title: Nell (film)

text: Nell sleeps during the day or works inside her home and is active outdoors only after sunset. She explains to Jerry that her mother told her about the rape and warned her that men were evildoers. As Nell comes to trust Jerry, she sees him as a friend, the "gah'inja" her mother promised would come. Jerry later realizes that "gah'inja" is Nell's phrase for "guardian angel." To neutralize her fear of evildoers and getting raped, Paula has Jerry swim in the lake with Nell and she feels his body, hugs him, and has fun with him. Using popcorn as an incentive, Jerry is able to lead Nell outside and into the sun. Nell leads Jerry and Paula to the decayed remains of her identical twin sister, May, who died in a fall while the two were playing in the woods.


title: Nell (film)

text: Mike Ibarra, a reporter, learns of Nell's existence and visits her cabin. Nell is curious of the visitor at first, but when he snaps a photo, the flash frightens Nell. Jerry arrives and throws the reporter out. He realizes the reporter is not with the press and apologizes for overreacting, but asks him to forget he ever met her. Paula believes that Nell would be safer in a hospital, while Jerry feels that Nell should be left alone and allowed to live as she pleases. An argument ensues between the two with Paula accusing Jerry of using Nell for his own pleasure, but Nell manages to calm them down after hearing their conversation. The two decide that Nell should be shown a little of the world, and they make the decision to bring Nell into town.


title: Nell (film)

text: While in town, Nell befriends Mary, Todd's depressed wife, goes shopping with Jerry and Paula, but also encounters some raunchy boys in a pool hall until Jerry gets her out due to her showing her body in front of everyone at their request. Jerry and Paula give Nell a book about love, romance, and intimacy to help her learn about making love, which she shows to understand by having Jerry and Paula touch each other’s faces and strengthening their bond. With increased intrusion by the press, Jerry and Paula take Nell to a hospital for her protection. There, Nell becomes extremely despondent and unresponsive after seeing a vision of May. Jerry removes her from the hospital and hides her in a hotel. Paula joins him, and the two admit that they love each other.


title: Nell (film)

text: At the court hearing the next day, Al, who wants to study Nell in a controlled environment, delivers his opinion that Nell has Asperger syndrome and belongs in an institution. Nell then comes forward and, with Jerry interpreting, speaks for herself and ensures that there is no need to worry and fear for her, as she has no greater sorrows than everyone else. Five years later, Jerry and Paula bring their daughter, Ruthie, to visit Nell in her house on her birthday, and friends surround her. Nell treats Ruthie like a little sister and takes her to the lake, although this reminds her of May.


title: Nell (film)

text: Production took place in North Carolina, including the town of Robbinsville and the city of Charlotte.


title: Nell (film)

text: The film debuted with $5.7 million. It eventually grossed $33.6 million domestically while bringing over $73 million around the world to a total of $106.6 million worldwide.


title: Nell (film)

text: "Nell" received mixed reviews from critics, who praised the cast but criticised the screenplay. Foster received widespread praise for her performance. "The Washington Post"s review noted that "Jodie Foster, transcendent in the bravura title role, is far grander than the film itself, and her performance helps camouflage the weaknesses of its structure and the naivete of its themes." In her review for "The New York Times", Janet Maslin noted that: "For all its technical brilliance, not even Ms. Foster's intense, accomplished performance in the title role holds much surprise. The wild-child story of 'Nell' unfolds in unexpectedly predictable ways, clinging fiercely to the banal thought that Nell's innocence makes her purer than anyone else in the story." Maslin also wished the film had explored Nell's adult sexuality. Roger Ebert liked the movie, commenting that "Despite its predictable philosophy, however, "Nell" is an effective film, and a moving one." He also singled out the performances of Foster and Neeson.


title: Nell (film)

text: The film holds a score of 57% on Rotten Tomatoes from 35 reviews as of 2022, and with an average rating of 5.20/10. The site's consensus states: "Despite a committed performance by Jodie Foster, "Nell" opts for ponderous melodrama instead of engaging with the ethical dilemmas of socializing its titular wild child." On Metacritic it has a score of 60% based on reviews from 23 critics.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: In mathematics, a module is a generalization of the notion of vector space in which the field of scalars is replaced by a ring. The concept of "module" generalizes also the notion of abelian group, since the abelian groups are exactly the modules over the ring of integers.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: Like a vector space, a module is an additive abelian group, and scalar multiplication is distributive over the operation of addition between elements of the ring or module and is compatible with the ring multiplication.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: Modules are very closely related to the representation theory of groups. They are also one of the central notions of commutative algebra and homological algebra, and are used widely in algebraic geometry and algebraic topology.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: In a vector space, the set of scalars is a field and acts on the vectors by scalar multiplication, subject to certain axioms such as the distributive law. In a module, the scalars need only be a ring, so the module concept represents a significant generalization. In commutative algebra, both ideals and quotient rings are modules, so that many arguments about ideals or quotient rings can be combined into a single argument about modules. In non-commutative algebra, the distinction between left ideals, ideals, and modules becomes more pronounced, though some ring-theoretic conditions can be expressed either about left ideals or left modules.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: Much of the theory of modules consists of extending as many of the desirable properties of vector spaces as possible to the realm of modules over a "well-behaved" ring, such as a principal ideal domain. However, modules can be quite a bit more complicated than vector spaces; for instance, not all modules have a basis, and even those that do, free modules, need not have a unique rank if the underlying ring does not satisfy the invariant basis number condition, unlike vector spaces, which always have a (possibly infinite) basis whose cardinality is then unique. (These last two assertions require the axiom of choice in general, but not in the case of finite-dimensional spaces, or certain well-behaved infinite-dimensional spaces such as L spaces.)


title: Module (mathematics)

text: A left "R"-module "M" consists of an abelian group and an operation such that for all "r", "s" in "R" and "x", "y" in "M", we have


title: Module (mathematics)

text: The operation · is called "scalar multiplication". Often the symbol · is omitted, but in this article we use it and reserve juxtaposition for multiplication in "R". One may write "M" to emphasize that "M" is a left "R"-module. A right "R"-module "M" is defined similarly in terms of an operation .


title: Module (mathematics)

text: Authors who do not require rings to be unital omit condition 4 in the definition above; they would call the structures defined above "unital left "R"-modules". In this article, consistent with the glossary of ring theory, all rings and modules are assumed to be unital.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: An ("R","S")-bimodule is an abelian group together with both a left scalar multiplication · by elements of "R" and a right scalar multiplication ∗ by elements of "S", making it simultaneously a left "R"-module and a right "S"-module, satisfying the additional condition for all "r" in "R", "x" in "M", and "s" in "S".


title: Module (mathematics)

text: If "R" is commutative, then left "R"-modules are the same as right "R"-modules and are simply called "R"-modules.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: Suppose "M" is a left "R"-module and "N" is a subgroup of "M". Then "N" is a submodule (or more explicitly an "R"-submodule) if for any "n" in "N" and any "r" in "R", the product (or for a right "R"-module) is in "N".


title: Module (mathematics)

text: If "X" is any subset of an "R"-module, then the submodule spanned by "X" is defined to be formula_5 where "N" runs over the submodules of "M" which contain "X", or explicitly formula_6, which is important in the definition of tensor products.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: The set of submodules of a given module "M", together with the two binary operations + and ∩, forms a lattice which satisfies the modular law:


title: Module (mathematics)

text: If "M" and "N" are left "R"-modules, then a map is a homomorphism of "R"-modules if for any "m", "n" in "M" and "r", "s" in "R",


title: Module (mathematics)

text: This, like any homomorphism of mathematical objects, is just a mapping which preserves the structure of the objects. Another name for a homomorphism of "R"-modules is an "R"-linear map.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: A bijective module homomorphism is called a module isomorphism, and the two modules "M" and "N" are called isomorphic. Two isomorphic modules are identical for all practical purposes, differing solely in the notation for their elements.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: The kernel of a module homomorphism is the submodule of "M" consisting of all elements that are sent to zero by "f", and the image of "f" is the submodule of "N" consisting of values "f"("m") for all elements "m" of "M". The isomorphism theorems familiar from groups and vector spaces are also valid for "R"-modules.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: Given a ring "R", the set of all left "R"-modules together with their module homomorphisms forms an abelian category, denoted by "R"-Mod (see category of modules).


title: Module (mathematics)

text: If "M" is a left "R"-module, then the "action" of an element "r" in "R" is defined to be the map that sends each "x" to "rx" (or "xr" in the case of a right module), and is necessarily a group endomorphism of the abelian group . The set of all group endomorphisms of "M" is denoted End("M") and forms a ring under addition and composition, and sending a ring element "r" of "R" to its action actually defines a ring homomorphism from "R" to End("M").


title: Module (mathematics)

text: Such a ring homomorphism is called a "representation" of "R" over the abelian group "M"; an alternative and equivalent way of defining left "R"-modules is to say that a left "R"-module is an abelian group "M" together with a representation of "R" over it. Such a representation may also be called a "ring action" of "R" on "M".


title: Module (mathematics)

text: A representation is called "faithful" if and only if the map is injective. In terms of modules, this means that if "r" is an element of "R" such that for all "x" in "M", then . Every abelian group is a faithful module over the integers or over some ring of integers modulo "n", Z/"n"Z.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: A ring "R" corresponds to a preadditive category R with a single object. With this understanding, a left "R"-module is just a covariant additive functor from R to the category Ab of abelian groups, and right "R"-modules are contravariant additive functors. This suggests that, if C is any preadditive category, a covariant additive functor from C to Ab should be considered a generalized left module over C. These functors form a functor category C-Mod which is the natural generalization of the module category "R"-Mod.


title: Module (mathematics)

text: Modules over "commutative" rings can be generalized in a different direction: take a ringed space ("X", O) and consider the sheaves of O-modules (see sheaf of modules). These form a category O-Mod, and play an important role in modern algebraic geometry. If "X" has only a single point, then this is a module category in the old sense over the commutative ring O("X").


title: Module (mathematics)

text: One can also consider modules over a semiring. Modules over rings are abelian groups, but modules over semirings are only commutative monoids. Most applications of modules are still possible. In particular, for any semiring "S", the matrices over "S" form a semiring over which the tuples of elements from "S" are a module (in this generalized sense only). This allows a further generalization of the concept of vector space incorporating the semirings from theoretical computer science.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The Panama Canal Zone (), also simply known as the Canal Zone, was an unincorporated territory of the United States, located in the Isthmus of Panama, that existed from 1903 to 1979. It was located within the territory of Panama, consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón. Its capital was Balboa.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The Panama Canal Zone was created on November 18, 1903 from the territory of Panama; established with the signing of the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty, which allowed for the construction of the Panama Canal within the territory by the United States. The zone existed until October 1, 1979, when it was incorporated back into Panama.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: In 1904, the Isthmian Canal Convention was proclaimed. In it, the Republic of Panama granted to the United States in perpetuity the use, occupation, and control of a zone of land and land underwater for the construction, maintenance, operation, sanitation, and protection of the canal. From 1903 to 1979, the territory was controlled by the United States, which had purchased the land from its private and public owners, built the canal and financed its construction. The Canal Zone was abolished in 1979, as a term of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties two years earlier; the canal itself was later under joint U.S.–Panamanian control until it was fully turned over to Panama in 1999.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Proposals for a canal across the Isthmus of Panama date back to 1529, soon after the Spanish conquest. Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón, a lieutenant of conquistador Vasco Núñez de Balboa, suggested four possible routes, one of which closely tracks the present-day canal. Saavedra believed that such a canal would make it easier for European vessels to reach Asia. Although King Charles I was enthusiastic and ordered preliminary works started, his officials in Panama soon realized that such an undertaking was beyond the capabilities of 16th-century technology. One official wrote to Charles, "I pledge to Your Majesty that there is not a prince in the world with the power to accomplish this". The Spanish instead built a road across the isthmus. The road came to be crucial to Spain's economy, as treasure obtained along the Pacific coast of South America was offloaded at Panama City and hauled through the jungle to the Atlantic port of Nombre de Dios, close to present-day Colón. Although additional canal building proposals were made throughout the 16th and 17th centuries, they came to naught.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a number of canals built. The success of the Erie Canal in the United States and the collapse of the Spanish Empire in Latin America led to a surge of American interest in building an interoceanic canal. Beginning in 1826, US officials began negotiations with Gran Colombia (present-day Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Panama), hoping to gain a concession for the building of a canal. Jealous of their newly obtained independence and fearing that they would be dominated by an American presence, the president Simón Bolívar and New Granadan officials declined American offers. The new nation was politically unstable, and Panama rebelled several times during the 19th century.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: In 1836 U.S. statesman Charles Biddle reached an agreement with the New Granadan government to replace the old road with an improved one or a railroad, running from Panama City on the Pacific coast to the Chagres River, where a steamship service would allow passengers and freight to continue to Colón. His agreement was repudiated by the Jackson administration, which wanted rights to build a canal. In 1841, with Panama in rebellion again, British interests secured a right of way over the isthmus from the insurgent regime and occupied Nicaraguan ports that might have served as the Atlantic terminus of a canal. In 1846 the new US envoy to Bogotá, Benjamin Bidlack, was surprised when, soon after his arrival, the New Granadans proposed that the United States be the guarantor of the neutrality of the isthmus. The resulting Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty allowed the United States to intervene militarily to ensure that the interoceanic road (and when it was built, the Panama Railroad as well) would not be disrupted. New Granada hoped that other nations would sign similar treaties, but the one with the United States, which was ratified by the US Senate in June 1848 after considerable lobbying by New Granada, was the only one.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The treaty led the U.S. government to contract for steamship service to Panama from ports on both coasts. When the California Gold Rush began in 1848, traffic through Panama greatly increased, and New Granada agreed to allow the Panama Railroad to be constructed by American interests. This first "transcontinental railroad" opened in 1850. There were riots in Panama City in 1856; several Americans were killed. US warships landed Marines, who occupied the railroad station and kept the railroad service from being interrupted by the unrest. The United States demanded compensation from New Granada, including a zone wide, to be governed by US officials and in which the United States might build any "railway or passageway" it desired. The demand was dropped in the face of resistance by New Granadan officials, who accused the United States of seeking a colony.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Through the remainder of the 19th century, the United States landed troops several times to preserve the railway connection. At the same time, it pursued a canal treaty with Colombia (as New Granada was renamed). One treaty, signed in 1868, was rejected by the Colombian Senate, which hoped for better terms from the incoming Grant administration. Under this treaty, the canal would have been in the middle of a 20-mile zone, under American management but Colombian sovereignty, and the canal would revert to Colombia in 99 years. The Grant administration did little to pursue a treaty and, in 1878, the concession to build the canal fell to a French firm. The French efforts eventually failed, but with Panama apparently unavailable, the United States considered possible canal sites in Mexico and Nicaragua.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The Spanish–American War of 1898 added new life to the canal debate. During the war, American warships in the Atlantic seeking to reach battle zones in the Pacific had been forced to round Cape Horn. Influential naval pundits, such as Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan, urged the construction of a Central American canal. In 1902, with the French efforts moribund, US president Theodore Roosevelt backed the Panama route, and Congress passed legislation authorizing him to purchase the French assets on the condition that an agreement was reached with Colombia. In March 1902 Colombia set its terms for such a treaty: Colombia was to be sovereign over the canal, which would be policed by Colombians paid for by the United States. The host nation would receive a larger percentage of the tolls than provided for in earlier draft treaties. The draft terms were quickly rejected by American officials. Roosevelt was in a hurry to secure the treaty; the Colombians, to whom the French property would revert in 1904, were not. Negotiations dragged on into 1903, during which time there was unrest in Panama City and Colón; the United States sent in Marines to guard the trains. Nevertheless, in early 1903, the United States and Colombia signed a treaty which, despite Colombia's previous objections, gave the United States a wide zone in which it could deploy troops with Colombian consent. On August 12, 1903, the Colombian Senate voted down the treaty 24–0.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Roosevelt was angered by the Colombians' actions, especially when the Colombian Senate made a counteroffer that was more financially advantageous to Colombia. A Frenchman who had worked on his nation's canal efforts, Philippe Bunau-Varilla, represented Panamanian insurgents; he met with Roosevelt and with Secretary of State John Hay, who saw to it that his principals received covert support. When the revolution came in November 1903, the United States intervened to protect the rebels, who succeeded in taking over the province, declaring it independent as the Republic of Panama. Bunau-Varilla was initially the Panamanian representative in the United States, though he was about to be displaced by actual Panamanians, and hastily negotiated a treaty, giving the United States a zone wide and full authority to pass laws to govern that zone. The Panama Canal Zone (Canal Zone, or Zone) excluded Panama City and Colón, but included four offshore islands, and permitted the United States to add to the zone any additional lands needed to carry on canal operations. The Panamanians were minded to disavow the treaty, but Bunau-Varilla told the new government that if Panama did not agree, the United States would withdraw its protection and make the best terms it could with Colombia. The Panamanians agreed, even adding a provision to the new constitution, at US request, allowing the larger nation to intervene to preserve public order.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The treaty was approved by the provisional Panamanian government on December 2, 1903, and by the US Senate on February 23, 1904. Under the treaty, Panama received , much of which the United States required to be invested in that country, plus annual payments of ; with those payments made, as well as for the purchase of the French company assets, the Canal Zone was formally turned over by Panama on May 4, 1904, when American officials reopened the Panama City offices of the canal company and raised the American flag. This marked the beginning point for U.S. excavation and construction which concluded in August 1914 with the opening of the canal to commercial traffic.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: By order of President Theodore Roosevelt under the Panama Canal Acts of 1902 and 1904 the secretary of War was made supervisor of canal construction and the second Isthmian Canal Commission made the governing body for the Canal Zone. Under the Panama Canal Act of May 24, 1912, President Woodrow Wilson issued Executive Order 1885, January 27, 1914, effective April 1, 1914, abolishing the previous governance and placing it under the direction of the Secretary of War, with the entity designated as The Panama Canal. This Executive Order charged the Governor of the Panama Canal with "completion, maintenance, operation, government and sanitation of the Panama Canal and its adjuncts and the government of the Canal Zone." A number of departments were specified in the order, with others to be established as needed by the Governor of the Panama Canal with approval of the President and under the supervision of the Secretary of War. Defense of the canal was the responsibility of the Secretary of War who retained control of troops with provisions for presidential appointment of an Army officer in wartime who would have "exclusive authority over the operation of the Panama Canal and the Government of the Canal Zone." The executive order noted in closing "that the supervision of the operations of the Panama Canal under the permanent organization should be under the Secretary of War," thus establishing the essentially military arrangement and atmosphere for the canal and Canal Zone.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: On September 5, 1939, with the outbreak of war in Europe Executive Order 8232 placed governance of the Canal and "all its adjuncts and appurtenances, including the government of the Canal Zone" under the exclusive control of the Commanding General, Panama Canal Department for the duration.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Effective July 1, 1951, under an act of Congress dated September 26, 1950 (64 Stat. 1038), governance of the Canal Zone was through the Canal Zone Government with the canal operated by the Panama Canal Company until 1979 when the Panama Canal Commission took over its governance. The entire structure was under the control of the United States government with the secretary of the Army appointing the Panama Canal Company board of directors and the Canal Zone Government was entirely financed by the company. The office of the governor of the Panama Canal Zone was not usually a stepping stone to higher political office but a position given to US Army active duty general officers of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. The governor was also president of the Panama Canal Company. The Canal Zone had its own police force (the Canal Zone Police), courts, and judges (the United States District Court for the Canal Zone). Despite being an unincorporated territory, the Canal Zone was never granted a congressional delegate.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Everyone worked for the company or the government in one form or another. Residents did not own their homes; instead, they rented houses assigned primarily based on seniority in the zone. When an employee moved away, the house would be listed and employees could apply for it. The utility companies were also managed by the company. There were no independent stores; goods were brought in and sold at stores run by the company, such as a commissary, housewares, and so forth.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: In 1952 the Panama Canal Company was required to go on a break-even basis in an announcement made in the form of the president's budget submission to the United States Congress. Though company officials had been involved in previewing the requirement, there was no disclosure in advance, even though the Bureau of the Budget directed that the new régime become effective on March 1. The company organization was realigned into three main divisions; Canal Activity and Commercial Activity with the Service Activity providing services to both operating activities at rates sufficient to recover costs. Rate adjustments in housing and other employee services would be required and a form of valuation, compared to a property tax, would be used to determine each division's contribution to the Canal Zone Government.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Panama Canal Zone was located within the territory of Panama, consisting of the Panama Canal and an area generally extending on each side of the centerline, but excluding Panama City and Colón, which would have otherwise fallen in part within the limits of the Canal Zone. When artificial lakes were created to assure a steady supply of water for the locks, those lakes were included within the zone. Its border spanned two of the provinces of Panama: Colón and Panamá. The total area of the territory was 553 square miles (1,430 km2).


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Although it was a United States territory, the zone did not have formal boundary restrictions on Panamanians transiting to either half of their country, or for any other visitors. A Panama Canal fence did exist along the main highway, although it was only a safety measure to separate pedestrians from traffic, and some of the U.S. territories was beyond it. In Panama City, if there were no protests interfering with movement, one could enter the Zone simply by crossing a street.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: In 1903, the United States, having failed to obtain from Colombia the right to build a canal across the Isthmus of Panama, which was part of that country, sent warships in support of Panamanian independence from Colombia. This being achieved, the new nation of Panama ceded to the Americans the rights they wanted in the Hay–Bunau-Varilla Treaty. Over time, though, the existence of the Canal Zone, a political exclave of the United States that cut Panama geographically in half and had its own courts, police, and civil government, became a cause of conflict between the two countries. Major rioting and clashes occurred on May 21, 1958, and on November 3, 1959. Demonstrations occurred at the opening of the Thatcher Ferry Bridge, now known as the Bridge of the Americas, in 1962 and serious rioting occurred in January 1964. This led to the United States easing its controls in the Zone. For example, Panamanian flags were allowed to be flown alongside American ones. After extensive negotiations, the Canal Zone ceased to exist on October 1, 1979, in compliance with provisions of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: In 1989, the United States invaded Panama and virtually all of the military operations took place within the Canal Zone including Operation Acid Gambit, the Raid at Renacer Prison among many others including operations at the entrance, exit and all of the locks.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: During its construction and into the 1940s, the labor force in the Canal Zone (which was almost entirely publicly employed) was divided into a "gold" roll (short for payroll) classification, and a "silver" roll classification. The origins of this system are unclear, but it was the practice on the 19th-century Panama Railroad to pay Americans in US gold and local workers in silver coin. Although some Canal Zone officials compared the gold roll to military officers and the silver roll to enlisted men, the characteristic that determined on which roll an employee was placed was race. With very few exceptions, American and Northern European whites were placed on the gold roll, and blacks and southern European whites on the silver roll. American blacks were generally not hired; black employees were from the Caribbean, often from Barbados and Jamaica. American whites seeking work as laborers, which were almost entirely silver roll positions, were discouraged from applying. In the early days of the system, bosses could promote exceptional workers from silver to gold, but this practice soon ceased as race came to be the determining factor. As a result of the initial policy, there were several hundred skilled blacks and Southern Europeans on the gold roll. In November 1906, Chief Engineer John Stevens ordered that most blacks on the gold roll be placed on the silver roll instead (a few remained in such roles as teachers and postmasters); the following month, the Canal Commission reported that the 3,700 gold roll employees were "almost all white Americans" and the 13,000 silver roll workers were "mostly aliens". On February 8, 1908, President Roosevelt ordered that no further non-Americans be placed on the gold roll. After Panamanians objected, the gold roll was reopened to them in December 1908; however, efforts to remove blacks and non-Americans from the gold roll continued.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Until 1918, when all employees began to be paid in US dollars, gold roll employees were paid in gold, in American currency, while their silver roll counterparts were paid in silver coin, initially Colombian pesos. Through the years of canal construction, silver roll workers were paid with coins from various nations; in several years, coin was imported from the United States because of local shortages. Even after 1918, both the designations and the disparity in privileges lingered.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Until the end of World War II in 1945, the Panama Canal Zone operated under a Jim Crow society, where the category of "gold" represented white, U.S. workers and the title "silver" represented the non-white, non-U.S. workers on the Zone. There were even separate entrances for each group at the Post Office. After the strike of 1920, the Afro diasporic workers were banned from unionizing by the U.S. Canal officials. As a result, the Panama Canal West Indian Employees Association (PCWIEA) was created in 1924 to fill this vacuum of representation. The PCWIEA did not garner much support on the Canal Zone because of its restrictive membership policies and the haunting of the 1920 strike and its damaging consequences. However, in 1946, the PCWIEA summoned the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) for representation and the establishment of a local union. In July of that year, the West Indian and Panamanian workers received a charter for Local 713 of the United Public Workers of America (UPWA)-CIO. Together, with the assistance of U.S. representatives for the Local, these Afro-diasporic workers came together to secure material benefits in their livelihoods. They organized together in order to pose a serious threat to the Jim Crow system which resulted, however, only in minimal gains. American segregationist policies persisted as it related to housing and schooling. In the end, ties to communism destroyed the UPWA and as a result Local 713 collapsed. Nevertheless, Frank Gurridy describes this as diasporization, "diaspora in action, or the ways Afro-diasporic linkages were made in practice". In the case of the Panama Canal Zone, these linkages were made not only by the West Indian and Panamanian communities, but also between the Afro descended workers on the Zone and African Americans, on the mainland of the U.S., through the transnational struggle to dismantle the system of Jim Crow.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Canal Zone housing was constructed in the early days of construction, as part of Stevens' plans. Housing constructed for couples and families consisted of structures containing four two-story apartments. The units had corrugated-iron roofs, and were uniformly painted gray with white trim. Constructed of pine clapboard, they had long windows and high ceilings, allowing for air movement. Better-paid employees were entitled to more square feet of housing, the unit in which allowances were expressed. Initially, employees received one square foot per dollar of monthly salary. Stevens from the first encouraged gold roll employees to send for their wives and children; to encourage them to do so, wives were granted a housing allowance equal to their husband's, even if they were not employees. Bachelors mostly resided in hotel-like structures. The structures all had screened verandas and up-to-date plumbing. The government furnished power, water, coal for cooking, ice for iceboxes, lawn care, groundskeeping, garbage disposal, and, for bachelors only, maid service.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: In the first days of the Canal Zone, the ICC provided no food, and workers had to fend for themselves, obtaining poor-quality food at inflated prices from Panamanian merchants. When Stevens arrived in 1905, he ordered food to be provided at cost, leading to the establishment of the Canal Zone Commissary. The functions of the Commissary quickly grew, generally against the will of the Panamanian government, which saw more and more goods and services provided in the Zone rather than in Panama. Merchants could not compete with the commissary's prices or quality; for example, it boasted that the meat it sold had been refrigerated every moment from the Chicago slaughterhouse to the moment it was passed to the consumer. By 1913, it consisted of 22 general stores, 7 cigar stores, 22 hostels, 2 hotels, and a mail-order division. It served high-quality meals at small expense to workers and more expensive meals to upper-echelon canal employees and others able to afford it.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The commissary was a source of friction between the Canal Zone and Panama for several other reasons. The commissary dominated sales of supplies to passing ships. The commissary was off limits to individuals who were not in the U.S. Military, employees of the Panama Canal Company, the Canal Zone Government and/or their dependents. This restriction was requested by Panama for the benefit of Panamanian storekeepers, who feared the loss of trade. Panama had laws restricting imports from the Canal Zone. Goods from the commissary would sometimes show up in Panamanian stores and in vendor displays, where "Comisariato" goods were deemed of high quality. Additionally, there were separate commissaries on the U.S. military installations that were available only to the U.S. Military personnel and their dependents. Employees and dependents of the Panama Canal Company/Government were not allowed to utilize the commissaries, exchanges, package stores, theaters, gas stations, and other facilities on the U.S. Military installations.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Although the Panama Canal Zone was legal territory of the United States until the implementation of the Torrijos–Carter Treaties in 1979, questions arose almost from its inception as to whether it was considered part of the United States for constitutional purposes, or, in the phrase of the day, whether the Constitution followed the flag. In 1901 the US Supreme Court had ruled in "Downes v. Bidwell" that unincorporated territories are not the United States. On July 28, 1904, Controller of the Treasury Robert Tracewell stated, "While the general spirit and purpose of the Constitution is applicable to the zone, that domain is not a part of the United States within the full meaning of the Constitution and laws of the country." Accordingly, the Supreme Court held in 1905 in "Rasmussen v. United States" that the full Constitution only applies for incorporated territories of the United States.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The treaty with Panama made no mention of the nationality status of the native inhabitants of the Zone. Pursuant to the principles of international law, they became non-citizen U.S. nationals unless they elected to retain their previous nationality. Children of non-citizen U.S. nationals generally acquired the status of their parents. However, for most nationality purposes, the Canal Zone was considered to be foreign territory and the status persons acquired at birth was governed by Sec. 1993 of the Revised Statutes of the United States (Act of February 10, 1855, 10 Stat. 604), which granted them statutory US citizenship at birth but only if their fathers were, at the time of the child's birth, U.S. citizens who had previously resided in the United States. In 1934 the law was amended to allow for citizenship to be acquired at birth through either parent if the parent was a U.S. citizen who had previously resided in the United States. In 1937 a new law (Act of August 4, 1937, 50 Stat. 558) was enacted to provide for US citizenship to persons born in the Canal Zone (since 1904) to a U.S. citizen parent without that parent needing to have been previously resident in the United States. The law is now codified under title 8, section 1403. It not only grants statutory and declaratory born citizenship to those born in the Canal Zone after February 26, 1904, of at least one US citizen parent, but also does so retroactively for all children born of at least one US citizen in the Canal Zone before the law's enactment.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: In 2008, during a minor controversy over whether John McCain, born in the Zone in 1936, was legally eligible for the presidency, the US Senate passed a non-binding resolution that McCain was a "natural-born Citizen" of the United States.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The Canal Zone was generally divided into two sections, the Pacific side and the Atlantic side, separated by Gatun Lake.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: On 1 October 1979, the day the Panama Canal Treaty of 1977 took effect, most of the land within the former Canal Zone was transferred to Panama. However, the treaty set aside many Canal Zone areas and facilities for transfer during the following 20 years. The treaty specifically categorized areas and facilities by name as "Military Areas of Coordination", "Defense Sites" and "Areas Subject to Separate Bilateral Agreement". These were to be transferred by the U.S. to Panama during certain time windows or simply by the end of the 243-month treaty period. On 1 October 1979, among the many such parcels so designated in the treaty, 35 emerged as enclaves (surrounded entirely by land solely under Panamanian jurisdiction). In later years as other areas were turned over to Panama, nine more enclaves emerged.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: At least 13 other parcels each were enclosed partly by land under the absolute jurisdiction of Panama and partly by an "Area of Civil Coordination" (housing), which under the treaty was subject to elements of both U.S. and Panamanian public law. In addition, the 1977 treaty designated numerous areas and individual facilities as "Canal Operating Areas" for joint U.S.-Panama ongoing operations by a commission. On the effective date of the treaty, many of these, including Madden Dam, became newly surrounded by the territory of Panama. Just after noon local time on 31 December 1999, all former Canal Zone parcels of all types had come under the exclusive jurisdiction of Panama.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: The Panama Canal Zone issued its own postage stamps from 1904 until October 25, 1978. During the early years, United States postage stamps overprinted "Canal Zone" were used. After a few years, accredited Canal Zone stamps were issued.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: After a transition period during which Panama took over the administration of postal service, Canal Zone stamps became invalid.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Damp Proof "Canal Zone Matches" were manufactured by Jönköpings Westra Tändsticksfabriks, Sweden expressly for the Panama Canal Company.


title: Panama Canal Zone

text: Amateur radio licenses were issued by the United States Federal Communications Commission and carried the prefix KZ5, the initial 'K' indicating a station under American jurisdiction. The American Radio Relay League had a Canal Zone section, and the Canal Zone was considered an "entity" for purposes of the DX Century Club. Contacts with Canal Zone stations from before repatriation may still be counted for DXCC credit separate from Panama. The KZ5 amateur radio prefix has been issued to license operators since 1979 but today has no special meaning.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: A dagger, obelisk, or obelus is a typographical mark that usually indicates a footnote if an asterisk has already been used. The symbol is also used to indicate death (of people) or extinction (of species). It is one of the modern descendants of the obelus, a mark used historically by scholars as a critical or highlighting indicator in manuscripts. (The term obelisk derives from the ('), which means "little obelus"; from (') meaning 'roasting spit').


title: Dagger (mark)

text: A double dagger or diesis is a variant with two handles that usually marks a third footnote after the asterisk and dagger.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: The triple dagger is a variant with three handles and is used by medievalists to indicate another level of notation.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: The dagger symbol originated from a variant of the obelus, originally depicted by a plain line or a line with one or two dots . It represented an iron roasting spit, a dart, or the sharp end of a javelin, symbolizing the skewering or cutting out of dubious matter.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: The obelus is believed to have been invented by the Homeric scholar Zenodotus as one of a system of editorial symbols. They marked questionable or corrupt words or passages in manuscripts of the Homeric epics. The system was further refined by his student Aristophanes of Byzantium, who first introduced the asterisk and used a symbol resembling a for an obelus; and finally by Aristophanes' student, in turn, Aristarchus, from whom they earned the name of "Aristarchian symbols".


title: Dagger (mark)

text: While the asterisk ("asteriscus") was used for corrective additions, the obelus was used for corrective deletions of invalid reconstructions. It was used when non-attested words are reconstructed for the sake of argument only, implying that the author did not believe such a word or word form had ever existed. Some scholars used the obelus and various other critical symbols, in conjunction with a second symbol known as the "metobelos" ("end of obelus"), variously represented as two vertically arranged dots, a -like symbol, a mallet-like symbol, or a diagonal slash (with or without one or two dots). They indicated the end of a marked passage.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: It was used much in the same way by later scholars to mark differences between various translations or versions of the Bible and other manuscripts. The early Christian Alexandrian scholar Origen (c. 184–253 AD) used it to indicate differences between different versions of the Old Testament in his "Hexapla". Epiphanius of Salamis (c. 310–320 – 403) used both a horizontal slash or hook (with or without dots) and an upright and slightly slanting dagger to represent an obelus. St. Jerome (c. 347–420) used a simple horizontal slash for an obelus, but only for passages in the Old Testament. He describes the use of the asterisk and the dagger as: "an asterisk makes a light shine, the obelisk cuts and pierces".


title: Dagger (mark)

text: Isidore of Seville (c. 560–636) described the use of the symbol as follows: "The obelus is appended to words or phrases uselessly repeated, or else where the passage involves a false reading, so that, like the arrow, it lays low the superfluous and makes the errors disappear ... The obelus accompanied by points is used when we do not know whether a passage should be suppressed or not."


title: Dagger (mark)

text: Medieval scribes used the symbols extensively for critical markings of manuscripts. In addition to this, the dagger was also used in notations in early Christianity, to indicate a minor intermediate pause in the chanting of Psalms, equivalent to the quaver rest notation or the trope symbol in Hebrew cantillation. It also indicates a breath mark when reciting, along with the asterisk, and is thus frequently seen beside a comma.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: In the 16th century, the printer and scholar Robert Estienne (also known as Stephanus in Latin and Stephens in English) used it to mark differences in the words or passages between different printed versions of the Greek New Testament ("Textus Receptus").


title: Dagger (mark)

text: Due to the variations as to the different uses of the different forms of the obelus, there is some controversy as to which symbols can actually be considered an obelus. The symbol and its variant, the , is sometimes considered to be different from other obeli. The term 'obelus' may have referred strictly only to the horizontal slash and the dagger symbols.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: The dagger usually indicates a footnote if an asterisk has already been used. A third footnote employs the double dagger. Additional footnotes are somewhat inconsistent and represented by a variety of symbols, e.g., parallels ( ), section sign , and the pilcrow some of which were nonexistent in early modern typography. Partly because of this, superscript numerals have increasingly been used in modern literature in the place of these symbols, especially when several footnotes are required. Some texts use asterisks and daggers alongside superscripts, using the former for per-page footnotes and the latter for endnotes.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: The dagger is also used to indicate death, extinction, or obsolescence. The asterisk and the dagger, when placed beside years, indicate year of birth and year of death respectively. This usage is particularly common in German. When placed immediately before or after a person's name, the dagger indicates that the person is deceased. In this usage, it is referred to as the "death dagger". In the "Oxford English Dictionary", the dagger symbol indicates an obsolete word.


title: Dagger (mark)

text: While daggers are freely used in English-language texts, they are often avoided in other languages because of their similarity to the Christian cross. In German, for example, daggers are commonly employed only to indicate a person's death or the extinction of a word, language, species or the like.


title: British Israelism

text: British Israelism (also called Anglo-Israelism) is the British nationalist, pseudoarchaeological, pseudohistorical and pseudoreligious belief that the people of Great Britain are "genetically, racially, and linguistically the direct descendants" of the Ten Lost Tribes of ancient Israel. With roots in the 16th century, British Israelism was inspired by several 19th century English writings such as John Wilson's 1840 "Our Israelitish Origin". From the 1870s onward, numerous independent British Israelite organizations were set up throughout the British Empire as well as in the United States; as of the early 21st century, a number of these organizations are still active. In America, the idea gave rise to the Christian Identity movement.


title: British Israelism

text: The central tenets of British Israelism have been refuted by archaeological, ethnological, genetic, and linguistic research.


title: British Israelism

text: According to Brackney (2012) and Fine (2015), the French Huguenot magistrate M. le Loyer's "The Ten Lost Tribes", published in 1590, provided one of the earliest expressions of the belief that the Anglo-Saxon, Celtic, Scandinavian, Germanic, and associated peoples are the direct descendants of the Old Testament Israelites. Anglo-Israelism has also been attributed to Francis Drake and King James VI and I, who believed he was the King of Israel. Adriaan van Schrieck (1560–1621), who influenced Henry Spelman (1562–1641) and John Sadler (1615–74), wrote in the early 17th century about his ideas on the origins of the Celtic and Saxon peoples. In 1649, Sadler published "The Rights of the Kingdom", "which argues for an 'Israelite genealogy for the British people'".


title: British Israelism

text: Aspects of British Israelism and its influences have also been traced to Richard Brothers, who published "A Revealed Knowledge of the Prophecies and Times" in 1794, John Wilson's "Our Israelitish Origin" (1844), and John Pym Yeatman's "The Shemetic Origin of the Nations of Western Europe" (1879).


title: British Israelism

text: British Israelism arose in England, then spread to the United States. Its adherents cite various supposedly-medieval manuscripts to claim an older origin, but British Israelism appeared as a distinct movement in the early 1880s:


title: British Israelism

text: The extent to which the British clergy became aware of the existence of the movement may be gauged by the comment which Cardinal John Henry Newman (1801–1890) made when he was asked why he had left the Church of England in 1845 in order to join the Roman Catholic Church. He said that there was a very real danger that the movement "would take over the Church of England."


title: British Israelism

text: In the late 19th century, Edward Hine, Edward Wheler Bird, and Herbert Aldersmith developed the British Israelite movement. Hine and Bird achieved a degree of "doctrinal coherence" by eliminating competing forms of the ideology: in 1878, the Anglo-Ephraim Association of London, which followed Wilson by accepting the broader community of western European Germanic peoples as fellow Israelites who were also favoured by God, was absorbed into Bird's Metropolitan Anglo-Israel Association, which espoused the Anglo-exclusive view promoted by Hine.


title: British Israelism

text: By 1886, the "Anglo-Israel Association" had 27 affiliated groups throughout Britain. Hine later departed for the United States, where he promoted the movement.


title: British Israelism

text: The 1906 edition of the "Jewish Encyclopedia" stated that British Israelism's adherents "are said to number 2,000,000 in England and the United States", an unreliable figure if association membership and journal subscription numbers are any guide; the number of passive Protestant sympathisers is almost impossible to determine.


title: British Israelism

text: Between 1899 and 1902, adherents of British Israelism dug up parts of the Hill of Tara in the belief that the Ark of the Covenant was buried there, doing much damage to one of Ireland's most ancient royal and archaeological sites. At the same time, British Israelism became associated with various pseudo-archaeological pyramidology theories, such as the notion that the Pyramid of Khufu contained a prophetic numerology of the British peoples.


title: British Israelism

text: In 1914, the thirty-fourth year of its publication, the "Anglo-Israel Almanac" listed the details of a large number of Kingdom Identity Groups which were operating independently throughout the British Isles as well as in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Canada, and the United States of America.


title: British Israelism

text: In 1919, the British-Israel-World Federation (BIWF) was founded in London, and Covenant Publishing was founded in 1922. William Pascoe Goard was the first director of the publishing house. During this time, several prominent figures patronized the BIWF organization and its publisher; Princess Alice, Countess of Athlone was its Patron-in-chief prior to World War II. One of its highest-profile members was William Massey, then Prime Minister of New Zealand. Due to the expansive nature of the British Empire, believers in British Israelism spread worldwide and the BIWF expanded its organization to the British Commonwealth. Howard Rand promoted the teaching, and he became the National Commissioner of the Anglo-Saxon Federation of America in 1928. He published "The Bulletin", later renamed "The Messenger of the Covenant". More recently, it was renamed "Destiny".


title: British Israelism

text: During its peak in the early 20th century, British Israelism was also espoused by John Fisher, 1st Baron Fisher. A prolific author on British Israelism during the later 1930s and 40s was Alexander James Ferris.


title: British Israelism

text: The BIWF continues to exist, with its main headquarters in Bishop Auckland, County Durham. It also has chapters in Australia, Canada, The Netherlands, New Zealand and South Africa.


title: British Israelism

text: In 1968, one source estimated that there were between 3,000 and 5,000 British Israelites in Britain. There, the theology of British Israelism has been taught by a few small Pentecostal churches.


title: British Israelism

text: The post-Imperial era brought about a change in orientation for British Israelists, reflected in a corresponding change in the social class to which their membership predominantly belonged. During the years of its initial growth, it could depend on the spread of Christian fundamentalism within the country, the emotional appeal of imperialism and a belief in the unrivaled power of the British economy to expand a middle-class membership that viewed it as the divine duty of the nation, as God's chosen people, to rule and civilize the world. By the mid-20th century, the dissipation of these factors changed the focus of the movement to one troubled by social and moral decline, including the degradation of class distinctions and of monarchical absolutism. Societal changes were viewed as portents of a coming apocalypse and as indications that the nation was in need of redemption. A fantasized society which practiced Victorian moral rectitude and imperialism, lacked socialism, bureaucrats, intellectuals and income tax, would now come to be viewed by the movement which drew its support from the well-to-do as the ideal that modern British society should emulate.


title: British Israelism

text: Adherents believe that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are the twelve sons of the patriarch Jacob (who was later named Israel). Jacob elevated the descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph) to the status of full tribes in their own right, replacing the tribe of Joseph.


title: British Israelism

text: A division occurred among the twelve tribes in the days of Jeroboam and Rehoboam, with the three tribes of Judah, Benjamin, and, in part, Levi, forming the Kingdom of Judah, and the remaining ten tribes forming the Kingdom of Israel (Samaria). Thus, they argue, "the great bulk of Israelites are not the Jews".


title: British Israelism

text: The key component of British Israelism is its representation of the migrations of the Lost Tribes of Israel. Adherents suggested that the Scythians, Cimmerians and Goths were representatives of these lost tribes, and the progenitors of the later invaders of Britain. John Wilson would argue for the inclusion of all Western European Gothic peoples among the descendants of the Israelites, but under the later influence of Edward Hine, the movement would come to view only the peoples of the British Isles as having this ancestry.


title: British Israelism

text: Herodotus reported that the ancient Persians called all of the Scythians "Sacae", but they called themselves "Scoloti". However, a modern comparison of the forms which are given in other ancient languages suggests that "Skuda" was their name. Ancient writers, such as Josephus and Jerome would associate the Scythians with the peoples of Gog and Magog, but British Israelist etymologists would see in "Sacae" a name derived from the biblical "Isaac", claiming that the appearance of the Scythians where they claimed the Lost Tribes were last documented also supported a connection. Further, British Israelists find support in the superficial resemblance between King Jehu's pointed headdress and that of the captive Saka king seen to the far right on the Behistun Rock. The chain of etymological identification leading from Isaac to the "Sacae" was continued to the Saxons (interpreted as "Sac's sons" – the sons of Isaac), who are portrayed as invading England from Denmark, the 'land of the Tribe of Dan'. They saw the same tribal name, left by the wanderers, in the Dar"dan"elles, the "Dan"ube, Mace"don"ia, "Dun"kirk, "Dun"glow in Ireland, "Dun"dee in Scotland, Swe"den" and Lon"don", and ascribed to this lost tribe the mythical Irish "Tuatha Dé Danann". In the name of the British they see "berith"ish, referring to the Hebrew covenant with God.


title: British Israelism

text: Bede (died 735) had linked the Picts to the Scythians, but British Israelists suggested that he had confused the two tribes of Scotland, and that it was the "Scotti" (Scots) who were one with the "Scoloti" (Scyths) of Herodotus. They drew particular support from the derivation of the Scots from the Scythians found in the 1320 Declaration of Arbroath, reflecting a tradition related in the 9th-century "Historia Brittonum" that the Scots descended from the union of a Scythian exile with Scota, daughter of a Pharaoh, a tale found in some form in several other early-14th-century historical and poetic sources. The Declaration begins:


title: British Israelism

text: "Most Holy Father and Lord, we know and from the chronicles and books of the ancients we find that among other famous nations our own, the Scots, has been graced with widespread renown. They journeyed from Greater Scythia by way of the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Pillars of Hercules, and dwelt for a long course of time in Spain among the most savage tribes, but nowhere could they be subdued by any race, however barbarous. Thence they came, twelve hundred years after the people of Israel crossed the Red Sea, to their home in the west where they still live today."


title: British Israelism

text: British-Israel Associations cite the Declaration as evidence for the link between the Scots and the Scythians, and hence the Lost Tribes, as had been proposed by the early British Israelist etymologists.


title: British Israelism

text: Other Celtic invaders would be given an analogous descent. In the Welsh ("Cymry") the British Israelists would see a direct connection through the Cimbri to the Cimmerians, the "Gimirri" of Assyrian annals, a name sometimes also given by the ancient Babylonians to the Scythians and Saka. Perceived similarity between this and the name by which the Assyrian annals referred to Israel, "Bit Khumri", would lead the British Israelists to claim that the Welsh too were members of the Lost Tribes.


title: British Israelism

text: According to the Anglo-Israelists, these claimed connections would make the British the literal descendants of the Lost Tribes, and thus inheritors of the promises made to the Israelites in the Old Testament.


title: British Israelism

text: Some adherents further claim that the British royal family is of lineal descent from the house of King David via a daughter of Zedekiah, the last king of Judah. According to this legend, the prophet Jeremiah, and his scribe, Baruch, escaped with "the king's daughters" (Jer. 41:10; 43:6) to Egypt. They later travelled to Ireland, where one of the surviving Judahite princesses, Tea Tephi, married a local High King of Ireland. From this fabled union the Davidic throne was supposedly preserved, having been transferred to Ireland, then Scotland and later England, whence the British monarchs are alleged to have descended. The Stone of Scone, which has been used in the coronations of Scottish, English and British monarchs for centuries, is traditionally claimed to be identical to the pillow stone which was used by the biblical patriarch, Jacob.


title: British Israelism

text: A commonly held British-Israel doctrine is the belief that the Tribe of Ephraim and the Tribe of Manasseh can be identified as modern day Britain and the United States of America.


title: British Israelism

text: Part of the foundation of the British-Israel doctrine is the theological claim that particular blessings were bestowed upon three of the tribes of Israel, in that the tribe of Judah was to be the 'chief ruler' e.g. King David, and Ephraim was to receive the birthright (See Jacob and Esau). Adherents believe that these blessings have continued down through the ages to modern times, with the British Monarchy being identified as the continued blessing upon Judah, and both Britain (Ephraim) and the USA (Manasseh) as recipients of the national birthright blessing.


title: British Israelism

text: British Israelism has been criticized for its poor research and scholarship. In the 1910 edition of the "Encyclopædia Britannica," an article which summarizes the theology of British Israelism contains the statement that: "The theory [of British-Israelism] rests on premises which are deemed by scholars—both theological and anthropological—to be utterly unsound". Current scholarship is not consistent with the claims of British Israelism, with scholars drawing attention to its "historical and linguistic inaccuracies" in addition to its links to antisemitism. Hale (2015) refers to "the overwhelming cultural, historical and genetic evidence against it."


title: British Israelism

text: Critics of British Israelism note that the arguments which are presented by promoters of the teaching are based on unsubstantiated and highly speculative, amateur research. Tudor Parfitt, author of "The Lost Tribes: The History of a Myth", states that the proof cited by adherents of British Israelism is "of a feeble composition even by the low standards of the genre."


title: British Israelism

text: Some proponents of British Israelism have claimed that numerous links exist between historical linguistics, Ancient Hebrew, and various European place names and languages. This can be traced to the works of John Wilson in the 19th century. The self-trained Wilson looked for similarities in the sounds of words and argued that many Scottish, British and Irish words stemmed from ancient Hebrew words. Wilson's publications inspired the development of British Israel language associations in Europe.


title: British Israelism

text: Modern scholarly linguistic analysis conclusively shows that the languages of the British Isles (English, Welsh, and Gaelic) belong in the Indo-European language family, while Hebrew belongs in the Semitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. In 1906, T. R. Lounsbury stated that "no trace of the slightest real connection can be discovered" between English and ancient Hebrew, while in 1993 Michael Friedman refuted claims that Hebrew was closely related to Celtic and Anglo-Saxon when he wrote that "the actual evidence could hardly be any weaker".


title: British Israelism

text: Others have addressed the specific word relationships proposed. Russell Spittler (1973) says of the "disputable" etymological claims made by the British Israelists that they "have no ample basis in linguistic scholarship and are based on coincidences only." William Ingram (1995) would present arguments made by British Israelism as examples of "tortured etymology".


title: British Israelism

text: Adherents of British Israelism cite various scriptures in support of the argument that the "lost" Northern Israelite Tribes migrated through Europe to end up in Britain. Dimont (1933) argues that British Israelists misunderstand and misinterpret the meaning of these scriptures.


title: British Israelism

text: One such case is the distinction that British Israelists make between the "Jews" of the Southern Kingdom and the "Israelites" of the Northern Kingdom. They believe that the Bible consistently distinguishes the two groups. Dimont says that many of these scriptures are misinterpreted because after the captivities, the distinction between "Jews" and "Israelites" was lost over time.


title: British Israelism

text: British Israelists believe that the Northern Tribes of Israel lost their identity after the captivity in Assyria and that this is reflected in the Bible. Dimont disagrees with this assertion and argues that only higher-ranking Israelites were deported from Israel and many Israelites remained. He cites examples after the Assyrian captivity, such as Josiah, King of Judah, who received money from the tribes of ""Manasseh, and Ephraim and all the remnant of Israel"" (2 Chronicles 34:9), and Hezekiah, who sent invitations not only to Judah, but also to northern Israel for the attendance of a Passover in Jerusalem. (2 Chronicles 30); British Israelites interpret 2 Chronicles 34:9 as referring to "Scythians".


title: British Israelism

text: Dimont is also critical of the interpretations of biblical prophecy embraced by the movement, saying, "Texts are torn from their context, and misapplied without the slightest regard to their original meaning."


title: British Israelism

text: British Israelism rests on linking different ancient populations. This includes linking the "lost" tribes of Israel with the Scythians, Cimmerians, Celts, and modern Western Europeans such as the British. To support these links, some adherents believe that similarities exist between various cultural aspects of these population groups, and they argue that these links demonstrate the migration of the "lost" Israelites in a westerly direction. Examples given include burial customs, metalwork, clothing, dietary customs, and more. Dimont argues that the customs of the Scythians and the Cimmerians are in contrast to those of the Ancient Israelites, and he further dismisses the connection between these populations and the Saxons and Celts, particularly criticizing the then-current formulations of British Israelism that would interject Semites between the closely related English and Germans.


title: British Israelism

text: The Scythian origin of the Scots has been referred to as mythical. Algernon Herbert, writing in 1848, characterized the linguistic derivation of Scots from "Scoloti" as "strictly impossible", and Merrill (2005) referred to it as false etymology.


title: British Israelism

text: Addressing their view on the fate of the exiled tribes, Frank Boys said of their voluminous output, "All the effort to write these volumes might well have been saved on the premise that 'they were never lost,' which we believe to be the correct one."


title: British Israelism

text: Parfitt suggests that the creation of British Israelism was inspired by numerous ideological factors, which included: a desire of its adherents, many of whom were from ordinary backgrounds, to prove that they had a glorious ancient past; emerging pride in Western imperialism and colonialism, and a belief in the "racial superiority of white Anglo-Saxon Protestants". Aikau characterized the movement as being "fundamentally about providing a rationale for Anglo-Saxon superiority." To Kidd, its theology represents a "quasi-heresy", which serves to "blunt the universalist message apparent in the New Testament." Its role in fostering antisemitism in conservative Protestant Christianity has been noted by historians, along with its role in fostering a feeling of "racial chauvinism" which is "not always covert".


title: British Israelism

text: Separately, the mythology of British Israelism has been characterized as fostering "nationalistic bellicosity" by historians. To some adherents, British Israelism served as a justification for British imperialism and American settler colonialism, along with the displacement of indigenous peoples which subsequently followed them.


title: British Israelism

text: British Israelism was rapidly growing in England when the United States-based Latter Day Saint movement sent its first missionaries to England. British Israelist ideas clearly influenced Mormon thought by the 1850s, and by the 1870s, Mormon periodicals published in Britain were citing British Israelist proponents to promote the belief that most Mormons were of Anglo-Saxon and Israelite descent, concepts that would subsequently be synthesized into general Mormon discourse.


title: British Israelism

text: Several individuals who were influential in the founding of Pentecostalism embraced the tenets of British Israelism. The British-Israel-inspired self-identification of Anglo-Saxon peoples with the Jewish nation and the promises made to them by their god would significantly contribute to the belief held by several prominent proto- and early-pentecostals that they would play a central role in the end times. Notable among them was John Alexander Dowie, who spoke about plans for Anglo-Saxon Christians to take control of Jerusalem in order to prepare for the Second Coming. This legacy was continued by Charles Fox Parham, who instead believed that the Lost Tribes would join their Jewish brethren in order to reestablish the nation of Israel. His was a more expansive view of the Lost Tribes than Dowie's, encompassing not only Anglo-Saxons, but also Scandinavians, Danes, High Germans, and even Hindus and Japanese, who, according to Parham, had acquired the blood of Abraham through intermarriage and hence, they were eligible to take part in his end-time drama. British-Isralist beliefs would soon be marginalized in the movement, but its influences could still be seen in the teachings of several key leaders in the mid-20th-century.


title: British Israelism

text: In Britain, the espousal of British Israelism by George Jeffreys, founder of the Elim Pentecostal Church, led to a schism which precipitated his resignation in 1939 and led to the formation of the Bible-Pattern Church Fellowship, which continues to teach the doctrine.


title: British Israelism

text: Beginning in the 1960s, the teaching of British Israelism was vigorously promoted by Herbert W. Armstrong, founder and Pastor General of the Worldwide Church of God. Armstrong believed that the teaching was key to the understanding of biblical prophecy: "One might ask, were not biblical prophecies closed and sealed? Indeed they were—until now! And even now they can be understood only by those who possess the master key to unlock them." Armstrong believed that God commanded him to proclaim the prophecies to the Lost Tribes of Israel before the "end-times". Armstrong's belief caused his separation from the Church of God Seventh Day because of its refusal to adopt the teaching.


title: British Israelism

text: Armstrong founded his own church, first named the "Radio Church of God" and later renamed the "Worldwide Church of God". He described British Israelism as a "central plank" of his theology.


title: British Israelism

text: After Armstrong's death, his former church abandoned its belief in British Israelism and in 2009, it changed its name to Grace Communion International (GCI). It offers an explanation for the doctrine's origin as well as an explanation for the church's renunciation of the doctrine on its official website. Church members who refused to accept these doctrinal changes left the Worldwide Church of God/GCI and founded their own offshoot churches. Many of these organizations still teach British Israelism, among them are the Philadelphia Church of God, the Living Church of God, and the United Church of God. Armstrong promoted other genealogical history theories, such as the belief that modern-day Germany represents ancient Assyria (see Assyria and Germany in Anglo-Israelism), writing, "The Assyrians settled in central Europe, and the Germans, undoubtedly, are, in part, the descendants of the ancient Assyrians.".


title: British Israelism

text: While early British Israelites such as Edward Hine and John Wilson were generally philosemites, an antisemitic strain also existed within the movement, such as the scientific racialism that led Wilson to deny the "racial purity" of modern-day Jews, leading some within the movement to adopt the belief that modern-day Jews were "un-Semitic impostors". Some American adherents of British Israelism would later adopt a racialized, strongly antisemitic theology that became known as Christian Identity, which has at its core the belief that non-Caucasian people have no souls and therefore cannot be saved. Since its emergence in the 1920s, Christian Identity has taught the belief that Jews are not descended from the Tribe of Judah. Instead, some Christian Identity adherents believe that Jews are descended from Satan and Lilith (see Serpent seed) while others believe that Jews are descended from Edomite-Khazars (see Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry). Their adoption of the British Israelist belief that the Israelite-derived Anglo-Saxons had been favoured by God over the 'impure' modern Jews meant that a reluctantly antisemitic Klansman "could now maintain his anti-Semitism and at the same time revere a Bible cleansed of its Jewish taint." The arrival of British Israelism in the United States contributed to the transmission of antisemitic notions into the Christian Identity movement. One of the leading proponents of the movement after World War II was Reverend Wesley A. Swift. For several years during the 1930s and 1940s, Swift was a student and a minister at Aimee Semple McPherson's Pentecostal Foursquare Church. Swift went from leading several Los Angeles Anglo-Israelite institutions to founding the Anglo-Saxon Christian Congregation, later renamed the Church of Jesus Christ–Christian in about 1948, which became Christian Identity's main mouthpiece. Both British Israelism and Christian Identity have been branded intrinsic "racial chauvinist" doctrines, but while for British-Israelism the Jews are protagonists of the apocalypse, they are antagonists in Christian Identity escathology. Christian identity members, as well as individuals such as Jacob Thorkelson and Charles Ashton, perceived British Israelism as a platform to "facilitate a Jewish monopoly on global power." Converserly, the British-Israel-World Federation denounced through the "BIFW Newsletter" in January 2007 the rise of antisemitic groups within British-Israelist circles in the US.


title: Renn Hawkey

text: Renn McDonnell Hawkey (born March 29, 1974) is an American musician, songwriter, film producer, and occasional actor. He played the synthesizer for the metal band Deadsy, performing on their self-titled debut album (1996) and subsequent releases "Commencement" (2002) and "Phantasmagore" (2006).


title: Renn Hawkey

text: In 2011, Hawkey served as musical director and producer on his wife Vera Farmiga's directorial debut film "Higher Ground", and in 2017, he executive produced the documentary film "Unspoken". In 2015, he had a recurring role as Paul Koretsky in the A&E series "The Returned".


title: Renn Hawkey

text: Hawkey was born in New York City, and grew up in Ossining, New York. He is the third of five children born to Penelope "Penny" (née Sharp), an advertising executive who wrote the Coca-Cola commercial "Hey Kid, Catch!", and William Stevenson "Bill" Hawkey, who also worked in advertising. His parents now own and operate Sundial Farm, a plant nursery in Ossining. Hawkey has four full siblings: Adam, a film compositor and colorist, Robin, a chiropractor, Timothy, a marketing managing director, and Molly, an actress and comedian. He also has two paternal half-siblings from his father's first marriage: William, a headmaster of The Pennington School, and Elisabeth, a corporate chef.


title: Renn Hawkey

text: Hawkey attended the Hyde School in Maine, where he met future bandmate Elijah Blue Allman, and subsequently spent a semester studying at Sarah Lawrence College. During his childhood, he played the piano and cello.


title: Renn Hawkey

text: Hawkey was the third member to join Deadsy after frontman Elijah Blue Allman sent him a Juno-106 synth and a demo tape made by Allman and drummer Alec Puro. Each member of the band represented a color and "entity", with Hawkey's being yellow and science and medicine, respectively. The members also had their own unique appearance; Hawkey would dress in medical scrubs. On August 1, 1996, Deadsy released their self-titled debut album on the music label Sire Records. In 1999, Deadsy received attention from labels and notable musicians, with their first gig at The Viper Room attracting members of Limp Bizkit, Orgy, Sugar Ray, and Thirty Seconds to Mars.


title: Renn Hawkey

text: The band's second studio album, "Commencement", was released on May 14, 2002, and was their debut record released on a major music label after signing to Jonathan Davis' Elementree Records, a division of DreamWorks Records. In addition to playing the synthesizer on "Commencement", Hawkey also programmed and played guitar on a number of the tracks. The band subsequently released their first music video, for the song "The Key to Gramercy Park", with Davis providing guest vocals on the track and Fred Durst directing. That same year, Deadsy was invited by Korn to join the Family Values Tour, along with Puddle of Mudd, Stone Temple Pilots, and Linkin Park.


title: Renn Hawkey

text: In 2002, Hawkey also worked with Thirty Seconds to Mars on their self-titled debut album, playing the synthesizer on the song "Capricorn (A Brand New Name)". Deadsy left DreamWorks in 2004, citing its sale to Interscope Records as one of the reasons. In 2006, Deadsy was asked to again join Korn and co-headliners Deftones on the Family Values Tour 2006. The band released their third studio album, "Phantasmagore", on August 22, 2006, through Immortal Records. This album would ultimately mark Hawkey's final appearance as part of Deadsy. The band went on hiatus in April 2007, after which Hawkey began a career in carpentry. In 2011, Hawkey served as the music director to his wife's directorial debut "Higher Ground".


title: Renn Hawkey

text: In November 2018, Deadsy reformed and played a show at the San Quentin State Prison alongside Queens of the Stone Age. They are expected to release their fourth studio album in 2019.


title: Renn Hawkey

text: Prior to being a film producer, Hawkey had a cameo role as a musician in the musical comedy film "The Singing Detective" (2003). As a film producer, Hawkey has worked on the drama film "Higher Ground" (2011), directed by his wife Vera Farmiga, in which he was also an uncredited and unnamed extra. In 2015, he appeared in the first, seventh, and eighth episodes of the Carlton Cuse-produced A&E supernatural drama series "The Returned" in the supporting role of Paul Koretsky, a father grieving the death of his son in a fatal bus crash. He served as an executive producer on the documentary film "Unspoken" (2017).


title: Renn Hawkey

text: In 2004, Hawkey began dating actress Vera Farmiga after being introduced by mutual friend Allen Hughes on the set of "Touching Evil". The couple married in a private ceremony on September 13, 2008, when Farmiga was five months pregnant with their first child. Their son, Fynn McDonnell Hawkey, was born on January 13, 2009 in Rhinebeck, New York. It was announced in April 2010 that Hawkey and Farmiga were expecting their second child. Farmiga gave birth to a daughter, Gytta Lubov Hawkey, on November 4, 2010. The family splits their time between homes in New York City and Vancouver.


title: Marc Alan Lee

text: Marc Alan Lee (March 20, 1978 – August 2, 2006) was a United States Navy SEAL. He was the first SEAL to lose his life in Operation Iraqi Freedom when he was killed in a fierce firefight while on patrol against insurgents in Ramadi. Lee was posthumously awarded the Silver Star, the Bronze Star Medal with Valor and the Purple Heart. On March 20, 2013, the Marc A. Lee Training Center building was dedicated at the Naval Amphibious Base Coronado.


title: Marc Alan Lee

text: Lee was born in Portland, Oregon, and moved to Colorado when he was one year old with his mother Debbie and brother and sister. When he was seven, he and his family moved back to Hood River, Oregon. Lee was home-schooled until his Junior year and graduated from Baptist Christian School in 1996. In 1997, he moved to Colorado once again to pursue his dream of a career in professional soccer. He was scheduled for tryouts with the Colorado Rapids. In an indoor soccer match the night before tryouts, he blew out his knee requiring surgery on his ACL and meniscus. He attended The Master's College in California with a major in Bible and Theology and played on their soccer team. In his second year, he changed his major to Law. In May 2001, Lee went into the United States Navy with a contract to try out for the SEALs.


title: Marc Alan Lee

text: Lee completed United States Navy basic training at NTC Great Lakes, Illinois in July 2001, followed by Aviation Ordnanceman School at NATTC Pensacola, Florida in October 2001. Lee then reported to Basic Underwater Demolition/Sea, Air, Land (BUD/S) training at Coronado, California, but dropped from the program and was reassigned to the aircraft carrier from 2002 to March 2004. Lee attempted BUD/S again in 2004 and successfully graduated from class 251. After completing SEAL Qualification training in May 2005, Lee was assigned to SEAL Team THREE. Lee deployed to Iraq with Charlie Platoon, Task Unit Bruiser in May 2006 until he was killed in action in Ramadi on August 2, 2006.


title: Marc Alan Lee

text: Lee was the first Navy SEAL killed in combat during Operation Iraqi Freedom. A fellow SEAL Team 3 member, Ryan "Biggles" Job, was critically injured by a sniper and Lee single-handedly provided cover fire while other team members prepared Job for medical evacuation. The team re-engaged the enemy force after the evacuation of Job. Lee was mortally wounded when he exposed himself a third time to draw fire from enemy forces away from his teammates. For his action on the battlefield, Lee was posthumously awarded the Silver Star, the Bronze Star Medal with Valor and the Purple Heart. His Silver Star citation reads:


title: Marc Alan Lee

text: The President of the United States of America takes pride in presenting the Silver Star (Posthumously) to Aviation Ordnanceman Second Class Marc Alan Lee, United States Navy, for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action against the enemy as Assaulter and Automatic Weapons Gunner in Sea, Air, Land Team THREE (SEAL-3), Naval Special Warfare Task Group Arabian Peninsula in support of Operation IRAQI FREEDOM on 2 August 2006. Petty Officer Lee conducted clearance operations in South-Central Ramadi as a member of a Naval Special Warfare Combat Advisory element for the Iraqi Army. During the operation, one element member was wounded by enemy fire. The element completed the casualty evacuation, regrouped and returned onto the battlefield to continue the fight. Petty Officer Lee and his SEAL element maneuvered to assault an identified enemy position. He, his teammates, Bradley Fighting Vehicles and Abrams tanks engaged enemy positions with suppressive fire. During the assault, his team came under heavy enemy fire from an adjacent building to the north. To protect the lives of his teammates, he fearlessly exposed himself to direct enemy fire by engaging the enemy with his machine gun and was mortally wounded in the engagement. His brave actions in the line of fire saved the lives of many of his teammates. Petty Officer Lee's courageous leadership, operational skill, and selfless dedication to duty, reflected great credit upon him and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.


title: Marc Alan Lee

text: Job survived his wounds but was left permanently blind. In September 2009, Job died from a preventable hospital error while his wife was pregnant with their first child, Leah.


title: Marc Alan Lee

text: Lee was portrayed by actor Luke Grimes in the 2014 film "American Sniper". Lee's name was also shown on a badge hanging on the wall for tribute in the movie "Lone Survivor". The fourth episode of the History Channel's "The Warfighters" is about Lee, portrayed by actor Trevor Fox, and his Platoon during the Battle of Ramadi.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Aminoglycoside is a medicinal and bacteriologic category of traditional Gram-negative antibacterial medications that inhibit protein synthesis and contain as a portion of the molecule an amino-modified glycoside (sugar). The term can also refer more generally to any organic molecule that contains amino sugar substructures. Aminoglycoside antibiotics display bactericidal activity against Gram-negative aerobes and some anaerobic bacilli where resistance has not yet arisen but generally not against Gram-positive and anaerobic Gram-negative bacteria.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Streptomycin is the first-in-class aminoglycoside antibiotic. It is derived from "Streptomyces griseus" and is the earliest modern agent used against tuberculosis. Streptomycin lacks the common 2-deoxystreptamine moiety (image right, below) present in most other members of this class. Other examples of aminoglycosides include the deoxystreptamine-containing agents kanamycin, tobramycin, gentamicin, and neomycin (see below).


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Aminoglycosides that are derived from bacteria of the "Streptomyces" genus are named with the suffix "-mycin", whereas those that are derived from "Micromonospora" are named with the suffix "-micin". However, this nomenclature system is not specific for aminoglycosides, and so appearance of this set of suffixes does not imply common mechanism of action. (For instance, vancomycin, a glycopeptide antibiotic, and erythromycin, a macrolide antibiotic produced by "Saccharopolyspora erythraea", along with its synthetic derivatives clarithromycin and azithromycin, all share the suffixes but have notably different mechanisms of action.)


title: Aminoglycoside

text: In the following gallery, kanamycin A through netilmicin are examples of the 4,6-disubstituted deoxystreptamine sub-class of aminoglycosides, the neomycins are examples of the 4,"5"-disubstituted sub-class, and streptomycin is an example of a non-deoxystreptamine aminoglycoside.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Aminoglycosides display concentration-dependent bactericidal activity against "most gram-negative aerobic and facultative anaerobic bacilli" but not against gram-negative anaerobes and most gram-positive bacteria. They require only short contact time, and are most effective against susceptible bacterial populations that are rapidly multiplying. These activities are attributed to a primary mode of action as protein synthesis inhibitors, though additional mechanisms are implicated for some specific agents, and/or thorough mechanistic descriptions are as yet unavailable.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: The inhibition of protein synthesis is mediated through aminoglycosides' energy-dependent, sometimes irreversible binding, to the cytosolic, membrane-associated bacterial ribosome (image at right). (Aminoglycosides first cross bacterial cell walls—lipopolysaccharide in gram-negative bacteria—and cell membranes, where they are actively transported.) While specific steps in protein synthesis affected may vary somewhat between specific aminoglycoside agents, as can their affinity and degree of binding, aminoglycoside presence in the cytosol generally disturbs peptide elongation at the 30S ribosomal subunit, giving rise to inaccurate mRNA translation and therefore biosynthesis of proteins that are truncated, or bear altered amino acid compositions at particular points. Specifically, binding impairs translational proofreading leading to misreading of the RNA message, premature termination, or both, and so to inaccuracy of the translated protein product. The subset of aberrant proteins that are incorporated into the bacterial cell membrane may then lead to changes in its permeability and then to "further stimulation of aminoglycoside transport". The amino sugar portion of this class of molecules (e.g., the 2-deoxystreptamine in kanamycins, gentamicins, and tobramycin, see above) are implicated in the association of the small molecule with ribosomal structures that lead to the infidelities in translation (ibid.). Inhibition of ribosomal translocation—i.e., movement of the peptidyl-tRNA from the A- to the P-site—has also been suggested. Recent single-molecule tracking experiments in live "E. coli" showed an ongoing but slower protein synthesis upon treatment with different aminoglycoside drugs. (Spectinomycin, a related but distinct chemical structure class often discussed with aminoglycosides, does not induce mRNA misreading and is generally not bactericidal.)


title: Aminoglycoside

text: It has been proposed that aminoglycoside antibiotics cause oxidation of guanine nucleotides in the bacterial nucleotide pool, and that this contributes to the cytotoxicity of these antibiotics. The incorporation of oxidized guanine nucleotides into DNA could be bactericidal since incomplete repair of closely spaced 8-oxo-2'-deoxyguanosine in the DNA can result in lethal double-strand breaks.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Finally, a further "cell-membrane effect" also occurs with aminoglycosides; "functional integrity of the bacterial cell membrane" can be lost, later in time courses of aminoglycoside exposure and transport.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: There is a significant variability in the relationship between the dose administered and the resultant plasma level in blood. Therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) is necessary to obtain the correct dose. These agents exhibit a post-antibiotic effect in which there is no or very little drug level detectable in blood, but there still seems to be inhibition of bacterial re-growth. This is due to strong, irreversible binding to the ribosome, and remains intracellular long after plasma levels drop, and allows a prolonged dosage interval. Depending on their concentration, they act as bacteriostatic or bactericidal agents.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Aminoglycosides are useful primarily in infections involving aerobic, Gram-negative bacteria, such as "Pseudomonas", "Acinetobacter", and "Enterobacter". In addition, some "Mycobacteria", including the bacteria that cause tuberculosis, are susceptible to aminoglycosides. Streptomycin was the first effective drug in the treatment of tuberculosis, though the role of aminoglycosides such as streptomycin and amikacin has been eclipsed (because of their toxicity and inconvenient route of administration) except for multiple-drug-resistant strains. The most frequent use of aminoglycosides is empiric therapy for serious infections such as sepsis, complicated intra-abdominal infections, complicated urinary tract infections, and nosocomial respiratory tract infections. Usually, once cultures of the causal organism are grown and their susceptibilities tested, aminoglycosides are discontinued in favor of less toxic antibiotics.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: As noted, aminoglycosides are mostly ineffective against anaerobic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria can also be treated with aminoglycosides, but other types of antibiotics are more potent and less damaging to the host. In the past, the aminoglycosides have been used in conjunction with beta-lactam antibiotics in streptococcal infections for their synergistic effects, in particular in endocarditis. One of the most frequent combinations is ampicillin (a beta-lactam, or penicillin-related antibiotic) and gentamicin. Often, hospital staff refer to this combination as "amp and gent" or more recently called "pen and gent" for penicillin and gentamicin.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: The interference with mRNA proofreading has been exploited to treat genetic diseases that result from premature stop codons (leading to early termination of protein synthesis and truncated proteins). Aminoglycosides can cause the cell to overcome the stop codons, insert a random amino acid, and express a full-length protein. The aminoglycoside gentamicin has been used to treat cystic fibrosis (CF) cells in the laboratory to induce them to grow full-length proteins. CF is caused by a mutation in the gene coding for the "cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator" ("CFTR") protein. In approximately 10% of CF cases, the mutation in this gene causes its early termination during translation, leading to the formation of a truncated and non-functional CFTR protein. It is believed that gentamicin distorts the structure of the ribosome-RNA complex, leading to a mis-reading of the termination codon, causing the ribosome to "skip" over the stop sequence and to continue with the normal elongation and production of the CFTR protein.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Since they are not absorbed from the gut, they are administered intravenously and intramuscularly. Some are used in topical preparations for wounds. Oral administration can be used for gut decontamination (e.g., in hepatic encephalopathy). Tobramycin may be administered in a nebulized form.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: The recent emergence of infections due to Gram-negative bacterial strains with advanced patterns of antimicrobial resistance has prompted physicians to reevaluate the use of these antibacterial agents. This revived interest in the use of aminoglycosides has brought back to light the debate on the two major issues related to these compounds, namely the spectrum of antimicrobial susceptibility and toxicity. Current evidence shows that aminoglycosides do retain activity against the majority of Gram-negative clinical bacterial isolates in many parts of the world. Still, the relatively frequent occurrence of nephrotoxicity and ototoxicity during aminoglycoside treatment makes physicians reluctant to use these compounds in everyday practice. Recent advances in the understanding of the effect of various dosage schedules of aminoglycosides on toxicity have provided a partial solution to this problem, although more research still needs to be done in order to overcome this problem entirely.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Aminoglycosides are in pregnancy category D, that is, there is positive evidence of human fetal risk based on adverse reaction data from investigational or marketing experience or studies in humans, but potential benefits may warrant use of the drug in pregnant women despite potential risks.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Aminoglycosides can cause inner ear toxicity which can result in sensorineural hearing loss. The incidence of inner ear toxicity varies from 7 to 90%, depending on the types of antibiotics used, susceptibility of the patient to such antibiotics, and the duration of antibiotic administration.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Another serious and disabling side effect of aminoglycoside use is vestibular ototoxicity. This leads to oscillopsia (gaze instability) and balance impairments that impact all aspects of an individual's antigravity function. This loss is permanent and can happen at any dose.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Frequent use of aminoglycosides could result in kidney damage (Acute kidney injury), that could lead to chronic kidney disease.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Aminoglycosides can exacerbate weakness in patients with myasthenia gravis, and use is therefore avoided in these patients.


title: Aminoglycoside

text: Aminoglycosides are contraindicated in patients with mitochondrial diseases as they may result in impaired mtDNA translation, which can lead to irreversible hearing loss, tinnitus, cardiac toxicity, and renal toxicity. However, hearing loss and tinnitus have also been observed in some patients without mitochondrial diseases.


title: Law School Admission Test

text: The Law School Admission Test (LSAT; ) is a standardized test administered by the Law School Admission Council (LSAC) for prospective law school candidates. It is designed to assess reading comprehension as well as logical and verbal reasoning proficiency. The test is an integral part of the law school admission process in the United States, Canada (common law programs only), the University of Melbourne, Australia, and a growing number of other countries.


title: Law School Admission Test

text: The test had existed in some form since 1948, when it was created to give law schools a standardized way to assess applicants in addition to their GPA. The current form of the exam has been used since 1991. The exam has five total sections that include three scored multiple choice sections, an unscored experimental section, and an unscored writing section. Raw scores are converted to a scaled score with a high of 180, a low of 120, and a median score around 150. When an applicant applies to a law school all scores from the past five years are reported and either the highest score or an average of the scores is used.


title: Law School Admission Test

text: Before July 2019, the test was administered by paper-and-pencil. After switching formats in 2019, the test is now administered electronically using a tablet.