title: Lattice (order)

text: Given a subset of a lattice, formula_11 meet and join restrict to partial functions – they are undefined if their value is not in the subset formula_12 The resulting structure on formula_13 is called a . In addition to this extrinsic definition as a subset of some other algebraic structure (a lattice), a partial lattice can also be intrinsically defined as a set with two partial binary operations satisfying certain axioms.


title: Lattice (order)

text: A lattice is an algebraic structure formula_14, consisting of a set formula_15 and two binary, commutative and associative operations formula_6 and formula_17 on formula_15 satisfying the following axiomatic identities for all elements formula_19 (sometimes called ):


title: Lattice (order)

text: The following two identities are also usually regarded as axioms, even though they follow from the two absorption laws taken together. These are called .


title: Lattice (order)

text: These axioms assert that both formula_24 and formula_25 are semilattices. The absorption laws, the only axioms above in which both meet and join appear, distinguish a lattice from an arbitrary pair of semilattice structures and assure that the two semilattices interact appropriately. In particular, each semilattice is the dual of the other. The absorption laws can be viewed as a requirement that the meet and join semilattices define the same partial order.


title: Lattice (order)

text: An order-theoretic lattice gives rise to the two binary operations formula_6 and formula_27 Since the commutative, associative and absorption laws can easily be verified for these operations, they make formula_14 into a lattice in the algebraic sense.


title: Lattice (order)

text: The converse is also true. Given an algebraically defined lattice formula_29 one can define a partial order formula_30 on formula_15 by setting


title: Lattice (order)

text: One can now check that the relation ≤ introduced in this way defines a partial ordering within which binary meets and joins are given through the original operations formula_6 and formula_27


title: Lattice (order)

text: Since the two definitions of a lattice are equivalent, one may freely invoke aspects of either definition in any way that suits the purpose at hand.


title: Lattice (order)

text: A bounded lattice is a lattice that additionally has a (also called , or element, and denoted by 1, or by formula_38) and a (also called , or , denoted by 0 or by formula_39), which satisfy


title: Lattice (order)

text: A bounded lattice may also be defined as an algebraic structure of the form formula_41 such that formula_14 is a lattice, formula_43 (the lattice's bottom) is the identity element for the join operation formula_44 and formula_45 (the lattice's top) is the identity element for the meet operation formula_27


title: Lattice (order)

text: A partially ordered set is a bounded lattice if and only if every finite set of elements (including the empty set) has a join and a meet. For every element formula_49 of a poset it is vacuously true that


title: Lattice (order)

text: formula_51 and therefore every element of a poset is both an upper bound and a lower bound of the empty set. This implies that the join of an empty set is the least element formula_52 and the meet of the empty set is the greatest element formula_53 This is consistent with the associativity and commutativity of meet and join: the join of a union of finite sets is equal to the join of the joins of the sets, and dually, the meet of a union of finite sets is equal to the meet of the meets of the sets, that is, for finite subsets formula_54 of a poset formula_55


title: Lattice (order)

text: Every lattice can be embedded into a bounded lattice by adding a greatest and a least element. Furthermore, every non-empty finite lattice is bounded, by taking the join (respectively, meet) of all elements, denoted by formula_61 (respectively formula_62) where formula_63 is the set of all elements.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Lattices have some connections to the family of group-like algebraic structures. Because meet and join both commute and associate, a lattice can be viewed as consisting of two commutative semigroups having the same domain. For a bounded lattice, these semigroups are in fact commutative monoids. The absorption law is the only defining identity that is peculiar to lattice theory.


title: Lattice (order)

text: By commutativity, associativity and idempotence one can think of join and meet as operations on non-empty finite sets, rather than on pairs of elements. In a bounded lattice the join and meet of the empty set can also be defined (as formula_43 and formula_65 respectively). This makes bounded lattices somewhat more natural than general lattices, and many authors require all lattices to be bounded.


title: Lattice (order)

text: The appropriate notion of a morphism between two lattices flows easily from the above algebraic definition. Given two lattices formula_89 and formula_90 a lattice homomorphism from "L" to "M" is a function formula_91 such that for all formula_92


title: Lattice (order)

text: Thus formula_95 is a homomorphism of the two underlying semilattices. When lattices with more structure are considered, the morphisms should "respect" the extra structure, too. In particular, a bounded-lattice homomorphism (usually called just "lattice homomorphism") formula_95 between two bounded lattices formula_15 and formula_98 should also have the following property:


title: Lattice (order)

text: In the order-theoretic formulation, these conditions just state that a homomorphism of lattices is a function preserving binary meets and joins. For bounded lattices, preservation of least and greatest elements is just preservation of join and meet of the empty set.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Any homomorphism of lattices is necessarily monotone with respect to the associated ordering relation; see Limit preserving function. The converse is not true: monotonicity by no means implies the required preservation of meets and joins (see Pic. 9), although an order-preserving bijection is a homomorphism if its inverse is also order-preserving.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Given the standard definition of isomorphisms as invertible morphisms, a is just a bijective lattice homomorphism. Similarly, a is a lattice homomorphism from a lattice to itself, and a is a bijective lattice endomorphism. Lattices and their homomorphisms form a category.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Let formula_101 and formula_102 be two lattices with 0 and 1. A homomorphism from formula_101 to formula_102 is called 0,1-"separating" if and only if formula_105 (formula_95 separates 0) and formula_107 (formula_95 separates 1).


title: Lattice (order)

text: A of a lattice formula_15 is a subset of formula_15 that is a lattice with the same meet and join operations as formula_111 That is, if formula_15 is a lattice and formula_98 is a subset of formula_15 such that for every pair of elements formula_115 both formula_4 and formula_3 are in formula_118 then formula_98 is a sublattice of formula_111


title: Lattice (order)

text: A sublattice formula_98 of a lattice formula_15 is a of formula_55 if formula_124 and formula_125 implies that formula_126 belongs to formula_118 for all elements formula_128


title: Lattice (order)

text: We now introduce a number of important properties that lead to interesting special classes of lattices. One, boundedness, has already been discussed.


title: Lattice (order)

text: A poset is called a if its subsets have both a join and a meet. In particular, every complete lattice is a bounded lattice. While bounded lattice homomorphisms in general preserve only finite joins and meets, complete lattice homomorphisms are required to preserve arbitrary joins and meets.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Every poset that is a complete semilattice is also a complete lattice. Related to this result is the interesting phenomenon that there are various competing notions of homomorphism for this class of posets, depending on whether they are seen as complete lattices, complete join-semilattices, complete meet-semilattices, or as join-complete or meet-complete lattices.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Note that "partial lattice" is not the opposite of "complete lattice" – rather, "partial lattice", "lattice", and "complete lattice" are increasingly restrictive definitions.


title: Lattice (order)

text: A conditionally complete lattice is a lattice in which every subset has a join (that is, a least upper bound). Such lattices provide the most direct generalization of the completeness axiom of the real numbers. A conditionally complete lattice is either a complete lattice, or a complete lattice without its maximum element formula_65 its minimum element formula_130 or both.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Since lattices come with two binary operations, it is natural to ask whether one of them distributes over the other, that is, whether one or the other of the following dual laws holds for every three elements formula_131:


title: Lattice (order)

text: A lattice that satisfies the first or, equivalently (as it turns out), the second axiom, is called a distributive lattice.


title: Lattice (order)

text: The only non-distributive lattices with fewer than 6 elements are called M and N; they are shown in Pictures 10 and 11, respectively. A lattice is distributive if and only if it doesn't have a sublattice isomorphic to M or N. Each distributive lattice is isomorphic to a lattice of sets (with union and intersection as join and meet, respectively).


title: Lattice (order)

text: For an overview of stronger notions of distributivity that are appropriate for complete lattices and that are used to define more special classes of lattices such as frames and completely distributive lattices, see distributivity in order theory.


title: Lattice (order)

text: For some applications the distributivity condition is too strong, and the following weaker property is often useful. A lattice formula_14 is if, for all elements formula_131 the following identity holds:


title: Lattice (order)

text: Besides distributive lattices, examples of modular lattices are the lattice of two-sided ideals of a ring, the lattice of submodules of a module, and the lattice of normal subgroups of a group. The set of first-order terms with the ordering "is more specific than" is a non-modular lattice used in automated reasoning.


title: Lattice (order)

text: A finite lattice is modular if and only if it is both upper and lower semimodular. For a graded lattice, (upper) semimodularity is equivalent to the following condition on the rank function formula_143


title: Lattice (order)

text: A lattice is called lower semimodular if its dual is semimodular. For finite lattices this means that the previous conditions hold with formula_6 and formula_5 exchanged, "covers" exchanged with "is covered by", and inequalities reversed.


title: Lattice (order)

text: In domain theory, it is natural to seek to approximate the elements in a partial order by "much simpler" elements. This leads to the class of continuous posets, consisting of posets where every element can be obtained as the supremum of a directed set of elements that are way-below the element. If one can additionally restrict these to the compact elements of a poset for obtaining these directed sets, then the poset is even algebraic. Both concepts can be applied to lattices as follows:


title: Lattice (order)

text: Both of these classes have interesting properties. For example, continuous lattices can be characterized as algebraic structures (with infinitary operations) satisfying certain identities. While such a characterization is not known for algebraic lattices, they can be described "syntactically" via Scott information systems.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Let formula_15 be a bounded lattice with greatest element 1 and least element 0. Two elements formula_49 and formula_146 of formula_15 are complements of each other if and only if:


title: Lattice (order)

text: In general, some elements of a bounded lattice might not have a complement, and others might have more than one complement. For example, the set formula_161 with its usual ordering is a bounded lattice, and formula_162 does not have a complement. In the bounded lattice N, the element formula_79 has two complements, viz. formula_164 and formula_165 (see Pic. 11). A bounded lattice for which every element has a complement is called a complemented lattice.


title: Lattice (order)

text: A complemented lattice that is also distributive is a Boolean algebra. For a distributive lattice, the complement of formula_166 when it exists, is unique.


title: Lattice (order)

text: In the case the complement is unique, we write and equivalently, . The corresponding unary operation over formula_55 called complementation, introduces an analogue of logical negation into lattice theory.


title: Lattice (order)

text: Heyting algebras are an example of distributive lattices where some members might be lacking complements. Every element formula_126 of a Heyting algebra has, on the other hand, a pseudo-complement, also denoted ¬"x". The pseudo-complement is the greatest element formula_146 such that formula_170 If the pseudo-complement of every element of a Heyting algebra is in fact a complement, then the Heyting algebra is in fact a Boolean algebra.


title: Lattice (order)

text: The length of this chain is "n", or one less than its number of elements. A chain is maximal if formula_175 covers formula_176 for all formula_177


title: Lattice (order)

text: If for any pair, formula_49 and formula_179 where formula_180 all maximal chains from formula_49 to formula_146 have the same length, then the lattice is said to satisfy the Jordan–Dedekind chain condition.


title: Lattice (order)

text: A lattice formula_1 is called graded, sometimes ranked (but see Ranked poset for an alternative meaning), if it can be equipped with a rank function formula_184 sometimes to ℤ, compatible with the ordering (so formula_185 whenever formula_186) such that whenever formula_146 covers formula_166 then formula_189 The value of the rank function for a lattice element is called its rank.


title: Lattice (order)

text: A lattice element formula_146 is said to cover another element formula_166 if formula_192 but there does not exist a formula_126 such that formula_194


title: Lattice (order)

text: Any set formula_198 may be used to generate the free semilattice formula_199 The free semilattice is defined to consist of all of the finite subsets of formula_200 with the semilattice operation given by ordinary set union. The free semilattice has the universal property. For the free lattice over a set formula_200 Whitman gave a construction based on polynomials over formula_198s members.


title: Lattice (order)

text: We now define some order-theoretic notions of importance to lattice theory. In the following, let formula_49 be an element of some lattice formula_111 If formula_15 has a bottom element formula_130 formula_207 is sometimes required. formula_49 is called:


title: Lattice (order)

text: Let formula_15 have a bottom element 0. An element formula_49 of formula_15 is an atom if formula_222 and there exists no element formula_223 such that formula_224 Then formula_15 is called:


title: Lattice (order)

text: However, many sources and mathematical communities use the term "atomic" to mean "atomistic" as defined above.


title: Lattice (order)

text: The notions of ideals and the dual notion of filters refer to particular kinds of subsets of a partially ordered set, and are therefore important for lattice theory. Details can be found in the respective entries.


title: Lattice (order)

text: "Note that in many applications the sets are only partial lattices: not every pair of elements has a meet or join."


title: Don Siegel

text: Donald Siegel ( ; October 26, 1912 – April 20, 1991) was an American film and television director and producer.


title: Don Siegel

text: Siegel was described by "The New York Times" as "a director of tough, cynical and forthright action-adventure films whose taut plots centered on individualistic loners". He directed the science fiction horror film "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956), as well as five films with Clint Eastwood, including the police thriller "Dirty Harry" (1971) and the prison drama "Escape from Alcatraz" (1979). He also directed John Wayne's final film, the Western "The Shootist" (1976).


title: Don Siegel

text: Siegel was born in 1912 to a Jewish family in Chicago; his father was a mandolin player. Siegel attended schools in New York and later graduated from Jesus College, Cambridge in England. For a short time he studied at Beaux Arts in Paris, but left at age 20 and later went to Los Angeles.


title: Don Siegel

text: Siegel found work in the Warner Bros. film library after meeting producer Hal Wallis, and later rose to head of the Montage Department, where he directed thousands of montages, including the opening montage for "Casablanca". In 1945, two shorts he directed, "Star in the Night" and "Hitler Lives", won Academy Awards, which launched his career as a feature director.


title: Don Siegel

text: He directed whatever material came his way, often transcending the limitations of budget and script to produce interesting and adept works. He made the original "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956), described by "The Guardian" in 2014 as a "fatalistic masterpiece" and "a touchstone for the sci-fi genre" which spawned three remakes. For television, he directed two episodes of "The Twilight Zone", "Uncle Simon" (1963) and "The Self-Improvement of Salvadore Ross" (1964), and was the producer of "The Legend of Jesse James" (1965). He worked with Eli Wallach in "The Lineup", Elvis Presley and Dolores del Río in "Flaming Star" (1960), with Steve McQueen in "Hell Is for Heroes" and Lee Marvin in the influential "The Killers" (1964) before directing five of Eastwood's films that were commercially successful in addition to being well received by critics. These included the action films "Coogan's Bluff" and "Dirty Harry", the Albert Maltz-scripted Western "Two Mules for Sister Sara", the American Civil War melodrama "The Beguiled", and the prison-break picture "Escape from Alcatraz". He was a considerable influence on Eastwood's own career as a director, and Eastwood's film "Unforgiven" is dedicated "for Don and Sergio".


title: Don Siegel

text: He had a long collaboration with composer Lalo Schifrin, who scored five of his films: "Coogan's Bluff", "The Beguiled", "Dirty Harry", "Charley Varrick" and "Telefon".


title: Don Siegel

text: Schifrin composed and recorded what would have been his sixth score for Siegel on "Jinxed!" (1982), but it was rejected by the studio despite Siegel's objections. This was one of several fights Siegel had on this, his last film.


title: Don Siegel

text: Siegel was also important to the career of director Sam Peckinpah. In 1954, Peckinpah was hired as a dialogue coach for "Riot in Cell Block 11". His job entailed acting as an assistant to the director, Siegel. The film was shot on location at Folsom Prison. Siegel's location work and his use of actual prisoners as extras in the film made a lasting impression on Peckinpah. He worked as a dialogue coach on four additional Siegel films: "Private Hell 36" (1954), "An Annapolis Story" (1955), "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956) and "Crime in the Streets" (1956). 25 years later, Peckinpah was all but banished from the industry due to his troubled film productions. Siegel gave the director a chance to return to filmmaking. He asked Peckinpah if he would be interested in directing 12 days of second unit work on "Jinxed!". Peckinpah immediately accepted, and his earnest collaboration with his longtime friend was noted within the industry. While Peckinpah's work was uncredited, it would lead to his hiring as the director of his final film "The Osterman Weekend" (1983).


title: Don Siegel

text: He has a cameo role as a bartender in Eastwood's "Play Misty for Me", as well as in "Dirty Harry". In Philip Kaufman's 1978 "Invasion of the Body Snatchers", a remake of Siegel's own 1956 film, he appears as a taxi driver. In "Charley Varrick" starring Walter Matthau (a film slated for Eastwood but ultimately turned down by the actor), he has a cameo as a ping-pong player. He also appears in the 1985 John Landis film "Into the Night".


title: Don Siegel

text: From 1948 to 1953, he was married to actress Viveca Lindfors, with whom he had a son, Kristoffer Tabori. He married Doe Avedon in 1957. They adopted four children; they divorced in 1975. He married Carol Rydall, former secretary to Clint Eastwood. They remained together until he died at the age of 78 from cancer in Nipomo, California. He is buried near Highway 1 in the coastal Cayucos-Morro Bay District Cemetery. Siegel was an atheist.


title: To Build a Fire

text: "To Build a Fire" is a short story by American author Jack London. There are two versions of this story. The first one was published in 1902, and the other was published in 1908. The story written in 1908 has become an often anthologized classic, while the 1902 story is less well known.


title: To Build a Fire

text: The 1908 version is about an unnamed male protagonist who ventures out in the subzero boreal forest of the Yukon Territory. He is followed by a native dog and is en route to visit his friends—ignoring warnings from an older man from Sulphur Creek about the dangers of hiking alone in extreme cold. The protagonist underestimates the harsh conditions and freezes to death after his fire is doused and he is unable to re-light it.


title: To Build a Fire

text: In the 1902 version, though the structure and storyline are similar, the weather is not as cold and horrendous, no dog follows the protagonist, the fire is not doused, and the man (named Tom Vincent in this version) suffers only from severe frostbite and survives to become a more melancholic but wiser person.


title: To Build a Fire

text: "To Build a Fire" is an oft-cited example of the naturalist movement that portrays the conflict of man versus nature. It also reflects London's personal experiences in the Yukon Territory.


title: To Build a Fire

text: The unnamed man, a "chechaquo" (newcomer to the Yukon), sets out to hike through the forests bordering the Yukon River on a winter day where the temperature has fallen to −75 °F (−59 °C). Having ignored warnings against traveling alone in such conditions, he is accompanied only by a large husky dog. The animal's instincts warn it about the dangers of the extreme cold, but the dog reluctantly follows the man. As they follow the course of a frozen creek, the man is careful to avoid patches of thin ice hidden by the snow. His goal is to reach a group of prospectors (referred to as "the boys") at their camp by six o'clock that evening.


title: To Build a Fire

text: At half-past noon, the man stops and builds a fire so he can warm up and eat his lunch. Shortly after resuming his hike, he accidentally breaks through the ice and soaks his feet and lower legs, forcing him to stop and build another fire so he can dry himself. Having chosen a spot under a tree for this fire, he pulls twigs from the brush pile around it to feed the flames; the vibrations of this action eventually cause a large amount of snow to tumble down from the branches overhead and extinguish the fire. The man quickly begins to lose sensation in his extremities and hurries to light another fire, now starting to understand the warnings about the life-threatening danger posed by the extreme cold. He lights the fire, igniting all of his matches and burning himself in the process due to the numbness in his hands. While trying to remove a piece of moss from the fire, he inadvertently pokes the burning twigs apart, extinguishing them.


title: To Build a Fire

text: With no way to start another fire, the man thinks of killing the dog and using its body heat to save himself, but his hands are so stiff that he can neither strangle the animal nor draw his knife to cut its throat. Finally, he tries to restore his circulation by running toward the camp, but stumbles and falls multiple times in the snow. The man feels the cold gradually freezing him to his core, and he ultimately falls asleep and dies of hypothermia. He imagines himself standing with "the boys" as they find his body. The dog leaves the body after dark to find food and shelter at the camp.


title: To Build a Fire

text: Man versus nature is a major theme in the story. The protagonist decides to face the brutally cold temperatures of the Yukon Trail despite being warned by an older man. The short story depicts the protagonist's battle of life and death while highlighting the importance of the fire. Lee Mitchel, a familiar critique of London's work, commented on London's usage of naturalism in his plots. That the efforts of emphasizing the environment too much led, “In turn, everything that somehow contributes to those attempts is doubled and re-doubled, iterated and re-iterated, leaving nothing to occur only once” (Mitchell 78) throughout the story.


title: To Build a Fire

text: One theme illustrated in the story is the man's sense of judgment contrasted with the dog's animal instincts. Throughout the story, London hints that the dog has more knowledge of survival than the man; the judgment-versus-instinct theme is evident when the man builds the first fire. While the dog wants to stay by the fire to keep warm, the man is determined to keep moving. As the dog reluctantly follows the man across a frozen river, the dog is more cautious than the man.


title: To Build a Fire

text: The protagonist's desperation is evident throughout the majority of the story. It is noticeable soon after the man falls into a frozen-over river. To save himself he scrambles to build a fire, but is too busy worrying about his survival to notice the mistake of building a fire underneath a tree that has collected an enormous amount of snow. After the first fire is put out, his desperation becomes more defined as he seemingly will do anything to survive, including attempting to kill his dog for warmth and using all his matches at once in a final attempt to light a fire. His desperation for survival and his fear of death cause him to panic, leading to his final demise as he freezes to death at the end of the story.


title: To Build a Fire

text: Another evident theme in the story is perseverance. Although the man makes several mistakes and gets frostbite in his fingers and toes, he continues to fight for survival. He ignores all the signs that he would not make it to the village he was headed to. For instance, London described “He did not bare his fingers more than a minute and was surprised to find that they were numb". In less than 60 seconds, his fingers were numb, indicating to him that it is too dangerous for him to be outside, yet he progresses despite how dangerous it is.


title: To Build a Fire

text: Wisdom and experience is another theme that is present throughout the story. London shows that the man lacks the knowledge needed to survive in the Yukon. Based on instincts, the dog knew that it was too cold to travel in the snow. London wrote: "The dog was sorry to leave and looked toward the fire". This line indicates that the dog wanted to be closer to heat. However, the unnamed protagonist ignored all the signs before him. He knew that it was cold but he did not realize the threat this posed on his life. The man's ability to develop arrogance worked against him here, whereas the dog knew better just based on instinct.


title: To Build a Fire

text: Stupidity and arrogance are personified in the story's protagonist. For example, he goes through the extremely cold territory alone, despite going for the first time. He laughs off the crucial advice from the old man of Sulphur Creek about traveling with an acquaintance because he thinks he knows what he's doing. This arrogance results in the protagonist putting himself in a dangerous situation that was preventable. At first, he thinks it's nothing and that everything will be fine. By the end of the story, he dies as a result of his arrogance. Through this story, London shows how the man's demise is due to his humanity and lack of knowledge when entering this journey. Also, he shows that the dog survives because of following its instincts which is something that the man does not pay attention to. The superior mindset and lack of knowledge of the area around where he traveled led to his downfall as well.


title: To Build a Fire

text: Another example of arrogance occurs when the protagonist disregards the possibility that there may be situations he cannot overcome. The old man warns the protagonist of this and also seems to have a better understanding of the natural world, respecting the fact that there are some situations the man will be unable to control. Not only does the old man see the protagonist's stupidity, but the dog notices the man's lack of knowledge about the terrain's obstacles and challenges after he fails to keep a fire going.


title: To Build a Fire

text: Succumbing to death is another theme in the story, more specifically, the peace that may be found in death. London foreshadows the death of the man early in the story, so it is not a surprise that the man dies, and closer to the end he recalls the cold and the old-timer as he accepts his fate. However, London depicts death quite differently than many other authors do. The man drifts off into a calm, peaceful slumber devoid of suffering and pain. London's use of relaxing words dissuades the reader from feeling a great deal of sympathy for the man, as the death is merciful and graciously anticipated, rather than sad. In contrast to more dramatic depictions of death, London's depiction reveals death as a peaceful escape from tumult and pain.


title: To Build a Fire

text: The description of the protagonist's death has been associated with the discovery of one's self: specifically, that self-discovery is "not a significant psychic discovery" as it results in "the simple physical discovery that the self is body only".


title: To Build a Fire

text: Individualism is another common theme that London portrays in the story. The man only relies on himself and attempts to sacrifice the dog to get him through the Yukon; he doesn't believe that he needs any help. This concept can also be connected to the theme mentioned above of the man's judgment, and the man's arrogance.


title: To Build a Fire

text: Arrogance is another common theme that London uses on the protagonist. The man initially comes off as arrogant when not taking advice from the elder on Sulphur Creek. As readers, we can assume we see and picture the character this way since London purposely doesn't give us a name or much information at all about him. This lack of information doesn't allow us a strong connection or emotions for this character. An Aldersmead Care Home article on what we can learn from our elders argues that “We can choose whose advice and opinions we value… It's also possible to hold disagreements without bearing grudges or holding onto bitterness.” a lot of arrogance from the protagonist got in the way of his initial judgment when talking to the older man. This lack of respect or ability to take the advice is one of the many reasons he didn't survive.


title: To Build a Fire

text: The earlier version was first published in "The Youth's Companion" on May 29, 1902. Although it differs in some details, the general structure and storyline are similar; the primary differences are as follows: in the first version it is not as cold, there is no dog, the fire is not doused, and the man (named Tom Vincent) suffers some permanent frostbite damage but survives, sad but wiser.


title: To Build a Fire

text: Another difference between the two versions comes from Clell Petersen's analysis of "To Build a Fire". He argues that the 1902 narrator has a love of life that the 1908 narrator lacks, this causes Tom Vincent (the 1902 narrator) to persevere through his journey and not "sit down and die". While the later narrator tries to fight his imminent death he lacks the love of life' that would force him to struggle to the end", so he, in the end, accepts it and doesn't complete his journey.


Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia ("Сергей Александрович"; 11 May 1857 – 17 February 1905) was the fifth son and seventh child of Emperor Alexander II of Russia. He was an influential figure during the reigns of his brother Emperor Alexander III of Russia and his nephew Emperor Nicholas II, who was also his brother-in-law through Sergei's marriage to Elizabeth, the sister of Tsarina Alexandra.


title: Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia

text: Grand Duke Sergei's education gave him lifelong interests in culture and the arts. Like all male members of the Romanov dynasty, he followed a military career, and he fought in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, receiving the Order of St George for courage and bravery in action. In 1882, his brother, Tsar Alexander III, appointed him Commander of the 1st Battalion Preobrazhensky Life Guard Regiment, a position he held until 1891. In 1889, Grand Duke Sergei was promoted to the rank of Major General. In 1884, Sergei married Princess Elisabeth of Hesse and by Rhine, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria. Their marriage remained childless, but they became the guardians of the two children of his brother, Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia: Grand Duchess Maria, and Grand Duke Dmitri. Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich and his wife promoted the marriage of Sergei's nephew, Tsar NicholasII, with Princess Alix of Hesse, Elizabeth's youngest sister.


text: Between 1891 and 1905, Grand Duke Sergei served as Governor-General of Moscow. His reputation was initially tarnished as he was partially blamed for the Khodynka Tragedy during the festivities following the coronation of Emperor NicholasII. As Governor of Moscow, he pursued very conservative policies that made him a polarizing figure. At the start of his tenure, he expelled Moscow's 20,000 Jews and repressed a student movement to prevent the spread of revolutionary ideas. Because of this, he was often regarded as a reactionary. In 1894 Grand Duke Sergei was made a member of the State Council. In 1896 he was promoted to Lieutenant General and appointed as Commander of Moscow Military District. After thirteen years of service, Grand Duke Sergei resigned from the Governorship on 1 January1905, though he remained head of the Moscow Military District. Targeted by the SR Combat Organization, he was assassinated later that year by a terrorist bomb at the Kremlin during the 1905 Russian Revolution.


text: Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich was born on in the Zubov wing of the Catherine Palace at Tsarskoye Selo. He was the seventh child and fifth son among the eight children of Alexander II of Russia and his first wife Maria Alexandrovna, née Duchess Maximilienne Wilhelmine of Hesse and by Rhine.


text: Until he was old enough to begin lessons, Sergei's earlier years were spent with his younger brother Paul, from whom he was inseparable, and their sister at Livadia, the family's Crimean retreat, at Tsarskoye Selo, and at the Winter Palace in Saint Petersburg. By the time Sergei was born, his mother was already in declining health. Although she was not a particularly affectionate mother, except to her daughter, her three youngest children, Marie, Sergei and Paul, were close to her and especially to one another. Marie adored him and called him "an exceptionally nice young man... and can be recommended one very possible way, not because he is my brother, but because he is an exception among princes." As time passed and the Empress's health made it necessary for her to avoid the harsh Russian climate, they spent long sojourns abroad in Jugenheim outside Darmstadt and winters in the South of France. A family tragedy hit them there. In April 1865, shortly before Sergei's eighth birthday, his eldest brother and godfather Nicholas, the heir to the crown, died in Nice. As a child, Sergei was shy, studious, and withdrawn. Under the influence of his mother, whose reserved character he resembled, he became very religious.


text: From the 1870s, Sergei and his younger brother Paul were kept in Russia by their studies. They were destined to follow a military career, but their tutor, Admiral Arseniev, encouraged Sergei's linguistic, artistic, and musical abilities. He was fluent in several languages and learned Italian in order to read Dante in the original. His interest in Italian art and culture intensified as he grew older. He painted well and was musical, playing the flute in an amateur orchestra. He enjoyed acting and steeped himself in the early history, culture, and traditions of Russia. He liked to read and in time came to know many of Russia's great writers personally, among them Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, whose work the Grand Duke read and admired. He met Dostoevsky over dinner at the Winter Palace where he was invited by Sergei's professor.


text: Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich started a military career early in his life. He was from birth Colonel-in-Chief of the 38th Tobolsk Infantry Regiment, he also became Colonel-in-Chief of the 2nd Battalion Guards Rifles and, towards the end of his life, Colonel-in-Chief of the 5th Kievsky Grenadier Regiment. On his twentieth birthday on 29 April1877, the Grand Duke took the solemn oath of allegiance to the Emperor. An educational tour that had been proposed for him was postponed upon the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. Sergei took part in the war with his father and brothers, the Tsarevich Alexander and Grand Dukes Vladimir and Alexei. He spent the greater part of his time serving as Poruchik in the Leib Guard under the Tsarevich in southeast Romania. He was consequently promoted to Colonel. On 12 October, following the battle of Meyk, the Emperor decorated him with the Order of StGeorge, for courage and bravery in action with the enemy, for a reconnaissance expedition at Kara Loma near Koshev. At the end of December 1877, Sergei Alexandrovich returned to Saint Petersburg with his father.


text: Alexander II had started a new family with his mistress and Sergei sided with his neglected mother in the breaking of the family's harmony. Empress Maria died in June 1880, and in March 1881 AlexanderII, who had married his mistress, Princess Catherine Dolgoruki, was assassinated by terrorists. Sergei was then in Italy with his brother Paul and Admiral Arseniev. Three months later, in June 1881, the Grand Duke went to Palestine accompanied by Paul and his cousin Grand Duke Constantine Constantinovich. They visited Jerusalem and the sacred sites. He helped to found the Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society dedicated to the upkeep of Orthodox shrines in the Holy Land and the provision of services to Russian pilgrims. He became its chairman, and his status as patron of the Russian presence in Jerusalem is believed to have given him more pleasure than any of his other duties.


text: From 1882 on, Sergei's military career, which occupied an increasing amount of his time in Saint Petersburg and on maneuvers at Krasnoe Selo, advanced still further. On 15 January 1882, his brother, Alexander III, appointed him Commander of the 1st Battalion Preobrazhensky Life Guard Regiment, the elite regiment founded by Peter the Great, with the rank of Colonel. Seven years later, he was promoted to the rank of Major General. On 26 February 1891, he was made Adjutant General of the H. I. M. Retinue. He became the commanding officer in the village of Preobrazhenskoy. Sergei commanded this regiment until 1891, when his brother the Emperor appointed him Governor-General of Moscow.


text: At twenty-six, the fair-haired Grand Duke was reserved, intelligent, well-read and refined. Over six feet tall, his extremely slim figure was accentuated by a corset, worn in the manner of Prussian officers.


text: With his closely cropped hair and neat beard, Sergei Alexandrovich cut an impressive figure. When Consuelo Vanderbilt, then Duchess of Marlborough, met him in Moscow, she considered him to be "One of the most handsome men I have ever seen."


text: Described by his brother-in-law Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse, as "tall and fair with delicate features and beautiful light green eyes". Very self-conscious, he held himself very stiffly and with a hard expression in his eyes.


text: His health was seriously compromised as he suffered from osteoarticular tuberculosis, a condition he strove to conceal, but it caused all his joints to waste away. He had to take salts and hot baths to get some relief. He could not ride a horse and had to wear a spinal corset at all times. He stood very straight and had a habit of playing with one of his jeweled rings, turning it around his finger. He kept his feelings rigidly in check, and many mistook his reserve for pride. Few had the chance to know him well. He was noted for his adherence to the Church, took a deep interest in Russian antiques and art treasures, and was interested in archaeology, music and acting and sometimes chairing meetings of the Archaeological Congress.


text: While shy and reserved, he made no secret of his disapproval of fashionable society and its lax ways, and he defied all criticism. He found it hard to cope with opposition and easily lost his temper. In his home, he demanded tidiness, order, and discipline, and he expected to be obeyed. His niece, Marie, Queen of the Romanians, remembered him: "Dry, nervous, short of speech, impatient, he had none of the rather careless good humor of his three elder brothers ... but for all that we loved him, felt irresistibly attracted to him, hard though he could be. Few perhaps cherish his memory, but I do." Many other family members, including his nephew Kiril, Princess Marie of Greece and Prince Gabriel, included their good impressions of him in their memoirs.


text: In 1881 there had been talks of a possible marriage to Princess Caroline Mathilde of Schleswig-Holstein. Emperor Alexander II had hoped that at least one of his sons would marry a princess of Hesse as he had done. Sergei eventually chose as his bride Princess Elizabeth of Hesse, a daughter of Ludwig IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine and Princess Alice of the United Kingdom. She was an older sister of both Ernst Ludwig, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine and Alix of Hesse, later the Empress consort of Nicholas II of Russia and a niece of Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, who marries his older sister Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia. They were first cousins once removed (i.e., Elizabeth's great-grandfather, her father's paternal grandfather, Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse, was Sergei's maternal grandfather) and had known each other all their lives. There were hesitations on both sides and Elizabeth first rejected his proposal of marriage. Queen Victoria, who had anti-Russian sentiments, opposed the marriage of her motherless granddaughter. Elizabeth and her sisters were not pressured into following political marriages; they were allowed to follow their own inclination. After the couple spent some time together at Schloss Wolfsgarten in Darmstadt in September 1883, Elizabeth agreed to marry him. Their engagement was announced publicly on 26 February 1884 when Sergei returned to visit her in Darmstadt. Upon her marriage, Princess Elizabeth took the name of Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna of Russia. The wedding took place on 15 June 1884 in the Winter Palace.


text: They spent their honeymoon in Ilinskoye, Sergei's country estate forty miles west of Moscow on the left bank of the Moskva River, that he inherited from his mother. The couple later settled in Saint Petersburg in a mansion occupying the southeast corner of the Fontanka Canal and the Nevsky Prospekt, a short drive from his former apartments in the Winter Palace. The Beloselsky Belozersky mansion, bought by Sergei to live with his wife, was renamed Sergeivsky Palace. The couple also had Ferme, a villa located in the grounds of Peterhof that Sergei had inherited from his mother. They usually entertained at Ilinskoe during the summer months, with guests occupying various wooden villas dotted around the park. There was also Usovo, a substantial stone and brick house with an innovative central heating, that Sergei had built on the opposite bank of the Moskva River.


text: The couple was close to Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna, and the Tsar trusted Sergei more than his other brothers. In 1886, Alexander III appointed him Commander of the Preobrazhensky Life Guard Regiment, entrusting him with introducing the Tsarevich (the future Nicholas II) to army life. Sergei and Ella represented Russia in 1887 during Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee and in 1888, they were sent to the Holy Land on the occasion of the consecration of the Church of Mary Magdalene in Jerusalem built in memory of Empress Maria Alexandrovna. By 1892, eight years into the marriage, Sergei was already certain that they would not have children and he left a will making the children of his brother Paul his heirs after his and his wife's deaths.


text: Emperor Alexander III adopted a policy of repression; he wanted a like mind at the helm of Imperial Russia's second city and former capital. Thus, in spring 1891, the tsar appointed Sergei as governor general of Moscow.


text: Although it was a great honour, Grand Duke Sergei accepted his new appointment with reluctance. He had hoped to stay longer in command of the Preobrazhensky, where he was popular; and he and his wife loved the quiet life they were living in Saint Petersburg.


text: The vice-regal role of Governor-General ruling Prince of Moscow was one that was answerable only to the emperor. Grand Duke Sergei was a political hardliner who shared his brother's inalienable belief in strong, nationalist government. Sergei's tenure began with the expulsion of Moscow's 20,000 Jews. It started four weeks before he arrived in person, after the publication of an imperial ukase by the Minister of the Interior Ivan Durnovo, by which all Jews of lower social stance (artisans, minor traders and so on) had to be expelled from Moscow. On 29 March, the first day of Passover, the city's Jewish population learned of the new decree that called for their expulsion. In three carefully planned phases over the next twelve months, Moscow's Jews were expelled. Those first to go were the unmarried, the childless, and those who had lived in the city for less than three years. Next, it was the turn of apprentices, of families with up to four children, and those with less than six years residency. Last of all, it was the turn of the old Jewish settlers with large families and/or numerous employees, some of whom had lived in Moscow for forty years. Young Jewish women were made to register as prostitutes if they wanted to stay in the city.


text: During the expulsion, homes were surrounded by mounted Cossacks in the middle of the night while policemen ransacked every house. In January 1892, in a temperature of 30 degrees below zero, Brest station was packed with Jews of all ages and sexes, all in rags and surrounded by meager remnants of households goods, all leaving voluntarily rather than face deportation. Sergei as governor-general was petitioned by the police commissioners to stop the expulsions until the weather conditions improved. While he agreed, the order was not published until the expulsions were over. Some of them moved to southern and western regions of the empire although there were many who decided to emigrate. In counting the cost, Moscow lost 100 million rubles in trade and production, 25,000 Russians employed by Jewish firms lost their livelihoods, while the manufacture of silk, one of the city's most lucrative industries, was all but wiped out.


text: To meet the needs of students, Sergei ordered the start of the construction of new dormitories in the city. At the same time, however, severe restrictions were imposed on the students and professors in the universities as a part of the state's policy of conspiracy prevention and elimination of revolutionary ideas. This made Sergei Alexandrovich very unpopular in Moscow among "intelligentsia", though the more conservative citizens were pleased. The Muscovite nobility and merchants despised him because he was rough and lacked tact while attempting to fight commercial fraud and enforce strict policy measures. However, he did significantly improve general living conditions during his tenure and was extremely conscientious in carrying out his duties: “Even in the country when he was supposed to be resting," his niece remembered, "he was constantly receiving couriers from Moscow and giving audiences.” He paid much attention to detail, attending personally to matters that could easily have been left to subordinates, punishing corruption and fraud. At times, he would go about the city incognito to see conditions for himself. In private, he and his wife were concerned about the poverty they saw in Moscow and the surrounding countryside, discussing ways to improve it.


text: Welfare organizations and charities always attracted Sergei's attention and he became either chairman or patron of scores of them.


text: He was, for example, chairman of the Moscow Society for the Care, Upbringing, and Education of Blind Children; of the Society for Homeless, Neglected Children, and Convicted Adolescents; and the Moscow Department of the Russian Department Society of National Health Protection.


text: In addition, he was a patron of organizations as diverse as the Moscow and Saint Petersburg Universities, The Printer's Mutual Aid Fund, the Society of Care for Aged Actors, the Pskov Non-Classical Secondary School, and Prince Nikola's Alm Houses. He was also chairman of the Academies of both Arts and Science, the Moscow Archeological Society, the Society of Agriculture, the Russian Musical Society, the Historical Museum in Moscow, and the Moscow Theological Academy among others.


text: Tsar Alexander III died on 1 November [O.S. 20 October] 1894 and his son Nicholas II ascended to the Russian throne. The relationship between Grand Duke Sergei and his nephew, who had served under his command in the Preobrazhensky Life Guard Regiment, was close and it became stronger with Nicholas II's marriage to Princess Alix of Hesse, the youngest sister of Sergei's wife—a union that Sergei and Elizabeth Feodorovna had helped to promote.


text: The coronation ceremonies of the new Emperor and his wife, as tradition demanded, took place in Moscow and Sergei as Governor General of the City was in charge of overseeing the arrangements. As part of the preparations, Sergei had introduced the novelty of electric light to Moscow. Towards the end of the festivities, according to custom, every newly crowned Tsar presented gifts to the populace; Khodynka Field, on the outskirts of Moscow, was where the distribution was held since the coronation of Tsar Alexander II. The choice was questionable, as the field was normally used as a military training ground and was crisscrossed with ditches. Nevertheless, Sergei, as Governor General approved the plans. Although a crowd of nearly half a million was expected from all over Russia, only one squadron of Cossacks and a small detachment of police were sent to maintain order.


text: Early in the morning of 30 May [O.S. 18 May] 1896, families began to gather outside the frail wooden fence that protected the field, watching carts laden with beer, and the eagerly sought after gifts. Around 6 am, a rumor swept through the massive crowd that the booths had already opened and the souvenirs were being given out. Suddenly moving as one, that great body of people began to surge forward in the direction of the booths. As it did so, men, women and children, hundreds of whom had no idea what was happening, fell or slipped on the uneven ground and were crushed and trampled underfoot. Others suffocated in the mayhem. The police, far too few in numbers, were helpless to do much and even the Cossacks when they arrived were unable to stop the catastrophe. One thousand three hundred people, many hideously mutilated and unrecognizable, were killed and twice that number were seriously injured.


text: While Grand Duke Sergei had not directly participated in the planning for Khodynka Field, he was blamed for the lack of foresight and as Governor-General, held as ultimately responsible. However, he did not assume his part of the responsibility for the tragedy. He laid the blame on others, most notably on Ilarion Count Voronzov-Dashkov, head of the Ministry of the Imperial Court, with whom there had been some dispute over the management of the coronation festivities, and Colonel Alexander Vlasovsky (1842–1899), the city of Moscow's Chief of Police. In the eyes of public opinion Sergei had done himself great harm by not going to the scene of the incident or at least putting in appearances at the victims' funerals, though it also reported that Sergei did feel deeply saddened by the disaster.


text: After the tragedy, many members of the Romanov family, headed by Grand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich and his brothers, thought that the remaining festivities should be canceled. On the other hand, Sergei Alexandrovich and his brothers thought that a historical event, such as a coronation, should not be disrupted or marred by a conspicuous period of mourning. The latter opinion believed that the crowds who came long distances should not be disappointed and that the tightly scheduled events for foreign dignitaries not be slighted and should go forward. There was also division among the Romanov family as to whether Grand Duke Sergei should have resigned. Grand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich and his brothers called for his resignation, while Sergei's own brothers Grand Dukes Vladimir Alexandrovich and Alexei Alexandrovich closed ranks supporting him and threatened to retire from public life if Sergei was made the scapegoat for the Khodynka tragedy. Ultimately, Sergei offered to resign while Vorontzov-Dashkov did not. In the end, the Tsar did not support a thoroughly proposed investigation, the Chief of Police was dismissed, and Grand Duke Sergei retained his office.


text: The night of the tragedy Tsar Nicholas II, for diplomatic reasons, attended a ball in honor of the French; because of that, his reputation also suffered for what was perceived to be his lack of sympathy for the victims.


text: In 1894 Sergei was made a member of the State Council. In 1896, he was promoted to Lieutenant General and appointed as Commander of Moscow military district. Because Sergei was devoted to the policies of his nephew, the Tsar regarded him as a useful counterweight to some of his ministers and officials and would always readily take his side. When, in 1896, disturbances broke out in the universities, Nicholas II was grateful for his prompt action and that of the authorities that quickly restored order.


text: Although Sergei was often condemned as a complete reactionary during his governorship, according to his brother-in-law Ernest, Grand Duke of Hesse, he wanted and strove for improvements, which angered conservatives, but blocked revolutionary reforms, which infuriated radicals, because he considered them impractical or thought that Russia was not ready for them.


text: Sergei's enigmatic personality and harsh manners made him appear arrogant and disagreeable. Shy by nature, he dreaded personal contact. When courtesy demanded a handshake, he solved the problem by wearing a white glove. Puritan and humourless, at least in public, he had a total disregard for public opinion. He never seemed to be at ease with himself and others. He became a focus for serious opponents of the regime as well as for malicious gossip. His cousin Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich left a damaging description about him: "Try as I will,” he wrote, “ I cannot find a single redeeming feature in his character… Obstinate, arrogant, disagreeable, he flaunted his many peculiarities in the face of the entire nation… " Later writers have accused him of sadism.


text: A great deal of controversy around Sergei Alexandrovich has centered on the nature of his personal life. Conjecture about the perhaps unhappy nature of the relationship with his wife has abounded.


text: Sergei's marriage is barely documented. His private papers, including his correspondence with his wife, have not survived, and the evidence that does exist in the Moscow State Archives, the most important repository of Romanov papers, is open to interpretation. According to some contemporary reports, Sergei was homosexual. The diary of prominent St. Petersburg hostess Alexandra Bogdanovich refers to Sergei's alleged affairs with his aide-de-camps Martynov and Balyasny; while after Sergei was appointed Governor of Moscow, Count Vladimir Lamsdorf punned: "Moscow used to stand on seven hills, and now it has to stand on one hillock" – (the Russian word for 'hillock' sounding similar to the French word for bugger). Some reports suggest his sexuality might have conflicted with his intense religious beliefs and the expectations of his position. Contrary to this belief, the marriage was happy, in its own way. Unusually for royal couples, they slept in the same bed for all of their married life. Forced to defend Sergei against rumors of discord, Elizabeth Feodorovna was devoted to her husband and treasured his memory after his death.


text: Although their marriage remained childless, the two children of Grand Duke Paul, Grand Duchess Maria, and Grand Duke Dimitri, often joined their household, spending Christmases and later some summer holidays with Sergei and his wife. The couple set aside a playroom and bedrooms for the youngsters at their home. In 1902, Paul was banished from living in Russia after he contracted a morganatic marriage and Sergei asked for and obtained the guardianship of his niece and nephew. As a foster father, Sergei was strict and demanding, but devoted and affectionate towards the children. Nevertheless, Maria and Dimitri resented their aunt and uncle, blaming them for the forced separation from their real father, who had abandoned them.


text: While Sergei had their best interests at heart, his preoccupation with the smallest detail of their education and upbringing were not appealing to the two difficult adolescents, especially the obstinate Maria.


text: By the end of 1904, Russia had suffered disastrously in the Russo-Japanese War and the country was in turmoil. As discontent and demonstration multiplied, so did the pressure on Sergei to maintain order. He was of the opinion that only the utmost severity could put an end to the revolutionary ferment, but in the wake of civil disorder Nicholas II was forced to make concessions. Sergei did not support the Tsar's security policies of vacillations and evasions. According to Marie Pavlovna, "it appeared to my uncle little less than monstrous ... he expressed deep sorrow for the state of affairs in Russia, of the necessity for serious measures, and of the criminal weakness of the Tsar's ministers and councilors." Thoroughly disillusioned with the whole situation and deciding it was the right time to retire into private life, he informed the Tsar that new times needed new faces. After thirteen years of service, Sergei resigned from the Governorship on 1 January 1905 and was succeeded by Dmitri Feodorovich Trepov. However, he continued as Commander of the Moscow military district.


text: Following his resignation, Grand Duke Sergei moved to the Neskuchnoye Palace with his wife and foster children. Shortly thereafter, they moved to the Nicholas Palace within the safety of the Kremlin, under the cover of night. Sergei took every precaution advised by his detectives. Sergei and his wife rarely ventured outside. At home, they only received their closest friends. Like his father, Alexander II, Sergei was firm of the belief that unless it was the will of God, no attempt on his life would succeed. If it were the will of God, no amount of security would prevent it. One precaution he did take was for the benefit of his adjutants, whom he would no longer allow traveling with him.


text: On 15 February 1905, the family attended a concert at the Bolshoi Theatre in aid of Elizabeth Feodorovna's Red Cross War charities. A terrorist organization that knew his route, the Socialist Revolutionary Party's combat detachment, had planned to assassinate him that day. However, one of their members, Ivan Kalyayev, noticed the children in the carriage and decided to call off their attack. To kill the Grand Duchess and the children would surely have sparked a wave of apprehension throughout the empire, and would have set back the revolutionary cause by years. Having had lunch with his wife at Nicholas Palace on 17 February, Sergei left unaccompanied for the Governor General's mansion. Because of the looming threat, Sergei had refused to take his adjutant, Alexei, since he was married and a father. The arrival of the Grand Duke's recognizable carriage, drawn by a pair of horses and driven by his coachman Andrei Rudinkin, alerted the terrorist who had been waiting in the Kremlin with a bomb wrapped in newspapers.


text: Just before 14:45, the carriage of the Grand Duke passed through the gate of Nikolskaya Tower of the Kremlin and turned the corner of the Chudov Monastery into Senatskaya Square. From a distance no more than away and still some inside the Nikolsky Gate, Ivan Kalyayev stepped forward and threw a nitroglycerin bomb directly into Sergei's lap. The explosion disintegrated the carriage and the Grand Duke died immediately. Scattered all over the bloodstained snow lay pieces of scorched cloth, fur, and leather. The body of the Grand Duke was mutilated, with the head, the upper part of the chest, and the left shoulder and arm blown off and completely destroyed. Some of the Grand Duke's fingers, still adorned with the rings he habitually wore, were found on the roof of a nearby building.


text: On impact, the carriage horses had bolted towards the Nikolsky Gate, dragging with them the front wheels and coachbox as well as the semi-conscious and badly burned driver, Rudinkin, whose back had been riddled with bits of bomb and stones. He was rushed to the nearest hospital, where he died three days later. Kalyayev, who by his own testimony had expected to die in the explosion, survived. Sucked into the vortex of the explosion, he ended up by the remains of the rear wheels. His face was peppered by splinters, pouring with blood. Kalyayev was immediately arrested, sentenced to death, and hanged two months later. The Grand Duchess rushed to the scene of the explosion. Stunned but perfectly controlled, she gave instructions, and, kneeling in the snow, helped to gather up Sergei's remains. The remains were placed on a stretcher and covered with an army greatcoat.


text: According to Edvard Radzinsky, during the trial of Kalyayev,"Elizabeth spent all the days before the burial in ceaseless prayer. On her husband's tombstone she wrote: 'Father, release them, they know not what they do.' She understood the words of the Gospels heart and soul, and on the eve of the funeral she demanded to be taken to the prison where Kalyayev was being held. Brought into his cell, she asked, 'Why did you kill my husband?' 'I killed Sergei Alexandrovich because he was a weapon of tyranny. I was taking revenge for the people.' 'Do not listen to your pride. Repent... and I will beg the Sovereign to give you your life. I will ask him for you. I myself have already forgiven you.' On the eve of revolution, she had already found a way out; forgiveness! Forgive through the impossible pain and blood -- and thereby stop it then, at the beginning, this bloody wheel. By her example, poor Ella appealed to society, calling upon the people to live in Christian faith. 'No!" replied Kalyayev. 'I do not repent. I must die for my deed and I will... My death will be more useful to my cause than Sergei Alexandrovich's death.' Kalyayev was sentenced to death. 'I am pleased with your sentence,' he told the judges. 'I hope that you will carry it out just as openly and publicly as I carried out the sentence of the Socialist Revolutionary Party. Learn to look the advancing revolution right in the face.'"Deeply affected by the Grand Duke's death, Grand Duchess Elizabeth Feodorovna retired from the royal family and founded the Russian Orthodox convent of Martha and Mary, where she dedicated herself to the care of Moscow's poor and suffering. Part of the obligations of the sisters of the Martha and Mary convent was to make an annual pilgrimage to the sepulchral church in memory of the Grand Duke on the day of his repose, 4 February. Elizabeth Feodorovna was murdered during the Russian Civil War in 1918, together with many other Romanov relatives. Her body and that of a fellow nun was smuggled to China and eventually reached Jerusalem. The wooden coffins were met at the railway station by the deputy British governor, Sir Harry Charles Luke, and taken for burial at the Church of Mary Magdalene on the Mount of Olives.


text: Grand Duke Sergei's body was buried in a crypt of the Chudov Monastery within the precincts of the Moscow Kremlin. A memorial cross, created from public donations, was erected on the spot where he was killed in 1908. After the downfall of the Romanovs, the cross was destroyed with the personal participation of Vladimir Lenin.


text: Chudov Monastery was demolished in 1928, and the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet was built on the site. The burial crypt of the Grand Duke was located in a courtyard of that building, which had been used as a parking lot. In 1990, building workers in the Kremlin discovered the blocked up entrance of the burial vault. The coffin was examined and found to contain the Grand Duke's remains, covered with the military greatcoat of the Kiev regiment, decorations, and an icon. He had left written instructions that he was to be buried in the Preobrazhensky Lifeguard regiment uniform, but as his body was so badly mutilated this proved impossible. In 1995, the coffin was officially exhumed, and after a Panikhida in the Kremlin Cathedral of the Archangel, it was reburied in a vault of the Novospassky Monastery in Moscow on 17 September 1995.


text: On 4 May 2017, Sergei's memorial cross was restored in a ceremony that was attended by President Vladimir Putin and Patriarch Kirill of Moscow.


title: Skeuomorph

text: A skeuomorph (also spelled skiamorph, ) is a derivative object that retains ornamental design cues (attributes) from structures that were necessary in the original. Skeuomorphs are typically used to make something new feel familiar in an effort to speed understanding and acclimation. They employ elements that, while essential to the original object, serve no pragmatic purpose in the new system. Examples include pottery embellished with imitation rivets reminiscent of similar pots made of metal and a software calendar that imitates the appearance of binding on a paper desk calendar.


title: Skeuomorph

text: The term "skeuomorph" is compounded from "skeuos" (σκεῦος), meaning "container or tool", and "morphḗ" (μορφή), meaning "shape". It has been applied to material objects since 1890. With the advent of computer systems in the 1980s, skeuomorph is used to characterize the many "old fashioned" icons utilized in graphic user interfaces.


title: Skeuomorph

text: A similar alternative definition of skeuomorph is "a physical ornament or design on an object made to resemble another material or technique". This definition is broader in scope, as it can be applied to design elements that still serve the same function as they did in a previous design.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Skeuomorphs may be deliberately employed to make a new look more familiar and comfortable or may be the result of cultural influences and norms on the designer. They may be the artistic expression on the part of the designer. The usability researcher and academic Don Norman describes skeuomorphism in terms of cultural constraints: interactions with a system that are learned only through culture. Norman also popularized perceived affordances, where the user can tell what an object provides or does based on its appearance, which skeuomorphism can make easy.


title: Skeuomorph

text: The concept of skeuomorphism overlaps with other design concepts. Mimesis is an imitation, coming directly from the Greek word. Archetype is the original idea or model that is emulated, where the emulations can be skeuomorphic. Skeuomorphism is parallel to, but different from, path dependence in technology, where an element's functional behavior is maintained even when the original reasons for its design no longer exist.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Many features of wooden buildings were repeated in stone by the Ancient Greeks when they transitioned from wood to masonry construction. Decorative stone features in the Doric order of classical architecture in Greek temples such as triglyphs, mutules, guttae, and modillions are supposed to be derived from true structural and functional features of the early wooden temples. The triglyph and guttae are seen as recreating in stone functional features of the wooden temples that preceded them, respectively the carved beam-ends and six wooden pegs driven in to secure the beam in place.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Historically, high-status items such as the Minoans' elaborate and expensive silver cups were recreated for a wider market using pottery, a cheaper material. The exchange of shapes between metalwork and ceramics, often from the former to the latter, is near-constant in the history of the decorative arts. Sometimes pellets of clay are used to evoke the rivets of the metal originals.


title: Skeuomorph

text: There is also evidence of skeuomorphism in material transitions. Leather and pottery often carry over features from the wooden counterparts of previous generations. Clay pottery has also been found bearing rope-shaped protrusions, pointing to craftsmen seeking familiar shapes and processes while working with new materials. In this context, skeuomorphs exist as traits sought in other objects, either for their social desirability or psychological comforts.


title: Skeuomorph

text: In the modern era, cheaper plastic items often attempt to mimic more expensive wooden and metal products, though they are only skeuomorphic if new ornamentation references the original functionality, such as molded screw heads in molded plastic items. Another well-known skeuomorph is the plastic Adirondack chair. The lever on a mechanical slot machine, or "one-armed bandit", is a skeuomorphic throwback feature when it appears on a modern video slot machine, since it is no longer required to set physical mechanisms and gears into motion. Articles of clothing are also given skeuomorphic treatment; for example, faux buckles on certain strap shoes, such as Mary Janes for small children, which permit the retention of the original aesthetic.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Automotive design has historically been full of physical skeuomorphisms, such as thinly chrome-plated plastic components and imitation leather, gold, wood, pearl, or crystal jeweled elements. In "The Design of Everyday Things", Don Norman notes that early automobiles were designed after horse-drawn carriages. Indeed, the early automobile design Horsey Horseless even included a wooden horse head on the front. In the 1970s, opera windows and vinyl roofs on many luxury sedan cars similarly imitated carriage work from the horse and buggy era. , most electric cars feature prominent front grilles, even though there is little need for intake of air to cool an absent internal combustion engine.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Many computer programs have a skeuomorphic graphical user interface that emulates the aesthetics of physical objects. Examples include a digital contact list resembling a Rolodex, and IBM's 1998 RealThings package. A more extreme example is found in some music synthesis and audio processing software packages, which closely emulate physical musical instruments and audio equipment complete with buttons and dials. On a smaller scale, the icons of GUIs may remain skeuomorphic representations of physical objects, such as an image of a physical paper folder to represent computer files. This is even the case for items that are no longer directly applicable to the task they represent (such as a drawing of a floppy disk to represent "save").


title: Skeuomorph

text: Apple Inc., while under the direction of Steve Jobs, was known for its wide usage of skeuomorphic designs in various applications. This changed after Jobs' death when Scott Forstall, described as "the most vocal and high-ranking proponent of the visual design style favored by Mr. Jobs", resigned. Apple designer Jonathan Ive took over some of Forstall's responsibilities and had "made his distaste for the visual ornamentation in Apple's mobile software known within the company". With the announcement of iOS 7 at WWDC in 2013, Apple officially shifted from skeuomorphism to a more simplified design, thus beginning the so-called "death of skeuomorphism" at Apple.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Other virtual skeuomorphs do not employ literal images of some physical object; but rather allude to ritual human heuristics or heuristic motifs, such as slider bars that emulate linear potentiometers and visual tabs that behave like physical tabbed file folders. Another example is the swiping hand gesture for turning the "pages" or screens of a tablet display.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Virtual skeuomorphs can also be auditory. The shutter-click sound emitted by most camera phones when taking a picture is an auditory skeuomorph. Another familiar example is the paper-crumpling sound when a document is trashed.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Painted lines on the road can serve as skeuomorphs of cattle grids. The light-dark pattern of lines on pavement resembles a true cattle grid to animals, and by association think they will not be able to cross.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Retrofuturism incorporates visual motifs from old predictions of the future, especially Skeuomorphic design is frequently incorporated in retrowave or synthwave illustrations. Skeumorphic time is closely linked with metamodernism.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Skeuomorphic design seems to be preferred by older recipient groups, often referred to as "digital immigrants", while "digital natives" tend to favor flat design over skeuomorphisms. However, younger people are still able to understand the signifiers that skeuomorphic design employs. A better user experience could be measured for each respective design philosophy among digital natives and immigrants.


title: Skeuomorph

text: An argument in favor of skeuomorphic design is that signifiers to affordances help those familiar with the original device learn to use the digital version. Interaction paradigms for computer devices are culturally entrenched; proposals for change often spawn debate. Don Norman describes this process as a form of cultural heritage, and credits skeuomorphism with easing transitions to newer technology, stating that it "gives comfort and makes learning easier" until the newer devices no longer need to resemble their predecessors.


title: Skeuomorph

text: Compared to flat design, skeuomorphic design seems to facilitate a fast navigation through graphic user interfaces, supposedly because icons are more easily recognized and less abstract than their minimalistic counterparts found in flat design.


title: Skeuomorph

text: The arguments against virtual skeuomorphic design are that skeuomorphic interface elements are harder to operate and take up more screen space than standard interface elements, that this breaks operating system interface design standards, that it causes an inconsistent look and feel between applications, that skeuomorphic interface elements rarely incorporate numeric input or feedback for accurately setting a value, that many users may have no experience with the original device being emulated, that skeuomorphic design can increase cognitive load with visual noise that after a few uses gives little or no value to the user, that skeuomorphic design limits creativity by grounding the user experience to physical counterparts, and that skeuomorphic designs often do not accurately represent underlying system state or data types due to inappropriate mimesis, such as analog gauges in a digital interface.


title: Robotech

text: Robotech is a science fiction franchise that began with an 85-episode anime television series produced by Harmony Gold USA in association with Tatsunoko Production and first released in the United States in 1985.


title: Robotech

text: The show was adapted from three original and distinct, though visually similar, Japanese anime television series ("Super Dimension Fortress Macross", "Super Dimension Cavalry Southern Cross" and "Genesis Climber MOSPEADA") to make a series suitable for syndication.


title: Robotech

text: In the series, "Robotechnology" refers to the scientific advances discovered in an alien starship that crashed on a South Pacific island. With this technology, Earth developed robotic technologies, such as transformable mecha, to fight three successive extraterrestrial invasions.


title: Robotech

text: Prior to the release of the TV series, the name "Robotech" was used by model kit manufacturer Revell on their "Robotech Defenders" line in the mid-1980s. The line consisted of mecha model kits imported from Japan and featured in anime titles such as "Super Dimension Fortress Macross" (1982), "Super Dimension Century Orguss" (1983) and "Fang of the Sun Dougram" (1981). The kits were originally intended to be a marketing tie-in to a similarly named comic book series by DC Comics, which was cancelled after only two issues.


title: Robotech

text: At the same time, Harmony Gold licensed the "Macross" TV series for direct-to-video distribution in 1984, but their merchandising plans were compromised by Revell's prior distribution of the "Macross" kits. In the end, both parties signed a co-licensing agreement and the "Robotech" name was adopted for the TV syndication of "Macross" combined with "Super Dimension Cavalry Southern Cross" (1984) and "Genesis Climber MOSPEADA" (1983).


title: Robotech

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Asterisked works are now considered 'secondary continuity'—that is, that their events exist in the continuity of "Robotech", but 'don't count' when conflicts arise with the primary continuity that comprises the three-part "Robotech" TV series and 2006's "".


title: Robotech

text: In 2002, with the publication of the WildStorm (DC) comics, Harmony Gold officially decided to retcon the "Robotech" Universe. The following "Robotech" material is now relegated to the status of secondary continuity:


title: Robotech

text: While these materials are not precisely 'retired' or 'removed' from the continuity, their events are subject to critical review, and are strictly subordinate to the 'official' events of the 85-episode animated series.


title: Robotech

text: "Robotech" (1985) is an original story adapted with edited content and revised dialogue from the animation of three different mecha anime series:


title: Robotech

text: Harmony Gold's cited reasoning for combining these unrelated series was its decision to market "Macross" for American weekday syndication television, which required a minimum of 65 episodes at the time (thirteen weeks at five episodes per week). "Macross" and the two other series each had fewer episodes than required, since they originally aired in Japan as weekly series. On some television stations, the syndicated run was preceded by the broadcast premiere of "", a feature-length pilot.


title: Robotech

text: This combination resulted in a storyline that spans three generations, as mankind must fight three destructive 'Robotech Wars' in succession with various invading forces, each of which is motivated in one way or another by a desire for a powerful energy source called 'protoculture'. While each of the three animated series used for its footage informs its content, the Robotech storyline is distinct and separate from each of them.


title: Robotech

text: "Robotech: The Movie", also called "Robotech: The Untold Story", is a feature film and was the first new "Robotech" adventure created after the premiere of the original series. It uses footage from the "Megazone 23 – Part 1" OVA (original video animation; made-for-video animated feature) combined with scenes from "Southern Cross" and additional original animation produced for the film.


title: Robotech

text: The original plan for the film was to have it set during the Macross Saga, parallel to the SDF-1's return to Earth from Pluto. The film would also have served as a prequel to the Sentinels, as both projects were initially meant to share many characters. Harmony Gold producer Carl Macek worked with the OVA's original creators to make the story and the new ending work. The film had to be changed again after the distributor of the film, Cannon Films, saw an incomplete rough cut of the film and were upset by it. They ordered Macek to remove multiple scenes from the film and to add more violence (most of the scenes removed were scenes setting up characters and showing female characters interacting). Macek reluctantly did what they ordered, and created a new script and rough edit for the film in less than 24 hours. When the distributors saw Macek act out the new film, they were much more pleased with the new cut. The opening night in Texas received a positive response, but Cannon Films pulled out after noting that most attendants were adults; the bulk of the scheduled advertising for the series was targeted to children. The film had limited success in Argentina and Belgium.


title: Robotech

text: In 2011, A&E Home Video released, as a part of their "Robotech: The Complete Series" collection, a 29-minute version of "Robotech: The Movie" containing only footage used from "Southern Cross". There was no attempt to remaster the footage.


title: Robotech

text: This aborted American-produced series would have followed the continuing adventures of Rick and Lisa Hunter and the Robotech Expedition during the events of "The Masters" and "The New Generation". The feature-length pilot is composed of the first three (and only) episodes that were produced. "The Sentinels" featured characters from all three "Robotech" sagas and introduced the SDF-3 along with an overview of their new mission. The series was planned to have a total of 65 episodes.


title: Robotech

text: In "Robotech Art 3: The Sentinels", Carl Macek blamed the cancellation of the series on the crash of the Yen/Dollar exchange rate, which caused toy partner Matchbox to withdraw from the project. Harmony Gold lacked the funds to produce the series on its own, and production ceased after only three episodes.


title: Robotech

text: "Robotech II: The Sentinels" was released on VHS by Palladium Books. In 2011, a "remastered" version was released on the A&E DVD set, "Robotech: The Complete Original Series" DVD. This version has opening titles resembling those found on the "Robotech Remastered" DVDs, as well as a new ending with text explaining the fate of the SDF-3. Also, all of the flashback footage used from "The Macross Saga" has been removed, including the re-used footage from the episode "Wedding Bells".


title: Robotech

text: In 2002, Tommy Yune announced development of a new sequel film, which was untitled until 2004 as "Robotech: Shadow Force". The storyline overlaps with and continues from the unresolved ending of the original series. The title of the story arc was soon changed to "". The first trailers with finished animation were shown at Anime Expo and Comic-Con International in 2005. It was not until February 2006, when Kevin McKeever, operations coordinator at Harmony Gold, was able to confirm that the pilot movie had been completed. After a series of delays, FUNimation Entertainment was finally announced as the home video, broadcast, and theatrical distributor at the 2006 Comic-Con International in San Diego with the possibility of producing further sequels. Harmony Gold premiered the movie at various film festivals in 2006, and it was first seen by a public audience at MechaCon on August 9, 2006, where it was showcased as a charity screening to help raise funds for the ongoing Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita recovery effort. A limited theatrical run followed in January 2007, and the film was released on DVD on February 6, 2007. A two-disc collector's edition was released in November 2007.


title: Robotech

text: First revealed in late 2011 in the final minutes of "Carl Macek's Robotech Universe", a documentary on the making of "Robotech" dedicated to the then-recent passing of Macek, "Love Live Alive" is an adaptation of the 1985 "Genesis Climber Mospeada" OVA, "Love Live Alive", incorporating some brand-new animation. The film was released on DVD on July 23, 2013, by Lionsgate Home Entertainment in North America.


title: Robotech

text: This promotional VHS tape created by Matchbox was included with their "Robotech Wars" playset. This video includes two episodes cobbled together from clips of "The Macross Saga". Titled "To the End of the Universe" and "Battle Royale", these episodes contain no new footage, and are not meant to follow any continuity established in the TV series.


title: Robotech

text: Carl Macek revealed ideas for another proposed series, "Robotech: The Odyssey", which would have picked up where "The New Generation" and end of "Robotech: The Sentinels" left off, and eventually created a circular storyline that would end where the original "Robotech" began in a giant 260-episode cycle to fill up all the weekdays in a year. According to Macek, "The Odyssey" would have involved the SDF-3 travelling back into the past to the days before the birth of Zor (as well as Scott Bernard's search for the SDF-3). The SDF-3's crew would become citizens of the Robotech Masters' homeworld and change time by becoming a part of its history. Ultimately, it would be revealed that Lynn Minmei was the mother of Zor, making Minmei the focal point of Robotech. The final episode of the Odyssey would be of Zor dying and his Super Dimension Fortress (the SDF-1) being launched into space, and eventually crash landing on Earth in 1999. The next episode after that would be "Boobytrap", episode 1 of the original series which in turn will create an endless loop within the "Robotech" universe. After the failure of "Sentinels", "Odyssey" never went into development, although some of its ideas were worked into the final Jack McKinney novel "The End of the Circle", which wrapped up all of the outstanding plot threads left by the original series and the previous "Robotech" novels.


title: Robotech

text: Fan publication "Macross Life" interviewed Harmony Gold executive Richard Firth in 1986, where he revealed that Macek had "plans through "ROBOTECH V", which would give us an episode for each day of the year for a year and a half." He also said that these two installments would have brought the series to 285 episodes. Regarding the plot, Firth mentioned a "retired Commodore Hunter, whomever that may be, could very well be speaking at the graduation of the later day cadets or whatever, and they ask him to tell them the story all over again: it comes back [to the first episode of the series]."


title: Robotech

text: Macek himself described a fourth and fifth series envisioned for "Robotech" in Chris Meadow's Space Station Liberty podcast in 2007. Macek mentioned the original series as the first, "The Sentinels" as "Robotech II", "The Odyssey" as "Robotech III", and then 2 further series detailing the evolution of Zor, bringing the combined series' total to approximately 300 episodes.


title: Robotech

text: Macek attempted another sequel with the development of "Robotech 3000". This all-CGI series would have been set a millennium in the future of the "Robotech" universe and feature none of the old series' characters. In the three-minute trailer, an expedition is sent to check on a non-responsive mining outpost and is attacked by "infected" Veritech mecha. The idea was abandoned midway into production after negative reception within the company, negative fan reactions at the FanimeCon anime convention in 2000, and financial difficulties within Netter Digital who was animating the show. The trailer is hosted on the official "Robotech" website, and was included in the 2007 release of the "Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles" 2-disc collector's DVD, along with behind-the-scenes motion capture footage.


title: Robotech

text: In October 2004, veteran animation writer and producer Greg Weisman revealed that he developed an animated spin-off series titled "Robotech: Mars Force". When asked about the project, Weisman said that he was under a non-disclosure agreement with Harmony Gold and was only allowed to mention that he developed the series.


title: Robotech

text: In 2006, Harmony Gold Creative Director Tommy Yune elaborated on the project in the Space Station Liberty Podcast, saying that Mars Force was a series geared at younger audiences, following the children of the Robotech Expeditionary Force. A similar plot would later be used for the canceled 2014 spin-off, "Robotech Academy".


title: Robotech

text: A sixty-second public service announcement for the 60th anniversary of the United Nations, featuring Scott Bernard and Ariel, was animated during the production of "The Shadow Chronicles". Although it did not use the original voice actors and the dialogue was somewhat out-of-character, it nonetheless marked the first fully completed "Robotech" footage in many years.


title: Robotech

text: On July 27, 2007, at their Comic-Con International panel, Harmony Gold and Yune unveiled the second entry of the "Shadow Chronicles" production, titled "Robotech: Shadow Rising" and was to be a co-production with FUNimation Entertainment. Pre-production reportedly began in February 2007 and a projected release date of sometime in 2009 was originally expected. Production was reporter to have ceased in 2007 after Harmony Gold terminated their deal with FUNimation Entertainment due to creative differences.


title: Robotech

text: At Comic-Con 2012, Tommy Yune announced that "Love Live Alive" would pave the way for "Shadow Rising". As of 2015, the Shadow Rising trademark remains abandoned since 2007.


title: Robotech

text: On July 5, 2014, Harmony Gold started a Kickstarter project for "Robotech Academy", which Macek had developed before he died. The goal of this project was to raise US$500,000 to produce a new 24-minute pilot episode. The crowdfunding project was to have closed on August 9, 2014; however, on August 2, the project was canceled with a pledge level of US$194,574, or 39% of its target. Harmony Gold, however, announced that further plans to fund the project were being explored. At the 2014 Long Beach Comic Con, it was announced that the producers at Harmony Gold were in talks with at least one new media network on the prospect of producing the show. As of December 7, 2015, the project remains abandoned.


title: Robotech

text: In the 1990s, Seishun Shitemasu, an anime fandubbing group, produced the parodies "Robotech III: Not Necessarily the Sentinels" and "Robotech IV: Khyron's Counterattack", using footage from, respectively, "Gunbuster" and "", continuing the tradition of the original Robotech's adaptation of unrelated anime series into a single continuity.


title: Robotech

text: On July 2, 2010, Ecuadorian animator Patricio "Pat" Mosquera uploaded to YouTube a teaser for "Robotech Skull Knights". On August 17, 2010, second teaser revealed Rick Hunter standing in front of an image of the VF-4 shown in the final episodes of the original series. "Robotech Skull Knights" has not been released yet. In July 2013, Patricio Mosquera was included as an animation director in the staff list in the IMDb page of "Love Live Alive".


title: Robotech

text: On December 31, 2012, Cesar Turturro uploaded to YouTube an Argentine fan trailer for "Robotech Valkyrie Project". On December, 2013 the first episode was uploaded to YouTube, and in January 2014, the second episode was also uploaded. The series was cancelled after Harmony Gold issued a "cease and desist" letter to the producers. The team was, however, hired to do the CGI effects for "Robotech: Academy".


title: Robotech

text: On September 7, 2007, "The Hollywood Reporter" stated that Warner Bros. had acquired the film rights to "Robotech" and would be producing a live-action film with an as-yet-unknown release date. Tobey Maguire is producing the film through his Maguire Entertainment banner and is pursuing the lead role, in what the studio plans to be a tentpole science fiction franchise. Maguire stated, "We are very excited to bring "Robotech" to the big screen. There is a rich mythology that will be a great foundation for a sophisticated, smart and entertaining film."


title: Robotech

text: In an interview, Harmony Gold representative Kevin McKeever said that Warner Bros. had approached Harmony Gold about the project, that Harmony Gold would have "a say" in its creative direction, and that it was not expected to affect the production schedule for "". He was unable to confirm any details of budget, casting, expected release date, or storyline, explaining that it was too early in the life of the project for these things to have been decided.


title: Robotech

text: In June 2008, it was reported that Lawrence Kasdan had been hired to write the film, with Charles Roven and Akiva Goldsman joining Tobey Maguire as producers. During the Robotech Panel at Anime Expo 2008, the involvement of Maguire and Kasdan was confirmed, with Kasdan writing the script for the live-action film. Tommy Yune also revealed that the film is planned as a re-imagining of the original "Robotech" universe (with new updated mecha and character designs) and will take place several years in the future, departing from the original cartoon's 2009 setting.


title: Robotech

text: As of November 2008, Alfred Gough and Miles Millar (who both worked in "Smallville", "Spider-Man 2", "", and "") are the writers for the film.


title: Robotech

text: Roven is currently no longer working on the proposed film adaptation of the "Robotech" animated series, but he wished the remaining producers Goldsman and Maguire "fantastic luck" on the project.


title: Robotech

text: The Mania.com website reported on June 23, 2009, that British television writer and novelist Tom Rob Smith "has taken over writing duties" for the proposed film adaptation. Smith wrote for the British soaps "Family Affairs" and "Bad Girls" before writing the critically acclaimed crime suspense novel "Child 44". Smith will be the fourth writer or writing team to be reportedly attached to the upcoming film's pre-production.


title: Robotech

text: In early 2013, "The Hollywood Reporter" announced that Warner Bros. was in talks with commercial director Nic Mathieu to direct the film. On July 24, 2013, it was reported that Leonardo DiCaprio had turned down a role in "" and has shown interest to star as a main character in the upcoming big screen version of "Robotech". DiCaprio is a longtime friend of Tobey Maguire; they co-starred in "The Great Gatsby". Maguire will probably participate in the film as another one of the lead actors—while Nic Mathieu will direct.


title: Robotech

text: On February 4, 2015, Deadline.com reported Gianni Nunori and Mark Canton selected Michael B. Gordon to write the film's script and are looking at Andy Muschietti to direct it.


title: Robotech

text: On March 25, 2015, Variety announced that the "Robotech" franchise had been acquired by Sony Pictures, who views "Robotech" as a potential film franchise. On April 29, 2015, Deadline reported that James Wan is in talks to direct the film. On June 3, 2015, "The Hollywood Reporter" reported that Wan is confirmed to direct the film.


title: Robotech

text: On July 3, 2015, Kevin McKeever of Harmony Gold announced at Anime Expo that Sony has the rights to release this film worldwide, with the exception of Japan.


title: Robotech

text: As of April 4, 2016, Harmony Gold's Kevin McKeever revealed on the official Robotech Facebook page that their deal with Sony is still not finalized.


title: Robotech

text: On July 17, 2017, it was reported by The Hollywood Reporter that Argentine filmmaker Andy Muschietti will direct the project, after Wan dropped out to work on "Aquaman".


title: Robotech

text: On September 12, 2017, Jason Fuchs was reportedly hired by the studio to write the script for the film.


title: Robotech

text: In September 2019, when asked about which project he would choose to direct next, director Andy Muschietti told the Argentine news agency Télam that "Robotech" is a “complicated” property, citing its lack of popularity in the United States compared to other properties, and its requirement of a $100 million budget.  He did, however, say that the script is completed.


title: Robotech

text: After Harmony Gold and Big West reached an agreement which was signed on March 1, 2021 regarding to the "Macross" and "Robotech" franchises, which was announced on April 8, 2021, Big West officially affirmed as part of the deal that they will not to take any opposition on Harmony Gold's upcoming live action adaptation of "Robotech". Both Harmony Gold and Big West will cooperate on future projects for the foreseeable future.


title: Robotech

text: On April 27, 2022, it was reported that executive producer of "Hawkeye" Rhys Thomas will be directing the film.


title: Robotech

text: At the time of its broadcast, Harmony Gold also launched "Robotech" through a popular line of comics to be followed by novels, role-playing games, toys, and other consumer products. With the cancellation of "Robotech II: The Sentinels", many of these licensed products were discontinued, and led to a drought of "Robotech" product through much of the 1990s, except for publishers who continued "The Sentinels" storyline in print.


title: Robotech

text: In 1986, Starblaze Graphics published "Robotech Art 1", a reference book containing artwork, Japanese production designs, and episode guides from the original television series. This was followed by "Robotech Art 2", which was largely a collection of art by various American artists and fans. In 1988, Carl Macek collected much of the unused designs from "Robotech II: The Sentinels" into "Robotech Art 3: The Sentinels", which also included his story outline for the rest of the unfinished series, with an explanation behind its cancellation. In 2007, Stone Bridge Press published "The Art of Robotech: The Shadow Chronicles".