title: Vaporware

text: Winblad described the word to influential computer expert Esther Dyson, who published it for the first time in her monthly newsletter "RELease 1.0". In an article titled "Vaporware" in the November 1983 issue of "RELease 1.0", Dyson defined the word as "good ideas incompletely implemented". She described three software products shown at COMDEX in Las Vegas that year with bombastic advertisements. She stated that demonstrations of the "purported revolutions, breakthroughs and new generations" at the exhibition did not meet those claims.


title: Vaporware

text: The practice existed before Winblad's account. In a January 1982 review of the new IBM Personal Computer, "BYTE" favorably noted that IBM "refused to acknowledge the existence of any product that is not ready to be put on dealers' shelves tomorrow. Although this is frustrating at times, it is a refreshing change from some companies' practice of announcing a product even before its design is finished". When discussing Coleco's delay in releasing the Adam, "Creative Computing" in March 1984 stated that the company "did not invent the common practice of debuting products before they actually exist. In microcomputers, to do so otherwise would be to break with a veritable tradition". After Dyson's article, the word "vaporware" became popular among writers in the personal computer software industry as a way to describe products they believed took too long to be released after their first announcement. "InfoWorld" magazine editor Stewart Alsop helped popularize its use by giving Bill Gates, then-CEO of Microsoft, with a "Golden Vaporware" award for Microsoft releasing Windows in 1985, 18 months late. Alsop presented it to Gates at a celebration for the release while the song "The Impossible Dream" played in the background.


title: Vaporware

text: "Vaporware" took another meaning when it was used to describe a product that did not exist. A new company named Ovation Technologies announced its office suite Ovation in 1983. The company invested in an advertising campaign that promoted Ovation as a "great innovation", and showed a demonstration of the program at computer trade shows. The demonstration was well received by writers in the press, was featured in a cover story for an industry magazine, and reportedly created anticipation among potential customers. Executives later revealed that Ovation never existed. The company created the fake demonstration in an unsuccessful attempt to raise money to finish their product, and is "widely considered the mother of all vaporware," according to Laurie Flynn of "The New York Times".


title: Vaporware

text: Use of the term spread beyond the computer industry. "Newsweek" magazine's Allan Sloan described the manipulation of stocks by Yahoo! and Amazon.com as "financial vaporware" in 1997. "Popular Science" magazine uses a scale ranging from "vaporware" to "bet on it" to describe release dates of new consumer electronics. Car manufacturer General Motors' plans to develop and sell an electric car were called vaporware by an advocacy group in 2008 and "Car and Driver" magazine retroactively described the Vector W8 supercar as vaporware in 2017.


title: Vaporware

text: A product missing its announced release date, and the labeling of it as vaporware by the press, can be caused by its development taking longer than planned. Most software products are not released on time, according to researchers in 2001 who studied the causes and effects of vaporware; "I hate to say yes, but yes", a Microsoft product manager stated in 1984, adding that "the problem isn't just at Microsoft". The phenomenon is so common that Lotus' release of 1-2-3 on time in January 1983, three months after announcing it, amazed many.


title: Vaporware

text: Software development is a complex process, and developers are often uncertain how long it will take to complete any given project. Fixing errors in software, for example, can make up a significant portion of its development time, and developers are motivated not to release software with errors because it could damage their reputation with customers. Last-minute design changes are also common. Large organizations seem to have more late projects than smaller ones, and may benefit from hiring individual programmers on contract to write software rather than using in-house development teams. Adding people to a late software project does not help; according to Brooks' Law, doing so increases the delay.


title: Vaporware

text: Not all delays in software are the developers' fault. In 1986, the American National Standards Institute adopted SQL as the standard database manipulation language. Software company Ashton-Tate was ready to release dBase IV, but pushed the release date back to add support for SQL. The company believed that the product would not be competitive without it. As the word became more commonly used by writers in the mid-1980s, "InfoWorld" magazine editor James Fawcette wrote that its negative connotations were unfair to developers because of these types of circumstances.


title: Vaporware

text: Vaporware also includes announced products that are never released because of financial problems, or because the industry changes during its development. When 3D Realms first announced "Duke Nukem Forever" in 1997, the video game was early in its development. The company's previous game released in 1996, "Duke Nukem 3D", was a critical and financial success, and customer anticipation for its sequel was high. As personal computer hardware speeds improved at a rapid pace in the late 1990s, it created an "arms race" between companies in the video game industry, according to "Wired News". 3D Realms repeatedly moved the release date back over the next 12 years to add new, more advanced features. By the time 3D Realms went out of business in 2009 with the game still unreleased, "Duke Nukem Forever" had become synonymous with the word "vaporware" among industry writers. The game was revived and released in 2011. However, due to a 13-year period of fan anticipation and design changes in the industry, the game received a mostly negative reception from critics and fans.


title: Vaporware

text: A company notorious for vaporware can improve its reputation. In the 1980s, video game maker Westwood Studios was known for shipping products late, but by 1993 it had so improved that, "Computer Gaming World" reported, "many publishers would assure [us] that a project was going to be completed on time "because" Westwood was doing it".


title: Vaporware

text: Announcing products early—months or years before their release date, also called "preannouncing", has been an effective way by some developers to make their products successful. It can be seen as a legitimate part of their marketing strategy, but is generally not popular with industry press. The first company to release a product in a given market often gains an advantage. It can set the standard for similar future products, attract a large number of customers, and establish its brand before competitor's products are released. Public relations firm Coakley-Heagerty used an early announcement in 1984 to build interest among potential customers. Its client was Nolan Bushnell, formerly of Atari Inc. who wanted to promote the new Sente Technologies, but his contract with Atari prohibited doing so until a later date. The firm created an advertising campaign—including brochures and a shopping-mall appearance—around a large ambiguous box covered in brown paper to increase curiosity until Sente could be announced.


title: Vaporware

text: Early announcements send signals not only to customers and the media, but also to providers of support products, regulatory agencies, financial analysts, investors, and other parties. For example, an early announcement can relay information to vendors, letting them know to prepare marketing and shelf space. It can signal third-party developers to begin work on their own products, and it can be used to persuade a company's investors that they are actively developing new, profitable ideas. When IBM announced its Professional Workstation computer in 1986, they noted the lack of third-party programs written for it at the time, signaling those developers to start preparing. Microsoft usually announces information about its operating systems early because third-party developers are dependent on that information to develop their own products.


title: Vaporware

text: A developer can strategically announce a product that is in the early stages of development, or before development begins, to gain competitive advantage over other developers. In addition to the "vaporware" label, this is also called "ambush marketing", and "fear, uncertainty and doubt" (FUD) by the press. If the announcing developer is a large company, this may be done to influence smaller companies to stop development of similar products. The smaller company might decide their product will not be able to compete, and that it is not worth the development costs. It can also be done in response to a competitor's already released product. The goal is to make potential customers believe a second, better product will be released soon. The customer might reconsider buying from the competitor, and wait. In 1994, as customer anticipation increased for Microsoft's new version of Windows (codenamed "Chicago"), Apple announced a set of upgrades to its own System 7 operating system that were not due to be released until two years later. "The Wall Street Journal" wrote that Apple did this to "blunt Chicago's momentum".


title: Vaporware

text: A premature announcement can cause others to respond with their own. When VisiCorp announced Visi On in November 1982, it promised to ship the product by spring 1983. The news forced Quarterdeck Office Systems to announce in April 1983 that its DESQ would ship in November 1983. Microsoft responded by announcing Windows 1.0 in fall 1983, and Ovation Technologies followed by announcing Ovation in November. "InfoWorld" noted in May 1984 that of the four products only Visi On had shipped, albeit more than a year late and with only two supported applications.


title: Vaporware

text: Industry publications widely accused companies of using early announcements intentionally to gain competitive advantage over others. In his 1989 "Network World" article, Joe Mohen wrote the practice had become a "vaporware epidemic", and blamed the press for not investigating claims by developers. "If the pharmaceutical industry were this careless, I could announce a cure for cancer today – to a believing press." In 1985 Stewart Alsop began publishing his influential monthly "Vaporlist", a list of companies he felt announced their products too early, hoping to dissuade them from the practice; among the entries in January 1988 were a Verbatim Corp. optical drive that was 30 months late, WordPerfect for Macintosh (12 months), IBM OS/2 1.1 (nine months), and Lotus 1-2-3 for OS/2 and Macintosh (nine and three months late, respectively). "Wired" Magazine began publishing a similar list in 1997. Seven major software developers—including Ashton-Tate, Hewlett-Packard and Sybase—formed a council in 1990, and issued a report condemning the "vacuous product announcement dubbed vaporware and other misrepresentations of product availability" because they felt it had hurt the industry's credibility.


title: Vaporware

text: In the United States, announcing a product that does not exist to gain a competitive advantage is illegal via Section 2 of the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, but few hardware or software developers have been found guilty of it. The section requires proof that the announcement is both provably false, and has actual or likely market impact.


title: Vaporware

text: False or misleading announcements designed to influence stock prices are illegal under United States securities fraud laws. The complex and changing nature of the computer industry, marketing techniques, and lack of precedent for applying these laws to the industry can mean developers are not aware their actions are illegal. The U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission issued a statement in 1984 with the goal of reminding companies that securities fraud also applies to "statements that can reasonably be expected to reach investors and the trading markets".


title: Vaporware

text: Several companies have been accused in court of using knowingly false announcements to gain market advantage. In 1969, the United States Justice Department accused IBM of doing this in the case "". After IBM's competitor, Control Data Corporation (CDC), released a computer, IBM announced the System/360 Model 91. The announcement resulted in a significant reduction in sales of CDC's product. The Justice Department accused IBM of doing this intentionally because the System/360 Model 91 was not released until three years later. IBM avoided preannouncing products during the antitrust case, but after the case ended it resumed the practice. The company likely announced its PCjr in November 1983—four months before general availability in March 1984—to hurt sales of rival home computers during the important Christmas sales season. In 1985 "The New York Times" wrote


title: Vaporware

text: The practice was not called "vaporware" at the time, but publications have since used the word to refer specifically to it. Similar cases have been filed against Kodak, AT&T, and Xerox.


title: Vaporware

text: US District Judge Stanley Sporkin was a vocal opponent of the practice during his review of the settlement resulting from "United States v. Microsoft Corp." in 1994. "Vaporware is a practice that is deceitful on its face and everybody in the business community knows it," said Sporkin. One of the accusations made during the trial was that Microsoft has illegally used early announcements. The review began when three anonymous companies protested the settlement, claiming the government did not thoroughly investigate Microsoft's use of the practice. Specifically, they claimed Microsoft announced its Quick Basic 3 program to slow sales of its competitor Borland's recently released Turbo Basic program. The review was dismissed for lack of explicit proof.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The International Style or internationalism is a major architectural style that was developed in the 1920s and 1930s and was closely related to modernism and modernist architecture. It was first defined by Museum of Modern Art curators Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson in 1932, based on works of architecture from the 1920s. The terms rationalist architecture and modern movement are often used interchangeably with International Style, although the former is mostly used in the English-speaking world to specifically refer to the Italian rationalism, or even the International Style that developed in Europe as a whole.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: It is defined by the Getty Research Institute as "the style of architecture that emerged in Holland, France, and Germany after World War I and spread throughout the world, becoming the dominant architectural style until the 1970s. The style is characterized by an emphasis on volume over mass, the use of lightweight, mass-produced, industrial materials, rejection of all ornament and colour, repetitive modular forms, and the use of flat surfaces, typically alternating with areas of glass."


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Around the start of the 20th century, a number of architects around the world began developing new architectural solutions to integrate traditional precedents with new social demands and technological possibilities. The work of Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde in Brussels, Antoni Gaudí in Barcelona, Otto Wagner in Vienna and Charles Rennie Mackintosh in Glasgow, among many others, can be seen as a common struggle between old and new. These architects were not considered part of the International Style because they practiced in an "individualistic manner" and seen as the last representatives of Romanticism.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The International Style can be traced to buildings designed by a small group of modernists, the major figures of which include Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Jacobus Oud, Le Corbusier, Richard Neutra and Philip Johnson.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The founder of the Bauhaus school, Walter Gropius, along with prominent Bauhaus instructor, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, became known for steel frame structures employing glass curtain walls.  One of the world's earliest modern buildings where this can be seen is a shoe factory designed by Gropius in 1911 in Alfeld, Germany, called the Fagus Works building. The first building, built entirely on Bauhaus design principles, was the concrete and steel Haus am Horn, built in 1923 in Weimar, Germany, designed by Georg Muche. The Gropius designed Bauhaus school building in Dessau, built 1925–26 and the Harvard Graduate Center (Cambridge, Massachusetts; 1949–50) also known as the Gropius Complex, exhibit clean lines and a "concern for uncluttered interior spaces".


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Marcel Breuer, a recognized leader in Béton Brut (Brutalist) architecture and notable alumni of the Bauhaus, who also pioneered the use of plywood and tubular steel in furniture design, and who after leaving the Bauhaus would later teach alongside Gropius at Harvard, is as well an important contributor to Modernism and the International Style.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Prior to use of the term 'International Style', some American architects—such as Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and Irving Gill—exemplified qualities of simplification, honesty and clarity.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Frank Lloyd Wright's Wasmuth Portfolio had been exhibited in Europe and influenced the work of European modernists, and his travels there probably influenced his own work, although he refused to be categorized with them. His buildings of the 1920s and 1930s clearly showed a change in the style of the architect, but in a different direction than the International Style.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In Europe the modern movement in architecture had been called Functionalism or Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity), "L'Esprit Nouveau", or simply Modernism and was very much concerned with the coming together of a new architectural form and social reform, creating a more open and transparent society.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The "International Style", as defined by Hitchcock and Johnson, had developed in 1920s Western Europe, shaped by the activities of the Dutch De Stijl movement, Le Corbusier, and the Deutscher Werkbund and the Bauhaus. Le Corbusier had embraced Taylorist and Fordist strategies adopted from American industrial models in order to reorganize society. He contributed to a new journal called "L'Esprit Nouveau" that advocated the use of modern industrial techniques and strategies to create a higher standard of living on all socio-economic levels. In 1927, one of the first and most defining manifestations of the International Style was the Weissenhof Estate in Stuttgart, overseen by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. It was enormously popular, with thousands of daily visitors.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The exhibition "Modern Architecture: International Exhibition" ran from February 9 to March 23, 1932, at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), in the Heckscher Building at Fifth Avenue and 56th Street in New York. Beyond a foyer and office, the exhibition was divided into six rooms: the "Modern Architects" section began in the entrance room, featuring a model of William Lescaze's Chrystie-Forsyth Street Housing Development in New York. From there visitors moved to the centrally placed Room A, featuring a model of a mid-rise housing development for Evanston, Illinois, by Chicago architect brothers Monroe Bengt Bowman and Irving Bowman, as well as a model and photos of Walter Gropius's Bauhaus building in Dessau. In the largest exhibition space, Room C, were works by Le Corbusier, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, J. J. P. Oud and Frank Lloyd Wright (including a project for a house on the Mesa in Denver, 1932). Room B was a section titled "Housing", presenting "the need for a new domestic environment" as it had been identified by historian and critic Lewis Mumford. In Room D were works by Raymond Hood (including "Apartment Tower in the Country" and the McGraw-Hill Building) and Richard Neutra. In Room E was a section titled "The extent of modern architecture", added at the last minute, which included the works of thirty seven modern architects from fifteen countries who were said to be influenced by the works of Europeans of the 1920s. Among these works was shown Alvar Aalto's Turun Sanomat newspaper offices building in Turku, Finland.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: After a six-week run in New York City, the exhibition then toured the US – the first such "traveling-exhibition" of architecture in the US – for six years.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: MoMA director Alfred H. Barr hired architectural historian and critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Philip Johnson to curate the museum's first architectural exhibition. The three of them toured Europe together in 1929. The three of them also discussed Hitchcock's book about modern art. By December 1930, the first written proposal for an exhibition of the "new architecture" was set down, yet the first draft of the book was not complete until some months later.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Previous to the 1932 exhibition and book, Hitchcock had concerned himself with the themes of modern architecture in his 1929 book "Modern Architecture: Romanticism and Reintegration".


title: International Style (architecture)

text: According to Terence Riley: "Ironically the (exhibition) catalogue, and to some extent, the book "The International Style", published at the same time of the exhibition, have supplanted the actual historical event."


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Hitchcock and Johnson's exhibition catalog identified three principles of the style: volume of space (as opposed to mass and solidity), regularity, and flexibility.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Hitchcock and Johnson identified three principles: the expression of volume rather than mass, the emphasis on balance rather than preconceived symmetry, and the expulsion of applied ornament.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Common characteristics of the International Style include: a radical simplification of form, a rejection of ornament, and adoption of glass, steel and concrete as preferred materials. Further, the transparency of buildings, construction (called the honest expression of structure), and acceptance of industrialized mass-production techniques contributed to the international style's design philosophy. Finally, the machine aesthetic, and logical design decisions leading to support building function were used by the International architect to create buildings reaching beyond historicism. The ideals of the style are commonly summed up in three slogans: ornament is a crime, truth to materials, form follows function; and Le Corbusier's description: "A house is a machine to live in".


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The following architects and buildings were selected by Hitchcock and Johnson for display at the exhibition "Modern Architecture: International Exhibition":


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The exhibition excluded other contemporary styles that were exploring the boundaries of architecture at the time, including: Art Deco; German Expressionism, for instance the works of Hermann Finsterlin; and the organicist movement, popularized in the work of Antoni Gaudí. As a result of the 1932 exhibition, the principles of the International Style were endorsed, while other styles were classed less significant.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen gave some indication of what was to come, though these works would not have been accepted by Hitchcock and Johnson as representing the "International Style". Similarly, Johnson, writing about Joseph Urban's recently completed New School for Social Research in New York, stated: "In the New School we have an anomaly of a building supposed to be in a style of architecture based on the development of the plan from function and facade from plan but which is a formally and pretentiously conceived as a Renaissance palace. Urban's admiration for the New Style is more complete than his understanding."


title: International Style (architecture)

text: California architect Rudolph Schindler's work was not a part of the exhibit, though Schindler had pleaded with Hitchcock and Johnson to be included. Then, "[f]or more than 20 years, Schindler had intermittently launched a series of spirited, cantankerous exchanges with the museum."


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The gradual rise of the Nazi regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazis' rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of avant-gardist architects, many of them Jews, were forced out of continental Europe. Some, such as Mendelsohn, found shelter in England, while a considerable number of the Jewish architects made their way to Palestine, and others to the USA. However, American anti-Communist politics after the war and Philip Johnson's influential rejection of functionalism have tended to mask the fact that many of the important architects, including contributors to the original Weissenhof project, fled to the Soviet Union. This group also tended to be far more concerned with functionalism and its social agenda. Bruno Taut, Mart Stam, the second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer, Ernst May and other important figures of the International Style went to the Soviet Union in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, building entire cities from scratch. In 1936, when Stalin ordered them out of the country, many of these architects became stateless and sought refuge elsewhere; for example, Ernst May moved to Kenya.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The White City of Tel Aviv is a collection of over 4,000 buildings built in the International Style in the 1930s. Many Jewish architects who had studied at the German Bauhaus school designed significant buildings here. A large proportion of the buildings built in the International Style can be found in the area planned by Patrick Geddes, north of Tel Aviv's main historical commercial center. In 1994, UNESCO proclaimed the White City a World Heritage Site, describing the city as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century". In 1996, Tel Aviv's White City was listed as a World Monuments Fund endangered site.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The residential area of Södra Ängby in western Stockholm, Sweden, blended an international or functionalist style with garden city ideals. Encompassing more than 500 buildings, most of them designed by Edvin Engström, it remains the largest coherent functionalist or "International Style" villa area in Sweden and possibly the world, still well-preserved more than a half-century after its construction in 1933–40 and protected as a national cultural heritage.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Zlín is a city in the Czech Republic which was in the 1930s completely reconstructed on principles of functionalism. In that time the city was a headquarters of Bata Shoes company and Tomáš Baťa initiated a complex reconstruction of the city which was inspired by functionalism and the Garden city movement. Tomas Bata Memorial is the most valuable monument of the Zlín functionalism. It is a modern paraphrase of the constructions of high gothic style period: the supporting system and colourful stained glass and the reinforced concrete skeleton and glass.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: With the rise of Nazism, a number of key European modern architects fled to the USA. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany they both arrived at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in an excellent position to extend their influence and promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies fled in 1938, he first fled to England, but on emigrating to the USA he went to Chicago, founded the Second School of Chicago at IIT and solidified his reputation as a prototypical modern architect.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: After World War II, the International Style matured; Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum (later renamed HOK) and Skidmore, Owings & Merrill (SOM) perfected the corporate practice, and it became the dominant approach for decades in the US and Canada. Beginning with the initial technical and formal inventions of 860-880 Lake Shore Drive Apartments in Chicago its most famous examples include the United Nations headquarters, the Lever House, the Seagram Building in New York City, and the campus of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado, as well as the Toronto-Dominion Centre in Toronto. Further examples can be found in mid-century institutional buildings throughout North America and the "corporate architecture" spread from there, especially to Europe.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In Canada, this period coincided with a major building boom and few restrictions on massive building projects. International Style skyscrapers came to dominate many of Canada's major cities, especially Ottawa, Montreal, Vancouver, Calgary, Edmonton, Hamilton, and Toronto. While these glass boxes were at first unique and interesting, the idea was soon repeated to the point of ubiquity. A typical example is the development of so-called Place de Ville, a conglomeration of three glass skyscrapers in downtown Ottawa, where the plans of the property developer Robert Campeau in the mid 1960s and early 1970s—in the words of historian Robert W. Collier, "forceful and abrasive, he was not well-loved at City Hall"—had no regard for existing city plans, "built with contempt for the existing city and for city responsibilities in the key areas of transportation and land use". Architects attempted to put new twists into such towers, such as the Toronto City Hall by Finnish architect Viljo Revell. By the late 1970s a backlash was under way against modernism—prominent anti-modernists such as Jane Jacobs and George Baird were partly based in Toronto.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: The typical International Style or "corporate architecture" high-rise usually consists of the following:


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In 2000 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas in Caracas, Venezuela, as a World Heritage Site, describing it as "a masterpiece of modern city planning, architecture and art, created by the Venezuelan architect Carlos Raúl Villanueva and a group of distinguished avant-garde artists".


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In June 2007 UNESCO proclaimed Ciudad Universitaria of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), in Mexico City, a World Heritage Site due to its relevance and contribution in terms of international style movement. It was designed in the late 1940s and built in the mid-1950s based upon a masterplan created by architect Enrique del Moral. His original idea was enriched by other students, teachers, and diverse professionals of several disciplines. The university houses murals by Diego Rivera, Juan O'Gorman and others. The university also features Olympic Stadium (1968). In his first years of practice, Pritzker Prize winner and Mexican architect Luis Barragán designed buildings in the International Style. But later he evolved to a more traditional local architecture. Other notable Mexican architects of the International Style or modern period are Carlos Obregón Santacilia, Augusto H. Alvarez, Mario Pani, , Vladimir Kaspé, Enrique del Moral, Juan Sordo Madaleno, Max Cetto, among many others.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In Brazil Oscar Niemeyer proposed a more organic and sensual International Style. He designed the political landmarks (headquarters of the three state powers) of the new, planned capital Brasilia. The masterplan for the city was proposed by Lucio Costa.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In 1930, Frank Lloyd Wright wrote: "Human houses should not be like boxes, blazing in the sun, nor should we outrage the Machine by trying to make dwelling-places too complementary to Machinery."


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In Elizabeth Gordon's well-known 1953 essay, "The Threat to the Next America," she criticized the style as non-practical, citing many instances where "glass houses" are too hot in summer and too cold in winter, empty, take away private space, lack beauty and generally are not livable. Moreover, she accused this style's proponents of taking away a sense of beauty from people and thus covertly pushing for a totalitarian society.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In 1966, architect Robert Venturi published "Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture", essentially a book-length critique of the International Style. Architectural historian Vincent Scully regarded Venturi's book as 'probably the most important writing on the making of architecture since Le Corbusier's "Vers une Architecture". It helped to define postmodernism.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: Best-selling American author Tom Wolfe wrote a book-length critique, "From Bauhaus to Our House", portraying the style as elitist.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: One of the supposed strengths of the International Style has been said to be that the design solutions were indifferent to location, site, and climate; the solutions were supposed to be universally applicable; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. This was soon identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In 2006, Hugh Pearman, the British architectural critic of "The Times", observed that those using the style today are simply "another species of revivalist", noting the irony. The negative reaction to internationalist modernism has been linked to public antipathy to overall development.


title: International Style (architecture)

text: In the preface to the fourth edition of his book "Modern Architecture: A Critical History" (2007), Kenneth Frampton argued that there had been a "disturbing Eurocentric bias" in histories of modern architecture. This "Eurocentrism" included the USA.


title: Kerry Fox

text: Kerry Lauren Fox (born 30 July 1966) is a New Zealand actress. She came to prominence playing author Janet Frame in the movie "An Angel at My Table" directed by Jane Campion, which gained her a Best Actress Award from the New Zealand Film and Television Awards.


title: Kerry Fox

text: Fox was born in Lower Hutt, Wellington. She graduated from Toi Whakaari: New Zealand Drama School in 1987 with a Diploma in Acting.


title: Kerry Fox

text: Fox has had an international career, working in independent films and on television. She received praise and a nomination for the Australian Film Institute Awards for her leading role in "Country Life", starred in Danny Boyle's breakout British hit "Shallow Grave", and was nominated for the Canadian Genie Award for her supporting role in "The Hanging Garden".


title: Kerry Fox

text: For her role as Claire in "Intimacy" (2001), directed by Patrice Chéreau, she won the Silver Bear for Best Actress at the Berlin Film Festival. In this film she performed real, rather than simulated, fellatio. Her husband, Alexander Linklater, wrote about the experience of watching her perform this act on another man.


title: Kerry Fox

text: In autumn 2009 she appeared alongside John Simm, Lucy Cohu and Ian Hart in the Duke of York's Theatre production of Andrew Bovell's play "Speaking In Tongues". In 2011 she played Oriel Lamb in the television adaptation of Tim Winton's novel "Cloudstreet".


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome (commonly called the Metrodome) was a domed sports stadium located in downtown Minneapolis, Minnesota. It opened in 1982 as a replacement for Metropolitan Stadium, the former home of the National Football League's (NFL) Minnesota Vikings and Major League Baseball's (MLB) Minnesota Twins, and Memorial Stadium, the former home of the Minnesota Golden Gophers football team.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome was the home of the Vikings from 1982 to 2013, the Twins from 1982 to 2009, the National Basketball Association's (NBA) Minnesota Timberwolves in their 1989–90 inaugural season, the Golden Gophers football team from 1982 to 2008, and the occasional home of the Golden Gophers baseball team from 1985 to 2010 and their full-time home in 2012. It was also the home of the Minnesota Strikers of the North American Soccer League in 1984. The Vikings played at the University of Minnesota's TCF Bank Stadium for the 2014 and 2015 NFL seasons, ahead of the planned opening of U.S. Bank Stadium in 2016.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The stadium had a fiberglass fabric roof that was self-supported by air pressure and was the third major sports facility to have this feature (the first two being the Pontiac Silverdome and the Carrier Dome). The Metrodome was similar in design to the former RCA Dome and to BC Place, though BC Place was reconfigured with a retractable roof in 2010. The Metrodome was the inspiration for the Tokyo Dome in Tokyo, Japan. The stadium was the only facility to have hosted a Super Bowl (1992), World Series (1987, 1991), MLB All-Star Game (1985) and NCAA Division I Basketball Final Four (1992, 2001).


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome had several nicknames such as "The Dome", "The Thunderdome", "The Homer Dome." and "The Technodome". Preparation for the demolition of the Metrodome began the day after the facility hosted its final home game for the Minnesota Vikings on December 29, 2013, and the roof was deflated and demolition began on January 18, 2014. The Metrodome was torn down in sections while construction of U.S. Bank Stadium began.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: By the early 1970s, the Minnesota Vikings were unhappy with Metropolitan Stadium's relatively small capacity for football. Before the AFL–NFL merger, the NFL had declared that stadiums with a capacity smaller than 50,000 were not adequate for their needs. The Met never held more than 49,700 people for football, and could not be expanded. The biggest stadium in the area was the University of Minnesota's Memorial Stadium. However, the Vikings were not willing to be tenants in a college football stadium even on a temporary basis, and demanded a new venue. Supporters of a dome also believed that the Minnesota Twins would benefit from a climate-controlled stadium to insulate the team from harsh Minnesota weather later in the season. This was with the backdrop of the Twin Cities' harsh winter climate, which provided the Vikings with an overwhelming home-field advantage late in the season and in the playoffs. However, the Met would have likely needed to be replaced in any event, as it was not well maintained. Broken railings and seats could be seen in the upper deck by the 1970s; by its final season, they had become a distinct safety hazard.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Construction success of other domed stadiums, particularly the Pontiac Silverdome near Detroit, paved the way for voters to approve funding for a new stadium. Downtown Minneapolis was beginning a revitalization program, and the return of professional sports from suburban Bloomington was seen as a major success story. A professional team hadn't been based in downtown Minneapolis since the Minneapolis Lakers left for Los Angeles in 1960.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Construction on the Metrodome began on December 20, 1979, and was funded by a limited hotel-motel and liquor tax, local business donations, and payments established within a special tax district near the stadium site. "Uncovering the Dome" by Amy Klobuchar (now a U.S. Senator) describes the 10-year effort to build the venue. The stadium was named in memory of former mayor of Minneapolis, U.S. Senator, and U.S. Vice President Hubert Humphrey, who died in 1978. The building's construction was designed by Bangladeshi-American architect Fazlur Rahman Khan, of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome itself cost $68 million to build—significantly under budget—totaling around $124 million with infrastructure and other costs associated with the project added. It was a somewhat utilitarian facility, though not quite as spartan as Metropolitan Stadium. One stadium official once said that all the Metrodome was designed to do was "get fans in, let 'em see a game, and let 'em go home."


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome is the only venue to have hosted an MLB All-Star Game (1985), a Super Bowl (1992), an NCAA Final Four (1992 & 2001), and a World Series (1987 & 1991).


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The NCAA final Four was held at the Metrodome in 1992 and 2001. The Metrodome also served as one of the four regional venues for the NCAA Division I Basketball Championship in 1986, 1989, 1996, 2000, 2003, 2006, and 2009. The dome also held first- and second-round games in the NCAA basketball tournament in addition to regionals and the Final Four, most recently in 2009.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome was recognized as one of the loudest venues in which to view a game, due in part to the fact that sound was recycled throughout the stadium because of the fabric domed roof. Stadium loudness is a sports marketing issue, as the noise lends the home team a home advantage against the visiting team. Until its demolition, the Metrodome was the loudest domed NFL stadium. During the 1987 World Series and 1991 World Series, peak decibel levels were measured at 125 and 118 respectively compared to a jet airliner—both close to the threshold of pain.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The 1991 World Series is considered one of the best of all time. The blue colored seat back and bottom where Kirby Puckett's 1991 World Series Game 6 walk-off home run landed in Section 101, Row 5, Seat 27 (renumbered 34 after the home run in honor of Kirby), is now in the Twins archives, along with the gold-colored back and bottom that replaced it for several years. The Twins reinstalled a blue seat back and bottom as well as Puckett's #34 on the seat where it remained until the final Vikings game of 2013 in the Metrodome when, as local media reported, a fan took the #34 plate off the seat. The original World Series armrests and hardware, as well as the replacement blue seat back and bottom, are now part of a private Kirby Puckett collection in Minnesota.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: From the time the stadium was built to when it was demolished, the economics of sports marketing changed. Teams began charging higher prices for tickets and demanding more amenities, such as bigger clubhouses and locker rooms, more luxury suites, and more concession revenue. Team owners, the media, and fans pressured the State of Minnesota to provide newer, better facilities to host its teams. The Metrodome served its primary purpose: to provide a climate-controlled facility to host the three sports tenants in Minnesota with the largest attendance.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: For Major League baseball, the Metrodome was regarded as a hitter's park, with a low (7  ft) left-field fence (343  ft) that favored right-handed power hitters, and the higher (23  ft) but closer (327  ft) right-field Baggie that favored left-handed power hitters. It gave up even more home runs before air conditioning was installed in 1983. Before 1983, the Dome had been nicknamed "the Sweat Box". The Metrodome was climate controlled, and protected the baseball schedule during the entire time it was the venue for the Minnesota Twins. Major League Baseball schedulers had the luxury of being able to count on dates played at Metrodome. Doubleheader games only occurred when purposely scheduled. The last time that happened was when the Twins scheduled a day-night doubleheader against the Kansas City Royals on August 31, 2007. The doubleheader was necessitated after an August 2 game vs. Kansas City was postponed one day after the I-35W Bridge collapse in downtown Minneapolis.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome's air-supported roof was designed by the inventor of air-supported structures, David H. Geiger, through his New York-based Geiger Berger Associates, and manufactured and installed by Birdair Structures. An air-supported structure supported by positive air pressure, it required 250,000 ft³/min (120 m³/s) of air to keep it inflated. The air pressure was supplied by 20 fans of each. The roof was made of two layers: the outer layers were Teflon-coated fiberglass and the inner was a proprietary acoustical fabric. By design, the dead air space between the layers insulated the roof; in winter, warm air was blown into space between layers to help melt snow that had accumulated on top. At the time it was built, the of fabric made the roof the largest expanse ever done in that manner. The outside Teflon membrane was of an inch thick and the inner liner of woven fiberglass was of an inch thick. The entire roof weighed roughly . It reached , or about 16 stories, at its highest point.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: To prevent roof tears like those that occurred in its first years of service, the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission adopted a twofold strategy: When snow accumulation was expected, hot air was pumped into the space between the roof's two layers. Workers also climbed on the roof and used steam and high-powered hot-water hoses to melt snow. In addition, before the storm that caused the December 2010 collapse, the inside of the stadium was heated to nearly .


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: To maintain the differential air pressure, spectators usually entered and left the seating and concourse areas through revolving doors, since the use of regular doors without an airlock would have caused significant loss of air pressure. The double-walled construction allowed warmed air to circulate beneath the top of the dome, melting accumulated snow. A sophisticated environmental control center in the lower part of the stadium was staffed to monitor the weather and make adjustments in air distribution to maintain the roof.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Because it was unusually low to the playing field, the air-inflated dome occasionally figured into game action during baseball games. Major League Baseball had specific ground rules for the Metrodome. Any ball which struck the Dome roof, or objects hanging from it, remained in play; if it landed in foul territory it became a foul ball, if it landed in fair territory it became a fair ball. Any ball which became caught in the roof over fairground was a ground rule double. That has only happened three times in its history – Dave Kingman for the Oakland Athletics on May 4, 1984, the University of Minnesota Gophers player George Behr and Corey Koskie in 2004. The speakers, being closer to the playing surface, were hit more frequently, especially the speakers in foul ground near the infield, which were typically hit several times a season, which posed an extra challenge to infielders trying to catch them. However, beginning with the 2005 season, the ground rules for Twins games were changed such that any batted ball that struck a speaker in the foul territory would automatically be called a foul ball, regardless of whether or not it was caught.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The dome's roof color made it close to impossible to catch balls without taking the eye off the ball. As a result, fielders frequently lost balls in the roof. An example of this is seen in a home run derby put on by a softball entertainment crew before a Twins game. Taken at the field level, the balls generally tended to be lost in the roof.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Five times in the stadium's history, heavy snows or other weather conditions have significantly damaged the roof and in four instances caused it to deflate. Four of the five incidents occurred within the stadium's first five years of operation:


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: On November 19, 1981, a rapid accumulation of over a foot of snow caused the roof to collapse, requiring it to be re-inflated. It deflated the following winter on December 30, 1982, again because of a tear caused by heavy snow. This was four days before the Vikings played the Dallas Cowboys in the last regular-season game of the 1982 NFL season. In the spring following that same winter, on April 14, 1983, the Metrodome roof deflated because of a tear caused by late-season heavy snow, and the scheduled Twins' game with the California Angels were postponed. On April 26, 1986, the Metrodome roof suffered a slight tear because of high winds, causing a nine-minute delay in the bottom of the seventh inning versus the Angels; however, the roof did not deflate.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Birdair had conducted a regular inspection of the Metrodome roof in April 2010. Its report to the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission stated that "the outer membrane is in good condition and still holding up well", and rated the inner liner's condition as "fair to poor". The inspectors also noted that the inner liner of the roof was dirty (mostly due to emissions from automotive events) and had some holes in it, advising that the holes be monitored to avoid large tears from enlarging. Also, Birdair noted some minor areas on the outer membrane that needed repairing, which was done by the time of the Commission's July regular meeting. Overall, Birdair noted the membrane was weathering as anticipated and had exceeded its service life of 20 years; it recommended planning for replacement of the roof fabric and noted that planning and implementation would take an additional five years and cost $12–15 million. In forming their own conclusion, the Metropolitan Sports Facilities Commission staff decided that the outer membrane was in very good shape and that the roof continued to have serviceable life, and planned to schedule another testing in four years; the Commission made no recommendations.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: A severe snowstorm arrived in Minneapolis in the late evening of December 10. The snowstorm lasted to the following night on December 11, with of snow accumulated across the city. Due to strong winds, hoses malfunctioning, and a hazardous slippery layer building up on the roof, workers were not allowed to remove the snow from the roof. As the workers were pulled back, many noticed that the roof’s center was sagging down by the weight of the snow.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: At around 5:00 a.m. CST on December 12, three of the roof’s panels tore open. Snow fell through, covering the turf field. The night before the incident a Fox Sports crew, who were setting up for the football game between the New York Giants and Vikings, noticed water was leaking through the roof. They decided to leave their cameras on; the cameras captured footage of the roof deflation and the snow dropping to the field. The footage was aired on "Fox NFL Sunday" and quickly went viral.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The game between the Vikings and Giants, scheduled to take place on December 12 during the afternoon, was postponed to the next day and relocated to Ford Field in Detroit. There were considerations moving the game to the University of Minnesota’s nearby TCF Bank Stadium. However, the stadium had limited seating capacity, as well as snow that would have taken several days to clear. A couple days later, a fourth panel ripped open, allowing more snow to enter the stadium. This forced another game between the Vikings and Chicago Bears (originally scheduled at the Metrodome on December 20) to be relocated to TCF Bank Stadium. The final two games for the Vikings for the season were on the road, and the Vikings were already eliminated from the playoffs, meaning no additional home games were to be played.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The roof collapse also caused schedule complications for the Golden Gophers baseball team. All Big Ten Conference home games were moved to Target Field, the home stadium of Major League Baseball's (MLB) Minnesota Twins. A Metrodome tournament was replaced with a three-game series against Gonzaga. Another tournament named the Dairy Queen Classic was relocated to Tucson, Arizona. Other changes included many home game cancellations, and some games being pushed to next year's season.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: On February 10, 2011, it was announced that the entire Metrodome roof needed to be replaced at an estimated cost of $18 million. In November 2010, the University of Minnesota men's baseball team had announced plans to play all of their 2011 games at the Metrodome; however, the roof collapse caused those plans to be abandoned. On February 18, 2011, the Gophers announced that all 12 scheduled Big Ten home games in April and May would be played at Target Field, with three non-conference games moved to on-campus Siebert Field.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: On July 13, 2011, it was announced that the roof was repaired and had been inflated that morning. However, other construction and repairs were still in progress. The remaining construction and repairs were done by August 1, 2011.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: During its early years of operation, the field at the Metrodome was surfaced with SuperTurf. The surface, also known as SporTurf, was very bouncy—so bouncy, in fact, that Billy Martin once protested a game after seeing a base hit that would normally be a pop single turn into a ground-rule double. Baseball and football players alike complained that it was too hard.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: This surface was upgraded to AstroTurf in 1987, and in 2004, the sports commission had a newer artificial surface, called FieldTurf, installed. FieldTurf is thought to be a closer approximation to natural grass than Astroturf in its softness, appearance, and feel. A new Sportexe Momentum Turf surface was installed during the summer of 2010.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: When the conversion between football and baseball took place, the pitcher's mound was raised and lowered by an electric motor. The mound weighed and was in diameter. With the field repair, the sliding pits and pitcher's mound used by the Twins and Gophers were removed. Any future baseball games would see baserunners slide on "grass". The home plate area was kept, as it was not "in-play" for football configuration. The original home plate installed at the dome was memorably dug up after the Twins' final game and has been installed at Target Field. A new field was installed in the summer of 2011 due to the damage from the December 2010 roof collapse.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: From 1985 to 1994, the left-field wall included a clear Plexiglas screen for a total height of . It was off this Plexiglas wall that Twins player Kirby Puckett jumped to rob Ron Gant of the Atlanta Braves of an extra-base hit during Game 6 of the 1991 World Series (a game that Puckett would win with an 11th-inning walk-off homer) – in later years, with the Plexiglas removed, it would have been a potential home run ball.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome's right-field wall was composed of the -high fence around the whole outfield and a -high plastic wall extension in right field, known as the "Baggie", or the "Hefty Bag". The seats above and behind the Baggie were home run territory; the Baggie itself was part of the outfield wall. Fenway Park's "Green Monster", a comparable but taller feature, is closer to home plate than the Baggie was, so batters who hit short, high fly balls were not typically helped by it. However, it was an attractive target for left-handed power hitters, and it was not uncommon for upper-deck home runs to be hit to the right field. When in a rectangular configuration for football and other small-field events, the Baggie was taken down and the seats behind it extended to form complete lower-deck seating.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: As the stadium was designed first and foremost for the Minnesota Vikings, they had the fewest problems. However, the economics of 21st century professional sports meant that the Vikings owners wanted more luxury suites and better concessions. Renovations were rejected twice, with the 2001 price tag at $269 million.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Vikings played their first game at the Metrodome in a preseason matchup against the Seattle Seahawks on August 21, 1982. Minnesota won 7–3. The first touchdown in the dome was scored by Joe Senser on an 11-yard pass from Tommy Kramer. The first regular-season game at the Metrodome was the 1982 opener on September 12, when the Vikings defeated Tampa Bay Buccaneers, 17–10. Rickey Young scored the first regular-season touchdown in the dome on a 3-yard run in the 2nd quarter. On January 9, 1983, the Vikings defeated the Atlanta Falcons, 30–24, in a 1st-round game that was the first playoff game at the Metrodome. On January 17, 1999, the Falcons defeated the Vikings in the first NFC championship game played at the Metrodome. On December 29, 2013, the Vikings played their final game at the Metrodome, a 14–13 victory over the Detroit Lions. The team's record at the dome was 162–88 in the regular season and 6–4 in playoff games. They finished with a perfect record at the dome against the Arizona Cardinals (8–0), Baltimore Ravens (1–0), Cincinnati Bengals (4–0), and Houston Texans (1–0), but with a winless record there against the New York Jets (0–3).


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: NFL owners voted during their May 24, 1989 meeting to award Super Bowl XXVI to Minneapolis over Indianapolis, Pontiac and Seattle. The game on January 26, 1992, was the second Super Bowl to be played in a cold, winter climate city. The first one was Super Bowl XVI on January 24, 1982, in Pontiac, Michigan. Super Bowl XXVI resulted in the Washington Redskins defeating the Buffalo Bills, 37–24.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: When opened in 1982, the Metrodome was appreciated for the protection it gave from mosquitoes, and later the weather. Over the years there had been a love-hate relationship with the fans, sportswriters, and stadium.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Minnesota Twins won two World Series championships at the Metrodome. The Twins won the 1987 World Series and 1991 World Series by winning all four games held at the Dome in both seasons. The loud noise, white roof, quick turf, and the right-field wall (or "Baggie") provided a substantial home-field advantage for the Twins. The 1991 World Series has been considered one of the best of all time.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: For Twins baseball, the address of the Metrodome became 34 Kirby Puckett Place, an honor given to one of the most famous Minnesota Twins players. In 1996, a section of Chicago Avenue in front of the Metrodome was renamed Kirby Puckett Place by the city of Minneapolis. The Metrodome Plaza was added along Kirby Puckett Place before the 1996 season. Before that, the address for the Twins was 501 Chicago Avenue South. For baseball, the Metrodome informally has been called "The House That Puck Built".


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: By 2001, several newer purpose-built Major League Baseball stadiums had been constructed, and the Metrodome was considered to be among the worst venues in Major League Baseball.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Only two Twins games at the Metrodome were ever postponed. The first was on April 14, 1983, when a massive snowstorm prevented the California Angels from getting to Minneapolis. The game would have likely been postponed in any case, however; that night heavy snow caused part of the roof to collapse. The second was on August 2, 2007, the day after the I-35W Mississippi River bridge had collapsed a few blocks away from the Metrodome. The game scheduled for August 1 was played as scheduled (about one hour after the bridge had collapsed) because the team and police officials were concerned about too many fans departing Metrodome at one time, potentially causing conflict with rescue workers. The August 2 ceremonial groundbreaking at the eventual Target Field was also postponed, for the same reason. The Metrodome carried a memorial decal on the backstop wall for the remainder of the 2007 season.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Twins played their final scheduled regular-season game at the Metrodome on October 4, 2009, beating the Kansas City Royals, 13–4. After the game, they held their scheduled farewell celebration. Because they ended the day tied with the Detroit Tigers for first place in the American League Central, a one-game playoff between the teams was played there on October 6, 2009, with the Twins beating the Tigers 6–5 in 12 innings. The division clincher would be the Twins' last win at the Metrodome. The announced crowd was 54,088, setting the regular-season attendance record.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The final Twins game at the Metrodome was on October 11, 2009, when they lost to the New York Yankees 4–1, resulting in a three-game sweep in the 2009 ALDS. The Twins' appearance in this series gave Metrodome the distinction of being the first American League stadium to end its Major League Baseball history with post-season play. The only other stadiums whose final games came in the postseason are Fulton County Stadium in Atlanta (1996), the Astrodome in Houston (1999) and Busch Memorial Stadium in St. Louis (2005), all of which were home venues for National League teams. With the departure of the Twins, this leaves the Tampa Bay Rays as the last remaining major league team to play their games in a domed stadium.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: When configured as a basketball arena, the fans in the nearby bleachers got a suitable view of the court, but the action was difficult to see in the upper decks. Concessions were very far away from the temporary infrastructure. The Metrodome as a basketball arena was much larger than most NBA and major college basketball arenas, which run to about 20,000 seats; it functioned like Syracuse's large Carrier Dome. However, the NCAA made a significant amount of money selling the high number of seats for regional and championship games for the men's basketball tournament.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Timberwolves used the stadium for their home games during their inaugural season (1989–90) in the NBA while the team waited for construction of Target Center to be completed. The team set NBA records for the highest single-season attendance ever: 1,072,572 fans in 41 home games. The largest crowd for a single game occurred on April 17, 1990: 49,551 fans watched the T-Wolves lose to the Denver Nuggets in the last game of the season. This was the third-largest crowd in the NBA's history.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Beginning in the 1982 college football season, the University of Minnesota Golden Gophers began playing their home football games at the Metrodome. The first game was a 57–3 victory over the Ohio Bobcats on September 11, 1982. The Gophers football record at the Metrodome 1982–2008 (27 seasons) 169 total games 87–80–2 .521%. 109 Big Ten Conference games 41–66–2 .385%


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: With the Gophers' move to TCF Bank Stadium, only one NCAA Division I FBS football program now plays in a domed stadium. Syracuse has its own such facility on campus. When the Gophers first moved to the Metrodome, the NFL-class facilities were seen as an improvement over the aging Memorial Stadium. Initially, attendance increased. However, fans waxed nostalgic over fall days playing outdoors on campus. TCF Bank Stadium now provides an outdoor, on-campus venue for the team.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: In the 2010 season, the University of Minnesota Golden Gopher Baseball team played all of their home games at the Metrodome (except a game at the new Target Field on March 27, 2010). The University of Minnesota Golden Gophers baseball team had played games at the Metrodome during February and March since 1985 because of weather. Later games were played at Siebert Field, except for 2006 when all but two home games were played at the Metrodome. The team often played major tournaments at the Dome, which included the Dairy Queen Classic, where three other major Division I baseball teams play in an invitational. Before the NCAA's 2008 rule in Division I regarding the start of the college baseball season, the Golden Gophers would often play home games at the Metrodome earlier than other teams in the area to neutralize the advantage of warmer-weather schools starting their seasons earlier in the year. Some early Big Ten conference games were played at the Metrodome, and the Golden Gophers enjoyed home-field advantage during the early part of the season before the weather warmed, and the Gophers could play games on-campus. Other small colleges also played games in the stadium during the weeks before the Metrodome was open for Division I play. In 2010, 420 amateur baseball and softball games—including the majority of the Golden Gophers' home schedule—were played at the Metrodome.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The size of Siebert Field also affected the Golden Gophers starting in 2010. The Golden Gophers last hosted an NCAA baseball tournament regional in 2000, with temporary seating added. With the Metrodome being available for the tournament starting in 2010, the team could easily place a bid for, and have a better possibility of hosting, an NCAA baseball regional or super regional.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Other cold-weather teams have played at the Metrodome. Big 12 Conference member Kansas has played two series (2007 and 2010) at the Metrodome because of inclement weather against South Dakota State University and Eastern Michigan, respectively.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Minnesota Kicks were supposed to move into the Metrodome for the 1982 NASL season. However, the franchise folded in November 1981. The Minnesota Strikers played the 1984 NASL season at the Dome. 52,621 saw the Minnesota Strikers defeat Tampa Bay 1–0 on May 28, 1984. MSHSL boys and girls soccer championships were also held at the stadium. The Minnesota Thunder played selected games at the Dome from 1990 to 2009. Minnesota Stars FC, later renamed to Minnesota United FC, opened their 2012 season at the stadium and used it for the 2013 NASL spring season. The field dimensions for soccer at the Metrodome were . The largest crowd to see a soccer game in Minnesota was at the Metrodome.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The concert capacity of the Metrodome was around 60,000 people, depending on seating and stage configurations, which made it a profitable location for stadium tours during the late 80s and 90s. By comparison, the Target Center in Minneapolis has a concert capacity of up to 20,500. Acoustics at the Metrodome for these concerts were "iffy at best".


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome was constructed in an area of downtown Minneapolis known as "Industry Square". Development in the Downtown East neighborhood around Metrodome took many years to materialize. For many years, there were few bars or restaurants nearby where fans could gather, and tailgating was expressly forbidden in most parking areas. The City of Minneapolis was directing the development of the entertainment districts along with Seven Corners in Cedar-Riverside, Hennepin Avenue, and the Warehouse district. The Metrodome existed among several parking areas built upon old rail yards, along with defunct factories and warehouses. The Star Tribune owns several blocks nearby that have remained parking lots. The Metrodome was not connected to the Minneapolis Skyway System, although that had been proposed in 1989 to be completed in time to host Super Bowl XXVI. The Star Tribune properties and the Minneapolis Armory had not been developed and stood between the Metrodome and the rest of Downtown Minneapolis. Only in recent years did redevelopment begin moving Southeast to reach the Metrodome. More restaurants, hotels, and condominiums have been built nearby. The METRO Blue Line light rail connected the Minneapolis entertainment district with the Metrodome and the Airport.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome was not a true multi-purpose stadium. Rather, it was built as a football stadium that could convert into a baseball stadium. The seating configuration was almost rectangular in shape, with the baseball field tucked into one corner. The seats along the four straight sides directly faced their corresponding seats on the opposite side, while the seats in the corners were four quarter-circles.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: While this was more than suitable for the Vikings and Gophers, with few exceptions this resulted in poor sightlines for baseball. For instance, the seats directly along the left-field line faced the center field and right field fences. Unlike other major league parks, there were no seats down to field level. Only 8,000 seats were located in the lower deck between home plate and the dugouts, where most game action occurs. Seats in these areas were popularly known as "the baseball section." However, even the closest front-row seats were at least above the field.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The way that many seats were situated forced some fans to crane their necks to see the area between the pitcher's mound and home plate. Some fans near the foul poles had to turn more than 80°, compared to less than 70° with the original Yankee Stadium or 75° at Camden Yards. For that reason, the seats down the left-field line were typically among the last ones sold; the (less expensive) outfield lower deck seating tended to fill up sooner. Nearly 1,400 seats were at least partially obstructed – some of them due to the right-field upper deck being directly above (and somewhat overhanging) the folded-up football seats behind right field; and some of them due to steel beams in the back rows of the upper deck which are part of the dome's support system.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: On the plus side, there was relatively little foul territory, which was not typical of most domed stadiums (especially those primarily built for football). Also, with the infield tucked into one corner of the stadium, the seats in the so-called "baseball section" had some of the closest views in Major League Baseball. In 2007, the Twins began selling seats in extra rows behind the plate which were previously only used for football. The sight lines were also very good in the right field corner, which faced the infield and was closer to the action than the left field corner.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Unlike most domed stadiums, the Metrodome's baseball configuration had asymmetrical outfield dimensions.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Twins stopped selling most of the seats in sections 203–212 of the upper level in 1996. This area was usually curtained off during the regular season. However, the stadium could easily be expanded to full capacity for the postseason, or when popular opponents came to town during the regular season.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: As part of the deal with Metrodome, the Minnesota Twins had post-season priority over the Gophers in scheduling. If the Twins were in the playoffs with a home series, the baseball game took priority and the Gopher football game had to be moved to a time suitable to allow the grounds crew to convert the playing field and the stands to the football configuration.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The last month of Major League Baseball's regular season often included one or two Saturdays in which the Twins and Gophers used Metrodome on the same day. On those occasions, the Twins game would start at about 11 am local time (TV announcer Dick Bremer sometimes joked that the broadcast was competing with "SpongeBob SquarePants"). Afterward, the conversion took place and the Gophers football game started at about 6 pm. The University of Minnesota was the only school in the Big Ten that shared a football facility with professional sports teams for an extended period of years.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: In 2007, there were two such schedule conflicts, on September 1 and 22. In 2008, there were no conflicts on the regular-season schedule.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Due to the minimum time needed to convert the field, a baseball game that ran long in clock time had to be suspended, and concluded the next day. The only time this happened was on October 2, 2004, when a game between the Twins and Indians reached the end of the 11th inning after 2:30 pm in a tie and resumed the next day.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Vikings had rights to the Dome over the Twins except for World Series games. In 1987, the Vikings' home date with the Tampa Bay Buccaneers scheduled for the same day as Game 2 of the World Series was moved to Tampa, and the Vikings' game with the Denver Broncos scheduled for the same day as Game 7 was pushed back to the following Monday night.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Twins' 2009 AL Central division tiebreaker with the Detroit Tigers was played on Tuesday, October 6, 2009. One-game playoffs are normally held the day after the regular season ends (in this case, the season ended on Sunday, October 4), but the Vikings were using Metrodome for "Monday Night Football" on October 5. The Twins were awarded the right to host the tiebreaker because they won the season series against Detroit.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Metrodome will also be remembered in NFL history as the site of four of the longest NFL touchdowns in history in terms of yardage. From scrimmage, only 15 plays have ever gone the maximum 99 yards for a touchdown in league history. One of the two runs on that list is by Dallas Cowboys running back Tony Dorsett against the Vikings on January 3, 1983 during a "Monday Night Football" game. One of the 13 such pass plays is Vikings quarterback Gus Frerotte's connection with receiver Bernard Berrian during a game against the Chicago Bears on November 30, 2008.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Because returns can go longer than 99 yards, the Metrodome had also seen the record set for longest return at the maximum possible total of 109 yards. On November 4, 2007, the San Diego Chargers' Antonio Cromartie returned a missed Vikings field goal for a touchdown, a mark that stood unequaled until October 27, 2013, when Minnesota's Cordarrelle Patterson returned the Green Bay Packers' opening kickoff of "Sunday Night Football", the maximum distance.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: In 2009, Mall of America purchased naming rights for the field at Metrodome. The contract stated that the field would be called "Mall of America Field at Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome" for a three-year period, beginning October 5, 2009, and ending February 28, 2012. The name was still used for the 2012 and 2013 seasons.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Despite possible inference from the signage, the MoA name applied only to the field, not the stadium as a whole. The building remained Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome. The connection between Mall of America and the Metrodome is also notable because Mall of America is built on the site of the former Metropolitan Stadium. The mall and the dome were located about apart from each other.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: From the tops of the outfield fences upwards, the baseball foul poles in the Metrodome were unique, in that they were not "poles" at all. Instead, they consisted of a fabric-like material. In left field, the "pole" hung from the roof, down to the top of the left field fence. In right field, the "pole" hung from the bottom of the upper deck to the top of the right field fence. Because the upper deck in right field overhung the playing field slightly, this resulted in the foul pole not being vertical, actually leaning inward slightly toward home plate.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: With the passage of time, the Metrodome was thought to be an increasingly poor fit for its three major tenants, all of whom claimed the stadium was nearing the end of its useful life.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: One major complaint was about the concourses, which were considered somewhat narrow by modern standards, making for cramped conditions whenever attendance was anywhere near capacity. During a 2010 Vikings game, Fox Sports' Alex Marvez wrote that the Metrodome's passageways were so cramped that it would be difficult for fans to evacuate in the event of an emergency. Two of the former tenants, the Gophers (football) and Twins, moved out, while the Vikings played their final years there until demolition. The Vikings' 2014 and 2015 seasons were played at the University of Minnesota's TCF Bank Stadium, and U.S. Bank Stadium, built on the Metrodome site, opened in time for the team's 2016 season.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Twins, the Vikings, and the Gophers all proposed replacements for the Metrodome, and all three were accepted. The first of the three major tenants to move was the Gophers, who opened their new TCF Bank Stadium (now Huntington Bank Stadium) in September 2009. The next to depart were the Twins, whose new Target Field was completed in time for Opening Day 2010. On May 10, 2012, the Vikings were granted a new stadium by the Minnesota legislators that was built on the Metrodome site, which opened for the 2016 NFL season. Governor Mark Dayton signed the bill on May 14.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Twins moved to their new ballpark, Target Field, in 2010, after attaining their new stadium with an effort that began in the mid-1990s. Although indoor baseball had critics when Metrodome opened, it was positively regarded by players and fans. By 2001, with Metrodome's peculiarities revealed, and several newer purpose-built Major League Baseball stadiums constructed, an ESPN Page 2 reader poll ranked it as one of the worst Major League Baseball stadiums. Twins management claimed Metrodome generated too little revenue for the Twins to be competitive; specifically, they received no revenue from luxury suite leasing (as those were owned by the Vikings) and only a small percentage of concessions sales. This came to a head in 2001, when the Twins were nearly contracted along with the Montreal Expos, who were also generating insufficient revenue and had a stadium in poor condition. Also, the percentage of season-ticket-quality seats was said to be very low compared to other stadiums. From 2003 through 2009, the Twins had year-to-year leases, and could have moved to another city at any time. However, with no large American markets or new major-league-quality stadiums existing without a current team, it was accepted that the Twins could not profit from a move. The Twins sought a taxpayer subsidy of more than $200 million to assist in construction of the stadium. On January 9, 2005, the Twins went to court to argue that their Metrodome lease should be considered "dead" after the 2005 season. In February, the district court ruled that the Twins' lease was year-to-year and the team could vacate Metrodome at the end of the 2005 season.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: In late April 2007, Hennepin County officially took over the future ballpark site (through a form of eminent domain called "quick-take") which had been an ongoing struggle between the county and the land owners. On October 15, 2007, the two sides reached a negotiated settlement of just under $29 million, ending the dispute. As a result, the county noted it would have to cut back on some improvements to the surrounding streetscapes, though it also revealed that the Pohlad family had committed another $15 million for infrastructure.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Minnesota Golden Gophers football program began playing in Metrodome for the 1982 season. Attendance was expected to increase over the old Memorial Stadium attendance, especially for late fall games, due to the climate controlled comfort. Initially, average attendance had increased over previous seasons at Memorial Stadium. But, the venue was removed from the traditional on-campus football atmosphere if fans wanted to attend a Gophers football game. Students had to take a bus from the campus to the stadium. The distance from the main campus, along with poor performance by the Gopher football team, caused interest to wane.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Gophers officially moved back onto campus, to TCF Bank Stadium, for the 2009 football season. The University believed an on-campus stadium would motivate its student base for increased ticket sales, and also would benefit from athletic revenues, not only for the football program, but the non-revenue sports as well. The new stadium reportedly cost less than half of a current-era NFL-style football stadium, and was built on what were former surface parking lots just a few blocks east of the former Memorial Stadium, with the naming rights purchased by TCF Financial Corporation. The University of Minnesota expected to raise more than half the cost of the stadium via private donations. The Gopher Stadium bill was passed by both houses on May 20, 2006, the day before the Twins Stadium bill passed. On May 24, 2006, Governor Pawlenty signed the Gopher bill on the University campus.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The Vikings initially supported a Superfund site in Arden Hills, but costs of developing infrastructure made the site unworkable. A number of sites in Minneapolis were floated before the team and state settled on a location adjacent to and including the current Metrodome site.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: On May 10, 2012, the Minnesota Legislature approved funding for a new Vikings stadium on that site. The project had a budget of $1.027 billion, of which the Vikings covered $529 million, the state covered $348 million, and the remaining $150 million was covered by a Minneapolis hospitality tax. The bill was signed by Governor Dayton on May 14. The Vikings played in the Metrodome until the end of the 2013 season. The Vikings' temporary home during construction was TCF Bank Stadium.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: With the approval of the new Vikings stadium at the Dome site by the Minnesota legislature, the fate of the Metrodome was sealed. The Vikings played their final game at the Metrodome on December 29, 2013, beating the Detroit Lions 14-13. The following day, a local company began removal of seats for sale to the public and various charities and nonprofits. Individual chairs went for $40 each to charities, $60 each to the public and $80 each for specific seat requests.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: The roof was deflated for the final time on January 18. On the morning of February 2, 2014 the steel support cables that stretched from end-to-end of stadium that held together the roof were severed, as construction crews set off a simultaneous set of 42 explosive charges that detached the cables from the concrete structure. The general public was not informed about this phase of the demolition process, prompting about a half-dozen phone calls to police from people who wondered what was going on. This was viewed as the final step before the destruction of the concrete bowl of the Metrodome would begin. On February 10, 2014, shortly after 9:15 a.m., after more than two months of preliminary work that dated back all the way to the groundbreaking of the new Vikings stadium, demolition of the stadium walls finally began.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: Just after 1 p.m. on February 17, 2014, one week after demolition of the stadium bowl had begun, demolition crews were working on taking down the concrete ring beam that encircled to top of the Metrodome, when a portion of the ring beam collapsed out of sequence, bringing an immediate halt to the work. No one was hurt and no equipment was damaged by the collapse. After five days of investigation from structural and demolition experts, it was decided that the remaining portion of the concrete ring beam would be destroyed using controlled explosive charges—virtually the same method that was used to bring down the Metrodome's steel support cables for the roof. This second controlled explosion was a continued deviation from the original plan to not use explosives to destroy the stadium, as it was determined that this was the safest way to bring down the remaining ring beam structure. On February 23, 2014, the remaining ring beam and corners of the Metrodome were brought down with 84 explosive charges of dynamite. This enabled demolition crews to continue with the wrecking ball demolition method that was originally chosen (though the order in which the sections would be brought down were changed as a result of the ring beam implosion), to bring down what was left of the Metrodome. Despite this unexpected setback, Mortenson Construction said that the demolition of the Metrodome and construction of U.S. Bank Stadium were both still on schedule.


title: Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome

text: On March 15, 2014 the final upper deck bleachers and concrete bleacher-support girders (on the northwest side of the Metrodome) were brought down, taking away any standing remnants of the exterior stadium walls. On April 11, 2014 the final portion of the inner-stadium concrete walls were reduced to rubble, marking the official end of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome. Demolition of the Metrodome was formally declared complete six days later—a month ahead of schedule—as the final truckload of rubble was loaded up and removed from the new stadium construction site. Officials from Mortenson Construction said the entire demolition job required 4,910 truckloads and 16,000 man hours to complete the job.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: Vincent Santino Corleone ("né" Mancini) is a fictional character in the 1990 feature film "The Godfather Part III." He is portrayed by Andy García, who was nominated for an Academy Award for his performance. Vincent is the illegitimate son of Sonny Corleone and his mistress Lucy Mancini. He eventually succeeds his uncle Michael as head of the Corleone family. in Mario Puzo's original 1969 novel Lucy did not conceive a child with Sonny.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: Coppola has said that Vincent is an amalgamation of the five Corleone family males, having his grandfather Vito's cunning, his father Sonny's temper and from his uncles Michael's ruthlessness, Fredo's vulnerability and Tom Hagen's courage.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: In "The Godfather", married Sonny Corleone and his sister's bridesmaid, Lucy Mancini, were having an illicit affair; Vincent Mancini is the result of that union. Being illegitimate (because he was born after his father's death and his parents were unmarried), he was not included in the Corleone family as a youth. As an adult, when Michael Corleone offers Vincent employment in one of the family's legitimate businesses, Vincent declines, preferring to work for Joey Zasa, who runs the remnants of the Corleone family's criminal empire in New York City. Vincent is eventually embroiled in a feud with Zasa when he senses that Zasa is trying to usurp Michael's power. Michael tries to make peace between the two, but this fails; Zasa calls Vincent a bastard, and Vincent bites his ear. That night, Zasa sends two hitmen to kill Vincent, but Vincent kills them instead after forcing one of them to reveal who hired them.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: Vincent attempts to ingratiate himself with his uncle by protecting him from rival Mafia families, who are in league with Zasa and an unknown traitor within Michael's circle. Encouraged by his sister Connie, Michael takes Vincent under his wing. Michael admires Vincent's courage and loyalty, but notices that Vincent has inherited Sonny's hot temper and worries he will suffer his father's fate.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: Vincent saves Michael from an assassination attempt orchestrated by Zasa at a Mafia summit in Atlantic City. That same night, Michael is hospitalized following a diabetic stroke. Believing Zasa will make another attempt on Michael's life, Vincent murders him (with approval from Connie and Corleone assassin Al Neri). Michael is angry that Vincent used violence to deal with Zasa and did so without Michael's permission, although he used the same logic to protect his father 34 years prior by killing Virgil Sollozzo.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: When Vincent begins a relationship with Michael's daughter Mary, Michael fears that his nephew's growing involvement in the family's criminal activity will endanger her life. Michael tells Vincent that while he and Sonny were different Michael knew Sonny would've done anything for him and warns Vincent that Sonny's temper clouded his judgment, a mistake Michael doesn't want Vincent to repeat.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: When Michael learns that his old friend Don Altobello is the traitor within the family, Michael has Vincent spy on him. Vincent learns that Licio Lucchesi, a powerful Italian politician and criminal underworld figure, was the mastermind of the assassination plot against Michael and employed Altobello, Zasa, and corrupt Vatican officials Frederick Keinszig and Archbishop Gilday to undermine Michael's criminal empire.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: Vincent asks permission to retaliate and Michael tacitly agrees, then formally retires as Don and names Vincent his successor, instructing him to call himself Don Vincent Corleone. Michael's guidance has made Vincent into a better man - patient, responsible, and wise. His first act is to order the murders of Lucchesi, Keinszig, and Gilday. Connie kills Altobello (her godfather) by poisoning him. In return for being made Don, Vincent agrees to end his relationship with Mary. That same night, Altobello's assassin Mosca accidentally kills Mary during an attempt on Michael's life, and Vincent kills Mosca with a single gunshot. He looks on, devastated, as Michael cradles Mary’s dead body.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: What follows in Vincent's story, according to author Mario Puzo and director Francis Ford Coppola, is unknown. In "The Godfather Part III" DVD commentary, Coppola explains that both he and Puzo had envisioned a story depicting Vincent's reign as head of the Corleone family during the 1980s, still haunted by Mary's murder. Vincent, deviating from his predecessors' moral code, would have entered the family into the drug trade, driving the Corleone clan back into corruption and eventual decline and ending with his being killed similarly to Colombian drug lord Pablo Escobar.


title: Vincent Corleone

text: This proposed film would have been titled either "The Godfather Part IV" or "The Godfather: The Final Part". Flashbacks would include Vito Corleone's early days as Don, and the childhood days of Sonny, Fredo, Michael, and Connie Corleone, when they discover the precise nature of their father's business. The film would have portrayed the early days of Tom Hagen, Luca Brasi, and Johnny Fontane, and Vito's first meeting with Hyman Roth. According to Coppola, Puzo had composed a rough draft alternating between Vincent's reign as boss and the "Happy Years" of 1926–1939; passages from the original novel not previously incorporated into the movie storylines. Leonardo DiCaprio, Luis Guzmán, Ray Liotta, and García himself all expressed interest in the film. However, this project has lain dormant since Puzo's death in 1999.


title: Rounders

text: Rounders is a bat-and-ball game played between two teams. Rounders is a striking and fielding team game that involves hitting a small, hard, leather-cased ball with a rounded end wooden, plastic, or metal bat. The players score by running around the four bases on the field.


title: Rounders

text: Played in England since Tudor times, it is referenced in 1744 in the children's book "A Little Pretty Pocket-Book" where it was called Base-Ball. The name baseball was superseded by the name rounders in England, while other modifications of the game played elsewhere retained the name baseball. The game is popular among British and Irish school children, particularly among girls. As of 2015 rounders is played by seven million children in the UK.


title: Rounders

text: Gameplay centres on a number of innings, in which teams alternate at batting and fielding. Points (known as 'rounders') are scored by the batting team when one of their players completes a circuit past four bases without being put 'out'. The batter must strike at a good ball and attempt to run a rounder in an anti-clockwise direction around the first, second, and third base and home to the fourth, though they may stay at any of the first three. A batter is out if the ball is caught; if the base to which they are running is touched with the ball; or if, while running, they are touched with the ball by a fielder.


title: Rounders

text: The game of rounders has been played in England since Tudor times, with the earliest reference being in 1744 in "A Little Pretty Pocket-Book" where it was called base-ball. In 1828, William Clarke in London published the second edition of "The Boy's Own Book", which included the rules of rounders and also the first printed description in English of a bat and ball base-running game played on a diamond. The following year, the book was published in Boston, Massachusetts.


title: Rounders

text: The first nationally formalised rules were drawn up by the Gaelic Athletic Association (GAA) in Ireland in 1884. The game is still regulated in Ireland by the GAA, through the GAA Rounders National Council (). In Great Britain it is regulated by Rounders England, which was formed in 1943. While the two associations are distinct, they share similar elements of game play and culture. Competitions are held between teams from both traditions.


title: Rounders

text: After the rules of rounders were formalised in Ireland, associations were established in Liverpool, England; and Scotland in 1889. Both the 'New York game' and the now-defunct 'Massachusetts game' versions of baseball, as well as softball, share the same historical roots as rounders and bear a resemblance to the GAA version of the game. Rounders is linked to British baseball, which is still played in Liverpool, Cardiff and Newport. Although rounders is assumed to be older than baseball, literary references to early forms of 'base-ball' in England pre-date use of the term "rounders".


title: Rounders

text: The game is popular game among British and Irish school children, especially among girls, and is played up to international level. It is played by seven million children in the UK, with Catherine, Princess of Wales having played it as a young girl.


title: Rounders

text: Gameplay comprises a number of innings, in which teams alternate at batting and fielding. Nine players constitute a team, with the fielding side consisting of the bowler, the catcher, a player on each of the four bases, and three deep fielders. Points (known as 'rounders') are scored by the batting team when one of their players completes a circuit past four bases without being put 'out'. The batter must strike at a good ball and attempt to run a rounder in an anti-clockwise direction around the first, second, and third base and home to the fourth, though they may rest at any of the first three.


title: Rounders

text: While there are differences between the rules set by Rounders England and by the GAA, they share much in common. The bowler, or 'feeder', bowls the ball with an underarm pendulum action to the batter. According to Rounders England rules, the ball is deemed a 'good' ball if it passes within reach on the striking side between the batter's knees and the top of the head. Otherwise, it is called a 'no-ball' or 'bad' ball. The ball is also regarded as bad if it is thrown into the batter's body or wide of the batting box. A batter may try to hit a bad ball but is not required to do so. A player is not out if a no-ball is caught and cannot be called out on first base.


title: Rounders

text: When a batter leaves the post, each runner on a base may run to the next and succeeding base. A post runner cannot be declared out when standing at a base. The batter must keep in contact with the base to avoid being declared out. A rounder is scored if one of the batting team completes a circuit without being out. The Rounders England rules state that a half rounder is scored if half a circuit is completed by a player without being put out, or if the batter has not hit the ball but makes it all the way to the fourth base. A batter is out if a fielder catches the ball cleanly; the batter reaches a base that had been 'stumped' (touched while holding the ball) by a fielder; the bat is dropped whilst the batter is running; the batter leaves the base before the bowler has bowled the ball; or the batter is 'run out' (overtaken) by the next batter.


title: Rounders

text: In the UK, the rules of rounders are regulated by Rounders England. Games played under these rules use smaller bats and balls and are played on a smaller pitch compared to GAA games. The bases are marked with posts, which batters must keep in contact with and fielders must 'stump', and only one 'good' ball needs to be thrown before a batter must run. 'Half-rounders' are also counted in scoring.


title: Rounders

text: The fielding team must field a minimum of six players (one on each base plus bowler and catcher). The total number of players on a team is limited to nine.