Vanessa-Mae could be called an Olympian.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: In 2016, Vanessa-Mae settled her defamation lawsuit against the FIS, in which the FIS made an "appropriate payment", the amount of which was not disclosed. The FIS issued a full apology for its claims of race-fixing, and stated "Ms. Vanakorn and her entourage did not in any way fix, contrive or improperly influence the result, progress, conduct or any other aspect of the FIS-approved races."


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Vanessa-Mae returned to skiing in 2017, to attempt to qualify for the 2018 Winter Olympics. Vanessa-Mae withdrew from competition due to suffering a shoulder injury, in January 2018. With her withdrawal, the placement for Thailand went to 21-year-old Alexia Arisarah Schenkel.


title: Vanessa-Mae

text: Vanessa-Mae's long-term boyfriend is Frenchman Lionel Catelan. Vanessa-Mae has expressed a lack of interest in marriage, saying "you don't need a ring to say I love you".


title: Political career of Arnold Schwarzenegger

text: The political career of Arnold Schwarzenegger began in 2003, when Arnold Schwarzenegger entered politics for the first time by running for Governor of California in a recall election. He was subsequently elected Governor when then-Governor Gray Davis was successfully recalled and served the remainder of Davis' term between 2003 and 2007. Schwarzenegger was then reelected to a second term in 2006 to serve his first full term between 2007 and 2011. Schwarzenegger was unable to run for a third term due to term limits imposed by Constitution of California, but has still been involved in politics and the promotion of environmentalism.


text: In Austria, Schwarzenegger was officially a member of the youth weightlifting team of the Austrian People's Party (ÖVP).


text: In 1985, Schwarzenegger appeared in "Stop the Madness", an anti-drug music video sponsored by the Reagan administration. He first came to wide public notice as a Republican during the 1988 presidential election, accompanying then-Vice President George H. W. Bush at a campaign rally.


text: On January 27, 2011, Schwarzenegger mistakenly praised Canadian soldiers serving in Iraq, even though they did not.


text: On October 4, 2012, Schwarzenegger said Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney performed better than President Barack Obama in the first debate.


text: On August 23, 2014, Schwarzenegger and other Hollywood stars expressed their support for Israel and criticized Hamas for the "devastating loss of life endured by Israelis and Palestinians in Gaza".


text: On March 6, 2016, Schwarzenegger endorsed Ohio Governor John Kasich for the Republican nomination for president, saying his experience in government made him "an action hero". On June 7, Schwarzenegger's spokesperson Daniel Ketchell told "Los Angeles Times"' Seema Mehta on Twitter that Schwarzenegger voted for Kasich in the California Republican primary, even though Kasich already suspended his campaign. On October 8, Schwarzenegger announced that he would not vote for Donald Trump to be president. The statement was made one day after the release of the Donald Trump "Access Hollywood" tape.


text: On January 30, 2017, Schwarzenegger criticized Trump's executive order to ban travel by refugees and immigrants from seven countries, saying that it makes the United States look "stupid". On June 23, Schwarzenegger met with French President Emmanuel Macron to discuss environmental issues and vowed to "make the planet great again". On August 17, Schwarzenegger criticized Trump for his response to the Unite the Right rally and terrorist attack that took place in Charlottesville, Virginia, and gave a speech that he said Trump should have given. One day before the Austrian legislative election, Schwarzenegger wished Sebastian Kurz and the ÖVP good luck on October 14. After meeting with Paris mayor Anne Hidalgo on December 11, Schwarzenegger said, "We must talk about the health aspects [of climate change]".


text: After Chad Mayes, the former Republican minority leader of the California State Assembly, announced on January 9, 2018, the formation of New Way California, an initiative that aims to expand the appeal of Republican policies and reverse the party's declining prospects in the state, Daniel Ketchell said, "[Schwarzenegger is] committed to helping Chad find a way to reinvigorate the party so it can help all Californians."


text: With Republican governor Larry Hogan of Maryland, Schwarzenegger spoke out on the need to end gerrymandering in the United States on July 11, 2019.


text: On January 10, 2021, Schwarzenegger shared a Twitter video message condemning the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol. He further called Trump a "failed leader" and "the worst president ever".


text: In late March 2021, Schwarzenegger was interviewed by Politico about the upcoming recall election in California in which he said that "it's pretty much the same atmosphere today as it was then", and when he was asked about Newsom's claim of this being a "Republican recall" he responded that "this recall effort is sparked by ordinary folks, and that this isn't a power grab by Republicans."


text: In an article of "Time" on November 1, 2010, Thad Kousser of the University of California, San Diego said, "[Schwarzenegger] is not divisive nor scandal plagued, but he's generally fallen short of changing the political culture of Sacramento and the policy course of the state." Nick Roman of KPCC wrote that Schwarzenegger's legacy is varied and puzzling, inspiring, and infuriating—just like the state he governed.


text: Schwarzenegger is a member of the Republican Party and, in September 2012, told Lesley Stahl on "60 Minutes" that he will never leave the party. On September 7, 2007, Schwarzenegger said, "I am proud to be a member of the party of Abraham Lincoln. I am proud to be a member of the party of Ronald Reagan." In the documentary, "Pumping Iron", Schwarzenegger said, "I was always dreaming about very powerful people—dictators and things like that. I was just always impressed by that...people could be remembered for hundreds of years, you know—even Jesus for thousands of years remembered." In August 2003, Schwarzenegger said that he was not a cultural conservative. Schwarzenegger believes that Austrian social democracy limited the horizons of many of his friends.


text: At the 2004 Republican National Convention, Schwarzenegger spoke about the reason he became a Republican instead of a Democrat:


text: Thal mayor and longtime schoolmate Peter Urdl said that the teenage Schwarzenegger seemed to hold opinions in line with the Social Democrats and expressed admiration for Bruno Kreisky. "The New Yorker"'s Connie Bruck called Schwarzenegger "supermoderate". Andrew Gumbel of "The Independent" wrote, "[Schwarzenegger is] a man of surprises. He mixes in the social circles of Hollywood's liberal elite...yet he has always regarded himself as a staunch Republican—among other things, an act of rebellion against the staunch social democratic values of his native Austria." "Los Angeles Times" writer Joe Mathews wrote that Schwarzenegger routinely sides with business and asserts quasi-libertarian views on individual freedom but has crossed borders and associated with groups whose experiences seem foreign to his own. Daniel Weintraub of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote, "[Schwarzenegger] is liberal on some issues, conservative on others and, sometimes, but not always, in the middle." Rob Long, a television writer and producer, wrote on NPR that Schwarzenegger is a "Hollywood Republican, meaning he's mellow about gays and abortion and marijuana".


text: Civil rights attorney Shannon Minter of the National Center for Lesbian Rights gave Schwarzenegger a B− grade on gay and lesbian issues, calling his decision not to appeal "Perry v. Schwarzenegger", which struck down Proposition 8, "a really quite dramatic stand for a Republican governor to have taken."


text: In October 2003, On the Issues rated Schwarzenegger as a "moderate liberal populist". In April 2008, the organization reclassified Schwarzenegger as a "centrist". In a 2010 report published by Equality California, an LGBT rights organization, Schwarzenegger received a 57 percent score. On April 21, 2010, Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington named Schwarzenegger and ten other governors as the "worst governors", accusing him of self-enrichment; cozying up with special interests, conflicts of interest, cronyism, pressuring state officials, mismanagement, and vetoing hospital transparency bills.


text: In 2004, the California League of Conservation Voters, an environmental organization, released a scorecard giving Schwarzenegger a 58%. Schwarzenegger would receive the same score in 2005. In 2006, his score fell to 50%. Schwarzenegger's score improved to 63% in 2007. In 2008, Schwarzenegger received a 60% score. In 2009, Schwarzenegger's score from the CLCV fell to its lowest ever, falling to 28%. However, Schwarzenegger's score would recover in 2010, improving to 56%. As Governor of California, Schwarzenegger's lifetime score from the CLCV is 53%.


text: In March 2005, the Cato Institute, an American libertarian think tank, issued a "fiscal policy report card" for 2004 in which it assigned an A grade to Schwarzenegger's performance as governor. Schwarzenegger was given a D grade in the 2006 report card from the Cato Institute. In the 2008 report card, Schwarzenegger was given a C grade. In 2010, Schwarzenegger received a D grade in the report card.


title: Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award

text: The Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award, or Super Bowl MVP, is presented annually to the most valuable player of the Super Bowl, the National Football League's (NFL) championship game. The winner is chosen by a panel of 16 football writers and broadcasters, and, since Super Bowl XXXV in 2001, fans voting electronically. The media panel's ballots count for 80 percent of the vote tally, while the viewers' ballots make up the other 20 percent. The game's viewing audience can vote on the Internet or by using cellular phones; Media voters are asked to vote with about five minutes remaining in the game, but are allowed to change their mind when the game ends. They can nominate one player from each team, with instructions to count their vote for the player on the winning team. Voters cannot select an entire unit.


title: Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award

text: The Super Bowl MVP has been awarded annually since the game's inception in 1967. Through 1989, the award was presented by "SPORT" magazine. Bart Starr was the MVP of the first two Super Bowls. Since 1990, the award has been presented by the NFL. At Super Bowl XXV, the league first awarded the Pete Rozelle Trophy, named after former NFL commissioner Pete Rozelle, to the Super Bowl MVP. Ottis Anderson was the first to win the trophy. The most recent Super Bowl MVP, from Super Bowl LVI held on February 13, 2022, is Los Angeles Rams wide receiver Cooper Kupp.


title: Super Bowl Most Valuable Player Award

text: Tom Brady is the only player to have won five Super Bowl MVP awards (four with the New England Patriots and one with the Buccaneers); Joe Montana won three and three other players—Bart Starr, Terry Bradshaw, and Eli Manning—have won the award twice. Starr and Bradshaw are the only ones to have won it in back-to-back years. The MVP has come from the winning team every year except 1971, when Dallas Cowboys linebacker Chuck Howley won the award despite the Cowboys' loss in Super Bowl V to the Baltimore Colts. Harvey Martin and Randy White were named co-MVPs of Super Bowl XII, the only time co-MVPs have been chosen. Including the Super Bowl XII co-MVPs, seven Cowboys players have won Super Bowl MVP awards, the most of any NFL team. Quarterbacks have earned the honor 31 times in 56 games (and 57 awards).


title: Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight

text: The Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight (ACOG) is a series of prismatic telescopic sights manufactured by Trijicon. The ACOG was originally designed to be used on the M16 rifle and M4 carbine, but Trijicon has also developed ACOG accessories for other firearms. Models provide fixed-power magnification levels from 1.25× to 6×. ACOG reticles are illuminated at night by an internal tritium phosphor. Some versions have an additional daytime reticle illumination via a passive external fiberoptic light pipe or are LED-illuminated using a dry battery. The first ACOG model, known as the TA01, was released in 1987.


title: Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight

text: The first ACOG model, known as the TA01, was released in 1987. In 1995, United States Special Operations Command selected the 4×32 TA01 as the official scope for the M4 carbine and purchased 12,000 units from Trijicon. Between 2004 and 2005, the ACOG was selected as the official Rifle Combat Optic of the United States Marine Corps, prompting Trijicon to produce 100,000 units for the US Marines in the following 18 months.


title: Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight

text: The ACOG is available in a variety of configurations from the manufacturer with different reticles, illumination, and other features. Most ACOGs do not use batteries for reticle illumination, being designed to use internal phosphor illumination provided by the radioactive decay of tritium. The tritium illumination has a usable life of 10–15 years. Some versions of the ACOG have an additional daytime reticle illumination via a passive external fiber optic light pipe. Normally this allows the brightness of the reticle to match the field of view since it collects ambient light from around the sight, although this can lead to a mismatch in lighting - such as sunlight hitting the light pipe directly, or standing in a shadow - causing the reticle to be much brighter or darker than the target. Reticles have other features such as a bullet drop compensator and other different reticle shapes such as chevrons.


title: Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight

text: Some ACOG models incorporate rudimentary ghost ring iron sights as a backup for targets that are within . Most ACOG models, when mounted to a carry handle, have an open space through the mount to allow the use of the rifle's iron sights without removing the scope. Others include Docter or Trijicon reflex sights mounted on top. The ACOG ECOS line features both of these secondary sighting systems on the same scope.


title: Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight

text: Although the ACOG is designed for the Picatinny rail of the M16A4 and M4, it can be mounted on the carrying handles of previous models by using a special adapter. Trijicon later produced ACOG mounts and adapters for weapons besides the M16, including the Beretta AR70/90 series; SIG SG 550, Heckler & Koch HK416, Bushmaster ACR, Enfield L85A2, and FN SCAR weapon systems; and the Steyr AUG.


title: Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight

text: Several ACOG models are designed to be used with the ""Bindon Aiming Concept"", an aiming technique developed by Trijicon founder and optical designer Glyn Bindon. The technique is essentially using the illuminated part of the reticle and its focusing rear eyepiece as a collimator sight. As in any other collimator sight, the user does not actually look through the sight but instead keeps the collimated (infinity) image of the illuminated part of the reticle in focus with the dominant eye while the other eye views the entire field of view to acquire the target. In this both-eyes-open technique the brain superimposes the aiming reticle on the target. An added part of the technique is to shift focus after acquisition to the dominant eye/telescopic image for more accurate shooting. This overcomes the problem of centering or acquiring fast traversing targets common with all telescopic sights. Only certain models of the ACOG are designed with bright enough daylight-lit fiber optic or battery-powered LED reticles that facilitate this technique.


title: Advanced Combat Optical Gunsight

text: Trijicon has been the subject of some criticism for inscribing a reference to a Bible verse (, "I am the Light of the World") alongside the model numbers on their ACOG sights. Starting in late 2009, Trijicon began shipping sights to the U.S. military without the Bible verse.


title: Électricité de France

text: Électricité de France S.A. (literally "Electricity of France"), commonly known as EDF, is a French multinational electric utility company, largely owned by the French state. Headquartered in Paris, with €71.2 billion in revenues in 2016, EDF operates a diverse portfolio of at least 120 gigawatts of generation capacity in Europe, South America, North America, Asia, the Middle East, and Africa.


title: Électricité de France

text: In 2009, EDF was the world's largest producer of electricity. Its 56 active nuclear reactors (in France) are spread out over 18 sites (nuclear power plants). They comprise 32 reactors of 900 MW, 20 reactors of 1,300 MW, and 4 reactors of 1,450 MW, all PWRs.


title: Électricité de France

text: EDF was created on 8 April 1946 by the 1945 parliament, from the merging of various divided actors. EDF led France's post-war energy growth, with a unique focus on civil nuclear energy, through reconstruction and further industrialization within the Trente Glorieuse, being a fleuron of France's new industrial landscape. In 2004, following integration to the Common European market, EDF was privatized, although the French state retained 84% equity. In 2017 EDF took over the majority of the reactor business crisis loaded Areva, in a French government sponsored restructuration. That same year, following the wish to divest from nuclear energy, 17 of EDF's French nuclear power reactors were announced to be possibly closed by 2025. However, in 2019, the French government asked EDF to develop proposals for three new replacement nuclear power stations. Following privatization, decades of under-investment and the 2021–2022 global energy crisis and the Russo-Ukrainian War threatening Europe's energy security, the Government of France announced the full renationalisation of the company for an estimated cost of €5 billion.


title: Électricité de France

text: EDF specialises in electricity, from engineering to distribution. The company's operations include the following: electricity generation and distribution; power plant design, construction and dismantling; energy trading; and transport. It is active in such power generation technologies as nuclear power, hydropower, marine energies, wind power, solar energy, biomass, geothermal energy and fossil-fired energy.


title: Électricité de France

text: In November 2022, EDF agreed the acquisition of GE Steam Power’s nuclear activities, which include the manufacture of non-nuclear equipment for new nuclear power plants including steam turbines and the maintenance and upgrade of existing nuclear power plants outside America.


title: Électricité de France

text: The EDF head office is located along Avenue de Wagram in the 8th arrondissement of Paris. The EDF head office is shared between several EDF sites in Greater Paris.


title: Électricité de France

text: EDF was founded on 8 April 1946, as a result of the nationalisation of around 1,700 smaller energy producers, transporters and distributors by the Minister of Industrial Production Marcel Paul. Mostly a state-owned "EPIC", it became the main electricity generation and distribution company in France, enjoying a monopoly in electricity generation, although some small local distributors were retained by the nationalisation. This monopoly ended in 1999, when EDF was forced by a European Directive to open up 20% of its business to competitors.


title: Électricité de France

text: Until 19 November 2004, EDF was a state-owned corporation, but became a limited-liability corporation under private law ("société anonyme"), after its status was changed by statute. The French government partially floated shares of the company on the Paris Stock Exchange in November 2005, although it retained almost 85% ownership as of the end of 2008.


title: Électricité de France

text: On 22 November 2016, French competition regulators raided EDF offices, looking for evidence that EDF was abusing its dominant position to manipulate electricity prices and squeeze rivals.


title: Électricité de France

text: Between 2001 and 2003, EDF was forced to reduce its equity capital by €6.4 billion total because of the performance of subsidiaries in South America and Europe. In 2001, it also acquired a number of British energy companies, becoming the UK's biggest electricity supplier.


title: Électricité de France

text: The company remains heavily in debt. Its profitability suffered during the recession which began in 2008. It made €3.9 billion in 2009, which fell to €1.02 billion in 2010, with provisions set aside amounting to €2.9 billion.


title: Électricité de France

text: In March 2016 EDF's Chief Financial Officer, Thomas Piquemal, who had argued that the final investment decision on building Hinkley Point C nuclear power station should be delayed for three years, resigned. With EDF's market value halved over the preceding year, the cost of the Hinkley Point C project now exceeded the entire market capitalisation of EDF.


title: Électricité de France

text: In March 2017 EDF offered a €4bn rights issue of new shares to increase capital availability, at a 34.5% discount. The French government committed to purchasing €3bn of the rights issue. Shares prices fell to an all-time low due to the heavy discount on new shares.


title: Électricité de France

text: EDF's net debt at the end of 2018 was €33 billion, but with future obligations such as pension liabilities and costs for managing nuclear waste allowed for, the adjusted net debt was €70 billion. In order to improve EDF's finances, as of 2019 EDF has sold €10 billion of assets, with plans to sell a further €2 to €3 billion of assets by 2021, and shareholders have been allocated new shares rather than cash dividends. Bonds have been issued in Asian currencies to expand sources of funding. It has financial commitments for new builds at Flamanville and Hinkley Point C. EDF is committed to spending €49.4 billion by 2025 for life extension of its French nuclear reactor fleet, which as of 2019 has an average age of 33 years, to 50 years.


title: Électricité de France

text: In December 2021, EDF had about €43 billion of debt, which investment analysts Morningstar expected to exceed €60bn by the end of 2022. EDF's credit rating was downgraded in February 2022.


title: Électricité de France

text: France is the world's largest user of nuclear power for electricity (78% of French production in 2007).


title: Électricité de France

text: In May 2004, the French Interior Minister Nicolas Sarkozy reasserted, in front of the French Parliament, the primacy of nuclear power, much to the relief of labour unions of EDF. In this speech, the minister re-phrased the famous slogan, "We do not have oil, but we have ideas", by declaring: "We do not have oil, we do not have gas, we do not have coal, but we had ideas".


title: Électricité de France

text: Depleted uranium from reprocessing the spent fuel of the 58 French nuclear power plants were exported from Le Havre to Russia in the last years and stored in Seversk where it was enriched, and the new fuel was exported back to France.


title: Électricité de France

text: In 2013 EDF acknowledged the difficulties it was having building the new EPR nuclear reactor design, with its head of production and engineering, Hervé Machenaud, saying EDF had lost its dominant international position in design and construction of nuclear power stations. In September 2015 EDF's chief executive Jean-Bernard Lévy stated that the design of a "New Model" EPR was being worked on, which will be easier to build, to be ready for orders from about 2020.


title: Électricité de France

text: In 2016 EDF's chief executive Jean-Bernard Lévy stated that EDF's 2030 strategy increased the emphasis on renewable energy, with a 2030 goal of doubling renewable energy capacity worldwide. He stated "I am convinced that we will still have a centralised and secure system in the future but it will be supplemented by a more intermittent and local decentralised system, in which customers will take charge of their consumption. In readiness for this, we must press on with research into electricity storage and smart electricity systems".


title: Électricité de France

text: In 2011, a French court fined EDF €1.5m and jailed two senior employees for spying on Greenpeace, including hacking into Greenpeace's computer systems. Greenpeace was awarded €500,000 in damages. Although EDF claimed that a security firm had only been employed to monitor Greenpeace, the court disagreed, jailing the head and deputy head of EDF's nuclear security operation for three years each. Two employees of the security firm, Kargus, run by a former member of France's secret services, received sentences of three and two years respectively.


title: Électricité de France

text: EDF's website was brought down by DDoS attacks three times in 2011, twice in April and once later in June.


title: Électricité de France

text: The attacks were claimed by the hacktivist group Anonymous. Three men were later arrested and interviewed on charges of "obstructing functionality of a data processing service", "fraudulent access of a data processing service" and "participation in an association formed with the aim of preparing such infractions".


title: Électricité de France

text: Motivations for the attack were thought to relate to the Fukushima nuclear accident in Japan. Unlike Switzerland and Germany, which plan to close down all nuclear reactors at the end of their lifespan, the government of France had no such plans to move away from nuclear power and three months after the Fukushima meltdown, stated a budget increase for nuclear power.


title: Électricité de France

text: In February 2013 EDF Energy sought an estimated £5 million in damages from environmental activists from the "No Dash for Gas" campaign that occupied the EDF-owned West Burton CCGT power station in October 2012.


title: Électricité de France

text: On 13 March 2013, EDF dropped their lawsuit against the protesters, after agreeing a permanent injunction against protesters entering EDF sites.


title: Électricité de France

text: In 2017 EDF took over the majority of the reactor business of Areva, excluding the fuel business, in a French government sponsored restructuring following financial and technical problems at Areva due to the building of new EPR nuclear plants. The reactor business has been named Framatome.


title: Électricité de France

text: In October 2019 French Finance Minister Bruno Le Maire released an audit report on the construction of the heavily delayed and nearly four times over-budget Flamanville 3 EPR development, started by Areva in 2007. The Finance Minister demanded EDF present within a month an action plan for the project, calling it a "failure for the entire French nuclear industry".


title: Électricité de France

text: In April 2020 EDF estimated the economic slowdown due to the coronavirus pandemic could potentially reduce electricity consumption in France by 20%. EDF estimated annual nuclear output in France would be about 300 TWh in 2020 and 330-360 TWh in 2021 and 2022, down from a pre-coronavirus estimate of 375-390 TWh. Some nuclear reactors will likely be taken offline in the summer of 2020. EDF announced it had withdrawn financial targets for 2020 and 2021. A delay of planned 10-year reactor upgrades this year may be necessary.


title: Électricité de France

text: To mitigate the impact EDF is targeting €500 million of cost savings to 2022, and aims to sell €3 billion of assets to 2022.


title: Électricité de France

text: As of January 2022, five of its 56 reactors were out of operation due to pipework corrosion and crack problems, with checks being made across the fleet. Consequently, EDF cut the year's output target by 10% and needs to buy electricity on the open market.


title: Électricité de France

text: Also, EDF has to sell a further 20 TWh of power to other domestic suppliers at a reduced price due to the government response to the 2021 global energy crisis. In January 2022, EDF calculated that the increase in reduced price wholesale supply would cost it €8.4 billion (£7 billion), and it withdrew its profit guidance. The EDF share price fell considerably. EDF's debt is about €41 billion, and Fitch Ratings lowered EDF's credit rating.


title: Électricité de France

text: In late May 2022, when 12 nuclear reactors were offline, EDF increased the estimated earnings reductions for the inspections and repairs to €18.5 billion.


title: Électricité de France

text: On 6 July 2022, French prime minister Elisabeth Borne announced that "the French government is aiming for a full nationalization of" EDF. Borne "vowed" to limit the impact of the rise in energy prices through the state having "full control over...electricity production and performance.” Borne told parliament, "we must ensure our sovereignty in the face of...the colossal challenges to come." Earlier in 2022, President Emmanuel Macron had "suggested" a renationalization of EDF as well as a "big expansion of nuclear energy in the coming decades" however, in 2021, he had to scrap an "overhaul" of EDF, codenamed "Project Hercules," that would have placed EDF's profitable renewables sector in a new company, due to opposition by unions and objections raised by the European Commission.


title: Électricité de France

text: The French government has contributed $550 million to a partnership by Électricité de France with Renault-Nissan and with PSA Peugeot Citroen.


title: Électricité de France

text: In 2018 EDF had plans to invest up to €25 billion in photovoltaics solar power generation, and introduce green electricity tariffs.


title: Électricité de France

text: As of 2017, EDF still held the business of 85.5% of France's residential customers, though on a slow downward trend.


title: Électricité de France

text: Apart from foreign producers and distributors, there are some significant competitors of EDF in France, although their market share is weaker in comparison:


title: Électricité de France

text: Among the other rivals of EDF, one can count a number of municipally governed companies, known under the generic term 'entreprises locales de distribution' ('local businesses of distribution'), who are electricity producers exploiting EDF's network.


title: Électricité de France

text: The nationalisation of electricity and gas on 8 April 1946, which profoundly changed the French electrical and gas organization, had however acknowledged the right of villages to keep their role in the public distribution of electricity and gas.


title: Électricité de France

text: In 1946, certain firms, villages or groups of villages, did not accept the proposal of nationalisation and created autonomous state controls (who held the monopoly of distribution, until 2004, in their area). To note, contrary to the initial idea, local controllers of electricity, have had, since 1946, the choice to continue to produce electricity. In fact, their production was rather marginal, except in Rhône-Alpes; having often preferred buying the majority of the electrical power from EDF. With the recent opening of the electricity market, local controllers are considering developing, augmenting and diversifying their own production, (e.g. Ouest Énergie, the subsidiary company of SIEDS) and/or diversifying their sources of supply.


title: Électricité de France

text: To date, the number of local businesses of distribution is approximately 170 and holds 5% of the distribution of French electrical power in 2,500 villages. Created by local authorities, they serve about 3 million people and represent 7,000 jobs. Around thirty of them – 9 during creation in 1962 – are federated in a national entity known as ANROC.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Bruno Richard Hauptmann (November 26, 1899 – April 3, 1936) was a German-born carpenter who was convicted of the abduction and murder of the 20-month-old son of aviator Charles Lindbergh and his wife Anne Morrow Lindbergh. The Lindbergh kidnapping became known as "The Crime of the Century". Both Hauptmann and his wife, Anna Hauptmann (who later sued the State of New Jersey, various former police officers, the Hearst newspapers that had published pre-trial articles insisting on Hauptmann's guilt, and former prosecutor David T. Wilentz), proclaimed his innocence until he was executed in 1936 by electric chair at the Trenton State Prison.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Bruno Richard Hauptmann was born in Kamenz, a town near Dresden in the Kingdom of Saxony, which was a state of the German Empire. He was the youngest of five children. Neither he nor his family or friends used the name Bruno, although prosecutors in the Lindbergh kidnapping trial insisted on referring to him by that name. At the age of eleven, he joined the Boy Scouts ("Pfadfinderbund"). Hauptmann attended public school during the day while attending trade school ("Gewerbeschule") at night, studying carpentry for the first year, then switching to machine building ("Maschinenschlosser") for the next two years.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Hauptmann's father died in 1917. During that same year, Hauptmann learned that his brother, Herman, had been killed fighting in France in World War I. Not long after that, he was informed that another brother, Max, had also been killed while fighting in Russia. Shortly thereafter, Hauptmann was conscripted and assigned to the artillery.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Upon receiving his orders, he was sent to Bautzen but was transferred to the 103rd Infantry Replacement Regiment upon his arrival. In 1918, Hauptmann was assigned to the 12th Machine Gun Company at Königsbrück. Hauptmann later claimed he was deployed to western France with the 177th Regiment of Machine Gunners in either August or September 1918, then fought in the Battle of Saint-Mihiel; that he was gassed in September or October 1918; and that he was struck in the helmet by shrapnel from shelling, knocking him out so that he was left for dead. When he came to, he crawled back to safety and was back on duty that evening.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: After the war, Hauptmann and a friend robbed two women wheeling baby carriages they were using to transport food on the road between Wiesa and Nebelschütz. The friend wielded Hauptmann's army pistol during the commission of this crime. Hauptmann's other charges include burglarizing a mayor's house with the use of a ladder. Released after three years in prison, he was arrested three months later on suspicion of additional burglaries.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Hauptmann illegally entered the United States by stowing away on an ocean liner. Landing in New York City in November 1923, the 24-year-old Hauptmann was taken in by a member of the established German community and worked as a carpenter. He married a German waitress, Anna Schoeffler (1898–1994), in 1925 and became a father eight years later.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: On the evening of March 1, 1932, Charles Lindbergh Jr., son of aviator Charles Lindbergh, was kidnapped from Highfields, New Jersey; a homemade ladder was found under the window of the child's room. The $50,000 demanded in a ransom note had been delivered by Dr. John F. Condon, but the infant's body was found on May 12 in woods from the family's home. The death was ascribed to a blow to the head, which some have theorized occurred accidentally during the abduction.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: On September 15, 1934, a bank teller realized that the serial number on a $10 gold certificate deposited by a gas station was on the list of Lindbergh ransom bills. On the bill's margin, the attendant had written the license plate number of the customer's car, which turned out to be Hauptmann's. Hauptmann was placed under surveillance by the New York City Police Department, New Jersey State Police, and the FBI.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: On September 19, Hauptmann realized he was being watched and attempted to escape, speeding and running through red lights. He was captured after finding himself blocked by a truck on Park Avenue just north of Tremont Avenue in the Bronx.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: His trial was dubbed the "Trial of the Century", while Hauptmann was named "The Most Hated Man in the World".


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Evidence against Hauptmann included: $14,600 of the ransom money found in his garage; testimony alleging handwriting and spelling similarities to that found on the ransom notes; testimony that lumber used in constructing the ladder probably originated in Hauptmann's house; Condon's address and telephone number found written on the inside of one of Hauptmann's closets; and what appeared to be a hand-drawn sketch of a ladder found in one of Hauptmann's notebooks. Experts retained by the defense were never called to testify.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: During the trial, Hauptmann was identified as the man who received the ransom money, the man who had spent some of the ransom gold certificates, and as a man seen near the Lindbergh home on the day of the kidnapping. He had been absent from work on the day of the ransom payment and had quit his job two days later.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Hauptmann's attorney, Edward J. Reilly, argued that the evidence against Hauptmann was entirely circumstantial, as no reliable witness had placed Hauptmann at the scene of the crime, nor were his fingerprints found on the ladder, the ransom notes, or anywhere in the nursery.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Hauptmann was convicted, however, and immediately sentenced to death. His appeals failed, though his execution stayed twice while New Jersey Governor Harold G. Hoffman reviewed the case.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: On April 3, 1936, Hauptmann was executed in the electric chair at the New Jersey State Prison. Reporters present said he made no statement. His spiritual advisor said that Hauptmann told him, before being taken from his cell, "Ich bin absolut unschuldig an den Verbrechen, die man mir zur Last legt" ("I am absolutely innocent of the crimes with which I am charged").


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Hauptmann's widow Anna had his body cremated. Two Lutheran pastors conducted a private memorial service in German. A crowd of some 2,000 gathered outside.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: In the latter part of the 20th century, the case against Hauptmann came under serious scrutiny. For instance, one item of evidence at his trial was a scrawled phone number on a board in his closet, which was the number of the man who delivered the ransom, John F. Condon. A juror at the trial said this was the one item that convinced him the most; according to some accounts, a reporter later admitted he had written the number himself.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Additionally, neither Lindbergh nor the go-between who delivered the ransom initially identified Hauptmann as the recipient. Condon, after seeing Hauptmann in a lineup at New York Police Department Greenwich Street Station told FBI Special Agent Turrou that Hauptmann was not "John," the man whom Condon claimed he had passed the ransom money to in St. Raymond's Cemetery. He further stated that Hauptmann looked different (for instance that he had different eyes, was heavier, and had different hair), and that "John" was actually dead because he had been murdered by his confederates.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: While waiting in a car nearby, Lindbergh heard the voice of "John" calling to Condon during the ransom drop-off, but never saw him. Although he testified before the Bronx grand jury that he heard only the words "Hey, Doc!", and that it would be very difficult to say he could recognize a man by his voice, he identified Hauptmann as having the same voice during his trial in Flemington. The police beat Hauptmann while in custody at the Greenwich Street Station.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Other coverage has said that certain witnesses were intimidated, and some claim that the police planted or doctored evidence, such as the ladder; or that the police doctored Hauptmann's time cards and ignored fellow workers who stated that Hauptmann was working the day of the kidnapping. These and other findings prompted J. Edgar Hoover, the first Director of the FBI, to question the manner in which the investigation and the trial were conducted. Hauptmann's widow campaigned until the end of her life to have her husband's conviction reversed.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Erastus Mead Hudson was a fingerprint expert who knew about the then-rare silver nitrate process of collecting fingerprints from wood and other surfaces on which the previous powder method would not work. He found that Hauptmann's fingerprints were not on the wood, even in places that the man who made the ladder must have touched. Upon reporting this to a police officer and stating that they must look further, the officer said, "Good God, don't tell us that, Doctor!" The ladder was then washed of all fingerprints, and Colonel Norman Schwarzkopf, Sr, the Superintendent of the New Jersey State Police, refused to disclose to the public that Hauptmann's prints were not on the ladder.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Several books have been written proclaiming Hauptmann's innocence. These books variously criticize the police for allowing the crime scenes to become contaminated, Lindbergh and his associates for interfering with the investigation, Hauptmann's trial lawyers for ineffectively representing him, and the reliability of the witnesses and physical evidence presented at the trial. Scottish journalist Ludovic Kennedy in particular questioned much of the evidence, such as the origin of the ladder and the testimony of many of the witnesses.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: In her book about another high-profile trial of the 1930s, the Winnie Ruth Judd case, investigative reporter Jana Bommersbach argued that Hauptmann could not have received a fair trial because the press created an atmosphere of prejudice against him. Bommersbach noted that in those days, newspapers acted as both "judge and jury," and covered crime in a way that would be considered sensationalistic today.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: For more than 50 years, Hauptmann's widow fought with the New Jersey courts without success to have the case re-opened. In 1982, the now 82-year-old Anna Hauptmann sued the State of New Jersey, various former police officers, the Hearst newspapers that had published pre-trial articles insisting on Hauptmann's guilt, and former prosecutor David T. Wilentz (then 86) for over $100 million in wrongful-death damages. She claimed that the newly discovered documents proved misconduct by the prosecution and the manufacture of evidence by government agents, all of whom were biased against Hauptmann because he happened to be of German ethnicity. In 1983, the United States Supreme Court refused her request that the federal judge considering the case should be disqualified because of judicial bias, and in 1984 the judge dismissed her claims.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: In 1985, more than 23,000 pages of Hauptmann-case police documents were found in the garage of the late Governor Hoffman. These documents, along with 34,000 pages of FBI files, which, although discovered in 1981, had not been disclosed to the public, represented a windfall of previously undisclosed information. As a direct result of this new evidence, Anna Hauptmann again amended her civil complaint on July 14, 1986, to clear her late husband's name by continuing to assert that he was "framed from beginning to end" by the police looking for a suspect. She suggested that the rail of the ladder taken from the attic, where they used to live in 1935, was planted by the police, and that the ransom money was left behind by Isidor Fisch, who was possibly the real kidnapper. Fisch applied for a passport on 12 May 1932, the same day that the Lindbergh baby was found dead. On 9 December 1933, he sailed for Germany, taking with him $600 worth of Reichsmarks. In 1990, New Jersey's governor, James Florio, declined her appeal for a meeting to clear Bruno Hauptmann's name. Anna Hauptmann died on October 10, 1994.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: In 1974, Anthony Scaduto wrote "Scapegoat," which took the position that Hauptmann was framed and that the police both withheld and fabricated evidence. This led to further investigation, and in 1985, Ludovic Kennedy published "The Airman and the Carpenter", in which he argued that Hauptmann had not kidnapped and murdered Charles Augustus Lindbergh Jr. The book was made into a 1996 television film "Crime of the Century", starring Stephen Rea and Isabella Rossellini.


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Not all modern authors agree with these theories. Jim Fisher, a former FBI agent and professor at Edinboro University of Pennsylvania, has written two books on the subject, "The Lindbergh Case" (1987) and "The Ghosts of Hopewell" (1999) to address, at least in part, what he calls a "revision movement". In these texts, he explains in detail the evidence against Hauptmann. He provides an interpretation discussing both the pros and cons of that evidence. He concluded: "Today, the Lindbergh phenomena [sic] is a giant hoax perpetrated by people who are taking advantage of an uninformed and cynical public. Notwithstanding all of the books, TV programs, and legal suits, Hauptmann is as guilty today as he was in 1932 when he kidnapped and killed the son of Mr and Mrs Charles Lindbergh."


title: Richard Hauptmann

text: Lindbergh believed that Hauptmann must have been involved in the kidnapping and murder of his son. He remarked that Hauptmann was magnificently built but had eyes like a wild boar.


title: Injunction

text: An injunction is a legal and equitable remedy in the form of a special court order that compels a party to do or refrain from specific acts. "When a court employs the extraordinary remedy of injunction, it directs the conduct of a party, and does so with the backing of its full coercive powers." A party that fails to comply with an injunction faces criminal or civil penalties, including possible monetary sanctions and even imprisonment. They can also be charged with contempt of court. Counterinjunctions are injunctions that stop or reverse the enforcement of another injunction.


title: Injunction

text: The injunction is an equitable remedy, that is, a remedy that originated in the English courts of equity. Like other equitable remedies, it has traditionally been given when a wrong cannot be effectively remedied by an award of money damages. (The doctrine that reflects this is the requirement that an injunction can be given only when there is "no adequate remedy at law.") Injunctions are intended to make whole again someone whose rights have been violated. Nevertheless, when deciding whether to grant an injunction, courts also take into account the interests of non-parties (that is, the public interest). When deciding whether to give an injunction, and deciding what its scope should be, courts give special attention to questions of fairness and good faith. One manifestation of this is that injunctions are subject to equitable defenses, such as laches and unclean hands.


title: Injunction

text: Injunctions are given in many different kinds of cases. They can prohibit future violations of the law, such as trespass to real property, infringement of a patent, or the violation of a constitutional right (e.g., the free exercise of religion). Or they can require the defendant to repair past violations of the law.


title: Injunction

text: An injunction can require someone to do something, like clean up an oil spill or remove a spite fence. Or it can prohibit someone from doing something, like using an illegally obtained trade secret. An injunction that requires conduct is called a "mandatory injunction." An injunction that prohibits conduct is called a "prohibitory injunction." Many injunctions are both—that is, they have both mandatory and prohibitory components, because they require some conduct and forbid other conduct.


title: Injunction

text: When an injunction is given, it can be enforced with equitable enforcement mechanisms such as contempt. It can also be modified or dissolved (upon a proper motion to the court) if circumstances change in the future. These features of the injunction allow a court granting one to manage the behavior of the parties. That is the most important distinction between the injunction and another non-monetary remedy in American law, the declaratory judgment. Another way these two remedies are distinguished is that the declaratory judgment is sometimes available at an earlier point in a dispute than the injunction.


title: Injunction

text: In the state of New South Wales, a court may grant an apprehended violence order (AVO) to a person who fears violence, harassment, abuse, or stalking. The order prohibits the defendant from assaulting, harassing, threatening, stalking, or intimidating the person seeking the order. Other conditions may be included, such as a prohibition against contacting the person or attempting to find the person online. A court may issue the order if it believes a person has reasonable grounds for their fears or has no reasonable grounds for their fears. Non-compliance may result in the imposition of a fine, imprisonment, or both, and deportation.


title: Injunction

text: Interim injunctions are a provisional form of injunctive relief, which can compel a party to do something (mandatory injunction) or stop it from doing something (prohibitory injunction).


title: Injunction

text: A plaintiff seeking an interim injunction must establish that he is likely to succeed on the merits, that he is likely to suffer severe harm in the absence of preliminary relief, and that an injunction is in the public interest.


title: Injunction

text: In Turkish law, interim injunction is an extraordinary remedy that is never awarded as of right. In each case, courts balance the competing claims of injury and consider the likely hardship on the defendant.


title: Injunction

text: First, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, federal courts used injunctions to break strikes by unions. For example, after the United States government successfully used an injunction to outlaw the Pullman boycott in 1894 in "In re Debs", employers found that they could obtain federal court injunctions to ban strikes and organizing activities of all kinds by unions. These injunctions were often extremely broad; one injunction issued by a federal court in the 1920s effectively barred the United Mine Workers of America from talking to workers who had signed yellow dog contracts with their employers. Unable to limit what they called "government by injunction" in the courts, labor and its allies persuaded the United States Congress in 1932 to pass the Norris-LaGuardia Act, which imposed so many procedural and substantive limits on the federal courts' power to issue injunctions that it effectively prohibited federal court from issuing injunctions in cases arising out of labor disputes. A number of states followed suit and enacted "Little Norris-LaGuardia Acts" that imposed similar limitations on state courts' powers. The courts have since recognized a limited exception to the Norris-LaGuardia Act's strict limitations in those cases in which a party seeks injunctive relief to enforce the grievance arbitration provisions of a collective bargaining agreement.


title: Injunction

text: Second, injunctions were crucial to the second half of the twentieth century in the desegregation of American schools. Federal courts gave injunctions that carried out the command of "Brown v Board of Education" to integrate public schools in the United States, and at times courts took over the management of public schools in order to ensure compliance. (An injunction that puts a court in the position of taking over and administering an institution—such as a school, a prison, or a hospital—is often called a "structural injunction".)


title: Injunction

text: Injunctions remain widely used to require government officials to comply with the Constitution, and they are also frequently used in private law disputes about intellectual property, real property, and contracts. Many state and federal statutes, including environmental statutes, civil rights statutes and employment-discrimination statutes, are enforced with injunctions.


title: Injunction

text: Injunctions in the United States tend to come in three main forms, temporary injunctions, preliminary injunctions and permanent injunctions. For both temporary restraining orders and preliminary injunctions, the goal is usually to preserve the status quo until the court is able to decide the case.


title: Injunction

text: A special kind of injunction that may be issued before trial is called a "temporary restraining order" or TRO. A TRO may be issued without notice to the other party or a hearing. A TRO will be given only for a short period of time before a court can schedule a hearing at which the restrained person may appear and contest the order. If the TRO is contested, the court must decide whether to issue a preliminary injunction. Temporary restraining orders are often, but not exclusively, given to prevent domestic violence, stalking, sexual assault, or harassment.


title: Injunction

text: Preliminary injunctions are given before trial. Because they are issued at an early stage, before the court has heard the evidence and made a decision in the case, they are more rarely given. The requirements for a preliminary injunction tend to be the same as for a permanent injunction, with the additional requirement that the party asking for the injunction is likely to succeed on the merits.


title: Injunction

text: Permanent injunctions are issued after trial. Different federal and state courts sometimes have slightly different requirements for obtaining a permanent injunction. The Supreme Court enumerated the traditional four-factor test in "eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C." as:


title: Injunction

text: The balance of hardships inquiry is also sometimes called the "undue hardship defense". A stay pending appeal is a mechanism allowing a losing party to delay enforcement of an injunction while appeal is pending after final judgment has been granted by a lower court.


title: Injunction

text: The DOJ and the FTC have investigated patent holders in the United States for seeking preliminary injunctions against accused infringers of standard-essential patents, or patents that the patent holder must license on reasonable and non-discriminatory terms. There is an ongoing debate among legal and economic scholars with major implications for antitrust policy in the United States as well as in other countries over the statutory limits to the patent holder's right to seek and obtain injunctive relief against infringers of standard-essential patents. Citing concerns of the absence of competition facing the patent holder once its technology is locked-in to the standard, some scholars argue that the holder of a standard-essential patent should face antitrust liability when seeking an injunction against an implementer of a standard. Other scholars assert that patent holders are not contractually restrained from pursuing injunctions for standard-essential patent claims and that patent law is already capable of determining whether an injunction against an infringer of standard-essential patents will impose a net cost on consumers, thus obviating the role of antitrust enforcement.


title: Injunction

text: Interim injunctions or interim orders are granted as a means of providing interim relief while a case is being heard, to prevent actions being implemented which potentially may be barred by a final ruling.


title: Injunction

text: In England and Wales, injunctions whose existence and details may not be legally reported, in addition to facts or allegations which may not be disclosed, have been issued; they have been informally dubbed "super-injunctions".


title: Injunction

text: An example was the super-injunction raised in September 2009 by Carter-Ruck solicitors on behalf of oil trader Trafigura, prohibiting the reporting of an internal Trafigura report into the 2006 Ivory Coast toxic waste dump scandal. The existence of the super-injunction was revealed only when it was referred to in a parliamentary question that was subsequently circulated on the Internet (parliamentary privilege protects statements by MPs in Parliament which would otherwise be held to be in contempt of court). Before it could be challenged in court, the injunction was varied to permit reporting of the question. By long legal tradition, parliamentary proceedings may be reported without restriction. Parliamentary proceedings are covered by absolute privilege, but the reporting of those proceedings in newspapers is only covered by qualified privilege. Another example of the use of a super-injunction was in a libel case in which a plaintiff who claimed he was defamed by family members in a dispute over a multimillion-pound family trust obtained anonymity for himself and for his relatives.


title: Injunction

text: Roy Greenslade credits the former editor of "The Guardian", Alan Rusbridger, with coining the word "super-injunction" in an article about the Trafigura affair in September 2009.


title: Injunction

text: The term "hyper-injunction" has also been used to describe an injunction similar to a super-injunction but also including an order that the injunction must not be discussed with members of Parliament, journalists, or lawyers. One known hyper-injunction was obtained at the High Court in 2006, preventing its subject from saying that paint used in water tanks on passenger ships can break down and release potentially toxic chemicals. This example became public knowledge in Parliament under parliamentary privilege.


title: Injunction

text: By May 2011, "Private Eye" claimed to be aware of 53 super-injunctions and anonymised privacy injunctions,<ref name="PE1288/5"></ref> though Lord Neuberger's report into the use of super-injunctions revealed that only two super-injunctions had been granted since January 2010. Many media sources were wrongly describing all gagging orders as super-injunctions. The widespread media coverage of super-injunctions led to a drop in numbers after 2011; however four were granted in the first five months of 2015.<ref name="PE1393/9"></ref>


title: Injunction

text: Injunctions defined by the European Commission as injunctions which can be issued for instance in cases in which materially the same website becomes available immediately after issuing the injunction with a different IP address or URL and which is drafted in a way that allows to also cover the new IP address or URL without the need for a new judicial procedure to obtain a new injunction.


title: Injunction

text: An injunction described by the European Commission as allowing the repeated blocking of a website every time a live broadcast is in progress. These injunctions are generally used during live sporting events.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Blacksburg is an incorporated town in Montgomery County, Virginia, United States, with a population of 44,826 at the 2020 census. Blacksburg, as well as the surrounding county, is dominated economically and demographically by the presence of Virginia Tech (Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University).


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Blacksburg, Christiansburg, and the city of Radford are the three principal jurisdictions of the Blacksburg-Christiansburg Metropolitan Statistical Area, which encompasses those jurisdictions and all of Montgomery, Pulaski, and Giles counties for statistical purposes. The MSA has an estimated population of 181,863 and is currently one of the faster-growing MSAs in Virginia.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Blacksburg High School, which in 2013 opened a new building, is often ranked among the top schools of the nation for its academics. Its soccer, track, and cross-country teams are also among the top in the state .


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Blacksburg was the scene of the Virginia Tech shootings on April 16, 2007, when 32 people were killed and 17 wounded by a lone gunman. At the time, it was the deadliest shooting carried out by a single gunman in U.S. history, and generated considerable media coverage and discussion.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In the mid-1600s, English colonists were still uncertain of what lay beyond the Allegheny Mountains, whose topography and possession by native inhabitants, Tutelo-speaking tribes, were a barrier to expanded settlement by the Colony of Virginia. Abraham Wood, who commanded Fort Henry on the frontier (now the site of Petersburg, Virginia), and operated an Indian trading post nearby, organized several expeditions to explore farther west. A passage over the ridge was finally found in 1671 when explorers Batts and Fallam, sent by Wood, reached the present-day location of Blacksburg, Virginia. Their expedition followed Stroubles Creek, through the current locations of the town and campus of Virginia Tech, to what they named Wood's River.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: They reported the area as inhabited by the Monacan and Moneton, Siouan-speaking groups, but the Virginia colonial legislature had authorized Wood to claim it. Accordingly, on September 17, 1671, the Batts and Fallam party claimed all of the lands comprising the river's drainage basin for King Charles II. However, the region was not yet open to English patent. In 1700, Seneca warriors of the Iroquois Confederacy based in New York and Pennsylvania, overran the entire area, driving out the other bands. As early as 1718, the Seneca had agreed to sell the parts they had conquered east of the Blue Ridge to the Virginia Colony. However, following another cession at the 1744 Treaty of Lancaster, there was a dispute between the tribe and colonists over whether the new boundary was the Alleghenies or the Ohio River. The site of Blacksburg lay just within this disputed zone.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: By the 1740s, the Wood's River Land Company, represented by Colonel James Patton, gained a large tract of land within present-day southwest Virginia. Part of the tract became Montgomery County and Pulaski County and was sold to Virginian, Irish, Scots-Irish, and English settlers as a reward for their services during the Spanish-Indian Wars and other wars. The Draper and Ingles families were among those who built their homes at Draper's Meadow by 1748; this area was between the present location of the campus and the subdivision of Hethwood.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Because of its strategic location between powerful Indian nations, who alternately allied with the French or British as it suited them, plus its location through gaps into the Alleghenies further west, the area's development was viewed with increasing apprehension by the French and their Indian allies. In July 1755, during the French and Indian War, hostile Shawnee Indians equipped and armed by France attacked the frontier outpost at Draper's Meadow, which then had around twenty pioneer settlers. About four settlers were killed in the attacks, and five were taken captive to Kentucky by the Shawnee, among them Mary Draper Ingles, who later escaped. The memorial to Draper's Meadow massacre was dedicated on a bridge located near Duck Pond. By the end of the war, Draper's Meadow was deserted.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: By the Treaty of Easton (1758), and again by the Royal Proclamation of 1763, the British Crown made the Allegheny ridge separating the Mississippi and Chesapeake watersheds the official boundary between their Virginia colony and native peoples. It remained so until 1768, when native claims to the land including Blacksburg were cleared by the Treaty of Hard Labour with the Cherokee, and the Treaty of Fort Stanwix with the Six Nations (Iroquois Confederacy). The Shawnee finally abandoned their claim to this territory in 1774 following Dunmore's War.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Samuel Black, whose family settled in Staunton, Virginia, bought of land in the Draper's Meadow area for his sons John and William in 1772. Smithfield Plantation, built in approximately 1774 by Colonel William Preston, was developed on the original Draper's Meadow site, near the current location of the Duck Pond on the Virginia Tech campus.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: When Samuel Black died in 1792, the land was evenly divided into two sections by his sons. The road now known as Draper Road is the dividing line between the sections. John Black's property was later developed as the majority of the central campus of Virginia Tech.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In 1797, William Black laid out a small grid of streets and lots comprising 16 blocks on a portion of his land. The original town was limited to the area bounded by present-day Draper Road, Jackson Street, Wharton Street, and Clay Street. The town logo contains 16 small squares that create a larger square, representing the original 16 square blocks that were a part of Black's design.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: After Black petitioned the state legislature to establish a town at the site, the official establishment and founding of Blacksburg was January 13, 1798 on the tract that he laid out. The following August 4, he signed over the deed to the town trustees. The town was named after him in his honor.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In 1808, a log cabin was built just east of Smithfield Plantation. Robert Preston, a future colonel of the 28th Virginia Infantry, lived here, as did two Virginia governors. The cabin was later added to in the mid 19th century to create a Greek Revival farmhouse now known as Solitude, which is the oldest building on the Virginia Tech campus. In 1872, the 250 acre Solitude farm became the central campus of Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College, and the house, after the death of its owner in the following decade, served as a college infirmary from 1882 to 1886. It was later used for faculty housing.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: According to records of the Post Office Department of the National Archives and Records Administration, the post office was established as "BLACKSBURGH" on April 8, 1827. The name was changed to the current spelling (without the "h") in 1893.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: The Methodists had built two cabins to worship in since the town's founding, but they did not build a more permanent structure until 1830, when they constructed a brick church. The Presbyterians were the next Christian denomination to build a church within Blacksburg's limits. In 1848 they built their first brick building at 117 South Main Street. Though still standing, this building has not been used as a church for many years. It was once South Main Café, but is currently used as a restaurant called Cabo Fish Taco. It is also the oldest building on Main Street. The Baptists founded the third oldest church in the town in 1852.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: One of the first educational establishments started here was the Blacksburg Female Academy in 1840. The Olin and Preston Institute (re-charted as Preston and Olin Institute in 1869) was a Methodist-sponsored academy established in 1851.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: The first bank in Montgomery County, Blacksburg Savings Institution, was established in 1849. The first newspaper published in Blacksburg was the "Montgomery Messenger". Its first issue was printed in 1869.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In 1871, the village that became known as Blacksburg was incorporated and Thomas W. Jones became the first mayor.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: One year later, the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College opened on October 2, 1872 with a faculty of three members. The college grew and became known as Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, which shortly afterward became informally referred to as Virginia Tech. It is a Virginia land-grant university.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: A fire-fighting unit was organized within the university in 1899. The town bought its first fire truck 43 years later. The Blacksburg First Aid and Life Saving Crew was founded in 1951 and renamed Blacksburg Volunteer Rescue Squad in another addition to the growing amount of emergency services.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: The first automobile came through the town in 1901. Three years later the train entered Blacksburg from Christiansburg using the Virginia Anthracite & Coal Railroad, which later became known as the "Huckleberry." Traffic in Blacksburg increased sufficiently enough that by January 1913 the town voted against allowing cows to continue to roam in town. The first filling station was opened in 1919 and at the time was the only one between Roanoke, Virginia and Bluefield, West Virginia. The town's first landing strip was built in 1929 and was 1,800 feet (548.64 m) in length. The grass landing strip was given airport status in 1931 and later became Virginia Tech Airport. Local buses began to make their rounds for the first time in 1947.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: The town's first theater was built in 1909. It was a precursor to the Lyric Theatre on College Avenue.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In the spring of 1935, Main Street was strung with ten street lights from Roanoke Street northward to the top of the hill, where it now intersects the Alumni Mall. By October the town's second stoplight was installed on Main Street at Roanoke Street and was synchronized with the original one at Main and College. The establishment of official law enforcement began in 1937 when Officer Dave "Highpockets" Sumner became the first Blacksburg police officer. The first police car was purchased nine years later.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Blacksburg experienced a boost of compulsory education during the second half of the 20th century. Even though there had been a place for secondary education somewhere in town since 1906, it was not until 1952 when the first facility for Blacksburg High School was built on South Main and Eheart Streets. Later it moved to new quarters and was adapted as Blacksburg Middle School. That same year, all high schools in Montgomery County began operating on a twelve-grade basis which is still county policy to this day.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: The Margaret J. Beeks Elementary School and the Gilbert F. Linkous Elementary School were both completed in 1963 and Harding Avenue Elementary School was built in 1972. Two years later, in 1974, Blacksburg High School moved its location to Patrick Henry Drive after 20 years of issues with overcrowding in its previous location.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Jack Goodwin was appointed the first chief of police by the Blacksburg Town Council in 1954. Jan Olinger was made the first female police officer in 1976.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: 1958 marked the beginning of the end for the railroad that came to be known as the "Huckleberry." In the 1960s, however, railroads underwent restructuring. Passenger service came to an end on July 25. On June 30, 1966 the last freight train arrived at the Blacksburg depot. Within 24 hours, the depot was closed, the empty cars were picked up, and the tracks were immediately removed. After years of effort by the citizens of the town a trail was constructed on the former railroad right-of-way and, after years of construction, funding and planning issues the Huckleberry Trail was opened to the public on December 1, 1998. 190 years after its original construction, the newly renovated Smithfield Plantation house was re-opened in 1964.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: The amount of commercialization in the area began to increase in the mid-1960s. The Corning Glass Works (now called Corning Incorporated), based in upper New York State, opened a manufacturing facility in 1964 that is located south of Blacksburg. The Blacksburg Municipal Building on South Main Street was constructed in 1969. Terrace View apartments, the first large student complex, was built in 1970. The Blacksburg Branch of the Montgomery County Library was opened the same year. Ten years later, it was moved into the facility that used to house the Blacksburg Lumber Company on Draper Road. In 1971, Blacksburg ratified a new charter and LewisGale Hospital Montgomery was built. The University Mall shopping center opened that year as well. In the mid 1970s the Foxridge apartments, an even larger student apartment complex, was built as part of the Hethwood development. During 1981, the Blacksburg Community Center opened. It cost the town $1.2 million to build. By 1988, the New River Valley Mall, located in the neighboring town of Christiansburg, was opened and the Virginia Tech Corporate Research Center had its first ground-breaking ceremony.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: After construction of Virginia's portion of Interstate 81 began in 1957, nine years passed before the Christiansburg-area segment was opened. About half that amount of time passed before the U.S. Route 460 bypass opened in 1969.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In the 1970s, Virginia Tech was annexed into the town and the town acquired other land. Together with the effect of the annexations, the population grew from 9,000 people to 30,000 during this decade. Replacing the old public bus system, Blacksburg Transit began running in 1983.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Blacksburg is the site of the Blacksburg Electronic Village or BEV, conceived as a computer networking project of Virginia Tech in 1991 and officially born in 1993 as a way to link the town together using the Internet. This project quickly ushered the town into what is being called the Information Age.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In 1994, Montgomery County Public Schools completed construction of Kipps Elementary School at 2801 Prices Fork Road. By this time, Blacksburg had five elementary schools, a middle school, and a high school. A newly renovated Blacksburg branch library was opened in 1996.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In the aftermath of railroad restructuring, many rail lines were abandoned. After 24 years of abandonment and six years of planning and construction, the first phase of the Huckleberry Trail built on the old Huckleberry railbed opened in 1996. The second phase of construction was completed in 1998. In 2019, the Blacksburg Rotary Mountain Bike Skills Park opened with funding from Blacksburg Parks and Recreation and donations.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: On July 8, 1997, ground was broken for the experimental "Smart Road" project. The second phase of construction was completed in 2002. The road is currently closed to the public and used as a research test bed for the Virginia Tech Transportation Institute. A National Weather Service office is located in Blacksburg and serves most of southwestern Virginia, southeast West Virginia, and northwest North Carolina.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: In 2003, the new building for Blacksburg Middle School students opened on Prices Fork Road adjacent to the property housing Kipps Elementary School.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: On April 16, 2007, Seung-Hui Cho shot 32 people dead and injured an additional 17 in the Virginia Tech shooting before committing suicide. The massacre is the deadliest mass shooting on a college campus since the University of Texas tower shooting in 1966.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: On February 13, 2010, following a snowstorm that dropped two feet of snow on the area, the gymnasium roof on the previously occupied Blacksburg High School suffered a catastrophic structural failure and collapsed, causing structural damage to other areas of the school. The school building was condemned and students attended night school on a split schedule with the Blacksburg Middle School students at their school for the remainder of the year. It was determined that repair costs would exceed $18 million and would not be feasible given the age of the school; it was decided not to repair the building. Before the school year of 2013-14 Blacksburg High School was operating on a normal schedule out of the Blacksburg Middle School building on 3109 Prices Fork Road, and the middle schoolers were going to school in the old Christiansburg Middle School. The original Blacksburg High School building was vacant until it was demolished in the Summer of 2011. The newly constructed school building of Blacksburg High School which opened for the 2013 fall semester is located at 3401 Bruin Lane, behind the current Blacksburg Middle School and Bill Brown Football Stadium.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of of which is land and , or 0.10%, is water. At 2,080 feet (634 m) above sea level, Blacksburg is located in the New River Valley and also sits astride the Eastern Continental Divide. It is the 15th largest municipality and the largest town in the commonwealth of Virginia. The Eastern Continental Divide traverses the Virginia Tech Montgomery Executive Airport.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: The tallest building in Blacksburg is Slusher Tower, a twelve-story residence hall on the Virginia Tech campus. The building with the highest elevation is actually Hoge Hall (formerly Lee Hall), another residence hall, which until May 17, 2009 was home to the transmitter of campus radio station WUVT. The tower for WUVT now sits atop Price Mountain.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Due to its elevation, the climate of Blacksburg is a hot-summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfa), being cooled down from the lowland areas, all of which possess a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: Cfa). Summers are humid with warm to hot temperatures, although the area sees significantly cooler temperatures than places of lower elevation at the same latitude, with only 5 days of + highs annually. Winters are generally cool to cold, with occasional intervening warm periods and an average of 0.9 nights of sub- lows. Monthly mean temperatures range from in January to in July. Snowfall averages per season and generally occurs from December to March, although significant snowfall has been recorded outside of those months.


title: Blacksburg, Virginia

text: Blacksburg is served primarily by US 460, a four-lane highway that connects I-81 at Christiansburg, 10 miles to the south, and to I-77 at Princeton, West Virginia. Driving from Blacksburg to its larger metro neighbor, Roanoke, via US 460 and I-81, usually requires less than an hour.