title: Jack (playing card)

text: In some southern Italian decks, there are androgynous knaves that are sometimes referred to as maids. In the Sicilian Tarot deck, the knaves are unambiguously female and are also known as maids. As this deck also includes queens, it is the only traditional set to survive into modern times with two ranks of female face cards. This pack may have been influenced by the obsolete Portuguese deck which also had female knaves. The modern Mexican pattern also has female knaves.


title: Jack (playing card)

text: The figure of the jack has been used in many literary works throughout history. Among these is one by 17th-century English writer Samuel Rowlands. "The Four Knaves" is a series of Satirical Tracts, with Introduction and Notes by E. F. Rimbault, upon the subject of playing cards. His "The Knave of Clubbs: Tis Merry When Knaves Meet" was first published in 1600, then again in 1609 and 1611. In accordance with a promise at the end of this book, Rowlands went on with his series of Knaves, and in 1612 wrote "The Knave of Harts: Haile Fellowe, Well Meet", where his "Supplication to Card-Makers" appears, thought to have been written to the English manufacturers who copied to the English decks the court figures created by the French.


title: Jack (playing card)

text: The Knave of Hearts appears as a thieving antagonist in the traditional children's poem "The Queen of Hearts"


title: Jack (playing card)

text: The cards shown here are from a Paris pattern deck (where the rank is known as the "valet"), and include the historical and mythological names associated with them. The English pattern of jacks can be seen in the photo at the top of the article.


title: Jack (playing card)

text: The jack, traditionally the lowest face card, has often been promoted to a higher or the highest position in the traditional ranking of cards, where the ace or king generally occupied the first rank. This is seen in the earliest known European card games, such as Karnöffel, as well as in more recent ones such as Euchre. Games with such promotion include:


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The territorial evolution of Germany include all of changes on the territorial borders of Germany; first territorial concept for Germany is traced to Germania a word used by Roman general and statesman Julius Caesar during the Gallic Wars to refer territory east of the Rhine where ancient Rome didn't have it, but territorial concept of Germany as one polity only started with the fouding of East Francia after the division of Francia by the Treaty of Verdun in 843. Modern Germany was formed in 1871 when Kingdom of Prussia unified most of the German states, with the notable exception of Austria, into the German Empire. After the First World War, Germany lost about 10% of its territory to its neighbours and the Weimar Republic was formed. This republic included territories to the east of today's German borders.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The period of Nazi rule from the early 1930s through the end of the Second World War brought significant territorial losses for the country. Nazi Germany initially expanded the country's territory dramatically and conquered most of Europe, though not all areas were added to Germany officially. The Nazis' fortunes changed after the failure of the invasion of Soviet Union. The Nazi regime eventually collapsed, and the Allies occupied Germany.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The former eastern territories of Germany were ceded to Poland and the Soviet Union and the Oder and Neisse Rivers became Germany's new eastern boundary. This territory became Poland's so-called "Recovered Territories", while approximately one-third of East Prussia became the Russian Federation's Kaliningrad Oblast; virtually the entire German population in these areas was expelled or fled. In the west, the Saar area formed a French-controlled protectorate with limited autonomy, but its own citizenship laws, fact that it was separated from German interior by France as protectorate made Saarland's status unclear.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: With the onset of the Cold War, the western part of Germany was unified as the Trizone, becoming the Federal Republic of Germany in May 1949 ("West Germany"). Western-occupied West Berlin declared its accession to the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949 but was denied by the occupying powers. The Soviet zone, including the Soviet sector of Berlin, became the communist German Democratic Republic ("East Germany") in October the same year. Effective 1 January 1957 the Saar Protectorate declared its accession to the Federal Republic of Germany, as provided by its Grundgesetz (constitution) article no. 23 ("Little Reunification"). Following the end of the Cold War, East Germany, including East Berlin, and West Berlin used the same West German constitutional clause and declared their accession to the Federal Republic of Germany effective 3 October 1990 – an event referred to as German reunification.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Part of the motivation behind the territorial changes is based on historical events in Germany and Western Europe. Migrations that took place over more than a millennium led to pockets of Germans living throughout Central and Eastern Europe as far east as Russia. The existence of these enclaves was sometimes used by German nationalists, such as the Nazis, to justify territorial claims.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The territorial changes of Germany after World War II can be interpreted in the context of the evolution of global nationalism and European nationalism.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century saw the rise of nationalism in Europe. Previously, a country consisted largely of whatever peoples lived on the land that was under the dominion of a particular ruler. As principalities and kingdoms grew through conquest and marriage, a ruler could wind up with many different ethnicities under his dominion.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The concept of nationalism was based on the idea of a "people" who shared a common bond through race, religion, language and culture. Furthermore, nationalism asserted that each "people" had a right to its own state. Thus, much of European history in the latter half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century can be understood as efforts to realign national boundaries with this concept of "one people, one state". Many interior conflicts were a result of more or less pressurising citizens of alternative ethnicities and/or other native languages to assimilate to the ethnicity dominant in the state. Switzerland was the exception, lacking a common native language.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Much conflict would arise when one nation asserted territorial rights to land outside its borders on the basis of an ethnic bond with the people living on the land. Another source of conflict arose when a group of people who constituted a minority in one nation would seek to secede from the nation either to form an independent nation or join another nation with whom they felt stronger ties. Yet another source of conflict was the desire of some nations to expel people from territory within its borders because people did not share a common bond with the majority of people of that nation.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Following the capture of Silesia in 1742 by Frederick the Great during the Silesian Wars with the Habsburg monarchy, the territorial expansion of the Kingdom of Prussia continued with the annexation of lands belonging to the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. During the Partitions of Poland between 1772 and 1795, Prussia seized 141,400 km2 (54,600 sq mi) of the Commonwealth's western territory, including the regions of Greater Poland, Pomorze, Mazovia and the Duchy of Siewierz. Subsequently, renaming them as South Prussia, West Prussia, New East Prussia and New Silesia. After the annexation of the Polish territories, Frederick the Great immediately sent 57,475 German families to the newly conquered lands in order to solidify his new acquisitions, and abolished the use of the Polish language.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Following the Napoleonic wars and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire the North German Confederation, led by Prussia, was combined with the southern states of Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria and Hesse and the formerly French newly annexed Alsace-Lorraine to form the German Empire in 1871. In some areas of Prussia's eastern provinces, such as the Province of Posen, the majority of the population was Polish. Many Lorrainians were by native language French. Many Alsatians and Lorrainians of German language clung to France (see ), despite their native languages.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Britain ceded Heligoland to Germany in 1890 in accordance with the terms of the Heligoland–Zanzibar Treaty. The Heligolanders, then still prevailingly fluent in their Heligolandic dialect of North Frisian, adopted German citizenship, like many other Frisians of Germany along the North Sea coast.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: As part of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Russia's new Bolshevik (communist) government renounced all claims to Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus, and Ukraine.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Most of these territories were in effect ceded to the German Empire, intended to become economically dependent on and politically closely tied to that empire under different German kings and dukes.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Regarding the ceded territories, the treaty stated that "Germany and Austria-Hungary intend to determine the future fate of these territories in agreement with their population" with few other effects than the appointment of German rulers to the new thrones of Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The provisions of the Treaty of Versailles at the end of World War I obliged Germany to cede some territory to other countries. Besides the loss of the German colonial empire the territories Germany lost were:


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The Sudeten Germans had attempted to prevent the German language border areas of former Austria-Hungary from becoming part of Czechoslovakia in 1918. Once part of Bohemia, they had proclaimed the German-Austrian province of Sudetenland in October 1918, voting instead to join the newly declared Republic of German Austria in November 1918. However, this had been forbidden by the victorious allied powers of the First World War (the Treaty of Saint-Germain) and by the Czechoslovak government, partly with force of arms in 1919. Many Sudeten Germans rejected an affiliation to Czechoslovakia, since they had been refused the right to self-determination promised by US president Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points of January 1918.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The Silesian Uprisings () were a series of three armed uprisings (1919–1921) of Poles in the Upper Silesia region against Weimar Republic in order to separate the region (where in some parts Poles constituted a majority) from Germany and join it with the Second Polish Republic. Poles initiated five wars between 1919 and 1938 stealing more and more territory from: Russia, Lithuania, Russia, Austro Hungary and Czechoslovakia and embarked on campaign of ethnic cleansing against all who were not Polish killing hundreds of thousands.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: By World War I, there were isolated groups of Germans or so-called Schwaben as far southeast as the Bosphorus (Turkey), Georgia, and Azerbaijan. After the war, Germany's and Austria-Hungary's loss of territory and the rise of communism in the Soviet Union meant that more Germans than ever constituted sizable minorities in various countries.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: German nationalists used the existence of large German minorities in other countries as a basis for territorial claims. Many of the propaganda themes of the Nazi regime against Czechoslovakia and Poland claimed that the ethnic Germans ("Volksdeutsche") in those territories were persecuted.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The Nazis negotiated a number of population transfers with Joseph Stalin and others with Benito Mussolini so that both Germany and the other country would increase their ethnic homogeneity. However, these population transfers were not sufficient to appease the demands of the Nazis. The "Heim ins Reich" rhetoric of the Nazis over the continued disjoint status of enclaves such as Danzig and East Prussia was an agitating factor in the politics leading up to World War II, and is considered by many to be among the major causes of Nazi aggressiveness and thus the war. Adolf Hitler used these issues as a pretext for waging wars of aggression against Czechoslovakia and Poland.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: On 7 March 1936, Hitler sent a small expeditionary force into the demilitarized Rhineland. This was a clear violation of the Treaty of Versailles (1919, official end of World War I), and as such, France and Britain were within their rights, via the Treaty, to oust the German forces. British public opinion blocked any use of military force, thus preventing French action, as they were internally divided and would not act without British support.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: In 1933, a considerable number of anti-Nazi Germans fled to the Saar, as it was the only part of Germany left outside the Third Reich's control. As a result, anti-Nazi groups campaigned heavily for the Saarland to remain under control of League of Nations as long as Adolf Hitler ruled Germany. However, long-held sentiments against France remained entrenched, with very few sympathizing openly with France. When the 15-year-term was over, a plebiscite was held in the territory on 13 January 1935: 90.3% of those voting wished to join Germany.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: On 17 January 1935, the territory's re-union with Germany was approved by the League Council. On 1 March, Nazi Germany took over the region and appointed Josef Bürckel as "Reichskommissar für die Rückgliederung des Saarlandes", "Realm Commissioner for the re-union of Saarland".


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: As the new Gau was extended to the Rhine, including the historic Palatinate, the region's name was changed again on 8 April 1940 to Gau Saarpfalz (Saar-Palatinate). After the Battle of France, the French département of Moselle was incorporated in the Reichsgau.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The Allies were, on paper, committed to upholding the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which specifically prohibited the union of Austria and Germany. This notwithstanding, the Anschluss was among the first major steps in the Austrian-born Adolf Hitler's long-desired creation of an empire including German-speaking lands and territories Germany had lost after World War I.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The events of 12 March 1938, marked the culmination of historical cross-national pressures to unify the German populations of Austria and Germany under one nation. However, the 1938 Anschluss, regardless of its popularity, was enacted by Germany. Earlier, Hitler's Germany had provided support for the Austrian National Socialist Party (Austrian Nazi Party) in its bid to seize power from Austria's Austrofascist leadership. Fully devoted to remaining independent but amidst growing pressures, the chancellor of Austria, Kurt Schuschnigg, tried to hold a plebiscite.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Although Schuschnigg expected Austria to vote in favour of maintaining autonomy, a well-planned coup d'état by the Austrian Nazi Party of Austria's state institutions in Vienna took place on 11 March, prior to the vote. With power quickly transferred over to Germany, the Wehrmacht troops entered Austria to enforce the Anschluss. The Nazis held a plebiscite within the following month, where they received 99.73% of the vote. No fighting ever took place and the strongest voices against the annexation, particularly Fascist Italy, France and the United Kingdom (parties to the Stresa Front), were powerless or, in the case of Italy, appeased.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: On 29 September 1938, Adolf Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Benito Mussolini and Édouard Daladier signed the Munich Agreement. The Czechoslovak government capitulated on September 30 and reluctantly agreed to abide by the agreement. The settlement gave Germany the Sudetenland starting October 10, and de facto control over the rest of Czechoslovakia as long as Hitler promised to go no further.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Hitler and Chamberlain signed an additional resolution determining to resolve all future disputes between Germany and the United Kingdom through peaceful means. This is often confused with the Four-Power Munich Agreement itself, not least because most photographs of Chamberlain's return show him waving the paper containing the resolution, not the Munich Agreement itself.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Without fortification which was built in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia was now defenseless. On 5 October, Edvard Beneš resigned as President of Czechoslovakia, realising that the fall of Czechoslovakia was "fait accompli". Following the outbreak of World War II, he would form a Czechoslovak government-in-exile in London.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: On 13 March 1939, Nazi armies entered Prague and proceeded to occupy the remainder of Bohemia and Moravia, which was transformed into a protectorate of the Reich. The eastern half of the country, Slovakia, became a separate pro-Nazi state, the Slovak Republic.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Prime Minister Chamberlain felt betrayed by the Nazi seizure of Czechoslovakia, realising his policy of appeasement towards Hitler had failed, and immediately began to mobilize the British Empire's armed forces on a war footing. France did the same. Though no immediate action followed, Hitler's move on Poland in September started World War II in Europe.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: By late 1938, Lithuania had lost control over the situation in the Memel Territory. In the early hours of 23 March 1939, after a political ultimatum had made a Lithuanian delegation travel to Berlin, the Lithuanian Minister of Foreign Affairs Juozas Urbšys and his German counterpart Joachim von Ribbentrop signed the "Treaty of the Cession of the Memel Territory to Germany" in exchange for a Lithuanian Free Zone in the port of Memel, using the facilities erected in previous years.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: After invading Poland in 1939, Germany annexed the lands it was forced to give to a reformed Poland in 1919–1922 by the Treaty of Versailles, including the "Polish Corridor", West Prussia, the Province of Posen, and East Upper Silesia. The Volkstag of the Free City of Danzig voted to become a part of Germany again, although Poles and Jews were deprived of their voting rights and all non-Nazi political parties were banned. Parts of Poland that had not been part of Wilhelmine Germany were also incorporated into the Reich.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Two decrees by Adolf Hitler (8 October and 12 October 1939) provided for the division of the annexed areas of Poland into the following administrative units:


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: These territories had an area of and a population of 10,000,000 people. The remainder of the Polish territory was annexed by the Soviet Union (c. 52%; see Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact) or made into the German-controlled General Government occupation zone.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: After the German attack on the Soviet Union in June 1941, the Białystok Voivodeship, which included the Białystok, Bielsk Podlaski, Grajewo, Łomża, Sokółka, Volkovysk, and Grodno Counties, was "attached to" (not incorporated into) East Prussia, while East Galicia was added to the General Government.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: After the invasion of France in 1940, Germany annexed the départements of Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin and Moselle (Alsace-Lorraine). The German government never negotiated or declared a formal annexation, however, in order to preserve the possibility of an agreement with the West.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Luxembourg was invaded and occupied by German Forces in June 1940. It was formally annexed to Germany in August 1942.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: From: History of Slovenia "After Yugoslavia fell, Germany, Italy, and Hungary each annexed parts of Slovenia, the largest part being Lower Styria which was annexed to the "Ostmark" (Nazi German Austria)."


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: All areas that were incorporated into Nazi Germany between 1937 and 8 May 1945 were "de facto" repudiated at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences, and were therefore non-issues in the post-war division of Nazi Germany. One exception was Memelland, the incorporation of which at the end of March 1939 was recognised by the UK and France, but not by the US.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: As it became evident that the Allies were going to defeat Nazi Germany decisively, the question arose as to how to redraw the borders of Central and Eastern European countries after the war. In the context of those decisions, the problem arose of what to do about ethnic minorities within the redrawn borders. The territorial changes at the end of World War II were part of negotiated agreements between the victorious Allies to redraw national borders and arrange for deportation of all Germans that were east of the Oder–Neisse line. The Allies occupied Germany, but the Western allies and Soviet Union formed separate governments covering specific parts of Germany. On 7 October 1949, the two German countries appeared with the establishment of the German Democratic Republic; however the two German countries were unified to form present-day Germany on 3 October 1990.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The final decision to move Poland's boundary westward was made by the US, Britain and the Soviets at the Yalta Conference, shortly before the end of the war. The precise location of the border was left open; the western Allies also accepted in general the principle of the Oder River as the future western border of Poland and of population transfer as the way to prevent future border disputes. The open question was whether the border should follow the eastern or western Neisse rivers, and whether Stettin, the traditional seaport of Berlin, should remain German or be included in Poland.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Originally, Germany was to retain Stettin while the Poles were to annex East Prussia with Königsberg. . Eventually, however, Stalin decided that he wanted Königsberg as a year-round warm water port for the Soviet Navy and argued that the Poles should receive Stettin instead. The wartime Polish government in exile had little to say in these decisions.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: At the Potsdam Conference the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union placed the German territories within the 1937 Nazi Germany borders east of the Oder–Neisse line, and with the exception of parts of East Prussia, as formally under Polish administrative control (These were referred to by the Polish communist government as the "Western Territories" or "Regained Territories"). It was anticipated that a final peace treaty would follow shortly and either confirm this border or determine whatever alterations might be agreed upon. Northern East Prussia and Memelland were placed under Soviet administrative control. The 1919 Versailles Treaty created Free City of Danzig was also placed under Polish administration. The German population east of the Oder–Neisse line was forcibly expelled.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The problem with the status of these territories was that the concluding document of the Potsdam Conference in 1945 was not a legally binding treaty, but a memorandum between the USSR, the US and the UK. It regulated the issue of the eastern German border, which was to be the Oder–Neisse line, but the final article of the memorandum said that the final decisions concerning Germany were to be subject to a separate peace treaty.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The SED, the German party in East Germany, initially opposed this but was later forced to sign a treaty recognizing a new border with Poland under pressure from the Soviet Union in 1950.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Based upon the interpretation of the Potsdam Agreement, the CDU controlled German government maintained that the Oder–Neisse line was completely unacceptable and subject to negotiation. Also the Social Democrats of the SPD initially refused to accept the Oder–Neisse line. Thus, the official German government position on the status of areas vacated by settled German communities east of the Oder–Neisse rivers was that the areas were "temporarily under Polish (or [Soviet]) administration."


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Between 1970 and 1990, the West German political establishment gradually recognised the "facts on the ground" and accepted clauses in the Treaty on the Final Settlement, whereby Germany renounced all claims to territory east of the Oder–Neisse line.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: In the Treaty of Warsaw (1970; ratified in 1972) West Germany recognized the Oder–Neisse line as Poland's western border and renounced any present and future territorial claims; this was reaffirmed by both German states in the 1990 Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany as a pre-condition for re-union. The treaty was ratified in 1991 by the united Germany. United Germany and Poland then finally settled the issue of the Oder–Neisse border by the German–Polish Border Treaty in November 1990. This ended the legal limbo which meant that for 45 years, people on both sides of the border could not be sure whether the status quo reached in 1945 might be changed at some future date.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The "Working Party on Provisional Adjustments to the Western Frontiers of Germany" approved in 1949 the provisional transfer of containing 500 inhabitants to Belgium:


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: As part of the 1956 treaty, in exchange for the territory ceded by Germany, Belgium ceded to Germany its territory north of the Fringshaus roads and bounded by the Vennbahn. The detached territory, in 1956 containing 704 inhabitants including refugees, was, prior to its 1956 dissolution and partition between West Germany and Belgium, ruled as an independent territory by Belgian Army Major General Paul Bolle, who enjoyed dictatorial powers.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Despite the more extensive annexation proposals of the Bakker-Schut Plan, only a few border modifications were implemented. On 23 April 1949, Dutch troops occupied an area of , the largest parts of which were Elten (near Emmerich am Rhein) and Selfkant. Many other small border changes were executed, mostly in the vicinity of Arnhem and Dinxperlo. At that time, these areas were inhabited by a total of almost 10,000 people.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Starting in March 1957, West Germany negotiated with the Netherlands for the return of these areas. The negotiations led to an agreement (; short: Ausgleichsvertrag, i.e. treaty of settlement) made in The Hague on 8 April 1960, in which Germany agreed to pay DEM 280 million for the return of Elten, Selfkant, and Suderwick, as "Wiedergutmachung".


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: The territory was returned to Germany on 1 August 1963, except for one small hill (about ) near Wyler village, called Duivelsberg/Wylerberg which was annexed by the Netherlands.


title: Territorial evolution of Germany

text: Starting on 16 February 1946 France disentangled the Saar area and established the separate Saar Protectorate, further attaching parts of the Prussian Rhine Province and the Bavarian Palatinate (Saarpfalz). Like the former eastern territories of Germany the Saar area was out of the jurisdiction of the Allied Control Council for Germany and thus not a part of Allied-occupied Germany. However, unlike the eastern territories, the domestic Saar population was not expelled by the controlling French; moreover, it is not fully incorporated into France nor is it a country. With the effect of 1 January 1957, the Saar Protectorate declared its accession to the Federal Republic of Germany, as provided by its Grundgesetz (constitution) art. 23 (Little Reunification), thus becoming the new federal state of Saarland.


title: Marian Shields Robinson

text: Marian Lois Robinson (née Shields; born July 29, 1937) is the mother of Michelle Obama, former First Lady of the United States, and Craig Robinson, a basketball executive. She is also the mother-in-law of 44th U.S. President Barack Obama.


title: Marian Shields Robinson

text: Marian Shields was born in Chicago in 1937, the fourth of seven children—five girls, followed by two boys—born to Purnell Nathaniel Shields, a house painter and carpenter, and his wife Rebecca Jumper, a licensed practical nurse. Both parents had multi-racial ancestry. Her mother's grandfather, Dolphus T. Shields (c. 1860–1950), was a direct descendant of slavery, with his mother enslaved and his white father the heir of the slaver; he had moved from rural Georgia to Birmingham, Alabama, where he established his own carpentry and tool sharpening business. His descendants would eventually move to Chicago during the Great Migration.


title: Marian Shields Robinson

text: Shields married Fraser Robinson III on October 27, 1960, in Chicago. They had two children together, Craig Malcolm and Michelle LaVaughn, named after Fraser's mother. She worked as a secretary for mail-order retailer Spiegel, the University of Chicago, and a bank. In the late 60's, Shields lived with her family in a rented second floor apartment of a brick bungalow the South Side of Chicago that belonged to her aunt Robbie and her husband Terry. This is where she raised her two children, Michelle and Craig, and continued to live until she eventually moved to the White House with the Obamas. Michelle Obama, in her book "Becoming", describes her mother's strong attachment to her Chicago home and her commitment to raising her children as a stay at home mother. Shields resumed work as an executive assistant at a bank when her daughter Michelle started high school.


title: Marian Shields Robinson

text: Obama describes her mother as forthright and honest, and speaks of her implacability and her silent support for Obama throughout her childhood and beyond. Shields used to take her daughter Michelle to the library long before she started school and used to sit beside her as she learned to read and write. Usually the kind of mother who expected her children to settle their own disputes, Shields was quick to see real distress and stepped in to help when needed. For example, when Michelle was in second grade and was distressed because of being devalued by a teacher, Shields advocated for her and was instrumental in getting her daughter better learning opportunities at school. Shields encouraged her children to communicate with her about all subjects by being available when needed and giving practical advice. She entertained Michelle's school friends when they visited and enabled her to make her own choices in important matters.


title: Marian Shields Robinson

text: While Michelle and Barack Obama campaigned for his candidacy as president in 2008, Robinson helped them by providing support to her granddaughters, Malia and Sasha Obama. During Barack Obama's presidency, Robinson was living at the White House with the First Family.


title: Go West (band)

text: Go West are an English pop duo, formed in 1982 by lead vocalist Peter Cox and rhythm guitarist and backing vocalist Richard Drummie. At the 1986 Brit Awards, they received the Brit Award for British Breakthrough Act. The duo enjoyed popularity between the mid-1980s and the early 1990s and are best known for the international top 10 hits "We Close Our Eyes", "Call Me", "Faithful", and "King of Wishful Thinking"; the last was featured in the 1990 film "Pretty Woman".


title: Go West (band)

text: In 1982, Cox and Drummie formed the band Go West, with Cox as lead singer and Drummie on guitar and backing vocals. Go West had a publishing deal and possessed a portastudio, but lacked a band or recording company. Cox and Drummie decided, with support from John Glover, their manager, to find a musical producer, and record just two of their songs. The tracks "We Close Our Eyes" and "Call Me" found Go West landing a recording contract with Chrysalis Records.


title: Go West (band)

text: Go West's debut single, "We Close Our Eyes", was released in 1985 and reached No. 5 on the UK Singles Chart, No. 5 on the US Dance Club Play chart and No. 41 on the "Billboard" Hot 100. The video for the song, directed by Godley & Creme, was innovative and unusual for its time, becoming an early favourite on MTV. "We Close Our Eyes" would prove to be the band's highest-placed UK single, and their only appearance in the UK Singles Chart's top ten.


title: Go West (band)

text: The duo's eponymous debut album was released in 1985. It included "We Close Our Eyes" and "Call Me" as well as "Don't Look Down", which served as the prequel to what would be their first top 40 hit in the US. The album peaked at no. 8 in the United Kingdom. "Bangs and Crashes", an album of remixes, B-sides and live tracks, was released in 1986, and included the track "One Way Street" which was part of the "Rocky IV" soundtrack. Go West were voted "Best Newcomer" at the 1986 Brit Awards.


title: Go West (band)

text: In 1987, Go West released the proper follow-up to their debut album, "Dancing on the Couch", which made the UK top 20. Although several singles were released, the album was not as commercially successful as their first, particularly in the United States. However, it yielded the band's first American top 40 hit single: "Don't Look Down – The Sequel".


title: Go West (band)

text: In 1990, Go West had a no. 8 hit in the U.S. with "King of Wishful Thinking" from the film "Pretty Woman". Written by Cox and Drummie in collaboration with Martin Page, the song received an ASCAP award.


title: Go West (band)

text: In 1992, the duo released the "Indian Summer" album, which included "Faithful". Written by the band and Martin Page and produced by Peter Wolf, the song reached the top 20 in the UK, Canada and the United States.


title: Go West (band)

text: Cox and Drummie appeared on "Jim'll Fix It: Strikes Again" in 2007, to re-create a popular 'fix-it' from 1986; in the original show, a fifteen-year-old girl had sung "We Close Our Eyes" with Go West as a backup singer.


title: Go West (band)

text: In November 2015, a compilation album called "80's Re:Covered" featured two Go West covers of The Killers' "Human", including a remix, while a recording of a 2003 concert recorded at the Robin 2 in Bilston was released as "Live Robin 2 – 2003" CD/DVD in 2016. The concert was previously released as the live DVD "Kings of Wishful Thinking – Live" in 2004.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The , abbreviated as Tosho () or TSE/TYO, is a stock exchange located in Tokyo, Japan. It is the third largest stock exchange in the world by aggregate market capitalization of its listed companies, and the largest in Asia. It had 2,292 listed companies with a combined market capitalization of US$5.67 trillion as of February 2019.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The exchange is owned by the Japan Exchange Group (JPX), a holding company that it also lists (). JPX was formed from its merger with the Osaka Exchange; the merger process began in July 2012, when said merger was approved by the Japan Fair Trade Commission. JPX itself was launched on January 1, 2013.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The TSE is incorporated as a "kabushiki gaisha" (joint-stock company) with nine directors, four auditors and eight executive officers. Its headquarters are located at 2-1 Nihonbashi-Kabutochō, Chūō, Tokyo which is the largest financial district in Japan.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The main indices tracking the stock market of TSE are the Nikkei 225 index of companies selected by the "Nihon Keizai Shimbun" (Japan's largest business newspaper), the TOPIX index based on the share prices of Prime companies, and the J30 index of large industrial companies maintained by Japan's major broadsheet newspapers. There are also active bond market and futures market.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: Ninety-four domestic and 10 foreign securities companies participate in TSE trading. "See: Members of the Tokyo Stock Exchange"


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The exchange's press club, called the , meets on the third floor of the TSE building. Most Kabuto Club members are affiliated with the Nihon Keizai Shimbun, Kyodo News, Jiji Press, or business television broadcasters such as Bloomberg LP and CNBC. The Kabuto Club is generally busiest during April and May, when public companies release their annual accounts.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The exchange's normal trading sessions are from 9:00 a.m. to 11:30 a.m. and from 12:30 p.m. to 3:00 p.m. on all days of the week except Saturdays, Sundays and holidays declared by the Exchange in advance. The exchange is closed for the following holidays: New Year's Day, Coming of Age Day, National Foundation Day, Vernal Equinox Day, Shōwa Day, Constitution Memorial Day, Greenery Day, Children's Day, Marine Day, Respect for the Aged Day, Autumnal Equinox, Health and Sports Day, Culture Day, Labour Thanksgiving Day, and The Emperor's Birthday.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: Until April 4, 2022, corporate shares are listed and traded at Tokyo Stock Exchange in five market sections: the First Section which started when Tokyo Stock Exchange was re-established in 1949 and includes mainly large companies; the Second Section which started in 1961 and includes mainly mid-sized companies; JASDAQ (established in 1991, acquired by Osaka Stock Exchange in 2010, and absorbed into TSE in 2013) and Mothers (Market of the high-growth and emerging stocks, established at TSE in 1999) which are both for emerging companies; and TOKYO PRO Market which was established in 2009 jointly with London Stock Exchange as an Alternative Investment Market (Tokyo AIM) for small companies.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: Beginning April 4, 2022, the market divisions were restructured into the Prime, Standard and Growth market divisions, differentiated by market liquidity, corporate governance, and other criteria. Companies voluntarily selected their new division between September and December 2021, and the results were published on January 11, 2022. From the First Section, 1841 companies were transitioned into the Prime market and 344 companies were transitioned into the Standard market. All 474 companies in the Second Section were also transitioned into the Standard market. From JASDAQ, all 658 companies in its Standard subsection were transitioned into the Standard market and all 36 companies in the Growth subsection were transitioned into the Growth market, along with all 424 companies in the Mothers section.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The Tokyo Stock Exchange was established on May 15, 1878, as the under the direction of then-Finance Minister Ōkuma Shigenobu and capitalist advocate Shibusawa Eiichi. Trading began on June 1, 1878.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: In 1943, the exchange was combined with eleven other stock exchanges in major Japanese cities to form a single . The combined exchange was shut down on August 1, days before the bombing of Hiroshima.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The Tokyo Stock Exchange reopened under its current Japanese name on May 16, 1949, pursuant to the new Securities Exchange Act.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The TSE runup from 1983 to 1990 was unprecedented, in 1990 it accounted for over 60% of the world's stock market capitalization (by far the world's largest) before falling precipitously in value and rank one of the 4th largest exchange in the world by market capitalization of listed shares.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The current TSE building was opened on May 23, 1988, replacing the original TSE building from 1931, and the trading floor of the TSE was closed on April 30, 1999, so that the exchange could switch to electronic trading for all transactions. A new facility, called , opened on May 9, 2000. In 2010, the TSE launched its Arrowhead trading facility.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: In 2001, the TSE restructured itself as a kabushiki gaisha ("stock company"): before this time, it was structured as an with its members as shareholders.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The London Stock Exchange (LSE) and the TSE are developing jointly traded products and share technology, marking the latest cross-border deal among bourses as international competition heats up.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: In July 2008, the LSE and the TSE announced a new joint venture Tokyo-based market, which will be based on the LSE's Alternative Investment Market (AIM).


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: The exchange was only able to operate for 90 minutes on November 1, 2005, due to bugs with a newly installed transactions system, developed by Fujitsu, which was supposed to help cope with higher trading volumes. The interruption in trading was the worst in the history of the exchange until October 1, 2020. Trading was suspended for four-and-a-half hours.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: During the initial public offering of advertising giant Dentsu, in December 2001, a trader at UBS Warburg, the Swiss investment bank, sent an order to sell 610,000 shares in this company at ¥1 each, while he intended to sell 1 share at ¥610,000. The bank lost £71 million.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: During yet another initial public offering, that of J-Com, on December 8, 2005, an employee at Mizuho Securities Co., Ltd. mistakenly typed an order to sell 600,000 shares at ¥1 each, instead of an order to sell 1 share at ¥600,000. Mizuho failed to catch the error; the Tokyo Stock Exchange initially blocked attempts to cancel the order, resulting in a net loss of US$347 million to be shared between the exchange and Mizuho. Both companies are now trying to deal with their troubles: lack of error checking, lack of safeguards, lack of reliability, lack of transparency, lack of testing, loss of confidence, and loss of profits. On 11 December, the TSE acknowledged that its system was at fault in the Mizuho trade. On 21 December, Takuo Tsurushima, chief executive of the TSE, and two other senior executives resigned over the Mizuho affair.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: On January 17, 2006, the Nikkei 225 fell 2.8%, its fastest drop in nine months, as investors sold stocks across the board in the wake of a raid by prosecutors on internet company livedoor. The Tokyo Stock Exchange closed early on January 18 due to the trade volume threatening to exceed the exchange's computer system's capacity of 4.5 million trades per day. This was called the "livedoor shock". The exchange quickly increased its order capacity to five million trades a day.


title: Tokyo Stock Exchange

text: On October 1, 2020, for the first time in its history, the Tokyo Stock Exchange had to suspend trading in all shares for a whole day due to a technical glitch, causing buying and selling to freeze. This was announced just minutes before 9 a.m., when it was scheduled to open. The problem was found to be in "the system for relaying market information", hence making the glitch a network problem, but the "Asahi Shimbun" reported that the glitch was due to a mechanical failure. Japan Exchange Group Inc., which operates the Tokyo Stock Exchange, said that the suspension would be indefinite until the problem was resolved. Other stock markets in Japan also suspended trading. Normal trading was resumed the following day.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: The Dornier Do 335 "Pfeil" ("Arrow") was a heavy fighter built by Dornier for Germany during World War II. The two-seater trainer version was called "Ameisenbär" ("anteater"). The "Pfeil"s performance was predicted to be better than other twin-engine designs due to its unique push-pull configuration and the lower aerodynamic drag of the in-line alignment of the two engines. It was Nazi Germany's fastest piston-engined aircraft of World War II. The "Luftwaffe" was desperate to get the design into operational use, but delays in engine deliveries meant that only a handful were delivered before the war ended.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: The origins of the Do 335 trace back to World War I when Claude Dornier designed a number of flying boats featuring remotely driven propellers and later, due to problems with the drive shafts, tandem engines. Tandem engines were used on most of the multi-engine Dornier flying boats that followed, including the highly successful Do J "Wal" and the gigantic Do X. The remote propeller drive, intended to eliminate parasitic drag from the engine entirely, was tried in the innovative but unsuccessful Do 14, and elongated, tubular drive shafts as later used in the Do 335 saw use in the rear engines of the four-engined, twinned tandem-layout Do 26 flying boat.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: There are many advantages to this design over the more traditional system of placing one engine on each wing, the most important being power from two engines with the frontal area (and thus drag) of a single-engine design, allowing for higher performance. It also keeps the weight of the twin powerplants near, or on, the aircraft centerline, increasing the roll rate compared to a traditional twin. In addition, a single engine failure does not lead to asymmetric thrust, and in normal flight there is no net torque, so the plane is easy to handle. The four-surface set of cruciform tail surfaces in the Do 335's rear fuselage design included a ventral vertical fin–rudder assembly that projected downwards from the extreme rear of the fuselage, to protect the rear propeller from an accidental ground strike on takeoff. The presence of the rear pusher propeller also mandated the provision for an ejection seat for safe escape from a damaged aircraft, and designing the rear propeller and dorsal fin mounts to use explosive bolts to jettison them before an ejection was attempted – as well as twin canopy jettison levers, one per side located to either side of the forward cockpit interior just below the sills of the five-panel windscreen's sides, to jettison the canopy from atop the cockpit before ejection.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: In 1939, Dornier was busy working on the P.59 high-speed bomber project, which featured the tandem engine layout. In 1940, he commissioned a test aircraft, closely modeled on the airframe of the early versions of the Dornier Do 17 bomber but only 40% of the size of the larger bomber, with no aerodynamic bodies of any sort on the wing panels (the original Do 17 had twin engine nacelles on its wings) and fitted with a retractable tricycle landing gear to validate his concept for turning the rear pusher propeller with an engine located far away from it, through the use of a long tubular driveshaft. This aircraft, the Göppingen Gö 9, showed no unforeseen difficulties with this arrangement, but work on the P.59 was stopped in early 1940 when Hermann Göring ordered the cancellation of all projects that would not be completed within a year or so.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: In May 1942, Dornier submitted an updated version with a bombload as the P.231, in response to a requirement for a single seat, "Schnellbomber"-like high-speed bomber/intruder. The P.231 proposal was selected as the winner after beating rival designs from Arado, Junkers, and Blohm & Voss. A development contract was awarded, by the RLM issuing the Dornier firm the airframe approval number "8-335", for what would become known as the Do 335. In autumn 1942, Dornier was told that the Do 335 was no longer required, and instead a multi-role fighter based on the same general layout would be accepted. This delayed the prototype delivery as it was modified for the new role.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: The use of a nose-mount annular radiator for the forward engine (much like a Jumo 211-powered Ju 88, or Jumo 213-powered Focke-Wulf Fw 190D-9) and a ventral-fuselage mount airscooped radiator installation for cooling the rear engine made the aircraft look distinctive. When fitted with DB 603A engines delivering it had a pair of the largest inverted V12 aircraft engines mass-produced during the Third Reich's existence. The Do 335 V1 first prototype, bearing the "Stammkennzeichen" (factory radio code) of CP+UA, flew on 26 October 1943 under the control of "Flugkapitän" Hans Dieterle, a regular Heinkel test pilot and later primary Dornier test pilot. However, several problems during the initial flight of the Do 335 would continue to plague the aircraft through most of its short history. Issues were found with the weak landing gear and with the main gear's wheel well doors, resulting in them being removed for the remainder of the V1's test flights. The Do 335 V1 made 27 flights, flown by three different pilots. During these test flights the second prototype, V2 ("Werk Nr" 230002) CP+UB, was completed and made its first flight on 31 December 1943, again under the control of Dieterle. New to the V2 were upgraded DB 603A-2 engines, and several refinements learned from the test flights of the V1 as well as further windtunnel testing. On 20 January 1944, the Do 335 V3 ("W.Nr." 230004), CP+UC was completed and flown for its first time by Werner Altrogge. The V3 was powered by the new pre-production DB 603G-0 engines which could produce at take-off and featured a slightly redesigned canopy which included twin rear-view mirrors in blisters, one in each of two matching side panels of the well-framed, eleven-panel main canopy's openable section. Following the flights of the V3, in mid January 1944, RLM ordered five more prototypes (V21–V25), to be built as night fighters. By this time, more than 60 hours of flight time had been put on the Do 335 and reports showed it to be a good handling, but more importantly, very fast aircraft, described by "Generalfeldmarschall" Erhard Milch himself as "...holding its own in speed and altitude with the P-38 and it does not suffer from engine reliability issues". The Do 335 was scheduled to begin mass construction, with the initial order of 120 preproduction aircraft to be manufactured by "Dornier-Werke Friedrichshafen" (DWF) to be completed no later than March 1946. This number included a number of bombers, destroyers (heavy fighters), and several yet to be developed variants. At the same time, "Dornier-Werke München" (DWM) was scheduled to build over 2,000 Do 335s in various models, due for delivery in March 1946 as well.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: On 23 May 1944, Hitler, as part of the developing "Jägernotprogramm" (Emergency Fighter Program) directive, which took effect on 3 July, ordered maximum priority to be given to Do 335 production. The main production line was intended to be at Manzell, but a bombing raid in March destroyed the tooling and forced Dornier to set up a new line at Oberpfaffenhofen. The decision was made, along with the rapid shut-down of many other military aircraft development programs, to cancel the Heinkel He 219 night fighter, which also used the DB 603 engines (in well-unitized installations), and use its production facilities for the Do 335 as well. However, Ernst Heinkel managed to delay, and eventually ignore, its implementation, continuing to produce examples of the He 219A.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: At least 16 prototype Do 335s were known to have flown (V1–V12, W.Nr 230001-230012 and "Muster"-series prototypes M13–M17, W.Nr 230013-230017) on a number of DB603 engine subtypes including the DB 603A, A-2, G-0, E and E-1. The first preproduction Do 335 (A-0s) starting with W.Nr 240101, "Stammkennzeichen" VG+PG, were delivered in July 1944. Approximately 22 preproduction aircraft were thought to have been completed and flown before the end of the war, including approximately 11 A-0s converted to A-11s for training purposes. One such aircraft was transferred to the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough, and later, after a rear-engine fire burnt through the elevator controls during a flight, crashed onto a local school.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: The first 10 Do 335 A-0s were delivered for testing in May. By late 1944, the Do 335 A-1 was on the production line. It was similar to the A-0 but with the uprated DB 603E-1 engines of some take-off power rating apiece on 87 octane "B4" lignite-derived synthetic fuel, and two underwing hardpoints for additional bombs, drop tanks or guns. It had a maximum speed of at with MW 50 boost, or without boost, and climbed to in under 15 minutes. Even with one engine out, it reached about .


title: Dornier Do 335

text: Delivery commenced in January 1945. When the United States Army overran the Oberpfaffenhofen factory in late April 1945, only 11 Do 335 A-1 single-seat fighter-bombers and two Do 335 A-12 trainers had been completed.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: French ace Pierre Clostermann claimed the first Allied combat encounter with a "Pfeil" in April 1945. He describes leading a flight of four Hawker Tempests from No. 3 Squadron RAF over northern Germany when they came across an unknown aircraft whose description matched the Do 335's, flying at maximum speed at treetop level. Detecting the British aircraft, the German pilot reversed course to evade. Two pilots fired on the Dornier but Clostermann, despite the Tempests' considerable low altitude speed, decided not to attempt to chase it as it was obviously much faster.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: In 1944, Junkers helped Dornier with work on the Do 335 Zwilling or Dornier Do 635. A meeting was arranged between Junkers and Heinkel engineers, and after the meeting, they began work on the project, named 1075 01-21. The designer, Professor Heinrich Hertel, planned a test flight in late 1945. At the end of 1944, the Germans reviewed aircraft designs with the Japanese military. Among other projects, the Do 635 impressed the Japanese military with its capabilities and design. This design consisted of two Do 335 fuselages, joined by a common centre wing section, with two Rb 50 cameras in the port fuselage for aerial photography. Armament was confined to provision for five photo-flash bombs. The mainwheels were common with Ju 352 wheels. It was also intended that two monopropellant Walter "Starthilfe" RATOG units would be fitted. In early 1945, a wind-tunnel model was tested, and a cockpit mockup was constructed, but the project was cancelled in February 1945, due to the desperate war situation.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: The P 256 was to meet a "Luftwaffe" requirement issued 27 February 1945. It was designed to carry a crew of three (pilot, radar operator, and navigator), with pilot and radar operator together under the canopy, while the navigator was in the fuselage, an idea copied from Arado. Departing from centerline thrust, it was to have two Heinkel HeS 011 engines of each, podded under the wings in the fashion of the Me 262. The low-mounted wing was unswept, and had an aspect ratio of 5.8:1. Designed armament was four MK 108 cannon in the nose. A field conversion kit was to retrofit two MK 108s in a "Schräge Musik" configuration. A fighter-bomber variant would have carried two bombs. Its loaded weight would have included of fuel, giving a wing loading of . Maximum speed was achieved at , maximum range at . Endurance with fuel was calculated as 2.6 hours. Its electronics would have included FuG 24SE with ZVG 24, FuG 29, FuG 25a or c, and FuG 244 "Bremen" with "Gnome" weapon triggers. Criticized for having poor cross-sectional area and unduly large tail surfaces, it was not adopted.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: Only one Do 335 survives, the second preproduction Do 335 A-0, designated A-02, with construction number ("Werknummer") 240 102, and factory radio code registration, or "Stammkennzeichen", of VG+PH. The aircraft was assembled at the Dornier plant in Oberpfaffenhofen, Bavaria on 16 April 1945. It was captured by Allied forces at the plant on 22 April 1945. VG+PH was one of two Do 335s to be shipped to the United States aboard the Royal Navy escort carrier , along with other captured German aircraft, to be used for testing and evaluation under a USAAF program called "Operation Lusty". One Do 335 (registration FE-1012) went to the USAAF and was tested in early 1946 at Freeman Field, Indiana, USA. Its fate is not recorded.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: VG+PH went to the Navy for evaluation and was sent to the Test and Evaluation Center, Patuxent River Naval Air Station, Maryland, USA. Following testing from 1945 to 1948, the aircraft languished in outside storage at Naval Air Station Norfolk. In 1961, it was donated to the Smithsonian's National Air Museum, though it remained in deteriorating condition at Norfolk for several more years before being moved to the National Air and Space Museum's storage facility in Suitland, Maryland. In October 1974, VG+PH was returned to the Dornier plant in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany (then building the Alpha Jet) for a complete restoration. In 1975, the aircraft was restored by Dornier employees, many of whom had worked on the airplane originally. They were surprised that the explosive charges built into the aircraft to blow off the dorsal fin and rear propeller prior to pilot ejection were still installed and active 30 years later.


title: Dornier Do 335

text: Following restoration the completed Do 335 was displayed at the Hannover, Germany Airshow from 1 May to 9 May 1976. After the air show, the aircraft was loaned to the Deutsches Museum in Munich, where it was on display until 1988, when it was shipped back to Silver Hill, Maryland. VG+PH can be seen today in the Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum alongside other unique late-war German aircraft that also accompanied the Do 335 aboard the Royal Navy escort carrier for shipment to the United States nearly eight decades earlier, such as the only known example of the Arado Ar 234 B-2 "Blitz" jet reconnaissance-bomber, and the fully restored fuselage and tail surfaces of the only complete surviving Heinkel He 219A "Uhu" (Eagle-Owl) night fighter (the wings and engines/nacelles are still undergoing restoration).


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: Shōgun is a 1980 American historical drama television miniseries based on James Clavell's 1975 novel of the same name. The series was produced by Paramount Television and first broadcast in the United States on NBC over five nights between September 15 and September 19, 1980. It was written by Eric Bercovici and directed by Jerry London, and stars Richard Chamberlain, Toshiro Mifune, and Yoko Shimada, with a large supporting cast. Clavell served as executive producer. , it is the only American television production to be filmed on-location entirely in Japan, with additional soundstage filming also taking place in Japan at the Toho studio.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: The miniseries is loosely based on the adventures of English navigator William Adams, who journeyed to Japan in 1600 and rose to high rank in the service of the shōgun. It follows fictional Englishman John Blackthorne's (Chamberlain) transforming experiences and political intrigues in feudal Japan in the early 17th century.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: "Shōgun" received generally positive reviews from critics and won several accolades, including the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Limited Series, the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Drama, and a 1981 Peabody Award. A remake series is set to be broadcast by FX in 2022.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: After his Dutch trading ship "Erasmus" and its surviving crew is blown ashore by a violent storm at Anjiro on the east coast of Japan, Pilot-Major John Blackthorne, the ship's English navigator, is taken prisoner by samurai warriors. When he is later temporarily released, he must relinquish his English identity, associated with other Europeans in Japan, namely Portuguese traders and Jesuit priests, and adapt to the alien Japanese culture in order to survive. Being an Englishman, Blackthorne is at both religious and political odds with his enemy, the Portuguese, and the Catholic Church's Jesuit order. The Catholic foothold in Japan puts Blackthorne, a Protestant and therefore a heretic, at a political disadvantage. This same situation, however, also brings him under the scrutiny of the influential Lord Toranaga, who mistrusts this foreign religion now spreading throughout Japan. He is competing with other samurai warlords of similar high-born rank, among them Catholic converts, for the very powerful position of shōgun, the military governor of Japan.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: Through an interpreter, Blackthorne later reveals certain surprising details about the Portuguese traders and their Jesuit overlords which forces Toranaga to trust him; they forge a tenuous alliance, much to the chagrin of the Jesuits. To help the Englishman learn their language and to assimilate to Japanese culture, Toranaga assigns a teacher and interpreter to him, the beautiful Lady Mariko, a Catholic convert and one of Toranaga's most trusted retainers. Blackthorne soon becomes infatuated with her, but Mariko is already married, and their budding romance is ultimately doomed by future circumstances. Blackthorn also ends up saving the life of a Portuguese counterpart, Pilot Vasco Rodrigues, who becomes his friend despite being on opposite sides.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: Blackthorne saves Toranaga's life by audaciously helping him escape from Osaka Castle and the clutches of his longtime enemy, Lord Ishido. To reward the Englishman, and to forever bind him, Toranaga makes Blackthorne "hatamoto", a personal retainer, and gifts him with a European flintlock pistol. Later, Blackthorne again saves Toranaga's life during an earthquake by pulling him from a fissure that opened and swallowed the warlord, nearly killing him. Having proved his worth and loyalty to the warlord, during a night ceremony held before a host of his assembled vassals and samurai, Lord Toranaga makes Blackthorne a samurai; he awards him the two swords, 20 kimono, 200 of his own samurai, and an income-producing fief, the fishing village Anjiro where Blackthorne was first blown ashore with his ship and crew. Blackthorne's repaired ship "Erasmus", under guard by Toranaga's samurai and anchored near Kyoto, is lost to a fire, which quickly spread when the ships' night lamps are knocked over by a storm tidal surge. During a later attack on Osaka Castle by the secretive Amida Tong (ninja assassins), secretly paid for by Lord Ishido, Mariko is killed while saving Blackthorne's life, who is temporarily blinded by the black powder explosion that kills his lover. Lord Yabu is forced to commit seppuku for his involvement with the ninja attack, into which he was coerced by Ishido. Right before he dies, Yabu gives Blackthorne his katana, and Yabu's nephew, Omi, becomes the daimyō of Izu.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: Blackthorne supervises the construction of a new ship, "The Lady", using funds Mariko left to him in her will for this very purpose. Blackthorne is observed at a distance by Lord Toranaga; in a voice-over he reveals his inner thoughts, observing that Blackthorne still has much to teach him. It was Toranaga who ordered the "Erasmus" destroyed by fire to keep Blackthorne safe from his Portuguese enemies, who feared his hostile actions with the ship (and, if need be, the warlord will also destroy the new ship Blackthorne is currently building). He also discloses Mariko's secret but vital role in the grand deception of his enemies, and, as a result, how she was destined to die, helping to assure his coming final victory. The warlord knows that Blackthorne's karma brought him to Japan and that the Englishman, now his trusted retainer and samurai, is destined never to leave. Toranaga also knows it is his karma to become shōgun.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: In a voice-over epilogue, it is revealed that Toranaga and his army are triumphant at the Battle of Sekigahara; he captures and then disgraces his old rival, Lord Ishido, burying him up to his neck to die. The narrator concludes that when the Emperor of Japan offered Toranaga the position of shōgun, he "reluctantly agreed".


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: Only three of the Japanese actors spoke English in the entire production: Shimada, Obayashi, and Okada. At the time of filming, Shimada knew very little English, and heavily relied on her dialogue coach to deliver her lines phonetically. The English words that she could not pronounce were substituted or overdubbed in post-production.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: Clavell and NBC wanted Sean Connery to play Blackthorne, but Connery reportedly laughed at the idea of working for months in Japan, as he had disliked filming "You Only Live Twice" there. According to the documentary "The Making of Shōgun", other actors considered for the role included Roger Moore and Albert Finney.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: Clavell said he was originally opposed to Richard Chamberlain's casting, wanting Albert Finney. However he was extremely happy with Chamberlain's performance: "He's marvelous", said Clavell.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: "Shōgun" was produced after the success of the television miniseries "Roots" (1977) that had aired on the ABC Network in 1977. The success of "Roots", as well as "Jesus of Nazareth" (1977), resulted in many other miniseries during the 1980s. "Shōgun", which first aired in 1980, also became a highly rated program and continued the wave of miniseries over the next few years (such as "North and South" and "The Thorn Birds") as networks clamored to capitalize on the format's success.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: NBC had the highest weekly Nielsen ratings in its history with "Shōgun". Its 26.3 average rating was the second highest in television history after ABC's with "Roots". An average of 32.9% of all television households watched at least part of the series. The miniseries' success was credited with causing the mass-market paperback edition of Clavell's novel to become the best-selling paperback in the United States, with 2.1 million copies in print during 1980, and increased awareness of Japanese culture in America. In the documentary "The Making of 'Shōgun"' it is stated that the rise of Japanese food establishments in the United States (particularly sushi houses) is attributed to "Shōgun". It was also noted that during the week of broadcast, many restaurants and movie houses saw a decrease in business. The documentary states many stayed home to watch "Shōgun"—unprecedented for a television broadcast. (The home VCR was not yet ubiquitous and still expensive in 1980.)


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: The Japanese characters speak in Japanese throughout, except when translating for Blackthorne; the original broadcast did not use subtitles for the Japanese dialog. As the movie was presented from Blackthorne's point of view, the producers felt that "what he doesn't understand, we [shouldn't] understand".


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: The miniseries was reported to have been negatively received in Japan, where it was broadcast in 1981 on TV Asahi, as the series' fictionalization of events in the 16th century seemed frivolous and trivial. Many Japanese viewers were already accustomed to historical drama series such as NHK's annual taiga dramas, which were considered more faithful towards the history they are depicting than the miniseries.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: In Japan, "Shōgun" was cut to a 159-minute version and released theatrically on November 9, 1980. Stuart Galbraith IV described this version of the film as "fatally cut to ribbons". It was later restored to its full length for a home video release in Japan.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: A heavily truncated 125-minute edit of the miniseries was released in 1980 to European theatrical film markets. This was also the first version of "Shōgun" to be released to the North American home video market (a release of the full miniseries did not occur until later). The theatrical version contains additional violence and nudity that had been removed from the NBC broadcast version.


title: Shōgun (1980 miniseries)

text: CBS Home Entertainment's Blu-ray release of "Shōgun" on three discs was on July 22, 2014, and featured a 1080p remastered video presentation, a DTS-HD Master Audio 5.1 surround sound mix, and a restored Dolby Digital mono track; the special features are exactly the same as on the original 2003 DVD release.


title: Coyote Peterson

text: Nathaniel "Coyote" Peterson (born September 1, 1981) is an American YouTuber, wildlife educator, and host of Animal Planet's series "Coyote Peterson: Brave the Wild". He is best known for his YouTube channel Brave Wilderness, which focuses on documenting and educating about animals. Peterson has also become known for videos in which he allows himself to be stung by bugs and animals, such as the bullet ant and the executioner wasp.


title: Coyote Peterson

text: He hosts several others of his YouTube channel series including "Breaking Trail", "Beyond the Tide", "Dragon Tails", "Base Camp", "Blue Wilderness", "On Location" and "Coyote's Backyard". These series span many tropical and temperate locations, including much of the United States, Australia, Brazil, New Zealand, South Africa, Japan, the Bahamas, and Costa Rica.


title: Coyote Peterson

text: His team includes cameramen Mark Vins and Mario Aldecoa, trained wildlife experts who occasionally present episodes themselves.


title: Coyote Peterson

text: Nathaniel Peterson was born on September 2, 1981. He grew up in rural Newbury, Ohio, about 20 miles east of Cleveland. At a very young age, Coyote took an interest in animals, which was inspired by his mother. He loved exploring the outdoors and catching different animals.


title: Coyote Peterson

text: As he grew older, he attended Notre Dame-Cathedral Latin High School, a college-prep school. He then studied film at Ohio State University, where he graduated in 2004. Though a self-described animal expert, he is not formally educated in any biological science and does not have any animal training and as such has warned viewers not to imitate his methods of handling. Peterson has a daughter Olivia who is often featured in his videos.


title: Coyote Peterson

text: Peterson began posting videos on his YouTube channel, Brave Wilderness, in 2014. On the channel, he hosts several series including: "Breaking Trail", which won a 2015 Emmy Award for youth/teen programs, "Dragon Tails", "Coyote's Backyard", "Beyond the Tide", and "On Location". Peterson made his first "bug attack" video unintentionally in 2016. In 2018, Peterson made a video in which he let an Asian giant hornet sting him. He started his dangerous experiments because of the enthusiastic response of his audience. In 2019, Peterson's channel set Guinness World Records for the most-subscribed YouTube channel dedicated to animals and for the most-viewed animal channel. In 2020, Peterson said that he was probably done making "sting and bite" videos. Peterson was featured on "Conan", along with Jeff Goldblum, where he brought many animals. In May 2021, Peterson and his teammate Mark Vins participated in a video call with president Joe Biden and Anthony Fauci to promote COVID-19 vaccinations.


title: Coyote Peterson

text: Recently, Coyote has received criticism for a video where he allegedly found a mythological Bigfoot skull in the woods, with many long-time viewers considering the video ""clickbait"" and being heavily disappointed in Coyote because of it; scientists have proven that the skull present in the video was a fake. His Youtube show "Coyote Peterson's Wild Field Trip" was nominated for Outstanding Host at the Children's and Family Emmy Awards.


title: Coyote Peterson

text: On November 16, 2018 it was announced that the Brave Wilderness crew would be creating a TV program on Animal Planet titled "Coyote Peterson: Brave the Wild". A contract-signing episode was posted on their YouTube channel. The television special "Coyote Peterson: Return to the Wilderness" debuted on February 3, 2019. The series "Coyote Peterson: Brave the Wild" premiered on Animal Planet on February 9, 2020.


title: Squarespace

text: Squarespace, Inc. is an American website building and hosting company which is based in New York City, USA. It provides software as a service for website building and hosting, and allows users to use pre-built website templates and drag-and-drop elements to create and modify webpages.


title: Squarespace

text: In 2004, Anthony Casalena founded Squarespace as a blog hosting service while attending the University of Maryland, College Park. He was its only employee until 2006 when it reached $1 million in revenue. The company grew from 30 employees in 2010 to 550 by 2015. By 2014, it raised a total of $78.5 million in venture capital; added e-commerce tools, domain name services, and analytics; and replaced its coding backend with drag-and-drop features. It began trading on the New York Stock Exchange on May 19, 2021. According to W3Techs, Squarespace is used by 1.9% of the top 10 million websites.


title: Squarespace

text: Casalena began developing Squarespace for his personal use while attending the University of Maryland. He started sharing it with friends and family members and participated in a "business incubator" program at the university. In January 2004, he launched Squarespace as do it yourself/drag and drop website builder for the public, with a $30,000 seed fund from his father, a small grant from the university, and 300 beta testers who paid a discounted rate. At that time, Casalena was the company's sole developer and employee, and worked out of his dorm room.


title: Squarespace

text: By the time Casalena graduated in 2007, Squarespace was making annual revenues of $1 million. He moved to New York City, began hiring, and had 30 employees by 2010. That year, Squarespace received $38.5 million in its first round of venture capital funding led by Index Ventures and Accel Partners, enabling it to hire more staff, continue to develop its software, and double its marketing budget. From 2009 to 2012, it grew an average of 266% in yearly revenue. In April 2014, it received another $40 million in funding. By 2015, it had reached $100 million in revenue and 550 employees.


title: Squarespace

text: Squarespace purchased Super Bowl advertising spots in 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017 and 2018. Its 2017 ad won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Commercial. In 2017, it signed a sponsorship deal with the New York Knicks to add the Squarespace logo to their uniforms.


title: Squarespace

text: After the Unite the Right rally in 2017, Squarespace received a petition with 58,000 signatures and removed a group of websites for violating its terms of service against "bigotry or hatred" towards demographic groups. In 2017, it raised an additional $200 million in funding, boosting its value to $1.7 billion. This funding was earmarked for reacquiring interests from investors.


title: Squarespace

text: In 2018, Squarespace partnered with the Madison Square Garden Company to launch the "Make It Awards", which awarded $30,000 to entrepreneurs (4 winners, totaling $120,000).


title: Squarespace

text: Squarespace acquired appointment scheduling company Acuity Scheduling in April 2019, followed by the acquisition of Unfold, an app allowing users to editorialize their social media content, in October 2019. In April 2021, the company bought hospitality industry management platform Tock for more than $400 million.


title: Squarespace

text: In early 2021, the company filed paperwork with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to go public through direct listing on the NYSE under the symbol "SQSP". In March 2021, Squarespace raised $300 million in a round of funding led by Dragoneer, Tiger Global, D1 Capital Partners and Fidelity Management & Research Company with participation from existing investors. This funding round valued the company at $10 billion.


title: Squarespace

text: As of December 2020, Squarespace had more than three million subscriptions. Its users employ pre-built website templates, and a variety of drag and drop widgets to add elements such as text and images. Its developers also create custom templates that are sold to users. On-screen instructions walk users through things like search engine optimization and setting up e-commerce. Its services are in direct competition with WordPress.com, Wix.com, Webflow.com and other digital website building agencies.


title: Squarespace

text: Squarespace was initially built for creating and hosting blogs. E-commerce features, such as an integration with Stripe for accepting credit card payments, were added in 2013. In 2014, more commerce features were added; a mobile version of the service was released; a separate facility was added for developers writing custom templates and features; and a logo-creation app was introduced in partnership with icon designer Noun Project.


title: Squarespace

text: In 2011, Squarespace was upgraded to version 6, with new templates, a grid-based user interface, and other enhancements. Version 7, which went live in 2014, replaced its coding backend with a drag and drop interface, and added integration with Google Workspace (formerly G Suite and Google Apps for Work) and Getty Images. In 2016, Squarespace started selling domains, putting it in more direct competition with GoDaddy; and added an analytics dashboard and PayPal integration.


title: Female gaze

text: The female gaze is a feminist theory term referring to the gaze of the female spectator, character or director of an artistic work, but more than the gender it is an issue of representing women as subjects having agency. As such all genders can create films with a female gaze. It is a response to feminist film theorist Laura Mulvey's term "the male gaze", which represents not only the gaze of a heterosexual male viewer but also the gaze of the male character and the male creator of the film. In that sense it is close, though different, from the Matrixial gaze coined in 1985 by Bracha L. Ettinger. In contemporary usage, the "female gaze" has been used to refer to the perspective a female filmmaker (screenwriter/director/producer) brings to a film that might be different from a male view of the subject.


title: Female gaze

text: Mulvey discussed aspects of voyeurism and fetishism in the male gaze in her article, "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema". She drew from Alfred Hitchcock's 1954 film, "Rear Window", applying terms from Sigmund Freud's theories of psychoanalysis to discuss camera angle, narrative choice, and props in the movie while focusing on the concept of the male gaze. From what Jeffries, the protagonist in "Rear Window", looks at through his camera to the camera angles in his discussion with his girlfriend, the male gaze is accentuated by each move in Mulvey's article. Mulvey's article focused on the concept of "scopophilia", or a pleasure in gazing and placed women as spectacles to be objectified and viewed, unable to return a gaze. She ultimately rejects most depictions of women in film as inadequate representations of human beings.


title: Female gaze

text: The female gaze looks at three viewpoints: the individual filming, the characters within the film, and the spectator. These three viewpoints also are part of Mulvey's male gaze but focuses, instead, on women. Viewpoints expanded alongside diversity in film genres. Woman's films were a genre that focused on female leads, showing the female as a diegetic story-teller rather than that of a spectacle. Movies such as "Rebecca" and "Stella Dallas" are examples of such films in which the traditional narrative is told through the female protagonist. This genre of film evolved into "chick flicks" such as "27 Dresses" and "The Devil Wears Prada". These films are meant to represent the desires of female protagonists and, therefore, are to represent the desires of the female movie-viewer.


title: Female gaze

text: Zoe Dirse looked at the female gaze through the documentary film genre, analyzing aspects of pleasure and viewer identification. She analyzes the gaze at the points of production and reception. She notes that if the cinematographer is female and the subject is also female, the object of the film takes on a different role. Dirse argues that having a female cinematographer allows women to be viewed as they really are and not the voyeuristic spectacle that the male gaze makes them out to be. While filming in Cairo, Dirse was in a crowd and observed being noticed by the men around her. At first they seemed curious, and Dirse wondered if it was because of her gender or the fact that she had a camera. It was not long before they began to push past her, and she felt a sense of danger that she felt other women in Cairo shared. This is depicted in her film, "Shadow Maker". She said that her gender allowed her to be an unobtrusive observer – unlike a man – when filming Romani women singing.


title: Female gaze

text: Paula Marantz Cohen discusses the female gaze in the chick flick genre, with specific attention to the attire women wear. According to her, spectacle overrules plot in films such as "The Awful Truth". Irene Dunne's wardrobe is regarded as a central aspect of the film. The different dresses that Dunne wears are extravagant but, according to Cohen, not sexualized. While the clothing may be regarded as comical, they are also supportive to Dunne's independence and femininity. Cohen notes that in the film "The Wedding Planner", Jennifer Lopez is fully clothed throughout the entire film. The clothes, as in "The Awful Truth", are regarded as comical yet they catch the viewer's eye without sexualizing. Cohen also analyzes the relationship between the female lead stars of these films and their male co-stars. She states that these films truly depict what women want, that they are accentualized in a positive manner and have a partner who amplifies this accentuation.


title: Female gaze

text: Critics have focused attention on the presence of the female gaze in cinema and television, in works such as "The Handmaid's Tale", "I Love Dick", "Fleabag", and "The Love Witch".


title: Female gaze

text: The controversial lesbian drama film "Blue Is the Warmest Colour" received considerable critical comment for the dominance of the male gaze and lack of female gaze, with some reviewers calling it a "patriarchal gaze". Julie Maroh, the author of the book upon which the film was based, was among the harshest critics, saying, "It appears to me this was what was missing on the set: lesbians."


title: Female gaze

text: Filmmaker April Mullen has said, "Women have this vulnerability and connection to a depth of emotions that I can see and feel in certain moments of truth in the films we create. To me, the female gaze is transparency – the veil between audience and filmmaker is thin, and that allows people in more."


title: Female gaze

text: Art historian Griselda Pollock and film theorist Julian Albilla worked with Bracha L. Ettinger's concepts of matrixial gaze, eros, and witnessing to analyse the feminine gaze in the films of Chantal Akerman and Pedro Almodóvar.


title: Female gaze

text: At the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival, Joey Soloway, in their keynote address, explored the definition of the female gaze in film-making. Specifically, Soloway outlined three concepts, mimicking Laura Mulvey's original triangulation of the male gaze (the spectator, the filmmaker, and the actors). Soloway's conception of the female gaze goes beyond a mere inversion of Mulvey's male gaze, however, and instead imagines the ways in which the female gaze in filmmaking can provide insight into the lived female experience. Their concept includes "the feeling camera" (or "bodies over equipment" wherein emotions are prioritized over action); "the gazed gaze," which shows viewers how it feels to be the object of the gaze; and "returning the gaze" (or "I see you seeing me" and "how it feels to stand here in this world having been seen our entire lives").


title: Female gaze

text: in "No Such Thing Not Yet: Questioning Television Female Gaze", Caetlin Benson-Allot discussed the lack of representation of minorities in the female gaze. She argues that although the female gaze presumes a universal experience based on shared gender, it tends to ignore minorities, choosing instead to focus on the lives of white middle class women. In the article she specifically focuses on television. In it she uses examples from the TV shows "I Love Dick", "GLOW" and "Insecure". She argues that although "I Love Dick" and "GLOW" introduce characters of color, they do so by casting them in supporting roles which never destabilize the white protagonist. "Insecure" on the other hand, she argues, provides a model for future feminist television. The show follows Issa and her friend Molly and focuses on the self-defeating impulses in their personal and professional relationships. The story line also focuses on Issa’s job working with at-risk youth, which helps in exploring the racial dynamics of Los Angeles. Using anti-racist comedy, Benson-Allot argued, "Insecure" challenged the focus on white feminism and neglect of black women.


title: Female gaze

text: Canadian cinematographer Zoe Dirse also criticized the reproduction of the female gaze and the under-representation of women in technical areas of film making. Using her experience in the documentary genre, she focused on the female gaze at the point of production. Dirse focused on the dominance of the white middle class male in the film industry. According to her, women are often shut out of the film industry due to its profitable nature. This creates a lack of women producing for the female viewer or reproducing the female gaze. She uses examples of excerpts from films to explore the need for female directors and technical crew in properly reproducing the female gaze. One example she gives is that of the 1992 documentary "", which focuses on the stories of lesbians coming out in the 1950s. According to Dirse, in this film the feminist, lesbian directors managed to subvert the male gaze in favor of the female one; creating a view in which the actors are not objects of male desire, but of female desire. She argues that when there are feminist filmmakers, the film creates feminist elements. She argues that it is crucial for women to take control of their art in order to accurately reproduce the female gaze.


title: Female gaze

text: In "Chick Flicks and the Straight Female Gaze", Natalie Perfetti-Oates argued that the heterosexual female gaze can become problematic with the rise of male sexual objectification. This is due to the use of sex negativity when enacting this gaze. Sex negativity occurs when men are trapped as solely sex objects. Chick flicks that cast their male leads solely as sex objects for the female viewers, according to Perfetti-Oates, serve to reverse gender discrimination rather than creating gender equality. Oates explains how more and more action movies and chick flick films create the heterosexual female gaze through showcasing male's bodies. In her article, Oates used examples from films such as "Forgetting Sarah Marshall", "", and "Magic Mike". In "Magic Mike", for example, Mike only becomes a love interest after he quits his job as a stripper, thus making Mike a sex object and love interest, but not both creating sex negativity. She argued that progress towards equality will be made when both men and women can move freely between the position of subject and object; not when men are objectified just as women have been.


title: Female gaze

text: In Jessica Taylor's "Romance and the Female Gaze: Obscuring Gendered Violence in the Twilight Saga", Taylor criticizes the emerging female gaze and how it interacts with romance to portray violent male bodies as desirable. She describes the "Twilight" series as retrograde and naïve in its use of romance conventions. To explain how the female gaze works to create violent male bodies as desirable, she looked back on the work of Mulvey. Specifically, she focused on the notion of "fetishistic scopophilia" that was previously used by Mulvey to explain how the anxiety-inducing female body becomes fetishized and a source of pleasure for the male viewer, leading female viewers towards hyper-desirability gaze of the bodies of the male characters, and pushing the female audience to desire the powerful, violent male body rather than fear it. Examples that she gives are the way in which the body of both Jacob and Edward are manipulated by categorizing them as visually desirable boys.


title: Female gaze

text: It reduces the threat of violence and neutralizes the potential threats to the female viewers. Taylor argues that the use of a limited and specific female gaze can re-code incidents of gendered violence and violent male body as both reassuring and desirable.


title: Cam (film)

text: Cam is a 2018 American psychological horror film directed by Daniel Goldhaber and written by Isa Mazzei from a story by Goldhaber, Mazzei and Isabelle Link-Levy. The story is partially drawn from writer Mazzei's own experience working as a camgirl. The film is the first feature film for both Goldhaber and Mazzei.


title: Cam (film)

text: It stars Madeline Brewer, Patch Darragh, Melora Walters, Devin Druid and Michael Dempsey. It is a co-production between Divide/Conquer, Blumhouse Productions and Gunpowder & Sky.


title: Cam (film)

text: The film premiered at the Fantasia International Film Festival on July 18, 2018, and was released on November 16, 2018, by Netflix. It received a largely positive reception from critics, who praised the atmosphere, direction, and Brewer's performance.


title: Cam (film)

text: Alice Ackerman works as a camgirl on a website called FreeGirlsLive, broadcasting sexually promiscuous live shows from a studio she has set up in her home under the name "Lola_Lola”. She is obsessed with her rank on the site, hoping to be number 1, a spot currently held by a camgirl named BabyGirl. Her mother is unaware of her career, believing that she works in web development. Her younger brother, Jordan, knows about Alice's job and has agreed to keep it a secret, though he persuades Alice to tell their mother the truth someday. During one livestream, Alice simulates her suicide by slitting her own throat using fake blood, which greatly increases her popularity. Alice has two loyal viewers, Barney and Arnold (also known as "Tinker"), whom she regularly engages in private video calls with. She soon learns that Barney will be in her area next week, and agrees to meet up for a date. Alice also recognizes Arnold in a store, and realizes that he has moved to her state.


title: Cam (film)

text: During her next show, Alice finally reaches the top 50, but her rank quickly drops due to a rival camgirl known as Princess_X. She is able to bring her rank up to 47 with a successful joint show featuring another camgirl, Fox. The following morning, Alice finds that she cannot access her FGL account, but that Lola is still active and currently streaming. Curious, she logs into a spare account to watch the stream to find that the channel has been taken over by someone with her exact appearance and mannerisms – even the studio is an exact replica of Alice's studio in her home.


title: Cam (film)

text: Alice contacts the site's customer service, believing that they are replaying old shows, but they assure her that this is impossible. When Alice messages the channel, the "Lola" on-screen responds to her and addresses her directly, proving that the stream is in fact live. Alice confides in her fellow camgirls about the situation, and accuses Princess_X of being the one responsible for it, but Princess swears her innocence.


title: Cam (film)

text: Alice continues to try and access her FGL account, as well as create a new one, but all her attempts fail. At Jordan's birthday party, a fight breaks out between him and his friends after they happen across one of Alice's streams and ridicule her, which causes her mother to inadvertently find out the truth. A humiliated Alice panics and leaves. That night, the fake Lola hosts a show in which she stages her own suicide by shooting herself in the mouth. It causes Alice to have a panic attack, and she contacts the police, who are largely unhelpful and judgmental. When the fake Lola announces an upcoming joint show with BabyGirl, Alice unsuccessfully attempts to get in contact with Baby, though she grows suspicious when Baby uses the same phrases in her stream that the fake Lola did.


title: Cam (film)

text: During her date with Barney, Alice cleverly manages to get him to reveal Baby's hometown. She excuses herself to the bathroom to further investigate on her phone, but “Lola” goes live right at that moment. Barney confronts and assaults her, accusing her of lying about her identity to try and scam him, but Alice manages to free herself. Alice uses the information provided by Barney to find Baby's real name, which is Hannah Darin, and discovers that the real Hannah had passed away in a car crash six months prior – meaning that she has been replaced by a doppelgänger as well. She searches for other camgirls that she assumes to be doppelgängers and notices that each of the fake girls have Arnold as their top friend. She seeks him out at a motel he mentioned he was staying at earlier, tearfully begging for his help. He offers to let her stay the night at his motel out of concern for her safety. Alice wakes up in the middle of the night to find Arnold in the bathroom, masturbating while in a private cam session with Lola. An enraged Alice demands answers from Arnold, who reveals that he knows about the replicas, but insists that he is not behind them. Alice then talks to the fake Lola from Arnold's computer, who appears to be oblivious to the fact that they are identical. She angrily leaves, ignoring Arnold's pleas with her to stay.


title: Cam (film)

text: Alice goes home and sets up her vanity mirror, camera, and television in a position that creates an illusion showing multiples of her. She joins a private cam session with the fake Lola (who once again doesn't recognize her) and suggests that they go live together. The fake Lola enthusiastically agrees and viewers chalk up the two Lolas to special effects. Alice challenges Lola to a game – they must imitate each other; whoever the viewers think does the best wins. If Alice wins, she gets to ask anything of Lola. Alice is declared the winner after breaking her own nose, and she demands Lola's account password. She then deletes Lola's account just as it reaches the number 1 rank.


title: Cam (film)

text: Some time later, she prepares to start a live show under a new account, with her mother assisting. The film ends as she starts all over again with a new identity.


title: Cam (film)

text: Screenwriter Isa Mazzei, a former cam girl herself, originally wanted to create a documentary film about cam girls. She decided that a documentary was not the best medium, telling "Vice", "I felt like often, for people that I talk to about camming, no matter how much I would explain it or show it to them, they still didn't fully get it." She decided a horror film would be a better way to present the story.


title: Cam (film)

text: Much of the story was drawn from Mazzei's own experience as a cam girl. The story element of Lola having her image stolen came from Mazzei having her camming videos pirated and reposted without crediting her. Alice's interactions with the police officers are taken from Mazzei and other sex workers' experiences of being dismissed and hit on when reaching out for help. According to Mazzei, the question one of the police officers asks her, "What's the weirdest thing you've ever had to do?", was actually asked of her by several Hollywood executives in meetings once they learned that she had previously worked as a cam model.


title: Cam (film)

text: Mazzei and director Daniel Goldhaber had been friends since high school, and he had previously directed some of her pornographic videos. Goldhaber's directing credits had previously only been shorts and student films.


title: Cam (film)

text: The film was shot over 20 days. Principal photography on the film began on March 27, 2017. The film wrapped on April 23, 2017.


title: Cam (film)

text: The film has a joint opening credit "A Film by Isa Mazzei & Daniel Goldhaber", in place of the traditional opening credit which only credits the director. According to Mazzei and Goldhaber this was done as "a rebuke to director-oriented auteurship".


title: Cam (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Fantasia International Film Festival on July 18, 2018. Shortly after, Netflix acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on November 16, 2018.


title: Cam (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, "Smart and suspenseful, "CAM" is a techno-thriller that's far more than the sum of its salacious parts – and an outstanding showcase for Madeline Brewer in the leading role." Metacritic reports a weighted average score 71 out of 100, based on 17 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Joakim Brodén

text: Joakim "Jocke" Brodén (born 5 October 1980) is a Swedish-Czech musician who is the lead vocalist, keyboardist and occasional third guitarist of the Swedish heavy metal band Sabaton. He and bassist Pär Sundström formed the band in 1999.