title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: He received a BA, MA (1978) and PhD (1981) in psychology from Paideia University, which was an accredited university in California at the time he graduated in 1981 but later on became unaccredited and then closed. Wilson reworked his dissertation, and it found publication in 1983 as "Prometheus Rising".


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson married freelance writer and poet Arlen Riley in 1958. They had four children, including Christina Wilson Pearson and Patricia Luna Wilson. Luna was beaten to death in an apparent robbery in the store where she worked in 1976 at the age of 15, and became the first person to have her brain preserved by the Bay Area Cryonics Society. Arlen Riley Wilson died on May 22, 1999, following a series of strokes.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Among Wilson's 35 books, and many other works, perhaps his best-known volumes remain the cult classic series "The Illuminatus! Trilogy" (1975), co-authored with Shea. Advertised as "a fairy tale for paranoids," the three books—"The Eye in the Pyramid", "The Golden Apple", and "Leviathan", soon offered as a single volume—philosophically and humorously examined, among many other themes, occult and magical symbolism and history, the counterculture of the 1960s, secret societies, data concerning author H. P. Lovecraft and author and occultist Aleister Crowley, and American paranoia about conspiracies and conspiracy theories. The book was intended to poke fun at the conspiratorial frame of mind.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson and Shea derived much of the odder material from letters sent to "Playboy" magazine while they worked as the editors of its Forum. The books mixed true information with imaginative fiction to engage the reader in what Wilson called "guerrilla ontology", which he apparently referred to as "Operation Mindfuck" in "Illuminatus!" The trilogy also outlined a set of libertarian and anarchist axioms known as Celine's laws (named after Hagbard Celine, a character in "Illuminatus!"), concepts Wilson revisited several times in other writings.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Among the many subplots of "Illuminatus!" one addresses biological warfare and the overriding of the United States Bill of Rights, another gives a detailed account of the John F. Kennedy assassination (in which no fewer than five snipers, all working for different causes, prepare to shoot Kennedy), and the book's climax occurs at a rock concert where the audience collectively face the danger of becoming a mass human sacrifice.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: "Illuminatus!" popularized Discordianism and the use of the term "fnord". It incorporates experimental prose styles influenced by writers such as William S. Burroughs, James Joyce, and Ezra Pound. Although Shea and Wilson never co-operated on such a scale again, Wilson continued to expand upon the themes of the "Illuminatus!" books throughout his writing career. Most of his later fiction contains cross-over characters from "The Sex Magicians" (Wilson's first novel, written before the release of "Illuminatus!", which includes many of his same characters) and "The Illuminatus! Trilogy".


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: "Illuminatus!" won the Prometheus Hall of Fame award for Best Classic Fiction, voted by the Libertarian Futurist Society for science fiction in 1986, has many international editions, and found adaptation for the stage when Ken Campbell produced it as a ten-hour drama. It also appeared as two card based games from Steve Jackson Games, one a trading-card game (). Eye N Apple Productions and Rip Off Press produced a comic book version of the trilogy.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson wrote two more popular fiction series. The first, a trilogy later published as a single volume, was "Schrödinger's Cat". The second, "The Historical Illuminatus Chronicles", appeared as three books. In between publishing the two trilogies Wilson released a stand-alone novel, "Masks of the Illuminati" (1981), which fits into, due to the main character's ancestry, "The Historical Illuminatus Chronicles"' timeline and, while published earlier, could qualify for the fourth volume in that series.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: "Schrödinger's Cat" consists of three volumes: "The Universe Next Door", "The Trick Top Hat", and "The Homing Pigeons". Wilson set the three books in differing alternative universes, and most of the characters remain almost the same but may have different names, careers and background stories. The books cover the fields of quantum mechanics and the varied philosophies and explanations that exist within the science. The single volume describes itself as a magical textbook and a type of initiation. The single-volume edition omits many entire pages and has many other omissions when compared with the original separate books.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: "The Historical Illuminatus Chronicles", composed of "The Earth Will Shake" (1982), "The Widow's Son" (1985), and "Nature's God" (1991), follows the timelines of several characters through different generations, time periods, and countries. The books cover, among many other topics, the history, legacy, and rituals of the Illuminati and related groups.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: "Masks of the Illuminati", featuring historical characters in a fictionalized setting, contains a great deal of occult data. Intermixing Albert Einstein, James Joyce, Aleister Crowley, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, and others, the book focuses on Pan and other occult icons, ideas, and practices. The book includes homages, parodies and pastiches from both the lives and works of Crowley and Joyce.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson's play, "Wilhelm Reich in Hell", was published as a book in 1987 and first performed at the Edmund Burke Theatre in Dublin, in San Francisco, and in Los Angeles. It features many factual and fictional characters, including Marilyn Monroe, Uncle Sam, and Wilhelm Reich himself. Wilson also wrote and published as books two screenplays, not yet produced: "Reality Is What You Can Get Away With: an Illustrated Screenplay" (1992) and "The Walls Came Tumbling Down" (1997).


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson's book "" has been adapted as a theatrical stage play by Daisy Eris Campbell, daughter of Ken Campbell the British theatre maverick who staged "Illuminatus!" at the Royal National Theatre in 1977. The play opened on November 23, 2014, in Liverpool before transferring to London and Brighton. Some of the costs were met through crowdfunding. Wilson's book is itself dedicated to "Ken Campbell and the Science-Fiction Theatre Of Liverpool, England."


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: In his nonfiction and partly autobiographical "" (1977) and its two sequels, as well as in many other works, Wilson examined Freemasons, Discordianism, Sufism, the Illuminati, Futurology, Zen Buddhism, Dennis and Terence McKenna, Jack Parsons, the occult practices of Aleister Crowley and G.I. Gurdjieff, Yoga, and many other esoteric or counterculture philosophies, personalities, and occurrences.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson advocated Timothy Leary's 8-Circuit Model of Consciousness and neurosomatic/linguistic engineering, which he wrote about in many books including "Prometheus Rising" (1983, revised 1997) and "Quantum Psychology" (1990), which contain practical techniques intended to help the reader break free of one's reality tunnels. With Leary, he helped promote the futurist ideas of space migration, intelligence increase, and life extension, which they combined to form the word symbol SMI²LE.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson's 1986 book, "The New Inquisition", argues that whatever reality consists of it actually would seem much weirder than we commonly imagine. It cites, among other sources, Bell's theorem and Alain Aspect's experimental proof of Bell's to suggest that mainstream science has a strong materialist bias, and that in fact modern physics may have already disproved materialist metaphysics.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson also supported the work and utopian theories of Buckminster Fuller and examined the theories of Charles Fort. He and Loren Coleman became friends, as he did with media theorist Marshall McLuhan and Neuro Linguistic Programming co-founder Richard Bandler, with whom he taught workshops. He also admired James Joyce, and wrote extensive commentaries on the author and on two of Joyce's novels, "Finnegans Wake" and "Ulysses", in his 1988 book "".


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Although Wilson often lampooned and criticized some New Age beliefs, bookstores specializing in New Age material often sell his books. Wilson, a well-known author in occult and Neo-Pagan circles, used Aleister Crowley as a main character in his 1981 novel "Masks of the Illuminati", also included some elements of H. P. Lovecraft's work in his novels, and at times claimed to have perceived encounters with magical "entities" (when asked whether these entities seemed "real", he answered they seemed "real enough," although "not as real as the IRS" but "easier to get rid of", and later decided that his experiences may have emerged from "just my right brain hemisphere talking to my left"). He warned against beginners using occult practice, since to rush into such practices and the resulting "energies" they unleash could lead people to "go totally nuts".


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson also criticized scientific types with overly rigid belief systems, equating them with religious fundamentalists in their fanaticism. In a 1988 interview, when asked about his newly published book "The New Inquisition: Irrational Rationalism and the Citadel of Science", Wilson commented:


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: I coined the term irrational rationalism because those people claim to be rationalists, but they're governed by such a heavy body of taboos. They're so fearful, and so hostile, and so narrow, and frightened, and uptight and dogmatic ... I wrote this book because I got tired satirizing fundamentalist Christianity ... I decided to satirize fundamentalist materialism for a change, because the two are equally comical ... The materialist fundamentalists are funnier than the Christian fundamentalists, because they think they're rational! ... They're never skeptical about anything except the things they have a prejudice against. None of them ever says anything skeptical about the AMA, or about anything in establishment science or any entrenched dogma. They're only skeptical about new ideas that frighten them. They're actually dogmatically committed to what they were taught when they were in college. ...


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: In a 2003 interview with "High Times" magazine, Wilson described himself as "model-agnostic" which he said


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: consists of never regarding any model or map of the universe with total 100% belief or total 100% denial. Following Korzybski, I put things in probabilities, not absolutes ... My only originality lies in applying this zetetic attitude outside the hardest of the hard sciences, physics, to softer sciences and then to non-sciences like politics, ideology, jury verdicts and, of course, conspiracy theory.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson claimed in "Cosmic Trigger: Volume 1" "not to believe anything", since "belief is the death of intelligence". He described this approach as "Maybe Logic."


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson favored a form of basic income guarantee; synthesizing several ideas under the acronym RICH. His ideas are set forth in the essay "The RICH Economy," found in "The Illuminati Papers". In an article critical of capitalism, Wilson self-identified as a "libertarian socialist", saying that "I ask only one thing of skeptics: don't bring up Soviet Russia, please. That horrible example of State Capitalism has nothing to do with what I, and other libertarian socialists, would offer as an alternative to the present system." By the 1980s he was less enthusiastic about the socialist label, writing in "Prometheus Rising" that he "does not like" the spread of socialism. In his book "Right Where You Are Sitting Now", he praises the georgist economist Silvio Gesell. In the essay "Left and Right: A Non-Euclidean Perspective", Wilson speaks favorably of several "excluded middles" that "transcend the hackneyed debate between monopoly Capitalism and totalitarian Socialism"; he says his favorite is the mutualist anarchism of Benjamin Tucker and Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, but he also offers kind words for the ideas of Gesell, Henry George, C. H. Douglas, and Buckminster Fuller. Wilson also identified as an anarchist and described his belief system as "a blend of Tucker, Spooner, Fuller, Pound, Henry George, Rothbard, Douglas, Korzybski, Proudhon and Marx." Wilson spoke several times at conventions of the American Libertarian Party. He included Benjamin Tucker's "Instead of a Book", Henry George's "Progress and Poverty", and Gesell's "The Natural Economic Order" in a list of 20 book recommendations, "the bare minimum of what everybody really needs to chew and digest before they can converse intelligently about the 21st Century."


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Robert Anton Wilson and his wife Arlen Riley Wilson founded the "Institute for the Study of the Human Future" in 1975.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: From 1982 until his death, Wilson had a business relationship with the Association for Consciousness Exploration, which hosted his first on-stage dialogue with his long-time friend Timothy Leary entitled "The Inner Frontier". Wilson dedicated his book "The New Inquisition" to A.C.E.'s co-directors, Jeff Rosenbaum and Joseph Rothenberg.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson also joined the Church of the SubGenius, who referred to him as Pope Bob. He contributed to their literature, including the book "Three-Fisted Tales of "Bob"", and shared a stage with their founder, Rev. Ivan Stang, on several occasions. Wilson also founded the Guns and Dope Party.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: As a member of the Board of Advisors of the Fully Informed Jury Association, Wilson worked to inform the public about jury nullification, the right of jurors to nullify a law they deem unjust.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson advocated for and wrote about E-Prime, a form of English lacking all forms of the verb "to be" (such as "is", "are", "was", "were" etc.).


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: A decades-long researcher into drugs and a strong opponent of what he called "the war on some drugs", Wilson participated as a Special Guest in the week-long 1999 Annual Cannabis Cup in Amsterdam, and used and often promoted the use of medical marijuana. He participated in a protest organized by the Wo/Men's Alliance for Medical Marijuana in Santa Cruz in 2002.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: On June 22, 2006, "Huffington Post" blogger Paul Krassner reported that Wilson was under hospice care at home with friends and family. On October 2, Douglas Rushkoff reported that Wilson was in severe financial trouble. Slashdot, Boing Boing, and the Church of the SubGenius also picked up on the story, linking to Rushkoff's appeal. As his webpage reported on October 10, these efforts succeeded beyond expectation and raised a sum which would have supported him for at least six months. Obviously touched by the great outpouring of support, on October 5, 2006, Wilson left the following comment on his personal website, expressing his gratitude:


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: On January 6, 2007, Wilson wrote on his blog that according to several medical authorities, he would likely only have between two days and two months left to live. He closed this message with "I look forward without dogmatic optimism but without dread. I love you all and I deeply implore you to keep the lasagna flying. Please pardon my levity, I don't see how to take death seriously. It seems absurd."


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson died peacefully five days later, on January 11 at 4:50 am. Pacific time, just a week short of his 75th birthday. After his cremation on January 18 (also his 75th birthday), his family held a memorial service on February 18 and then scattered most of his ashes at the same spot as his wife's—off the Santa Cruz Beach Boardwalk in Santa Cruz, California.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: A tribute show to Wilson, organized by Coldcut and Mixmaster Morris and performed in London as a part of the "Ether 07 Festival" held at the Queen Elizabeth Hall on March 18, 2007, also included Ken Campbell, Bill Drummond and Alan Moore.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Wilson appears as a fictional version of himself in Timothy Leary's 1979 book, "The Intelligence Agents". It features a full facsimile reproduction of an article ostensibly authored by Wilson, titled Marilyn's Input System, from "Peeple Magazine" of March 1986.


title: Robert Anton Wilson

text: Robert Anton Wilson appeared in the 1998 German film "23 Nichts ist so wie es scheint". He has approximately two minutes featured as himself, with the main actor, portraying hacker Karl Koch, meeting Wilson at the annual German Computer Hackers Convention in 1985. The film is a biographical piece about Germany's infamous computer hackers, and the 1985 meeting in Germany between Wilson and Koch is authentic. Wilson spoke at the 1985 German Computer Hackers Convention, warning of a future in which governments would have total digital control over the citizen. He signed one of his books for Koch. These events are depicted in the film.


title: Brown Bess

text: "Brown Bess" is a nickname of uncertain origin for the British Army's muzzle-loading smoothbore flintlock Land Pattern Musket and its derivatives. The musket design remained in use for over a hundred years with many incremental changes in its design. These versions include the Long Land Pattern, the Short Land Pattern, the India Pattern, the New Land Pattern Musket and the Sea Service Musket.


title: Brown Bess

text: The Long Land Pattern musket and its derivatives, all 0.75 inch calibre flintlock muskets, were the standard long guns of the British Empire's land forces from 1722 until 1838, when they were superseded by a percussion cap smoothbore musket. The British Ordnance System converted many flintlocks into the new percussion system known as the Pattern 1839 Musket. A fire in 1841 at the Tower of London destroyed many muskets before they could be converted. Still, the Brown Bess saw service until the middle of the nineteenth century.


title: Brown Bess

text: Most male citizens of the thirteen colonies of British America were required by law to own arms and ammunition for militia duty. The Long Land Pattern was a common firearm in use by both sides in the American War of Independence.


title: Brown Bess

text: In 1808 during the Napoleonic Wars, the United Kingdom subsidised Sweden (during the Sweden–Finland period) in various ways as the British government anxiously wanted to keep an ally in the Baltic Sea region. These included deliveries of significant numbers of Brown Bess-muskets for use in the Finnish War of 1808 to 1809.


title: Brown Bess

text: During the Musket Wars (1820s–30s), Māori warriors used Brown Besses purchased from European traders at the time. Some muskets were sold to the Mexican Army, which used them during the Texas Revolution of 1836 and the Mexican–American War of 1846 to 1848. Brown Besses saw service in the First Opium War and during the Indian rebellion of 1857. Zulu warriors, who had also purchased them from European traders, used them during the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879. One was even used in the Battle of Shiloh in 1862, during the American Civil War.


title: Brown Bess

text: One hypothesis is that the "Brown Bess" was named after Elizabeth I of England, but this lacks support. Jonathan Ferguson, Firearms Curator of the Royal Armouries, traces the name to at least the 1760s, and his research suggests the name was adopted from slang for a mistress, prostitute, or lowly woman who also appear in period sources referred to as "Brown Bess". He writes, Bess' was a generic and sometimes derogatory name, a bit like 'Sheila' in modern Australian English", and "brown" simply meant plain or drab. Ferguson discounts, with evidence, many of the other theories previously popular.


title: Brown Bess

text: Early uses of the term include the newspaper, the "Connecticut Courant" in April 1771, which said: "... but if you are afraid of the sea, take Brown Bess on your shoulder and march." This familiar use indicates widespread use of the term by that time. The 1785 "Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue", a contemporary work that defined vernacular and slang terms, contained this entry: "Brown Bess: A soldier's firelock. To hug Brown Bess; to carry a fire-lock, or serve as a private soldier." Military and government records of the time do not use this poetical name but refer to "firelocks", "flintlock", "muskets" or by the weapon's model designations.


title: Brown Bess

text: Popular explanations of the use of the word "Brown" include that it was a reference to either the colour of the walnut stocks, or to the characteristic brown colour that was produced by russeting, an early form of metal treatment. However, in the case of russeting at least, the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) and Ferguson note that "browning" was only introduced in the early 19th century, well after the term had come into general use. Others argue that mass-produced weapons of the time were coated in brown varnish on metal parts as a rust preventative and on wood as a sealer (or in the case of unscrupulous contractors, to disguise inferior or non-regulation types of wood), an entirely different thing from russeting.


title: Brown Bess

text: Similarly, the word "Bess" is commonly held to either derive from the word "arquebus" or "blunderbuss" (predecessors of the musket) or to be a reference to Elizabeth I, possibly given to commemorate her death. The OED has citations for "brown musket" dating back to the early 18th century that refer to the same weapon. Another suggestion is that the name is simply the counterpart to the earlier Brown Bill. However, the origin of the name may be much simpler, if vulgar.


title: Brown Bess

text: Kipling may have based his poem on an earlier but similar "Brown Bess" poem published in "Flights of Fancy" (No. 16) in 1792. Of course, the name could have been initially inspired by the older term of the "Brown Bill" and perhaps the barrels were originally varnished brown, but it is well known in literary circles that the name "Brown Bess" during the period in question in the 17th to early 19th centuries is not a reference to a color or a weapon but to simply refer to a wanton prostitute (or harlot). Such a nickname would have been a delight to the soldiers of the era who were from the lower classes of English and then British society. So far, the earliest use noted so far of the term "Brown Bess" was in a 1631 publication, John Done's "Polydoron: or A Mescellania of Morall, Philosophicall, and Theological Sentences", page 152:


title: Brown Bess

text: From the seventeenth century to the early years of the eighteenth century, most nations did not specify standards for military firearms. Firearms were individually procured by officers or regiments as late as 1745, and were often custom-made to the tastes of the purchaser. As the firearm gained ascendancy on the battlefield, this lack of standardisation led to increasing difficulties in the supply of ammunition and repair materials. To address these difficulties, armies began to adopt standardised "patterns". A military service selected a "pattern musket" to be stored in a "pattern room". There it served as a reference for arms makers, who could make comparisons and take measurements to ensure that their products matched the standard.


title: Brown Bess

text: Stress-bearing parts of the Brown Bess, such as the barrel, lockwork, and sling-swivels, were customarily made of iron, while other furniture pieces such as the butt plate, trigger guard and ramrod pipe were found in both iron and brass. It weighed around and it could be fitted with a 17-inch (432 mm) triangular cross-section bayonet. The weapon did not have sights, although the bayonet lug doubled as a crude front sight.


title: Brown Bess

text: The earliest models had iron fittings, but these were replaced by brass in models built after 1736. Wooden ramrods were used with the first guns but were replaced by iron ones, although guns with wooden scouring sticks were still issued to troops on American service until 1765 and later to loyalist units in the American Revolution. Wooden ramrods, also called scouring sticks, were also used in the Dragoon version produced from 1744—71 for Navy and Marine use.


title: Brown Bess

text: The accuracy of the Brown Bess was fair, as with most other muskets. In 1811, in London, a test shooting was conducted at the site. The target was a wooden shield the size of an infantry or a cavalry line. The results of the practice were as follows: at a distance of 100 yards (91.44 m) 53% hits, 200 yards (182.88 m) 30% hits, 300 yards (274.32 m) 23% hits. The accuracy of the Brown Bess was in line with most other smoothbore muskets of the 18th to 19th centuries. But it should be borne in mind that this is the result of shooting by ordinary soldiers who had little training. Soldiers of light infantry had more training, and were taught accurate shooting.


title: Brown Bess

text: The Brown Bess was used not only in the line infantry, but also light infantry, as well as Rogers' Rangers, hunters, skirmishers, Indians and many other irregular troops who used non-standard tactics.


title: Brown Bess

text: The Brown Bess's bullet was lethal at its full effective range. In the mid-18th century, Robertson measured the speed of musket bullets on a ballistic pendulum. According to him, the speed of a round musket bullet slug was about 1804 feet per second (550 m/s). That is, the muzzle energy of the musket was about 3,500 to 4,000 joules, which is comparable to the energy of modern rifle cartridges. Modern ballistic tests have confirmed these data. According to the Russian lieutenant-general Ivan G. Gogel, all the muskets of the European nations were able to penetrate a wooden shield with a thickness of 1 inch (2.5 cm) at a distance of 300 yards.


title: Brown Bess

text: British soldiers armed with Brown Besses preferred to reduce the standard number of steps for loading a musket. To this end, they would drop the cartridge into the barrel and strike the butt on the ground, to seat the load without the use of a scouring stick. This approximately doubled their rate of fire.


title: Brown Bess

text: Besides not having fore-sights, Brown Bess-muskets were virtually identical to Potzdam muskets up until the Prussian 1809 pattern.


title: Brown Bess

text: Many variations and modifications of the standard pattern musket were created over its long history. The earliest version was the Long Land Pattern of 1722, 62 inches (1,575 mm) long (without bayonet), with a 46-inch (1,168 mm) barrel. It was later found that shortening the barrel did not detract from accuracy but made handling easier, giving rise to the Militia (or Marine) Pattern of 1756 and the Short Land Pattern of 1768, which both had a 42-inch (1,067 mm) barrel. Another version with a 39-inch (991 mm) barrel was first manufactured for the British East India Company, and was eventually adopted by the British Army in 1790 as the India Pattern.


title: Brown Bess

text: Towards the end of the life of the weapon, there was a change in the system of ignition. The flintlock mechanism, which was prone to misfiring, especially in wet weather, was replaced by the more reliable percussion cap. The last flintlock pattern manufactured was selected for conversion to the new system as the Pattern 1839. As a fire at the Tower of London destroyed large stocks of these in 1841, a new Pattern 1842 musket was manufactured. These remained in service until the 1853 outbreak of the Crimean War, when they were replaced by the Minié and the P53 Enfield rifled musket.


title: Picric acid

text: Picric acid is an organic compound with the formula (ON)CHOH. Its IUPAC name is 2,4,6-trinitrophenol (TNP). The name "picric" comes from ("pikros"), meaning "bitter", due to its bitter taste. It is one of the most acidic phenols. Like other strongly nitrated organic compounds, picric acid is an explosive, which is its primary use. It has also been used as medicine (antiseptic, burn treatments) and as a dye.


title: Picric acid

text: Picric acid was probably first mentioned in the alchemical writings of Johann Rudolf Glauber. Initially, it was made by nitrating substances such as animal horn, silk, indigo, and natural resin, the synthesis from indigo first being performed by Peter Woulfe during 1771. The German chemist Justus von Liebig had named picric acid (rendered in French as ). Picric acid was given that name by the French chemist Jean-Baptiste Dumas in 1841. Its synthesis from phenol, and the correct determination of its formula, were accomplished during 1841. In 1799, French chemist Jean-Joseph Welter (1763–1852) produced picric acid by treating silk with nitric acid; he found that potassium picrate could explode. Not until 1830 did chemists think to use picric acid as an explosive. Before then, chemists assumed that only the salts of picric acid were explosive, not the acid itself. In 1871 Hermann Sprengel proved it could be detonated and afterwards most military powers used picric acid as their main high explosive material.


title: Picric acid

text: Picric acid was the first strongly explosive nitrated organic compound widely considered suitable to withstand the shock of firing in conventional artillery. Nitroglycerine and nitrocellulose (guncotton) were available earlier but shock sensitivity sometimes caused detonation in an artillery barrel at the time of firing. In 1885, based on research of Hermann Sprengel, French chemist Eugène Turpin patented the use of pressed and cast picric acid in blasting charges and artillery shells. In 1887 the French government adopted a mixture of picric acid and guncotton with the name Melinite. In 1888, Britain started manufacturing a very similar mixture in Lydd, Kent, with the name Lyddite. Japan followed with an alternative stabilization approach known as Shimose powder which, instead of attempting to stabilize the material itself, instead removed its contact with metal by coating the inside of the shells with layers of ceramic and wax. In 1889, a mixture of ammonium cresylate with trinitrocresol, or an ammonium salt of trinitrocresol, started to be manufactured with the name Ecrasite in Austria-Hungary. By 1894 Russia was manufacturing artillery shells filled with picric acid. Ammonium picrate (known as Dunnite or explosive D) was used by the United States beginning in 1906. However, shells filled with picric acid become unstable if the compound reacts with metal shell or fuze casings to form metal picrates which are more sensitive than the parent phenol. The sensitivity of picric acid was demonstrated by the Halifax Explosion.


title: Picric acid

text: Picric acid was used in the Battle of Omdurman, the Second Boer War, the Russo-Japanese War, and World War I. Germany began filling artillery shells with Trinitrotoluene (TNT) in 1902. Toluene was less readily available than phenol, and TNT is less powerful than picric acid, but improved safety of munitions manufacturing and storage caused the replacement of picric acid by TNT for most military purposes between the World Wars.


title: Picric acid

text: Efforts to control the availability of phenol, the precursor to picric acid, emphasize its importance in World War I. Germans are reported to have bought US supplies of phenol and converted it to acetylsalicylic acid, i.e., aspirin, to keep it from the Allies. (See Great Phenol Plot.) At the time, phenol was obtained from coal as a co-product of coke ovens and the manufacture of gas for gas lighting. Laclede Gas reports being asked to expand production of phenol (and toluene) to assist the war effort. Both Monsanto and Dow Chemical began manufacturing synthetic phenol in 1915, with Dow being the main producer. Dow describes picric acid as "the main battlefield explosive used by the French. Large amounts [of phenol] also went to Japan, where it was made into picric acid sold to the Russians."


title: Picric acid

text: Thomas Edison needed phenol to manufacture phonograph records. He responded by undertaking production of phenol at his Silver Lake, NJ, facility using processes developed by his chemists. He built two plants with a capacity of six tons of phenol per day. Production began the first week of September, one month after hostilities began in Europe. He built two plants to produce raw material benzene at Johnstown, PA, and Bessemer, AL, replacing supplies previously from Germany. Edison also manufactured aniline dyes, which had previously been supplied by the German dye trust. Other wartime products include xylene, p-phenylenediamine, shellac, and pyrax. Wartime shortages made these ventures profitable. In 1915, his production capacity was fully committed by midyear.


title: Picric acid

text: The aromatic ring of phenol is activated towards electrophilic substitution reactions, and attempted nitration of phenol, even with dilute nitric acid, results in the formation of high molecular weight tars. In order to minimize these side reactions, anhydrous phenol is sulfonated with fuming sulfuric acid, and the resulting "p"-hydroxyphenylsulfonic acid is then nitrated with concentrated nitric acid. During this reaction, nitro groups are introduced, and the sulfonic acid group is displaced. The reaction is highly exothermic, and careful temperature control is required. Another method of picric acid synthesis is direct nitration of 2,4-Dinitrophenol with nitric acid. It crystallizes in the orthorhombic space group "Pca"2 with a = 9.13 Å, b = 18.69 Å, c = 9.79 Å and α = β = γ = 90°.


title: Picric acid

text: By far the greatest use has been in munitions and explosives. Explosive D, also known as Dunnite, is the ammonium salt of picric acid. Dunnite is more powerful but less stable than the more common explosive TNT (which is produced in a similar process to picric acid but with toluene as the feedstock). Picramide, formed by aminating picric acid (typically beginning with Dunnite), can be further aminated to produce the very stable explosive TATB.


title: Picric acid

text: It has found some use in organic chemistry for the preparation of crystalline salts of organic bases (picrates) for the purpose of identification and characterization.


title: Picric acid

text: In metallurgy, a 4% picric acid in ethanol etch termed "picral" has been commonly used in optical metallography to reveal prior austenite grain boundaries in ferritic steels. The hazards associated with picric acid have meant it has largely been replaced with other chemical etchants. However, it is still used to etch magnesium alloys, such as AZ31.


title: Picric acid

text: Bouin solution is a common picric-acid-containing fixative solution used for histology specimens. It improves the staining of acid dyes, but it can also result in hydrolysis of any DNA in the sample.


title: Picric acid

text: Clinical chemistry laboratory testing utilizes picric acid for the Jaffe reaction to test for creatinine. It forms a colored complex that can be measured using spectroscopy.


title: Picric acid

text: Picric acid forms red isopurpurate with hydrogen cyanide (HCN). By photometric measurement of the resulting dye picric acid can be used to quantify hydrogen cyanide.


title: Picric acid

text: During the early 20th century, picric acid was used to measure blood glucose levels. When glucose, picric acid and sodium carbonate are combined and heated, a characteristic red color forms. With a calibrating glucose solution, the red color can be used to measure the glucose levels added. This is known as the Lewis and Benedict method of measuring glucose.


title: Picric acid

text: Much less commonly, wet picric acid has been used as a skin dye, or temporary branding agent. It reacts with proteins in the skin to give a dark brown color that may last as long as a month.


title: Picric acid

text: During the early 20th century, picric acid was stocked in pharmacies as an antiseptic and as a treatment for burns, malaria, herpes, and smallpox. Picric acid-soaked gauze was also commonly stocked in first aid kits from that period as a burn treatment. It was notably used for the treatment of burns suffered by victims of the Hindenburg disaster in 1937. Picric acid was also used as a treatment for trench foot suffered by soldiers stationed on the Western Front during World War I.


title: Picric acid

text: Picric acid has been used for many years by fly tyers to dye mole skins and feathers a dark olive green for use as fishing lures. Its popularity has been tempered by its toxic nature.


title: Picric acid

text: Modern safety precautions recommend storing picric acid wet, to minimize the danger of explosion. Dry picric acid is relatively sensitive to shock and friction, so laboratories that use it store it in bottles under a layer of water, rendering it safe. Glass or plastic bottles are required, as picric acid can easily form metal picrate salts that are even more sensitive and hazardous than the acid itself. Industrially, picric acid is especially hazardous because it is volatile and slowly sublimes even at room temperature. Over time, the buildup of picrates on exposed metal surfaces can constitute an explosion hazard.


title: Picric acid

text: Picric acid gauze, if found in antique first aid kits, presents a safety hazard because picric acid of that vintage (60–90 years old) will have become crystallized and unstable, and may have formed metal picrates from long storage in a metal first aid case.


title: Picric acid

text: Bomb disposal units are often called to dispose of picric acid if it has dried out. In the United States there was an effort to remove dried picric acid containers from high school laboratories during the 1980s.


title: Picric acid

text: Munitions containing picric acid may be found in sunken warships. The buildup of metal picrates over time renders them shock-sensitive and extremely hazardous. It is recommended that shipwrecks that contain such munitions not be disturbed in any way. The hazard may subside when the shells become corroded enough to admit seawater as these materials are water-soluble. Currently there are various fluorescent probes to sense and detect picric acid in very minute quantity.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Ant-Man (Scott Lang) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by David Michelinie, Bob Layton and John Byrne, Scott Lang first appeared in "The Avengers" #181 (March 1979) and in "Marvel Premiere" #47 (April 1979) as the second superhero character to use the Ant-Man name in the Marvel Universe. He is a reformed thief and an electronics expert. He was a member of the Avengers, the Fantastic Four and the Guardians of the Galaxy, the main character in the comic-book series "FF" and, in 2015, he became the title character in the series "Ant-Man".


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Scott Lang is an ex-convict and electronics expert hired by Stark International, which enables him to steal the Ant-Man suit from Hank Pym, who had long since given up the name, to help his sick daughter. When Pym finds out, he gives the suit to Lang, allowing him to become the second Ant-Man. As Ant-Man, he serves as an Avenger for years, until he is killed during the "Avengers Disassembled" storyline. Years later, he is resurrected in the "" mini-series. Following his resurrection, Lang heads the Future Foundation and founds his own company, the "Ant-Man Security Solutions".


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Paul Rudd plays Scott Lang in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films "Ant-Man" (2015), "" (2016), "Ant-Man and the Wasp" (2018), "" (2019), and "" (2023), the web series "WHIH Newsfront" (2015), and the animated series "What If...?" (2021).


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Created by David Michelinie, Bob Layton and John Byrne, Scott Lang first appeared in "The Avengers" #181 (cover-dated March 1979) and as the second Ant-Man in "Marvel Premiere" #47 (April 1979). Michelinie had long been an enthusiast of shrinking heroes, and saw Hank Pym's return to the Yellowjacket guise as an opportunity to take over the discarded Ant-Man identity. He explained how he came up with the character:


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Though Ant-Man's two-issue tryout in "Marvel Premiere" failed to garner the character his own series, the dynamic of a single father and reformed criminal in the superhero role struck a chord with readers and led to Ant-Man enjoying modest popularity and frequent appearances in Marvel Comics thereafter.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: An ongoing series focusing on Lang, titled simply "Ant-Man" written by Nick Spencer and drawn by , began in January 2015. After Marvel's Secret Wars event, the series continued with the title "Astonishing Ant-Man."


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Scott Edward Harris Lang was born in Coral Gables, Florida. A movie fanatic, he turned to burglary when his occupation as an electrical engineer failed to provide him with enough excitement in life. (This was later retconned with the statement that he did so because he could not support his family.) Apprehended, Lang served his prison sentence and was paroled after four years for good behavior. In prison, he furthered his study of electronics and was soon hired by Stark International to work in its design department. Under Tony Stark's direction, he helped install a new security system in Avengers Mansion.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: When his daughter Cassie became seriously ill, Scott Lang sought out Dr. Erica Sondheim, the only person capable of helping her. However, at the very moment he attempted to contact her, Sondheim was forcibly taken away to Cross Technological Enterprises, and in order to get her out, he decided to return to burglary as a final resort. He broke into Hank Pym's home and stole the Ant-Man suit and shrinking gas canisters. Garbed as Ant-Man, Lang broke into Cross Enterprises and discovered that Sondheim was being held prisoner by Darren Cross. He rescued the doctor from Cross' clutches and was relieved when Sondheim was able to save his beloved Cassie's life. Upon being confronted by Pym (as Yellowjacket), Lang intended to return the Ant-Man suit to Pym and turn himself in for its theft, but Pym, aware of the use to which Lang had put the stolen goods, offered to let him keep them, provided he only use them to uphold the law.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Shortly after, Scott Lang donned the Ant-Man costume on various occasions, primarily to assist Iron Man and the Avengers. Scott came to the rescue when Iron Man was trapped in his armor in the aftermath of a system overload. He also helped Yellowjacket (Hank Pym's alias at the time) attempt to rescue the Wasp captured by Dr. Parnell Solomon, and alongside the Avengers he first battled Taskmaster. He then battled Odd John's mutated insects, and encountered Biotron of the Micronauts. Alongside Spider-Man, he again battled Taskmaster, exploiting Taskmaster's belief that he was Pym by using his growth capsules on one of his ants as a surprise tactic. As Lang, he attempted to stop the Raiders at a Dallas electronics engineers convention. He then battled the malfunctioning GARD computer security system at "Stark International". As Lang, he aided Iron Man and Jim Rhodes against Mauler. He then met the Fantastic Four, and on their behalf first journeyed to a "micro-world", and joined the Thing in battle against its denizens.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Scott was instrumental in helping Iron Man discover who possessed copies of his technology during the "Armor Wars" storyline.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: He also aided the Avengers in infiltrating Taskmaster's henchmen-training facility, battling the Taskmaster alongside Hawkeye, and visited Henry Pym while he was in prison. He encountered Rick Jones and Alpha Flight, and then battled Dire Wraiths alongside Rom and Starshine. Scott was serving in an Avengers back-up team created when Baron Helmut Zemo's Masters of Evil took control of the Mansion and captured some of the current team; he even helped the Wasp defeat the Absorbing Man and Titania when they attacked a hospital in an attempt to kill a comatose Hercules. He accidentally shrank Spider-Man and battled the Scarlet Beetle. He also battled Dragonfly.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Lang was briefly hired by the Fantastic Four to serve as their technical consultant when Reed Richards was missing and presumed dead. It was during this period that Lang learned that Cassie had long since found out about his double life as a superhero. Lang later returned to form a temporary Fantastic Four with the Human Torch, She-Hulk and Namorita when the other three were temporarily trapped in the Negative Zone.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Lang played an important role in helping Mister Fantastic cure the Hulk, who was suffering from Lou Gehrig's disease; using a cure devised by Leader, Lang shrank down to microscopic size, entered Hulk's genes, and replaced the damaged genes causing the disease with healthy genes taken from the corpse of Bruce Banner's father, the energy surge released when Hulk returned to human form integrating the new genes into Hulk's system and curing of the disease.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: After his ex-wife Peggy Rae gained custody of their daughter, Lang accepted an offer to join the Avengers officially. His personality clashed immediately with fellow Avenger Jack of Hearts. However, in "The Avengers" vol. 3 #76, Jack helped save Cassie from a child-murderer, shortly before committing suicide by traveling into space with the murderer and exploding rather than return to the containment cells required to control his power.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: He also appeared in the series "Alias" by Brian Michael Bendis, where he dated the leading character Jessica Jones, a former costumed superhero named Jewel who left that avocation to become a private investigator.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: He assists her in a matter with Mattie Franklin, one of the many female heroes to take the Spider-Woman name. Assisting the duo is S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Clay Quartermain. Purple Man uses his powers to make it seem as if Scott had been consumed by ants.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: When Jack of Hearts reappears on the grounds of Avengers Mansion in a zombified state, Scott Lang rushes to Jack, only for Jack to blow himself up, destroying much of the mansion and seemingly killing Scott. This Jack may have been some type of "apparition" created by an insane Scarlet Witch rather than the actual Jack of Hearts, starting the crisis known as "Avengers Disassembled".


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: His daughter Cassie Lang subsequently takes the name Stature as a member of the Young Avengers, having apparently taken enough Pym particles over the years to enable Cassie to automatically grow and shrink in size whenever she wants.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: His Ant-Man helmet falls into Amadeus Cho's possession for a time with Cassie's blessing, choosing to focus on the insect mind-controlling abilities.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: During the events of the limited series "", Iron Lad takes the Young Avengers and an amnesiac Wanda Maximoff into the past, back to the day that the events of "Avengers Disassembled" began. Here, despite Iron Lad's assurance that they could not interact, Scott Lang is hugged by his daughter, and to take him away from the zombified Jack of Hearts who is revealed to be the real Jack of Hearts under the control of an insane Scarlet Witch. When Jack explodes, the Scarlet Witch regains her memories and returns them to the present, including Scott (thus his death is retconned as having never actually happened, as he was merely taken from his time and brought forward). Scott is proud that his daughter followed in his footsteps. However, a subsequent battle ensues (regarding the fate of the Scarlet Witch) involving the Avengers, Young Avengers, X-Men, Magneto, X-Factor and Doctor Doom. In the course of the fight, Scott is seemingly killed by Doom, although he actually survives relatively unscathed; enraged, Cassie attacks but Doom kills her, much to Scott's grief.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Afterwards, Scott joins the new Defenders team composed of Doctor Strange, Silver Surfer, Namor, Red She-Hulk, Iron Fist and Black Cat. Eventually, he became the second Future Foundation's leader replacing Reed Richards when the Fantastic Four went on a time travel trip. Still suffering from his daughter's death, he decided to aim all the Foundation's resources towards making Doctor Doom pay for his crime; in the meantime he engaged in a romantic relationship with Darla Deering, aka Ms. Thing. It is to Darla that Scott confessed that he killed a fellow in-mate while in prison.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: After a heated battle, Scott managed to exact his revenge on Doctor Doom by gradually overwhelming and defeating him, and by having him believe he had killed Valeria Richards. He also determined the true meaning of Pym Particles, and how they operate on three distinct axes determining size, strength and durability.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: During the "AXIS" storyline, a now-heroic and repentant Doctor Doom used Scarlet Witch's powers to resurrect Cassandra Lang, seeking to atone for at least one of his crimes; she turned out alive and well on Scott's doorstep.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Following this, Lang moved to Miami to start a new life as well as to spend more time with his daughter. Scott later established Ant-Man Security Solutions. When he was attacked by Grizzly, mistaking him for Eric O'Grady unaware of the latter's death, Scott had to clear up the misunderstanding. Afterwards, Scott offered Grizzly a job in the company. When Cassie was kidnapped by Crossfire on behalf of Augustine Cross to use Cassie's Pym-particle irradiated heart could revive the very first villain Scott had fought, Scott was forced to turn to Grizzly and his fellow supervillain Machinesmith to infiltrate Cross' plant to save his daughter. With Machinesmith disabling all the security Scott was able to get into Cross Technologies and fight his way to Darren Cross, whom Dr. Sondheim was blackmailed into reviving using Cassie's heart. Darren engaged in combat against Ant-Man while the hero tried to buy time for Sondheim to transplant another heart into Cassie. After Cross was forced to flee when the Pym Particles now in his body caused him to shrink down, Scott shrank down to microscopic size, and was guided by Sondheim to attack Cassie's white cells and allow her body accept the new heart's tissue. Even though the procedure was difficult, Scott was finally able to help Cassie survive the experience. When Peggy and Blake arrived, Sondheim told her that Cassie suffered an infraction and Scott took them to her. Although he saved his daughter, Scott decided to distance himself from her so that she could have a normal life.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Some months ago, Ant-Man helped Giant-Man into rescuing a computer technician named Raz Malhotra from Egghead. Months later after the incident where Hank Pym and Ultron were fused together with Pym seemingly perishing as a result of the fusion, Scott received one of Pym's labs. Recalling his encounter with Raz, Scott sent Raz a present in the form of the Giant-Man suit.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: During the "Last Days" part of the "Secret Wars" storyline, Ant-Man recovers an unnamed Asgardian artifact from Slug which he won from Mary Morgan in a game of contract bridge. Ant-Man delivers the goods to Mary Morgan where he learns that she is Miss Patriot. Mary Morgan revealed that Valhalla Villas is a retirement home for Golden Age heroes and villains where they live out their days in blissful remembrance. Mary Morgan then assembles the residents of Valhalla Villas like Golden Girl, Doctor Fear, Thunderer, Leopard Girl, Human Top, Sun Girl, American Ace, Flash Foster, and Wax Master. Using the Asgardian artifact, Mary Morgan rejuvenated the Valhalla Villa residents as Miami sees the unexpected resurgence of characters from the Golden Age. Mary decides to remain elderly since the past was too much to bear the first and only time. Scott then visits his ex-wife Peggy Rae in an attempt to see his daughter Cassandra Lang. Peggy puts Scott in his place due to him making no effort to visit her since she was in the hospital. Peggy also tells Scott that Cassandra is at a school excursion to Atlanta. While drinking at a nightclub, Ant-Man encounters Janice Lincoln and tries to take her down, only to get blasted. Janice states to Ant-Man that he should party like there is no tomorrow since it is the last night on Earth. Ant-Man takes in Janice's suggestions as they both hit the dance floor. He wakes up the next morning with Janice in his bed as the final parts of the Incursion occur.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: As part of the "All-New, All-Different Marvel," Ant-Man becomes a target of Whirlwind when Power Broker offers a demonstration of the Hench App to Darren Cross. When Cross was unable to pay $12,000,000.00 to Power Broker, Whirlwind received orders to not attack Ant-Man. Ant-Man later helped Darla Deering when she was attacked by the second Magician (the son of the original Magician) when he was hired by a publicist named Marlena Howard through the Hench App to pretend to have a grudge against her.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Scott Lang later reunited with Raz Malhotra and took him to confront Power Broker at his public promotion of the Hench App 2.0. They ended up coming into conflict with a female Blacklash who Power Broker hired to guard the event. Due to Raz's inexperience in crimefighting, Blacklash got away. Following the incident, Scott Lang gave Raz an offer come with him to Florida to be trained while looking over Hank Pym's lab there. Raz accepted the offer.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Scott later recruited Hijacker, Whirlwind, Beetle, Voice, and Magician to his Ant-Man Security Solutions. As a team, they fought Darren Cross, Crossfire and Augustine Cross to save Stinger, aka Cassie Lang. After that battle, the NYPD arrested Scott for his crimes. After a trial, he was released.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: During the "Secret Empire" storyline, Ant-Man joins the resistance group against HYDRA after they takeover the U.S. After seeing footage from Rick Jones, explaining Steve Rogers' conversion into HYDRA's supreme leader, Scott is among the heroes who join Hawkeye in the search for the Cosmic Cube fragments that were scattered around the world, so they could reform the Cube and restore Steve back to normal. After he smuggles Cassie out of the country, he offers Sam Wilson to join the resistance but Sam turns it down. Ant-Man then meets him at a bar, with a small group of heroes led by Hawkeye. Hawkeye and the Tony Stark A.I. manage to convince Sam to smuggle them out of the country so they can find the Cosmic Cube fragments. It is eventually revealed that HYDRA found and captured Cassie, forcing Scott to become a double agent in order to save her life. He confesses his treachery just as HYDRA's forces arrive and destroy the resistance's hideout. During the final battle, Scott shrinks Bucky Barnes down so that he can enter the Cosmic Cube and reawaken Kobik. This ultimately allows Kobik to bring back the original Steve Rogers, who defeats his HYDRA doppelganger.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: With his reputation tarnished due to his betrayal, Scott joins the Guardians of the Galaxy in order to get away from Earth for a while. During a later attempt to coordinate a return to Earth for Cassie's birthday with Nadia van Dyne's aid, things go quickly awry, and the two of them experience a series of bizarre adventures in the microverse before returning home. However, in the process the two of them became quantum-entangled with each other.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Trying to pick up the pieces of his lost life on Earth, Scott takes up residence in an ant-hill in Florida and begins offering his service for pay. On a mission, he ends up joining forces with Swarm against a new enemy called Macrothrax.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Using a gaseous form of "Pym particles" kept in a compartment in his belt, Ant-Man initially had the power to shrink himself (and other people and objects along with himself) to the size of an ant and return to normal. Over time, he has acquired the ability to change size at will. He can also shrink to sub-microscopic size, and thereby enter the countless "subatomic universes". He retains his normal strength in ant size.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: The cybernetic Ant-Man helmet allows rudimentary telepathic communication with insects, and is equipped with sound amplification equipment allowing normal-sized humans to hear its wearer. The helmet also has a retractable plexiglass face shield and a limited air supply.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Lang has advanced training and expertise in electronics, having earned an electronics technician certificate, plus additional advanced electronics training he received while in prison. At times, Lang even made his own modifications to the Ant-Man equipment, such as installing the Pym gas dispenser in his helmet rather than leaving it on his belt, or mounting an electric disruptor into his helmet for offensive purposes.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: In the MC2 universe, Lang appears in two distinct versions. The Lang of the main MC2 continuity has long retired from the Avengers and has acted as a mentor for Cassie, who has taken up the role of the family superhero. Also, the Thunder Guard, a group of Nazi Avengers from an alternate universe who fought A-Next, included a mentally highly unstable version of Scott called "Pincer" who had killed that universe's version of Cassie.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: The Ultimate Marvel version of the character is David "Dave" Scotty, one of the Giant-Men that was utilized on the Ultimates' Reserves. During a legion of vampires' attack, he was among those that guard the S.H.I.E.L.D. Triskelion. After vampires attack and bit him multiple times, Scotty turned into a vampire. In the ensuing battle, Dave gets killed by Peter, a fellow Giant-Man.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: The actual Ultimate version of Scott Lang is the second major version of Giant-Man. Dr. Lang appears as a member of the New Ultimates during a massive showdown between the Ultimates and the Avengers. Lang later helps both teams defeat Gregory Stark's forces in North Korea. His daughter Cassie later joins the Ultimates.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: In "What If Iron Man Lost the Armor Wars", Lang is captured while spying on Justin Hammer, and taken prisoner along with Cassie. When Hammer is later assassinated and his knowledge over the Iron Man armor claimed by A.I.M., Scott and Cassie are taken hostage by them as well, but are eventually freed by Stark clad in the Firepower armor.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: Paul Rudd portrays Scott Lang / Ant-Man in the live-action Marvel Cinematic Universe films "Ant-Man", "", "Ant-Man and the Wasp", and "". Additionally, he voices an alternate timeline version of the character in the Disney+ animated series "What If...?" episode "What If... Zombies?!" A third Ant-Man film, titled "", is in post-production.


title: Ant-Man (Scott Lang)

text: The MCU incarnation of Scott Lang / Ant-Man appears in the attraction at Hong Kong Disneyland, with Paul Rudd reprising his role from the films.


title: Toxicology

text: Toxicology is a scientific discipline, overlapping with biology, chemistry, pharmacology, and medicine, that involves the study of the adverse effects of chemical substances on living organisms and the practice of diagnosing and treating exposures to toxins and toxicants. The relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical toxicity include the dosage, duration of exposure (whether it is acute or chronic), route of exposure, species, age, sex, and environment. Toxicologists are experts on poisons and poisoning. There is a movement for evidence-based toxicology as part of the larger movement towards evidence-based practices. Toxicology is currently contributing to the field of cancer research, since some toxins can be used as drugs for killing tumor cells. One prime example of this is ribosome-inactivating proteins, tested in the treatment of leukemia.


title: Toxicology

text: The word "toxicology" () is a neoclassical compound from New Latin, first attested circa 1799, from the combining forms "toxico-" + "-logy", which in turn come from the Ancient Greek words τοξικός "toxikos", "poisonous", and λόγος "logos", "subject matter").


title: Toxicology

text: Dioscorides, a Greek physician in the court of the Roman emperor Nero, made the first attempt to classify plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect. A work attributed to the 10th century author Ibn Wahshiyya called the "Book on Poisons" describes various toxic substances and poisonous recipes that can be made using magic. A 14th century Kannada poetic work attributed to the Jain prince Mangarasa, "Khagendra Mani Darpana", describes several poisonous plants.


title: Toxicology

text: Theophrastus Phillipus Auroleus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493–1541) (also referred to as Paracelsus, from his belief that his studies were above or beyond the work of Celsus – a Roman physician from the first century) is considered "the father" of toxicology. He is credited with the classic toxicology maxim, ""Alle Dinge sind Gift und nichts ist ohne Gift; allein die Dosis macht, dass ein Ding kein Gift ist."" which translates as, "All things are poisonous and nothing is without poison; only the dose makes a thing not poisonous." This is often condensed to: "The dose makes the poison" or in Latin "Sola dosis facit venenum".


title: Toxicology

text: Mathieu Orfila is also considered the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal treatment in 1813 in his "Traité des poisons", also called "Toxicologie générale".


title: Toxicology

text: In 1850, Jean Stas became the first person to successfully isolate plant poisons from human tissue. This allowed him to identify the use of nicotine as a poison in the Bocarmé murder case, providing the evidence needed to convict the Belgian Count Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé of killing his brother-in-law.


title: Toxicology

text: The goal of toxicity assessment is to identify adverse effects of a substance. Adverse effects depend on two main factors: i) routes of exposure (oral, inhalation, or dermal) and ii) dose (duration and concentration of exposure). To explore dose, substances are tested in both acute and chronic models. Generally, different sets of experiments are conducted to determine whether a substance causes cancer and to examine other forms of toxicity.


title: Toxicology

text: The discipline of evidence-based toxicology strives to transparently, consistently, and objectively assess available scientific evidence in order to answer questions in toxicology, the study of the adverse effects of chemical, physical, or biological agents on living organisms and the environment, including the prevention and amelioration of such effects. Evidence-based toxicology has the potential to address concerns in the toxicological community about the limitations of current approaches to assessing the state of the science. These include concerns related to transparency in decision making, synthesis of different types of evidence, and the assessment of bias and credibility. Evidence-based toxicology has its roots in the larger movement towards evidence-based practices.


title: Toxicology

text: Toxicity experiments may be conducted "in vivo" (using the whole animal) or "in vitro" (testing on isolated cells or tissues), or "in silico" (in a computer simulation).


title: Toxicology

text: The classic experimental tool of toxicology is testing on non-human animals. Example of model organisms are "Galleria mellonella," which can replace small mammals, and Zebrafish, which allow for the study of toxicology in a lower order vertebrate in vivo. As of 2014, such animal testing provides information that is not available by other means about how substances function in a living organism. The use of non-human animals for toxicology testing is opposed by some organisations for reasons of animal welfare, and it has been restricted or banned under some circumstances in certain regions, such as the testing of cosmetics in the European Union.


title: Toxicology

text: While testing in animal models remains as a method of estimating human effects, there are both ethical and technical concerns with animal testing.


title: Toxicology

text: Since the late 1950s, the field of toxicology has sought to reduce or eliminate animal testing under the rubric of "Three Rs" – reduce the number of experiments with animals to the minimum necessary; refine experiments to cause less suffering, and replace "in vivo" experiments with other types, or use more simple forms of life when possible. The historical development of alternative testing methods in toxicology has been published by Balls.


title: Toxicology

text: Computer modeling is an example of alternative testing methods; using computer models of chemicals and proteins, structure-activity relationships can be determined, and chemical structures that are likely to bind to, and interfere with, proteins with essential functions, can be identified. This work requires expert knowledge in molecular modeling and statistics together with expert judgment in chemistry, biology and toxicology.


title: Toxicology

text: In 2007 the American NGO National Academy of Sciences published a report called "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy" which opened with a statement: "Change often involves a pivotal event that builds on previous history and opens the door to a new era. Pivotal events in science include the discovery of penicillin, the elucidation of the DNA double helix, and the development of computers. ... Toxicity testing is approaching such a scientific pivot point. It is poised to take advantage of the revolutions in biology and biotechnology. Advances in toxicogenomics, bioinformatics, systems biology, epigenetics, and computational toxicology could transform toxicity testing from a system based on whole-animal testing to one founded primarily on in vitro methods that evaluate changes in biologic processes using cells, cell lines, or cellular components, preferably of human origin." As of 2014 that vision was still unrealized.


title: Toxicology

text: The United States Environmental Protection Agency studied 1,065 chemical and drug substances in their ToxCast program (part of the CompTox Chemicals Dashboard) using "in silica" modelling and a human pluripotent stem cell-based assay to predict "in vivo" developmental intoxicants based on changes in cellular metabolism following chemical exposure. Major findings from the analysis of this ToxCast_STM dataset published in 2020 include: (1) 19% of 1065 chemicals yielded a prediction of developmental toxicity, (2) assay performance reached 79%–82% accuracy with high specificity (> 84%) but modest sensitivity (< 67%) when compared with "in vivo" animal models of human prenatal developmental toxicity, (3) sensitivity improved as more stringent weights of evidence requirements were applied to the animal studies, and (4) statistical analysis of the most potent chemical hits on specific biochemical targets in ToxCast revealed positive and negative associations with the STM response, providing insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of the targeted endpoint and its biological domain.


title: Toxicology

text: In some cases shifts away from animal studies have been mandated by law or regulation; the European Union (EU) prohibited use of animal testing for cosmetics in 2013.


title: Toxicology

text: Most chemicals display a classic dose response curve – at a low dose (below a threshold), no effect is observed. Some show a phenomenon known as sufficient challenge – a small exposure produces animals that "grow more rapidly, have better general appearance and coat quality, have fewer tumors, and live longer than the control animals".


title: Toxicology

text: A few chemicals have no well-defined safe level of exposure. These are treated with special care. Some chemicals are subject to bioaccumulation as they are stored in rather than being excreted from the body; these also receive special consideration.


title: Toxicology

text: Several measures are commonly used to describe toxic dosages according to the degree of effect on an organism or a population, and some are specifically defined by various laws or organizational usage. These include:


title: Toxicology

text: Medical toxicology is the discipline that requires physician status (MD or DO degree plus specialty education and experience).


title: Toxicology

text: Clinical toxicology is the discipline that can be practiced not only by physicians but also other health professionals with a master's degree in clinical toxicology: physician extenders (physician assistants, nurse practitioners), nurses, pharmacists, and allied health professionals.


title: Toxicology

text: Forensic toxicology is the discipline that makes use of toxicology and other disciplines such as analytical chemistry, pharmacology and clinical chemistry to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilized, but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results.


title: Toxicology

text: Computational toxicology is a discipline that develops mathematical and computer-based models to better understand and predict adverse health effects caused by chemicals, such as environmental pollutants and pharmaceuticals. Within the "Toxicology in the 21st Century" project, the best predictive models were identified to be Deep Neural Networks, Random Forest, and Support Vector Machines, which can reach the performance of in vitro experiments.


title: Toxicology

text: A toxicologist is a scientist or medical personnel who specializes in the study of symptoms, mechanisms, treatments and detection of venoms and toxins; especially the poisoning of people.


title: Toxicology

text: To work as a toxicologist one should obtain a degree in toxicology or a related degree like biology, chemistry, pharmacology or biochemistry. Bachelor's degree programs in toxicology cover the chemical makeup of toxins and their effects on biochemistry, physiology and ecology. After introductory life science courses are complete, students typically enroll in labs and apply toxicology principles to research and other studies. Advanced students delve into specific sectors, like the pharmaceutical industry or law enforcement, which apply methods of toxicology in their work. The Society of Toxicology (SOT) recommends that undergraduates in postsecondary schools that do not offer a bachelor's degree in toxicology consider attaining a degree in biology or chemistry. Additionally, the SOT advises aspiring toxicologists to take statistics and mathematics courses, as well as gain laboratory experience through lab courses, student research projects and internships.


title: Toxicology

text: Toxicologists perform many different duties including research in the academic, nonprofit and industrial fields, product safety evaluation, consulting, public service and legal regulation. In order to research and assess the effects of chemicals, toxicologists perform carefully designed studies and experiments. These experiments help identify the specific amount of a chemical that may cause harm and potential risks of being near or using products that contain certain chemicals. Research projects may range from assessing the effects of toxic pollutants on the environment to evaluating how the human immune system responds to chemical compounds within pharmaceutical drugs. While the basic duties of toxicologists are to determine the effects of chemicals on organisms and their surroundings, specific job duties may vary based on industry and employment. For example, forensic toxicologists may look for toxic substances in a crime scene, whereas aquatic toxicologists may analyze the toxicity level of water bodies.


title: Toxicology

text: The salary for jobs in toxicology is dependent on several factors, including level of schooling, specialization, experience. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) notes that jobs for biological scientists, which generally include toxicologists, were expected to increase by 21% between 2008 and 2018. The BLS notes that this increase could be due to research and development growth in biotechnology, as well as budget increases for basic and medical research in biological science.


title: 1977 Indian general election

text: General elections were held in India between 16 and 20 March 1977 to elect the members of the 6th Lok Sabha. The elections took place during the Emergency period, which expired on 21 March 1977, shortly before the final results were announced.


title: 1977 Indian general election

text: The election resulted in a heavy defeat for the Indian National Congress (INC), with the incumbent Prime Minister and INC party leader Indira Gandhi losing her seat in Rae Bareli. The call for restoration of democracy by revoking the Emergency is considered to be a major reason for the sweeping victory for the opposition Janata Alliance, whose leader Morarji Desai was sworn in as the fourth Prime Minister of India on 24 March. At 81, Desai became the oldest man to be elected Prime Minister of India.


title: 1977 Indian general election

text: This sixth general elections, which were conducted for 542 seats in single-member constituencies, represented 27 Indian states and union territories. These 542 constituencies remained same until 2004 Indian general elections for the 14th Lok Sabha.


title: 1977 Indian general election

text: The Emergency declared by the Indira Gandhi led Congress government was the core issue in the 1977 elections. Civil liberties were suspended during the national emergency from 25 June 1975 to 21 March 1977 and Prime Minister Indira Gandhi assumed vast powers.


title: 1977 Indian general election

text: Gandhi had become extremely unpopular for her decision and paid for it during the elections. On 18 January, Gandhi called for fresh elections and released some political prisoners. Many remained in prison until she was ousted from office and a new prime minister took over. On 20 January, four opposition parties, the Indian National Congress (Organisation), the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, the Bharatiya Lok Dal and the Praja Socialist Party, decided to fight the elections under a single banner called the Janata alliance. The alliance used the symbol allocated to Bhartiya Lok Dal as their symbol on the ballot papers.


title: 1977 Indian general election

text: The Janata Alliance reminded voters of the excesses and human rights violations during the Emergency, like compulsory sterilisation and imprisonment of political leaders. The Janata campaign said the elections would decide whether India would have "democracy or dictatorship." The Congress looked jittery. Agriculture and Irrigation Minister Babu Jagjivan Ram quit the party in the first week of February; other notable Congress stalwarts who crossed the floor with Jagjivan Ram before the election were Hemvati Nandan Bahuguna and Nandini Satpathy.


title: 1977 Indian general election

text: The elections in India's largest state Uttar Pradesh, historically a Congress stronghold, turned against Gandhi. Dhanagare says the structural reasons included the emergence of a strong and united opposition, disunity and weariness within the Congress, an effective opposition and the failure of Gandhi in controlling the mass media, which was under censorship during the Emergency. The structural factors allowed voters to express their grievances, notably their resentment of the emergency and its authoritarian and repressive policies. One grievance often mentioned was the 'Nasbandi' (vasectomy) campaign in rural areas. The middle class also emphasised on the curbing of freedom of speech throughout the country.


title: 1977 Indian general election

text: Meanwhile, Congress hit an all-time low in West Bengal, according to the Gangulys, because of poor discipline and factionalism among Congress activists as well as numerous defections that weakened the party. Opponents emphasised the issues of corruption within the Congress and appealed to a deep desire by the voters for fresh leadership. The Congress, however, did well in southern states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. The results were mixed in the western states of Maharashtra and Gujarat, although the Janata alliance won all the seats in Mumbai.


title: Batch file

text: A batch file is a script file in DOS, OS/2 and Microsoft Windows. It consists of a series of commands to be executed by the command-line interpreter, stored in a plain text file. A batch file may contain any command the interpreter accepts interactively and use constructs that enable conditional branching and looping within the batch file, such as codice_1, codice_2, and codice_3 labels. The term "batch" is from batch processing, meaning "non-interactive execution", though a batch file might not process a "batch" of multiple data.


title: Batch file

text: Similar to Job Control Language (JCL), DCL and other systems on mainframe and minicomputer systems, batch files were added to ease the work required for certain regular tasks by allowing the user to set up a script to automate them. When a batch file is run, the shell program (usually COMMAND.COM or cmd.exe) reads the file and executes its commands, normally line-by-line. Unix-like operating systems, such as Linux, have a similar, but more flexible, type of file called a shell script.


title: Batch file

text: The filename extension .bat is used in DOS and Windows. Windows NT and OS/2 also added .cmd. Batch files for other environments may have different extensions, e.g., .btm in 4DOS, 4OS2 and 4NT related shells.


title: Batch file

text: The detailed handling of batch files has changed significantly between versions. Some of the detail in this article applies to all batch files, while other details apply only to certain versions.


title: Batch file

text: In MS-DOS, a batch file can be started from the command-line interface by typing its name, followed by any required parameters and pressing the key. When DOS loads, the file AUTOEXEC.BAT, when present, is automatically executed, so any commands that need to be run to set up the DOS environment may be placed in this file. Computer users would have the AUTOEXEC.BAT file set up the system date and time, initialize the DOS environment, load any resident programs or device drivers, or initialize network connections and assignments.


title: Batch file

text: A .bat file name extension identifies a file containing commands that are executed by the command interpreter COMMAND.COM line by line, as if it were a list of commands entered manually, with some extra batch-file-specific commands for basic programming functionality, including a codice_3 command for changing flow of line execution.


title: Batch file

text: Microsoft Windows was introduced in 1985 as a graphical user interface-based (GUI) overlay on text-based operating systems and was designed to run on DOS. In order to start it, the codice_5 command was used, which could be added to the end of the AUTOEXEC.BAT file to allow automatic loading of Windows. In the earlier versions, one could run a .bat type file from Windows in the MS-DOS Prompt. Windows 3.1x and earlier, as well as Windows 9x invoked COMMAND.COM to run batch files.


title: Batch file

text: The IBM OS/2 operating system supported DOS-style batch files. It also included a version of REXX, a more advanced batch-file scripting language. IBM and Microsoft started developing this system, but during the construction of it broke up after a dispute; as a result of this, IBM referred to their DOS-like console shell without mention of Microsoft, naming it just DOS, although this seemingly made no difference with regard to the way batch files worked from COMMAND.COM.


title: Batch file

text: OS/2's batch file interpreter also supports an EXTPROC command. This passes the batch file to the program named on the EXTPROC file as a data file. The named program can be a script file; this is similar to the #! mechanism used by Unix-like operating systems.


title: Batch file

text: Unlike Windows 98 and earlier, the Windows NT family of operating systems does not depend on MS-DOS. Windows NT introduced an enhanced 32-bit command interpreter (cmd.exe) that could execute scripts with either the .CMD or .BAT extension. Cmd.exe added additional commands, and implemented existing ones in a slightly different way, so that the same batch file (with different extension) might work differently with cmd.exe and COMMAND.COM. In most cases, operation is identical if the few unsupported commands are not used. Cmd.exe's extensions to COMMAND.COM can be disabled for compatibility.


title: Batch file

text: Microsoft released a version of cmd.exe for Windows 9x and ME called WIN95CMD to allow users of older versions of Windows to use certain cmd.exe-style batch files.


title: Batch file

text: , cmd.exe is the normal command interpreter for batch files; the older COMMAND.COM can be run as well in 32-bit versions of Windows able to run 16-bit programs.


title: Batch file

text: COMMAND.COM and cmd.exe support special variables (codice_14, codice_15 through codice_16) in order to refer to the path and name of the batch job and the first nine calling parameters from within the batch job, see also SHIFT. Non-existent parameters are replaced by a zero-length string. They can be used similar to environment variables, but are not stored in the environment. Microsoft and IBM refer to these variables as "replacement parameters" or "replaceable parameters", whereas Digital Research, Novell and Caldera established the term "replacement variables" for them. JP Software calls them "batch file parameters".


title: Batch file

text: This example batch file displays codice_17, prompts and waits for the user to press a key, and then terminates. (Note: It does not matter if commands are lowercase or uppercase unless working with variables)


title: Batch file

text: To execute the file, it must be saved with the filename extension suffix .bat (or .cmd for Windows NT-type operating systems) in plain text format, typically created by using a text editor such as Microsoft Notepad or a word processor working in plain text mode.


title: Batch file

text: The interpreter executes each line in turn, starting with the first. The codice_18 symbol at the start of any line prevents the prompt from displaying that command as it is executed. The command codice_19 turns off the prompt permanently, or until it is turned on again. The combined codice_20 is often as here the first line of a batch file, preventing any commands from displaying, itself included. Then the next line is executed and the codice_21 command outputs codice_17. The next line is executed and the codice_23 command displays codice_24 and pauses the script's execution. After a key is pressed, the script terminates, as there are no more commands. In Windows, if the script is executed from an already running command prompt window, the window remains open at the prompt as in MS-DOS; otherwise, the window closes on termination.


title: Batch file

text: Variable expansions are substituted textually into the command, and thus variables which contain nothing simply disappear from the syntax, and variables which contain spaces turn into multiple tokens. This can lead to syntax errors or bugs.


title: Batch file

text: The usual way to prevent this problem is to surround variable expansions in quotes so that an empty variable expands into the valid expression codice_27 instead of the invalid codice_28. The text that is being compared to the variable must also be enclosed in quotes, because the quotes are not special delimiting syntax; these characters represent themselves.


title: Batch file

text: The delayed !VARIABLE! expansion available in Windows 2000 and later may be used to avoid these syntactical errors. In this case, null or multi-word variables do not fail syntactically because the value is expanded after the IF command is parsed:


title: Batch file

text: Another difference in Windows 2000 or higher is that an empty variable (undefined) is not substituted. As described in previous examples, previous batch interpreter behaviour would have resulted in an empty string. Example:


title: Batch file

text: Unlike Unix/POSIX processes, which receive their command-line arguments already split up by the shell into an array of strings, a Windows process receives the entire command-line as a single string, via the GetCommandLine API function. As a result, each Windows application can implement its own parser to split the entire command line into arguments. Many applications and command-line tools have evolved their own syntax for doing that, and so there is no single convention for quoting or escaping metacharacters on Windows command lines.


title: Batch file

text: Where a string contains quotation marks, and is to be inserted into another line of text that must also be enclosed in quotation marks, particular attention to the quoting mechanism is required:


title: Batch file

text: On Windows 2000 and later, the solution is to replace each occurrence of a quote character within a value by a series of three quote characters:


title: Batch file

text: Some characters, such as pipe (codice_30) characters, have special meaning to the command line. They cannot be printed as text using the command unless escaped using the caret ^ symbol:


title: Batch file

text: However, escaping does not work as expected when inserting the escaped character into an environment variable. The variable ends up containing a live pipe command when merely echoed. It is necessary to escape both the caret itself and the escaped character for the character display as text in the variable:


title: Batch file

text: The delayed expansion available with or with in Windows 2000 and later may be used to show special characters stored in environment variables because the variable value is expanded after the command was parsed:


title: Batch file

text: Until the TIMEOUT command was introduced with Windows Vista, there was no easy way to implement a timed pause, as the PAUSE command halts script activity indefinitely until any key is pressed.


title: Batch file

text: Many workarounds were possible, but generally only worked in some environments: The codice_31 command was not available in older DOS versions, codice_32 was only available if TCP/IP was installed, and so on. No solution was available from Microsoft, but a number of small utility programs, could be installed from other sources. A commercial example would be the 1988 Norton Utilities Batch Enhancer (BE) command, where codice_33 would wait for 1 second, or the free 94-byte WAIT.COM where codice_34 would wait for 5 seconds, then return control to the script. Most such programs are 16-bit .COM files, so are incompatible with 64-bit Windows.


title: Batch file

text: Normally, all printed text automatically has the control characters for carriage return (CR) and line feed (LF) appended to the end of each line.


title: Batch file

text: It does not matter if the two echo commands share the same command line; the CR/LF codes are inserted to break the output onto separate lines:


title: Batch file

text: A trick discovered with Windows 2000 and later is to use the special prompt for input to output text without CR/LF trailing the text. In this example, the CR/LF does not follow Message 1, but does follow Line 2 and Line 3:


title: Batch file

text: However, there is no way to inject this stripped CR/LF prompt output directly into an environment variable.


title: Batch file

text: It is not possible to have a command prompt that uses a UNC path as the current working directory; e.g. codice_35


title: Batch file

text: The command prompt requires the use of drive letters to assign a working directory, which makes running complex batch files stored on a server UNC share more difficult. While a batch file can be run from a UNC file path, the working directory default is codice_36.


title: Batch file

text: If not enabled by default, command extensions can be temporarily enabled using the switch for the command interpreter.


title: Batch file

text: So to run a batch file on a UNC share, assign a temporary drive letter to the UNC share, and use the UNC share as the working directory of the batch file, a Windows shortcut can be constructed that looks like this:


title: Batch file

text: This also solves a problem related to User Account Control (UAC) on Windows Vista and newer. When an administrator is logged on and UAC is enabled, and they try to run a batch file as administrator from a network drive letter, using the right-click file context menu, the operation will unexpectedly fail. This is because the elevated UAC privileged account context does not have network drive letter assignments, and it is not possible to assign drive letters for the elevated context via the Explorer shell or logon scripts. However, by creating a shortcut to the batch file using the above / construct, and using the shortcut to run the batch file as administrator, the temporary drive letter will be created and removed in the elevated account context, and the batch file will function correctly.


title: Batch file

text: The Dword registry value codice_37 at codice_38 allows the default directory to be UNC. codice_39 command will refuse to change but placing a UNC path in Default Directory in a shortcut to Cmd or by using the Start command. ( share is for administrators).


title: Batch file

text: Batch files use an OEM character set, as defined by the computer, e.g. Code page 437. The non-ASCII parts of these are incompatible with the Unicode or Windows character sets otherwise used in Windows so care needs to be taken. Non-English file names work only if entered through a DOS character set compatible editor. File names with characters outside this set do not work in batch files.


title: Batch file

text: To get a command prompt with Unicode instead of Code page 437 or similar, one can use the codice_40 command. In such a command prompt, a batch file with Unicode filenames will work. Also one can use codice_40 to directly execute commands with Unicode as character set. For example, codice_42 creates a file containing a directory listing with correct Windows characters, in the UTF-16LE encoding.


title: Batch file

text: As with any other programming language, batch files can be used maliciously. Simple trojans and fork bombs are easily created, and batch files can do a form of DNS poisoning by modifying the hosts file. Batch viruses are possible, and can also spread themselves via USB flash drives by using Windows' Autorun capability.


title: Batch file

text: The following command in a batch file will delete all the data in the current directory (folder) - without first asking for confirmation:


title: Batch file

text: These three commands are a simple fork bomb that will continually replicate itself to deplete available system resources, slowing down or crashing the system:


title: Batch file

text: The cmd.exe command processor that interprets .cmd files is supported in all 32- and 64-bit versions of Windows . COMMAND.EXE, which interprets .BAT files, was supported in all 16- and 32-bit versions up to at least Windows 10.


title: Batch file

text: There are other, later and more powerful, scripting languages available for Windows. However, these require the scripting language interpreter to be installed before they can be used:


title: Batch file

text: Script files run if the filename without extension is entered. There are rules of precedence governing interpretation of, say, codice_43 if codice_44, codice_45, codice_46, codice_47, etc. exist; by default codice_44 has highest priority. This default order may be modified in newer operating systems by the user-settable PATHEXT environment variable.


title: TvOS

text: tvOS (formerly known as Apple TV Software) is an operating system developed by Apple Inc. for the second generation and later Apple TV digital media player. It is based on the iOS operating system and has many similar frameworks, technologies, and concepts.


title: TvOS

text: The Apple TV software for the second and third generation Apple TV has several built-in applications, but does not support third-party applications.


title: TvOS

text: On September 9, 2015 at a media event, Apple announced the fourth generation Apple TV, with support for third-party applications. Apple changed the name of the Apple TV operating system to tvOS, adopting the camelcase nomenclature that they were using for their other operating systems, iOS and watchOS.


title: TvOS

text: On October 30, 2015, the fourth generation Apple TV became available, and shipped with tvOS 9.0. On November 9, 2015, tvOS 9.0.1 was released, primarily an update to address minor issues.


title: TvOS

text: tvOS 9.1 was released on December 8, 2015 along with OS X 10.11.2, iOS 9.2, and watchOS 2.1. Along with these updates, Apple also updated the Remote apps on iOS and watchOS, allowing for basic remote functionality for the fourth generation Apple TV (previously, said app only worked with past versions of Apple TV).


title: TvOS

text: On November 25, 2015, Facebook debuted their SDK for tvOS, allowing applications to log into Facebook, share to Facebook, and use Facebook Analytics in the same way that iOS applications can.


title: TvOS

text: On December 2, 2015, Twitter debuted their login authentication service for tvOS – "Digits" – allowing users to log into apps and services with a simple, unique code available online.


title: TvOS

text: On June 13, 2016, at WWDC 2016, Apple SVP of Internet Services Eddy Cue announced the next major version of tvOS, tvOS 10. tvOS 10 brought new functionality, such as Siri search enhancements, single sign on for cable subscriptions, a dark mode, and a new Remote application for controlling the Apple TV and was officially released on September 13, 2016, along with iOS 10.


title: TvOS

text: On June 4, 2018, at WWDC 2018, tvOS 12 was announced. tvOS 12 brought support for Dolby Atmos E-AC3 and was officially released on September 17, 2018, along with iOS 12.


title: TvOS

text: On April 13, 2020, it was discovered that Apple's Siri Smart Speaker HomePod began to run variants of the tvOS software.


title: TvOS

text: On June 22, 2020, at WWDC 2020, tvOS 14 was announced. tvOS 14 brought support for the Home app and 4K YouTube videos and was officially released on September 16, 2020, along with iOS 14 and iPadOS 14.


title: TvOS

text: On June 7, 2021, at WWDC 2021, tvOS 15 was announced. tvOS 15 brought new features and improvements, including SharePlay, a new "Shared with You" section on the TV app, and the ability to play content via voice command and was officially released on September 20, 2021, along with iOS 15 and iPadOS 15.


title: TvOS

text: On June 6, 2022, at WWDC 2022, tvOS 16 was announced. tvOS 16 brought support for Nintendo Switch's Joy-Con and Pro Controllers and additional Bluetooth and USB game controllers and was officially released on September 12, 2022, along with iOS 16.


title: TvOS

text: tvOS 9 shipped with several new features on the fourth generation Apple TV. One of the major features was the ability to move through the interface with the new touchpad remote using multi-touch gestures. It introduced a new App Store in which users can download and install new applications (such as apps and games) made available from developers that develop applications for the Apple TV and tvOS. tvOS 9 adds support for Siri, which lets users do a multitude of things such as a cross-application search for a movie/TV show, rewind, fast forward, name and actor/director of the current movie, and skip back 15 seconds. tvOS added support for an application switcher on the Apple TV, more application customization options, cinematic screensavers, and control the TV using the included Siri Remote with the built-in support for HDMI-CEC in tvOS. In addition, tvOS allows the user to control the Apple TV in many different ways. These include using the included Siri Remote, pairing a third-party universal remote, pairing an MFi Gamepad to control games, using the Remote app on iOS, and pairing a Bluetooth keyboard to aid in the typing experience of the user.


title: TvOS

text: tvOS was designed based on iOS, as such tvOS inherited many of the accessibility features of iOS and macOS.


title: TvOS

text: tvOS includes the Apple technologies of VoiceOver, Zoom, and Siri to help the blind and those with impaired vision. VoiceOver, Apple's screen reader, is available in more than 30 languages and enables visually impaired users to know what is on the visual display and input responses to on-screen prompts. VoiceOver uses gestures similar to other Apple products (flicks, taps, and the rotor).


title: TvOS

text: Like other Apple products such as the iPhone with a three click sequence to the home button to activate accessibility features, with Apple TV's tvOS, a user can activate VoiceOver without any installation process. One needs only to triple-click the Menu button on the Siri Remote and the Apple TV will guide the user through the complete initial setup, a task that is non-trivial to the visually impaired in most comparable products on the market.