title: Labour law

text: Germany was the next European country to pass labour laws; Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's main goal was to undermine the Social Democratic Party of Germany. In 1878, Bismarck instituted a variety of anti-socialist measures, but despite this, socialists continued gaining seats in the Reichstag. To appease the working class, he enacted a variety of paternalistic social reforms, which became the first type of social security. In 1883 the Health Insurance Act was passed, which entitled workers to health insurance; the worker paid two-thirds and the employer one-third of the premiums. Accident insurance was provided in 1884, while old-age pensions and disability insurance followed in 1889. Other laws restricted the employment of women and children. These efforts, however, were not entirely successful; the working class largely remained unreconciled with Bismarck's conservative government.


title: Labour law

text: In France, the first labour law was voted in 1841. It limited under-age miners' hours. In the Third Republic labour law was first effectively enforced, in particular after Waldeck-Rousseau 1884 law legalising trade unions. With the Matignon Accords, the Popular Front (1936–38) enacted the laws mandating 12 days each year of paid vacations for workers and the law limiting the standard workweek to 40 hours.


title: Labour law

text: Other labour laws involve safety concerning workers. The earliest English factory law was passed in 1802 and dealt with the safety and health of child labourers in textile mills.


title: Labour law

text: Such laws prohibit discrimination against employees, in particular racial discrimination or gender discrimination.


title: Labour law

text: Convention no. 158 of the International Labour Organization states that an employee "can't be fired without any legitimate motive" and "before offering him the possibility to defend himself". Thus, on April 28, 2006, after the unofficial repeal of the French First Employment Contract, the Longjumeau (Essonne) "conseil des prud'hommes" (labour law court) judged the New Employment Contract contrary to international law and therefore "illegitimate" and "without any juridical value". The court considered that the two-years period of "fire at will" (without any legal motive) was "unreasonable", and contrary to convention.


title: Labour law

text: Child labour was not seen as a problem throughout most of history, only disputed with the beginning of universal schooling and the concepts of labourers' and children's rights. Use of child labour was commonplace, often in factories. In England and Scotland in 1788, about two-thirds of persons working in water-powered textile factories were children. Child labour can be factory work, mining or quarrying, agriculture, helping in the parents' business, operating a small business (such as selling food), or doing odd jobs. Children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants (where they may also work). Other children do jobs such as assembling boxes or polishing shoes. However, rather than in factories and sweatshops, most child labour in the twenty-first century occurs in the informal sector, "selling on the street, at work in agriculture or hidden away in houses — far from the reach of official inspectors and from media scrutiny."


title: Labour law

text: Collective labour law concerns the relationship between employer, employee and trade unions. Trade unions (also "labour unions" in the US) are organizations which generally aim to promote the interests of their members. This law regulates the wages, benefits, and duties of the employees, and the dispute management between the company and the trade union. Such matters are often described in a collective labour agreement (CLA).


title: Labour law

text: Trade unions are organized groups of workers who engage in collective bargaining with employers. Some countries require unions and/or employers to follow particular procedures in pursuit of their goals. For example, some countries require that unions poll the membership to approve a strike or to approve using members' dues for political projects. Laws may govern the circumstances and procedures under which unions are formed. They may guarantee the right to join a union (banning employer discrimination), or remain silent in this respect. Some legal codes allow unions to obligate their members, such as the requirement to comply with a majority decision in a strike vote. Some restrict this, such as "right to work" legislation in parts of the United States.


title: Labour law

text: In the different organization in the different countries trade union discuses with the employee on behalf of employer. At that time trade union discussed or talk with the manpower of the organization. At that time trade union perform his roles like a bridge between the employee and employer.


title: Labour law

text: A legally binding right for workers as a group to participate in workplace management is acknowledged in some form in most developed countries. In a majority of EU member states (for example, Germany, Sweden, and France), the workforce has a right to elect directors on the board of large corporations. This is usually called "codetermination" and currently most countries allow for the election of one-third of the board, though the workforce can have the right to elect anywhere from a single director, to just under a half in Germany.


title: Labour law

text: However, German company law uses a split board system, in which a "supervisory board" appoints an "executive board". Under the Mitbestimmunggesetz 1976, shareholders and employees elect the supervisory board in equal numbers, but the head of the supervisory board with a casting vote is a shareholder representative. The first statutes to introduce board-level codetermination were in Britain, however, most of these measures, except in universities, were removed in 1948 and 1979. The oldest surviving statute is found in the United States, in the Massachusetts Laws on manufacturing corporations, introduced in 1919, however, this was always voluntary.


title: Labour law

text: In the United Kingdom, similar proposals were drawn up, and a command paper produced named the Bullock Report (Industrial Democracy) was released in 1977 by the James Callaghan Labour Party government. Unions would have directly elected half of the board. An "independent" element would also be added. However, the proposal was not enacted. The European Commission offered proposals for worker participation in the "fifth company law directive", which was also not implemented.


title: Labour law

text: In Sweden, participation is regulated through the "Law on board representation". The law covers all private companies with 25 or more employees. In these companies, workers (usually through unions) have a right to appoint two board members and two substitutes. If the company has more than 1,000 employees, this rises to three members and three substitutes. It is common practice to allocate them among the major union coalitions.


title: Labour law

text: Strike action is the worker tactic most associated with industrial disputes. In most countries, strikes are legal under a circumscribed set of conditions. Among them may be that:


title: Labour law

text: A boycott is a refusal to buy, sell, or otherwise trade with an individual or business. Other tactics include go-slow, sabotage, work-to-rule, sit-in or en-masse not reporting to work. Some labour law explicitly bans such activity, none explicitly allows it.


title: Labour law

text: Picketing is often used by workers during strikes. They may congregate near the business they are striking against to make their presence felt, increase worker participation and dissuade (or prevent) strike breakers from entering the workplace. In many countries, this activity is restricted by law, by more general law restricting demonstrations, or by injunctions on particular pickets. For example, labour law may restrict secondary picketing (picketing a business connected with the company not directly with the dispute, such as a supplier), or flying pickets (mobile strikers who travel to join a picket). Laws may prohibit obstructing others from conducting lawful business; outlaw obstructive pickets allow court orders to restrict picketing locations or behaving in particular ways (shouting abuse, for example).


title: Labour law

text: The labour movement has long been concerned that economic globalization would weaken worker bargaining power, as their employers could hire workers abroad to avoid domestic labour standards. Karl Marx said:


title: Labour law

text: The International Labour Organization and the World Trade Organization have been a primary focus among international bodies for regulating labour markets. Conflicts arise when people work in more than one country. EU law has a growing body of workplace rules.


title: Labour law

text: Following World War I, the Treaty of Versailles contained the first constitution of a new International Labour Organization (ILO) founded on the principle that "labour is not a commodity", and for the reason that "peace can be established only if it is based upon social justice". ILO's primary role has been to coordinate international labour law by issuing Conventions. ILO members can voluntarily adopt and ratify the Conventions. For instance, the first Hours of Work (Industry) Convention, 1919 required a maximum of a 48-hour week, and has been ratified by 52 out of 185 member states. The UK ultimately refused to ratify the Convention, as did many current EU members, although the Working Time Directive adopts its principles, subject to individual opt-out. ILO's constitution comes from the 1944 Declaration of Philadelphia and under the 1998 Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work classified eight conventions as core.


title: Labour law

text: These require freedom to join a union, bargain collectively and take action (Conventions No. 87 and 98), abolition of forced labour (29 and 105), abolition of labour by children before the end of compulsory school (138 and 182), and no discrimination at work (No. 100 and 111). Member compliance with the core Conventions is obligatory, even if the country has not ratified the Convention in question. To ensure compliance, the ILO is limited to gathering evidence and reporting on member states' progress, relying on publicity to create pressure to reform. Global reports on core standards are produced yearly, while individual reports on countries who have ratified other Conventions are compiled on a bi-annual or less frequent basis.


title: Labour law

text: Because the ILO's enforcement mechanisms are weak, incorporating labour standards in the World Trade Organization's (WTO) operation has been proposed. WTO oversees, primarily, the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade treaty aimed at reducing customs, tariffs and other barriers to import and export of goods, services and capital between its 157 member countries. Unlike for the ILO, contravening WTO rules as recognized by the dispute settlement procedures opens a country to retaliation through trade sanctions. This could include reinstatement of targeted tariffs against the offender.


title: Labour law

text: Proponents have called for a "social clause" to be inserted into the GATT agreements, for example, by amending Article XX, which provides an exception that allows imposition of sanctions for breaches of human rights. An explicit reference to core labour standards could allow comparable action where a WTO member state breaches ILO standards. Opponents argue that such an approach could undermine labour rights, because industries, and therefore workforces could be harmed with no guarantee of reform. Furthermore, it was argued in the 1996 Singapore Ministerial Declaration 1996 that "the comparative advantage of countries, particularly low-age developing countries, must in no way be put into question." Some countries want to take advantage of low wages and fewer rules as a comparative advantage to boost their economies. Another contested point is whether business moves production from high wage to low wage countries, given potential differences in worker productivity. Since GATT, most trade agreements have been bilateral. Some of these protect core labour standards. Moreover, in domestic tariff regulations, some countries give preference to countries that respect core labour rights, for example under the EC Tariff Preference Regulation, articles 7 and 8.


title: Labour law

text: Conflicts of laws (or private international law) issues arise where workers work in multiple jurisdictions. If a US worker performs part of her job in Brazil, China and Denmark (a "peripatetic" worker) an employer may seek to characterize the employment contract as governed by the law of the country where labour rights are least favourable to the worker, or seek to argue that the most favourable system of labour rights does not apply. For example, in a UK labour law case, "Ravat v Halliburton Manufacturing and Services Ltd" Ravat was from the UK but was employed in Libya by a German company that was part of Halliburton. He was dismissed by a supervisor based in Egypt. He was told he would be hired under UK law terms and conditions, and this was arranged by a staffing department in Aberdeen. Under the UK Employment Rights Act 1996 he would have a right to claim unfair dismissal, but the Act left open the question of the statute's territorial scope. The UK Supreme Court held that the principle would be that an expatriate worker, would be subject to UK rules if the worker could show a "close connection" to the UK, which was found in Rabat's case.


title: Labour law

text: This fits within the general framework in the EU. Under EU Rome I Regulation article 8, workers have employment rights of the country where they habitually work. They may have a claim in another country if they can establish a close connection to it. The Regulation emphasises that the rules should be applied with the purpose of protecting the worker.


title: Labour law

text: It is also necessary that a court has jurisdiction to hear a claim. Under the Brussels I Regulation article 19, this requires the worker habitually works in the place where the claim is brought or is engaged there.


title: Labour law

text: The European Union has extensive labour laws that officially exclude (according to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union) matters around direct wage regulation (e.g. setting a minimum wage), the fairness of dismissals and collective bargaining. A series of Directives regulate almost all other issues, for instance the Working Time Directive guarantees 28 days of paid holiday, the Equality Framework Directive prohibits all forms of discrimination and the Collective Redundancies Directive requires that proper notice is given and consultation takes place on decisions about economic dismissals.


title: Labour law

text: However, the European Court of Justice has recently extended the Treaties provisions via case law. Trade unions have sought to organize across borders in the same way that multinational corporations have organized production globally. Unions have sought to take collective action and strikes internationally. However, this coordination was challenged in the European Union in two controversial decisions. In "Laval Ltd v Swedish Builders Union" a group of Latvian workers were sent to a construction site in Sweden. The local union took industrial action to make Laval Ltd sign up to the local collective bargaining agreement. Under the Posted Workers Directive, article 3 lays down minimum standards for foreign workers so that workers receive at least the minimum rights that they would have in their home country in case their place of work has lower minimum rights. Article 3(7) says that this "shall not prevent application of terms and conditions of employment which are more favourable to workers". Most people thought this meant that more favourable conditions could be given than the minimum (e.g., in Latvian law) by the host state's legislation or a collective agreement. However the European Court of Justice (ECJ) said that only the local state could raise standards beyond its minimum for foreign workers. Any attempt by the host state, or a collective agreement (unless the collective agreement is declared universal under article 3(8)) would infringe the business' freedom under TFEU article 56. This decision was implicitly reversed by the European Union legislature in the Rome I Regulation, which makes clear in recital 34 that the host state may allow more favourable standards. However, in "The Rosella", the ECJ held that a blockade by the International Transport Workers Federation against a business that was using an Estonian flag of convenience (i.e., saying it was operating under Estonian law to avoid labour standards of Finland) infringed the business' right of free establishment under TFEU article 49. The ECJ said that it recognized the workers' "right to strike" in accordance with ILO Convention 87, but said that its use must be proportionately to the right of the business' establishment.


title: Labour law

text: The Fair Work Act of 2009 provides the regulations governing Australian workplaces and employers. Australia has a minimum wage and workplace conditions overseen by the Fair Work Commission.


title: Labour law

text: In Canadian law, "labour law" refers to matters connected with unionized workplaces, while "employment law" deals with non-unionized employees.


title: Labour law

text: In 2017, Premier Brad Wall announced that Saskatchewan's government is to cut 3.5 per cent from its workers and officers' wages in 2018. This salary cut includes MLA ministers and the Premier's office staff along with all people employed by the government. Unpaid days off will also be implemented as well as limiting overtime to assist the wage cut.


title: Labour law

text: In China the basic labour laws are the "Labour Law of People's Republic of China" (promulgated on 5 July 1994) and the "Labour Contract Law of the People's Republic of China" (adopted at the 28th Session of the Standing Committee of the 10th National People's Congress on June 29, 2007, effective from January 1, 2008). The administrative regulations enacted by the State Council, the ministerial rules and the judicial explanations of the Supreme People's Court stipulate detailed rules concerning various aspects of employment. The government-controlled All China Federation of Trade Unions is the sole legal labour union. Strikes are formally legal, but in practice are discouraged.


title: Labour law

text: In France, the first labour laws were Waldeck Rousseau's laws passed in 1884. Between 1936 and 1938 the Popular Front enacted a law mandating 12 days (2 weeks) each year of paid vacation for workers, and a law limited the work week to 40 hours, excluding overtime. The negotiated on May 25 and 26th in the middle of the May 1968 crisis, reduced the working week to 44 hours and created trade union sections in each enterprise. The minimum wage was increased by 25%. In 2000, Lionel Jospin's government enacted the 35-hour workweek, reduced from 39 hours. Five years later, conservative prime minister Dominique de Villepin enacted the New Employment Contract (CNE). Addressing the demands of employers asking for more flexibility in French labour laws, the CNE sparked criticism from trade unions and opponents claiming it favoured contingent work. In 2006, he then attempted to pass the First Employment Contract (CPE) through a vote by emergency procedure, but that was met by students and unions' protests. President Jacques Chirac finally had no choice but to repeal it.


title: Labour law

text: In Poland, the main act on the Labour Law is the Polish Labour Code from the year 1974. Since its introduction into the legal system the act is constantly being adapted and updated to current reality on a labour market in Poland. The basic form of employment in Poland is an employment contract, which can be concluded for a probation period, definite period of time or an indefinite period of time. The Polish Labour Code provides also regulations on employee benefits, annual leaves, termination of the employment contract, discrimination in the workplace, disciplinary liability and many other employment-related issues. Polish employment contracts can be terminated in many ways, e.g. in a disciplinary mode, by a termination with a notice period or by a mutual agreement of both parts.


title: Labour law

text: Over fifty national and many more state-level laws govern work in India. So for instance, a permanent worker can be terminated only for proven misconduct or habitual absence. In the Uttam Nakate case, the Bombay High Court held that dismissing an employee for repeated sleeping on the factory floor was illegal – the decision was overturned by the Supreme Court of India two decades later. In 2008, the World Bank criticized the complexity, lack of modernization and flexibility in Indian regulations. In the Constitution of India from 1950, articles 14–16, 19(1)(c), 23–24, 38, and 41-43A directly concern labour rights. Article 14 states everyone should be equal before the law, article 15 specifically says the state should not discriminate against citizens, and article 16 extends a right of "equality of opportunity" for employment or appointment under the state. Article 19(1)(c) gives everyone a specific right "to form associations or unions". Article 23 prohibits all trafficking and forced labour, while article 24 prohibits child labour under 14 years old in a factory, mine or "any other hazardous employment".


title: Labour law

text: Articles 38–39, and 41-43A, however, like all rights listed in Part IV of the Constitution are not enforceable by courts, rather than creating an aspirational "duty of the State to apply these principles in making laws".[3] The original justification for leaving such principles unenforceable by the courts was that democratically accountable institutions ought to be left with discretion, given the demands they could create on the state for funding from general taxation, although such views have since become controversial. Article 38(1) says that in general the state should "strive to promote the welfare of the people" with a "social order in which justice, social, economic and political, shall inform all the institutions of national life. In article 38(2) it goes on to say the state should "minimise the inequalities in income" and based on all other statuses. Article 41 creates a "right to work", which the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act 2005 attempts to put into practice. Article 42 requires the state to "make provision for securing just and human conditions of work and for maternity relief". Article 43 says workers should have the right to a living wage and "conditions of work ensuring a decent standard of life". Article 43A, inserted by the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India in 1976,[4] creates a constitutional right to codetermination by requiring the state to legislate to "secure the participation of workers in the management of undertakings".The recently released New Labour Codes 2022 mentions that organizations can convert 9-hour shifts to 12-hour shifts and provide three days of leave every week. The 4-day workweek policy will be effective from 1st July 2022.


title: Labour law

text: Also read: Labour Reforms by Government of India Ministry of Labour & Employment (https://labour.gov.in/labour-reforms)


title: Labour law

text: Indonesia essentially rebuilt its labour law system in the early 2000s following regime change and with support of the ILO. These three statutes also constituted a new legislative framework for industrial relations:


title: Labour law

text: 3.     Law No. 2 of 2004 on Industrial Relations Disputes Settlement, established a new industrial relations dispute resolution system.


title: Labour law

text: Iran has not ratified the two basic Conventions of the International Labour Organization on freedom of association and collective bargaining and one abolishing child labour.


title: Labour law

text: Mexican labour law reflects the historic interrelation between the state and the Confederation of Mexican Workers. The confederation is officially aligned with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI). While the law promises workers the right to strike and to organize, in practice it is difficult or impossible for independent unions to organize.


title: Labour law

text: Singapore has a "minimum legal obligation" rule which applies to employment contracts and in other fields of contracting, and limits damages payments for breach of contract. The rule applies in wrongful dismissal cases: generally, its effect would be to limit an employee's damages to the minimum notice period under which the employer could properly have dismissed the employee.


title: Labour law

text: South African labour law is regulated by the Department of Employment and Labour and is based on the Labour Relations Act (LRA) 66 of 1995, which regulates the relationship between and rights of employers, employees and trade unions. The LRA also gives effect to Section 23 of the Constitution. The LRA lays out the procedures for dispute resolution via the Commission for Conciliation, Mediation and Arbitration (CCMA) and establishes the Labour Court and Labour Appeal Court as superior courts with exclusive jurisdiction to decide matters arising from the Act.


title: Labour law

text: The Labour Relations Act also regulates the issue of fairness, not only in termination but during employment. In 1998, however, most of the laws on unfair labour practices were removed from the Labour Relations Act and placed into the newly formed Employment Equity Act (EEA). The EEA also deals with issues such as fairness regarding a worker's human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) status or disability, as well as the issue of affirmative action. Prior to 1995, an employee could be dismissed in terms of the contract of employment, which could permit any reason for dismissal. Since 1995 however, an employee may be dismissed only for misconduct, operational reasons and incapacity, given that procedural fairness is maintained. The Labour Relations Act 1995 is a pivotal piece of legislation, as it recognises the need for fast and easy access to justice in labour disputes. The Industrial Court had the status of a High Court, and therefore was not accessible to all labourers.


title: Labour law

text: The Basic Conditions of Employment Act (BCEA), the Health and Safety Act and the Skills Development Act, must be read with the EEA. The Skills Development Act provides that a small percentage of a labourer's salary must be contributed to the Department of Labour, enabling certain workshops to be run which are designed to develop skills.


title: Labour law

text: In Sweden many workplace issues such as working hours, minimum wage and right to overtime compensation are regulated through collective bargaining agreements in accordance with the Swedish model of "self-regulation", i.e. regulation by the labour market parties themselves in contrast to "state regulation" (labour laws). A notable exception is the Employment Protection act which regulates employment contracts and extensive employees' rights to employment under certain conditions.


title: Labour law

text: The labour law of Switzerland covers all standards governing the employment of some kind. The regulation of the employment by private employers is largely harmonized at the federal level, while public-sector employment still prevails a variety of cantonal laws. In particular, the civil standardization is distributed to a variety of laws. Of greater importance, particularly the new Federal Constitution of 1999, the Code of Obligations, the Labour Code as well as in the public sector, the Federal Personnel Act.


title: Labour law

text: The Factory Acts (first one in 1802, then 1833) and the 1823 Master and Servant Act were the first laws regulating labour relations in the United Kingdom. Most employment law before 1960 was based upon contract law. Since then there has been a significant expansion primarily due to movements for equality and the legal requirements imposed by the UK's former membership of the European Union. UK employment law comes from Acts of Parliament, secondary legislation (made by a Secretary of State under an Act of Parliament), case law (developed by various courts), and retained Community law following the UK's departure from the EU.


title: Labour law

text: The first significant expansion was the Equal Pay Act 1970, brought into to try to ensure pay equality for women in the workplace. Since 1997, changes in UK employment law include enhanced maternity and paternity rights, the introduction of a National Minimum Wage and the Working Time Regulations, which covers working time, rest breaks and the right to paid annual leave. Discrimination law has been tightened, with protection from discrimination now available on the grounds of age, religion or belief and sexual orientation as well as gender, race and disability.


title: Labour law

text: The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 set the maximum standard work week to 44 hours. In 1950 this was reduced to 40 hours. A green card entitles immigrants to work, without requirement a separate work permit. Despite the 40-hour standard maximum work week, some lines of work require more than 40 hours. For example, farm workers may work over 72 hours a week, followed by at least 24 hours off. Exceptions to the break period exist for certain harvesting employees, such as those involved in harvesting grapes, tree fruits and cotton.


title: Labour law

text: Professionals, clerical (administrative assistants), technical, and mechanical employees cannot be terminated for refusing to work more than 72 hours in a work week.


title: Labour law

text: These ceilings, combined with a competitive job market, often motivate American workers to work more hours. American workers on average take the fewest days off of any developed country.


title: Labour law

text: The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution limit the power of the federal and state governments to discriminate. The private sector is not directly constrained by the Constitution, but several laws, particularly the Civil Rights Act of 1964, limit the private sector discrimination against certain groups. The Fifth Amendment has an explicit requirement that the Federal Government not deprive individuals of "life, liberty, or property", without due process of law and an implicit guarantee that each person receive equal protection of the law. The Fourteenth Amendment explicitly prohibits states from violating an individual's rights of due process and equal protection. Equal protection limits the State and Federal governments' power to discriminate in their employment practices by treating employees, former employees, or job applicants unequally because of membership in a group, like a race, religion or sex. Due process protection requires that employees have a fair procedural process before they are terminated if the termination is related to a "liberty", like the right to free speech, or a property interest.


title: Labour law

text: The National Labor Relations Act, enacted in 1935 as part of the New Deal legislation, guarantees workers the right to form unions and engage in collective bargaining.


title: Labour law

text: The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 prohibits employment discrimination based on age with respect to employees 40 years of age or older.


title: Labour law

text: Title VII of the Civil Rights Act is the principal federal statute with regard to employment discrimination, prohibiting unlawful employment discrimination by public and private employers, labour organizations, training programmes and employment agencies based on race or colour, religion, sex and national origin. Retaliation is also prohibited by Title VII against any person for opposing any practice forbidden by statute, or for making a charge, testifying, assisting, or participating in a proceeding under the statute. The Civil Rights Act of 1991 expanded the damages available to Title VII cases and granted Title VII plaintiffs the right to jury trial.


title: Labour law

text: The beginnings of halakhic labour law are in the Bible, in which two commandments refer to this subject: The law against delayed wages (Lev. 19:13; Deut. 24:14–15) and the worker's right to eat the employer's crops (Deut. 23:25–26). The Talmudic law—in which labour law is called "laws of worker hiring"—elaborates on many more aspects of employment relations, mainly in Tractate Baba Metzi'a. In some issues the Talamud, following the Tosefta, refers the parties to the customary law: "All is as the custom of the region [postulates]".


title: Labour law

text: Modern halakhic labour law developed very slowly. Rabbi Israel Meir Hacohen (the Hafetz Hayim) interprets the worker's right for timely payment in a tendency that clearly favours the employee over the employer, but does not refer to new questions of employment relations. Only in the 1920s we find the first halakhic authority to tackle the questions of trade unions (that could easily be anchored in Talmudic law) and the right of strike (which is quite problematic in terms of Talmudic law). Rabbis A.I Kook and B.M.H. Uziel tend to corporatist settling of labour conflicts, while Rabbi Moshe Feinstein clearly adopts the liberal democratic collective bargaining model. Since the 1940s the halakhic literature on labour law was enriched by books and articles that referred to growing range of questions and basically adopted the liberal democratic approach.


title: Long Way Up

text: Long Way Up is a British television series which debuted 18 September 2020, documenting a motorcycle journey undertaken in 2019 by Ewan McGregor and Charley Boorman, from Ushuaia in Argentina through South and Central America to Los Angeles in the United States. It is a follow-up to 2004's "Long Way Round" where the pair rode from London to New York and then again in 2007 "Long Way Down", when they rode south from John o' Groats in Scotland through eighteen countries in Europe and Africa to Cape Town in South Africa.


title: Long Way Up

text: The first three episodes of "Long Way Up" premiered globally on Apple TV+ on Friday, 18 September 2020, and eight further episodes aired weekly through to 13 November 2020.


title: Long Way Up

text: The journey covered 13,000 miles, through 13 countries over 100 days starting on 5 September 2019 and finishing on 14 December 2019. They rode Harley-Davidson LiveWire electric motorcycles manufactured by Harley-Davidson that had been converted into adventure bikes. Accompanying Ewan and Charley are the same key team members from "Long Way Round" and "Long Way Down", including director/producers David Alexanian and Russ Malkin and directors of photography Jimmy Simak and Claudio Von Planta. Also joining is associate producer Taylor Estevez and cinematographer Anthony Von Seck. The production team followed Ewan and Charley’s route in prototype Rivian electric trucks built especially for the journey. Cars and motorcycles were charged at fast-charging points built especially for the journey by Rivian. They were supported by diesel powered vehicles and generators and back up bikes.


title: Long Way Up

text: The series follows Ewan and Charley as they journey through Latin America including the countries of Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, and up through Colombia, Central America — Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala — and Mexico, before entering the USA and finishing in California.


title: Long Way Up

text: The title song was performed by Welsh group Stereophonics, and is similar to the "Long Way Round" and "Long Way Down" theme with the lyrics "round" and "down" replaced with "up". Other artists to feature include: Jhony Rojas (two songs under Astronauta, two with Passto and four with Últimos Glaciares), Totó la Momposina, Aurelio, Sidestepper, Los de Abajo and Charlie Winston. During Episode 6 in Bolivia, McGregor performs an acoustic guitar cover of "Endlessly" by Muse, from their album "Absolution".


title: Long Way Up

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 100% based on 6 reviews, with an average rating of 6.80/10.


title: Long Way Up

text: During "Long Way Round", Ewan and Charley visited three UNICEF programmes in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia and then after they were made UK ambassadors, the pair embarked on their second adventure "Long Way Down" and saw UNICEF’s work with child soldiers in Uganda and land-mine awareness programmes in Ethiopia. The "Long Way Up" series sees the duo visit three more UNICEF programmes in Bolivia, Peru and Honduras. In Bolivia, Ewan and Charley visit the UNICEF supported Quechua indigenous Challamayu School and attend a bilingual lesson taught in Spanish and traditional Quechuan. The UNICEF program is designed to give indigenous Bolivian children the opportunity to learn and further their education in their own language.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: Bucks Fizz were a British pop group that achieved success in the 1980s, most notably for winning the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest with the song "Making Your Mind Up". The group was formed in January 1981 specifically for the contest and comprised four vocalists: Bobby G, Cheryl Baker, Mike Nolan and Jay Aston. They received attention for the dance routine which accompanied the song, in which the male members of the group ripped the female members' outer skirts off to reveal much shorter mini-skirts beneath. The group went on to have a successful career around the world (although they were commercially unsuccessful in the United States), but the UK remained their biggest market, where they had three No.1 singles with "Making Your Mind Up" (1981), "The Land of Make Believe" (1981) and "My Camera Never Lies" (1982) and became one of the top-selling groups of the 1980s. They also had UK Top 10 hits with "Now Those Days Are Gone" (1982), "If You Can't Stand the Heat" (1982), "When We Were Young" (1983) and "New Beginning (Mamba Seyra)" (1986). Bucks Fizz have sold over 50 million records worldwide.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: The line-up of the group has changed a number of times over the years, most famously when Jay Aston quit the group in 1985 and was replaced by Shelley Preston. Bobby G's official version of Bucks Fizz has been inactive since 2018, while another group The Fizz continues which comprises the other three original members – Cheryl Baker, Mike Nolan and Jay Aston.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: In late 1980, Nichola Martin and Andy Hill sought to create a new group to enter their song "Making Your Mind Up" in the Eurovision Song Contest. The first member to be recruited was Mike Nolan, who was known to Martin. Together, they recorded a demo of the song and entered it for inclusion in "A Song for Europe" – the preliminary heats for the contest. Realising that a name was needed for the performing artists, Martin quickly decided on Buck's Fizz, as it was her favourite drink. In January, Martin contacted Cheryl Baker to join them, as she remembered her from the 1978 Eurovision group, Co-Co. Concurrent to this, Martin was holding auditions for another male vocalist and female vocalist, should Baker turn down the position (which she didn't). At the end of these auditions, Martin had found a male singer, Stephen Fischer and female, Jay Aston. Unsure of which female vocalist to use, she ultimately decided to use both Baker and Aston as she felt their vocals complemented each other and Martin stepped down from the group in order to team up with Hill for another line-up as they had two songs in the competition. Fischer then became unavailable as he was appearing in a musical at the time and Martin hired another auditionee, Bobby G for the group. The four members came together for the first time on 11 January 1981. Jill Shirley, with whom Martin had been in a group called Rags who had appeared in the 1977 'A Song for Europe' contest (placing fourth), agreed to manage the group.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: During rehearsals, a dance routine was devised for the song which went on to become famous for the moment where the girls' skirts are ripped off halfway through – only to reveal shorter skirts underneath. The routine itself was choreographed by Chrissie Wickham, a former member of dance troupe Hot Gossip, although Martin, Baker and Aston have all since laid claim to the skirt-rip idea, Martin had used a similar idea when 'Rags' had taken part in the earlier 'A Song for Europe' contest in 1977; subsequently performing the same routine on 'Top of the Pops' after failing to win the competition.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: On 11 March, A Song for Europe took place with the then unknown Bucks Fizz competing against well-known act Liquid Gold, as well as Hill and Martin's own group, Gem. "Making Your Mind Up" became an easy winner and the group recorded the song with Hill as producer. Later in the month it was released as a single and entered the charts at No.24. By the time the contest was staged, the single had risen to No.2.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: On 4 April, Bucks Fizz represented United Kingdom in the 1981 Eurovision Song Contest, which was held in Dublin. Although they were favourites to win, the song faced stiff competition, and early votes were poor. Halfway through the voting process, Bucks Fizz took the lead, although they remained close throughout. Ultimately, Bucks Fizz won the contest by a margin of four points, beating Germany into second place. "Making Your Mind Up" became a major hit around the continent, reaching No.1 in the UK as well as eight other countries. It charted highly in other countries such as Australia, eventually selling four million copies worldwide.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: With Shirley remaining as the group's manager, Hill as producer and Martin as co-songwriter, they worked with record company A&R head Bill Kimber to continue the group's success, determined that they would not become another Eurovision one-hit wonder. A follow-up single was recorded amid promotional tours and the group's image was revamped. In May, the single "Piece of the Action" was released. The song boasted a contemporary pop sound and high production values, in contrast to the rock and roll style of "Making Your Mind Up". As Baker has stated: "Our follow-up single was nothing at all like 'Making Your Mind Up', it was a good, strong, contemporary pop song" "Piece of the Action" became an immediate hit and quickly rose to No.12 in the UK charts. It also charted highly across Europe. Buoyed by this success, the group launched into recording their debut album with producer Andy Hill. Released in July, the self-titled album also became a top 20 hit in the UK charts, as did their third single, "One of Those Nights". In November 1981, Bucks Fizz represented the UK at the World Popular Song Festival in Tokyo, where they achieved the "Best Song Award" and fifth place overall with their song "Another Night". The song was released as a single there and went on to be included on their second album.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: In late 1981, Andy Hill, along with former King Crimson member Peter Sinfield, wrote the fourth Bucks Fizz single. Titled "The Land of Make Believe", the song was produced by Hill and featured a strong melody. Released in November, it hit the charts and by Christmas was in the top five. In January 1982, it overtook The Human League's "Don't You Want Me" to reach No.1. It stayed there for two weeks and remained in the UK charts for 16 weeks, becoming the group's best-selling single and one of the top-selling singles of the decade. It also reached No.1 in the Netherlands and Ireland and became the group's best-selling single in Germany. The song has since been hailed as a 1980s classic and is regarded as the group's best song by some critics.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: Early in 1982, the group were awarded 'best group' at the "Daily Mirror" Rock and Pop awards ceremony and received a nomination at the Brit awards. In March they released their fifth single, "My Camera Never Lies", which swiftly climbed the charts and became their third number-one single. With this they became the first British group of the 1980s to score three number ones within a year. Further success followed in May with the group's second studio album, "Are You Ready", which went Gold and became their first top-ten album. This album received particularly good reviews, including a 10-out-of-10 rating in "Smash Hits". Attempting diversity, a mostly a cappella ballad, "Now Those Days Are Gone", was released as the next single, giving the group another top-ten hit, reaching No. 8 in the UK charts. Soon after this, Bucks Fizz were invited to appear before the Queen and Queen Mother in the 1982 Royal Variety Performance, performing the old standard "You'll Never Walk Alone".


title: Bucks Fizz

text: In February 1983, Bucks Fizz arrived in Chile for the promotion of their Spanish album. They performed in the music festival "Festival Internacional de la Canción de Viña del Mar", which was broadcast in Chile and many countries in South America, as well as in Spain. In the UK, chart success continued with the release of the hit singles "If You Can't Stand the Heat" and "Run for Your Life". The group's third studio album, "Hand Cut", was released in March 1983, becoming another top-twenty hit and certified silver by the BPI. By this stage, although Bucks Fizz faced harsh criticism in the media for their lightweight pop image, the music press were acknowledging the group's highly polished performances and sturdy productions, gaining favourable mentions in the "NME" and "Record Mirror". With an eye to harden their sound, the group's next single, "When We Were Young", featured a heavy production and doom-laden lyrics. With a rock-style lead vocal by member Jay Aston, the single became one of the group's biggest hits, featuring in the top 20 of many European countries, including top ten in the UK and top five in France. However, toward the end of 1983, it seemed that the group's success was beginning to dim as singles "London Town" and "Rules of the Game" failed to reach the top twenty — their first singles to miss. Along with these came the group's "Greatest Hits" album, which, despite reaching the top thirty and remaining on the charts for three months, fell short of expectations.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: Early in 1984, the group decided to take time out of the public eye, fearing overexposure for their recent downward trend and instead concentrating on recording in Switzerland. In May, they embarked on a 40-date tour of the UK, selling out many venues. In August they revealed their new look and new harder-edged rock sound with the single "Talking in Your Sleep". The break proved to be advantageous, as this single returned the group to the UK top 20, peaking at No. 15. The follow-up single "Golden Days" was released alongside group's fourth studio album, "I Hear Talk". The group had recorded "What’s Love Got To Do With It" for inclusion on the album, but the track was omitted when Tina Turner released her version first. The group saw their fortunes tumble once again, as neither the album or "Golden Days" dented the top 40. As Christmas 1984 came around, the group embarked on another UK tour and released the album's title single, a minor hit that reached No. 34.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: On 11 December 1984, while on tour and returning from a sold-out gig in Newcastle, the group's tour bus was extensively damaged after colliding with an articulated lorry. While no one was killed, several members of the crew were badly injured, including all the members of Bucks Fizz. Bobby G was treated for whiplash, Jay Aston was hospitalised for back injuries and severe head pains and Cheryl Baker broke three vertebrae in her spine, but it was Mike Nolan who suffered the worst injuries. Nolan's head was badly injured with internal bleeding and he fell into a coma. After an operation, he was reported to have died on the operating table but placed on a life support machine. He remained in a coma for three days whilst the British press kept Bucks Fizz on the front-page headlines. Surgeon Anthony Strong at Newcastle General Hospital said that Nolan's condition was critical. On 15 December, it was reported that Nolan awoke from his coma with the words "I'm all right". Following this, Nolan was ordered not to work for the next six months. The effects of the crash remain with him today, including epilepsy, short-term memory loss and a 50% loss of vision in both eyes. Following this, Baker and Nolan helped set up the HeadFirst charity for crash victims suffering head injuries.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: On 12 December 2009, the original Bucks Fizz (Nolan, Baker and Aston) played a benefit concert for HeadFirst at Newcastle City Hall to commemorate the 25th anniversary of the accident — the same venue they played the night of the crash. The anniversary of the crash was reported on local BBC News, with the members revisiting the crash location.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: With Nolan recuperating during early 1985, the group returned to recording and released their next single in June. However, within the group, tensions had mounted to the point that Jay Aston no longer wanted to continue. After early promotion and a concert in Newcastle, she sensationally quit the group, despite still being under contract. Again, Bucks Fizz found themselves the subject of newspaper headlines, this time with the revelation that Aston had been having an affair with Andy Hill — the husband of the group's creator, Nichola Martin. Aston sold her story to the press in an article headlined "The hateful, bitchy world of Bucks Fizz," while member Cheryl Baker was keen to point out that they were never friends. Aston was sued by management over breach of contract while a replacement member was quickly sought to continue promotion for the current single. Auditions were held at the Prince of Wales Theatre, where 800 girls were seen. Eventually, 21-year-old Shelley Preston was given the job and unveiled to the press and TV amid much media attention.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: In early 1986, the group's contract with RCA expired and a new one with Polydor was signed. The first single, "New Beginning (Mamba Seyra)", was released in May and brought the group back to prominence, becoming a top-10 hit and one of their most successful singles. After two more less-successful singles and an album, the group took a break during 1987 and regrouped in 1988. After a successful UK tour, the group released their final chart hit, "Heart of Stone" (later a worldwide hit for Cher) and a compilation album, "The Story So Far". These proved to be the end for Bucks Fizz as a recording group, and after a concert tour in 1989, Preston left the group at the end of the year.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: With the focus on live work and touring, the group continued into the 1990s, now as a three-piece of Baker, G and Nolan. In 1991, celebrating 10 years together, Bucks Fizz released their last album, "Live at Fairfield Halls". By this time, Baker had embarked on a separate and successful career as a television presenter and was eager to start a family. In December 1993, she left the group. Early the following year, keen to keep the group active, Bobby G (who was by then in effect taking over management of the act) and Nolan recruited two newcomers, Heidi Manton (who would later go on to marry G) and Amanda Swarzc. This line-up continued until 1996 when Nolan left and ex-Dollar star David Van Day joined.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: The partnership between G and Van Day proved to be short-lived as the two failed to gel. In 1997, Van Day quit the group after a show in the Falkland Islands. Unable to come to an agreement with G, Van Day teamed up with Mike Nolan and two new female recruits (Lianna Lea and Sally Jacks) to form a new version of Bucks Fizz. Unhappy with the situation, G put an injunction on the name, resulting in the second group to go under the name; "Bucks Fizz starring Mike Nolan and featuring David Van Day". Under Van Day's guidance, this version released a newly recorded "Making Your Mind Up" single as well as an album of re-recorded Bucks Fizz songs. Neither found chart success and the recordings were universally derided by the group's fans.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: By 2001, Nolan too had found it difficult to work with Van Day and left the group. With his then girlfriend, future UK Eurovision representative James Fox and West End performer Sarah J Price, Van Day continued to tour under the moniker "Bucks Fizz", despite never having been a member of the hit-making line-up. By this time, G and co-star (and now wife), Heidi Manton had acquired the legal rights to the name "Bucks Fizz", and brought a case in the High Court against Van Day, at this point Fox and Price hastily left the group Bucks Fizz as a registered UK trade mark was filed in favour of Manton on 25 June 1997 and then registered in 2001 in classes 09 and 41. In 2001, a judge refused to grant a court injunction against Van Day as he had been operating as Bucks Fizz for five years at the time.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: The feud and legal battle between Bobby G and David Van Day as to who had the right to perform under the name "Bucks Fizz" was the subject of a BBC television documentary, "Trouble at the Top". The case was settled out of court in August 2002 when Van Day agreed to call his version of the group "David Van Day's Bucks Fizz Show". This group however was short-lived and soon Van Day returned to performing as Dollar. This chapter of the group's history has been referred to as one of the "messiest break-ups in music history".


title: Bucks Fizz

text: In 2004, BMG Records released all of Bucks Fizz's original studio albums on compact disc, which renewed interest in the group. In 2005, BBC viewers were invited to vote on the most memorable Eurovision moments ever. Bucks Fizz won with the "Making Your Mind Up" skirt-rip routine. A double CD collection of all the group's hits on both RCA and Polydor, "The Ultimate Anthology", came out that summer. In 2006 and 2008, two albums "The Lost Masters" and "The Lost Masters 2" were released. These were made up of previously-unreleased Bucks Fizz material and were well received by fans. In early 2009, a two-hour documentary "The Bucks Fizz Story" was filmed. It featured in-depth interviews from the original group members as well as management and other behind-the-scenes personnel. A DVD of the documentary was released in August 2010 through Glassbeach Media Ltd, and saw a general release in November 2011. During the 2010s the original Bucks Fizz studio albums were released again as double-disc editions.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: In the late 2010s Bucks Fizz continued performing live as well as another line-up performing under the name The Fizz. Cheryl Baker, Mike Nolan and Jay Aston achieved comeback success under this name, recording their first studio album in thirty years with record producer and songwriter Mike Stock of Stock Aitken Waterman fame. "The F-Z of Pop", the group's comeback album reached the top 30 in the UK Albums Chart and was BBC Radio 2's 'album of the week' by Ken Bruce. They have subsequently recorded a Christmas album - "Christmas with the Fizz" and their third album "Smoke & Mirrors" was released on 6 March 2020, helmed again by Mike Stock.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: Original member Bobby G continued up until 2018 as Bucks Fizz with the line-up of Heidi Manton, Tammy Choat and Paul Yates.


title: Bucks Fizz

text: There have been 16 members of the group since its formation in 1981. Bucks Fizz operated as a trio between 1990 and 1993. The only constant member and owner of the legal rights to use the name of the group was Robert Gubby (a.k.a. Bobby G).


title: Café Minamdang

text: Café Minamdang () is a 2022 South Korean television series starring Seo In-guk, Oh Yeon-seo, Kwak Si-yang, Kang Mi-na, and Kwon Soo-hyun. It is based on a web novel titled "Minamdang: Case Note" by writer Jung Jae-ha, which was serialized on KakaoPage and won the grand prize at the platform's web novel contest. It aired from June 27 to August 23, 2022 on KBS2's Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:50 (KST) time slot. It is also available for streaming on Netflix in selected regions.


title: Café Minamdang

text: The series follows the mysterious events experienced by a former profiler who became a shaman, and his colleagues. It also tells the story of a suspicious café named Minamdang and its customers.


title: Café Minamdang

text: On March 29, 2022, Seo In-guk's agency announced that the actor temporarily halted filming for "Café Minamdang" after testing positive for COVID-19.


title: 21 Laps Entertainment

text: 21 Laps Entertainment is an American film and television production company founded and run by director-producer Shawn Levy. The company is best known as the producers of "Stranger Things", and exclusively distributes content through a partnership with Netflix.


title: 21 Laps Entertainment

text: It is also known for producing films like "Arrival", "Free Guy", "The Adam Project", "Cheaper by the Dozen", "The Spectacular Now", "Real Steel", and the "Night at the Museum" franchise.


title: 21 Laps Entertainment

text: In 1999, Shawn Levy, who after his start on television incorporated and founded the company as Wunjo, Inc. It was in-name only from the beginning until 2005. Levy made his breakout role as a film director on "Big Fat Liar", "Just Married", and "Cheaper by the Dozen".


title: 21 Laps Entertainment

text: In 2003, Levy, after the success of his aforementioned feature films, launched his own production company with a first-look deal at 20th Century Fox Television. The deal was to produce half-hour sitcoms and hour-long dramas.


title: 21 Laps Entertainment

text: In 2005, Levy rebranded the studio to 21 Laps Entertainment and it signed a non-exclusive deal with 20th Century Fox to produce their films. The film division would be run by Tom McNulty, formerly employee from Happy Madison Productions, and its television division by J.J. Klein. The first two products were "Cheaper by the Dozen 2" and "Pepper Dennis".


title: 21 Laps Entertainment

text: In 2010, Levy and Marty Adelstein signed on to form a television company called 21 Laps/Adelstein Productions, and they signed a deal with 20th Century Fox Television and hired Becky Clements to serve as president.


title: 21 Laps Entertainment

text: In 2014, both Levy and Adelstein parted ways, with the latter launching Tomorrow Studios as a joint venture with ITV Studios.


title: 21 Laps Entertainment

text: One of the company's most recent television projects, "Stranger Things", premiered on Netflix in July 2016 and achieved critical acclaim, earning a 95% on Rotten Tomatoes with 55 out of 58 reviews being positive. The show's first season was also one of Netflix's most watched series, averaging 14.07 million adults 18–49 in its first 35 days. Along with producing the series, Levy directed two of the premiere season's episodes. The third season premiered on July 4, 2019 and the fourth season premiered in two parts on May 27, 2022 and July 1, 2022. Also, it has recently been renewed for an fifth and final season. More recently, the company signed a first look deal with Netflix.


title: Asobi Asobase

text: The series centers on Hanako Honda, Olivia and Kasumi Nomura, second-year students at an all-girls middle school and the only three members of the Pastimers Club, a not officially recognized club. The club has very ambiguous goals, usually consisting of whatever so-called "pastimes" the girls happen to think up.


title: Asobi Asobase

text: "Asobi Asobase", written and illustrated by Rin Suzukawa, began serialization on Hakusensha's "Young Animal Densi" website on June 26, 2015, which was later replaced by Hakusensha's "Manga Park" website on August 1, 2017. The series has also been published in "Young Animal" since November 25, 2016. The series finished serialization on November 11, 2022. Hakusensha collected its chapters in fifteen "tankōbon" volumes, released from February 29, 2016, to November 29, 2022.


title: Asobi Asobase

text: A 12-episode anime television series adaptation, directed by Seiji Kishi and animated by Lerche, aired from July 8 to September 23, 2018. The scripts were written by Yuko Kakihara and the music was composed by Masato Koda. The opening theme song is , while the ending theme song is , both by Hina Kino, Rika Nagae and Konomi Kohara. Crunchyroll streamed the series outside Asia. In Southeast Asia and South Asia, Muse Communication licensed the series and streamed it on Muse Asia YouTube channel. An original video animation episode was bundled with the manga's seventh volume on December 26, 2018.


title: Project Pat

text: Patrick Earl Houston (born February 8, 1973), better known by his stage name Project Pat, is an American rapper from Memphis, Tennessee. He is the older brother of Juicy J, the co-founder of Three 6 Mafia.


title: Project Pat

text: Houston was formerly a member of hip hop group the Kaze, joining the group in 1998 the same year that the album "KamiKaze Timez Up" was released.


title: Project Pat

text: Project Pat began his career with appearances on his brother Juicy J's early releases with DJ Paul in the early 1990s. After serving several years in prison for robbery charges and disappearing from recording, he re-emerged in 1999 with the solo album "Ghetty Green", released on his brother's Hypnotize Minds label. He became an affiliated member of Juicy and Paul's group Three 6 Mafia, and first gained mainstream attention when he provided the hook for the group's hit single "Sippin' on Some Syrup" in 2000.


title: Project Pat

text: Houston released his second studio album "" on February 13, 2001. The singles "Chickenhead" and "Don't Save Her" gained national radio airplay, along with music videos appearing on BET and MTV.


title: Project Pat

text: Shortly after the release of "Mista Don't Play", Houston was charged with a parole violation and began a four-year prison sentence after unlicensed guns were discovered in his car during a traffic stop. His third album "Layin' Da Smack Down" was released in 2002 shortly after the beginning of the sentence and featured a video made for "Make Dat Azz Clap".


title: Project Pat

text: After his release from prison in 2005 he released "" which came in on #64 on the "Billboard" 200, selling about 40,000 copies in its first week. The first single off the album was "Good Googly Moogly" featuring DJ Paul and Juicy J.


title: Project Pat

text: After Houston was released from his deal with Columbia he signed with Koch, now known as E1. His 5th studio album "Walkin' Bank Roll was" released in 2007 and debuted at #45 on the "Billboard" 200. The lead single from the album was "Don't Call Me No Mo'" featuring Three 6 Mafia. His 6th studio album "Real Recognize Real" was his 1st major release for the label Asylum Records. The album featured the hit single "Keep It Hood" featuring OJ da Juiceman. It debuted at #8 on the Top Rap Albums Chart, with about 10,000 copies sold in the 1st week of release. On July 19, 2011, Houston released his 7th studio album "Loud Pack" on Hypnotize Minds & his newly founded label Project.


title: Project Pat

text: On March 28, 2013, Houston announced that his next album would be titled "Mista Don't Play 2". The album will also be released by E1 Music, the first single will be "Be A G", and feature Juicy J, along with the late Doe B. Juicy J is also producing half of the album. The album was released April 14, 2015, on E1 Music.


title: Project Pat

text: On August 15, 2016, Houston appeared on the J. Sims song Visa, which appeared on the Mattrix Mixtape: We're Going Worldwide, Vol 5 compilation, presented by Matthew Rix. He announced a mixtape titled "M.O.B." which was released on September 8, 2017.


title: Project Pat

text: In 2021, Project Pat was featured on the single "Knife Talk" on Drake's album Certified Lover Boy which reached position 4 of the Billboard Hot 100.


title: Project Pat

text: Although Project Pat never talked about his personal life; but from the sources of his Instagram handle he was married to Alicia Evans-Houston on April 1, 2018. His wife Alicia Posted some of her marriage photos on his Facebook page and captioned that "Been a long month already". The rapper also wishing a happy anniversary after one year of his marriage.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: The Wankhede Stadium (pronounced ]) is an international cricket stadium in Mumbai, India. It is the home ground of Mumbai cricket team and IPL franchise Mumbai Indians.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: This stadium is situated near the Marine drive-Arabian Sea in the Churchgate area of South Mumbai in Maharashtra.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: BCCI, IPL and Mumbai Cricket Association's headquarter, Cricket centre is situated in the premises of this stadium.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: The stadium now has a capacity of 33,108, following renovations for the 2011 Cricket World Cup. Before the upgrade, the capacity was approximately 45,000. By playing field area, it is one the smallest cricket ground in the world.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: Many old cricket clubs are situated near Wankhede such as Hindu Gymkhana, Parsi Gymkhana and Cricket Club of India with their respective historic grounds.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: The stadium has been host to numerous high-profile cricket matches in the past, most notably the 2011 Cricket World Cup Final, in which India defeated Sri Lanka and became the first country to win the cricket world cup on home soil. The stadium played host to the last match of Sachin Tendulkar's international career. Additionally, it hosted many matches during the 1996 and 2011 Cricket World Cups. The stadium also played host to the match in which Ravi Shastri hit six sixes in an over of Tilak Raj.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: Mumbai has seen Test matches played at three different grounds. The Mumbai Gymkhana ground hosted the first-ever Test in India, in 1933–34 against England. After World War II, the Cricket Club of India Ltd's Brabourne Stadium – the second ground of the city – was used for 17 Tests. The Wankhede Stadium was built after disputes between the Cricket Club of India, which owns the Brabourne Stadium, and the Bombay Cricket Association (now Mumbai Cricket Association) over the allocation of tickets for cricket matches. This became severe after the Test between India and England in 1973. At the initiative of S. K. Wankhede, a politician and the secretary of the Mumbai Cricket Association, BCA built the new stadium in South Bombay (now South Mumbai) near the Churchgate station. It was built in approx. 13 months and opened in time for the final Test between India and the West Indies in 1975. Since then the Wankhede stadium has taken over from Brabourne Stadium as the main cricketing venue in the city. It was named after Wankhede in 1974.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: The Wankhede stadium staged its first Test in the 1974–75 season when the West Indies toured India. Clive Lloyd scored an unbeaten 242 and in Pataudi's last hurrah, India lost by 201 runs. The Test also featured a crowd disturbance after a fan who rushed onto the ground to greet Lloyd was treated roughly by the police. India's first victory here was posted against the New Zealand two seasons later. The stadium has been a witness to great innings like Sunil Gavaskar's 205 against the West Indies and Alvin Kallicharan's 187 in the same game in the 1978–79 series and all-round heroics like Ian Botham's century and thirteen wickets in the Jubilee Test in 1979–80, which England won by ten wickets. The highest score by an Indian at the Wankhede Stadium is Virat Kohli's 235 against England in 2016–17. Incidentally Ravi Shastri's six sixes in an over off Baroda's Tilak Raj in Ranji Trophy, en route to the fastest double-hundred in first-class cricket were recorded on this ground in 1984–85. His unbeaten 200 in 113 minutes off 123 balls with 13 fours and 13 sixes at this ground is the fastest double century in first-class cricket since the 2017–18 season when Shafiqullah Shafaq scored a double century in 89 balls.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: The Wankhede Stadium was built in 1975 and the first Test match played was between India and West Indies from 23 to 28 January 1975. The Stadium was built at a time when only Test Matches were played and with the advent of One Day, Cricket and Twenty 20 Cricket, the demands of a Stadium from a spectator's point of view have totally changed.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: Since ICC World Cup Cricket 2011 was to be hosted by India, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka, and Mumbai was selected to host the final, it was decided to redevelop the Wankhede Stadium to suit the modern facilities and comfort of spectators.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: The Managing Committee invited presentations from reputed Architects and shortlisted M/s. P.K. Das & Associates and M/s. Shashi Prabhu & Associates to jointly draw up a project for the redevelopment of the Wankhede Stadium. While redeveloping the Stadium, major changes were at the North end and the South end with better facilities for the spectators in terms of bucket seating, a large number of toilets, and food courts.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: While MCA undertook the redevelopment of Wankhede Stadium, the ground was not available for domestic and international cricket until February 2011. In order to ensure that MCA did not miss out on the turn of Test and ODI matches and also to develop a healthy working relationship with the Cricket Club of India.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: One of the highlights of the stadium is the suspended cantilever roofs. The Teflon fabric roof is lighter in weight and heat resistant. There is no beam support for the roof to ensure that the spectators will have a better view.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: On the roof, there are exhaust fans that suck the hot air from the stands and allow the breeze from the West to flow in. The stadium has 20 elevators for North and South stands.


title: Wankhede Stadium

text: This stadium has hosted 20 One Day International (ODI) matches every time that India has hosted the Cricket World Cup:


title: Luna (goddess)

text: In ancient Roman religion and myth, Luna is the divine embodiment of the Moon (Latin "Lūna" ). She is often presented as the female complement of the Sun, Sol, conceived of as a god. Luna is also sometimes represented as an aspect of the Roman triple goddess ("diva triformis"), along with Proserpina and Hecate. "Luna" is not always a distinct goddess, but sometimes rather an epithet that specializes a goddess, since both Diana and Juno are identified as moon goddesses.


title: Luna (goddess)

text: In Roman art, Luna attributes are the crescent moon plus the two-yoke chariot ("biga"). In the "Carmen Saeculare", performed in 17 BC, Horace invokes her as the "two-horned queen of the stars" ("siderum regina bicornis"), bidding her to listen to the girls singing as Apollo listens to the boys.


title: Luna (goddess)

text: Varro categorized Luna and Sol among the visible gods, as distinguished from invisible gods such as Neptune, and deified mortals such as Hercules. She was one of the deities Macrobius proposed as the secret tutelary of Rome. In Imperial cult, Sol and Luna can represent the extent of Roman rule over the world, with the aim of guaranteeing peace.


title: Luna (goddess)

text: Luna's Greek counterpart was Selene. In Roman art and literature, myths of Selene are adapted under the name of Luna. The myth of Endymion, for instance, was a popular subject for Roman wall painting.


title: Luna (goddess)

text: Varro lists Luna among twelve deities who are vital to agriculture, as does Vergil in a different list of twelve, in which he refers to Luna and Sol as "clarissima mundi lumina", the world's clearest sources of light. Varro also lists Luna among twenty principal gods of Rome ("di selecti"). In this list, Luna is distinguished from both Diana and Juno, who also appear on it.


title: Luna (goddess)

text: The Romans dated the cultivation of Luna as a goddess at Rome to the semi-legendary days of the kings. Titus Tatius was supposed to have imported the cult of Luna to Rome from the Sabines, but Servius Tullius was credited with the creation of the Temple of Luna on the Aventine Hill, just below a temple of Diana. The anniversary of the temple founding ("dies natalis") was celebrated annually on March 31. It first appears in Roman literature in the story of how in 182 BC a windstorm of exceptional power blew off its doors, which crashed into the Temple of Ceres below it on the slope. In 84 BC, it was struck by lightning, the same day the popularist leader Cinna was murdered by his troops. The Aventine temple may have been destroyed by the Great Fire of Rome during the reign of Nero.


title: Luna (goddess)

text: As Noctiluna ("Night-Shiner") Luna had a temple on the Palatine Hill, which Varro described as shining or glowing by night. Nothing else is known about the temple, and it is unclear what Varro meant.


title: Luna (goddess)

text: The Kalends of every month, when according to the lunar calendar the new moon occurred, was sacred to Juno, as all Ides were to Jupiter. On the Nones, she was honored as Juno Covella, Juno of the crescent moon. Both Juno and Diana were invoked as childbirth goddesses with the epithet "Lucina".


title: Luna (goddess)

text: Luna is often depicted driving a two-yoke chariot called a "biga", drawn by horses or oxen. In Roman art, the charioteer Luna is regularly paired with the Sun driving a four-horse chariot ("quadriga").


title: Luna (goddess)

text: Isidore of Seville explains that the "quadriga" represents the sun's course through the four seasons, while the "biga" represents the Moon, "because it travels on a twin course with the sun, or because it is visible both by day and by night—for they yoke together one black horse and one white."


title: Luna (goddess)

text: Luna in her "biga" was an element of Mithraic iconography, usually in the context of the tauroctony. In the mithraeum of S. Maria Capua Vetere, a wall painting that uniquely focuses on Luna alone shows one of the horses of the team as light in color, with the other a dark brown.


title: Luna (goddess)

text: A "biga" of oxen was also driven by Hecate, the chthonic aspect of the triple goddess in complement with the "horned" or crescent-crowned Diana and Luna. The three-form Hecate ("trimorphos") was identified by Servius with Luna, Diana, and Proserpina. According to the Archaic Greek poet Hesiod, Hecate originally had power over the heavens, land, and sea, not as in the later tradition Heaven, Earth, and underworld.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: Aurelia aurita (also called the common jellyfish, moon jellyfish, moon jelly or saucer jelly) is a species of the genus "Aurelia". All species in the genus are very similar, and it is difficult to identify "Aurelia" medusae without genetic sampling; most of what follows applies equally to all species of the genus. The most common method used to identify the species consists of selecting a jellyfish from a harbour using a device, usually a drinking glass and then photographing the subject. This means that they can be released in to the harbour shortly afterwards and return to their natural habitat.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: The jellyfish is almost entirely translucent, usually about in diameter, and can be recognized by its four horseshoe-shaped gonads, easily seen through the top of the bell. It feeds by collecting medusae, plankton, and mollusks with its tentacles, and bringing them into its body for digestion. It is capable of only limited motion, and drifts with the current, even when swimming.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: The species "Aurelia aurita" is found in the North, Black, Baltic and Caspian Seas, Northeast Atlantic, Greenland, northeastern USA and Canada, Northwest Pacific and South America. In general, "Aurelia" is an inshore genus that can be found in estuaries and harbors.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: "Aurelia aurita" lives in ocean water temperatures ranging from ; with optimum temperatures of . It prefers temperate seas with consistent currents. It has been found in waters with salinity as low as 6 parts per thousand.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: The relation between summer hypoxia and moon jellyfish distribution is prominent during the summer months of July and August where temperatures are high and dissolved oxygen (DO) is low. Of the three environmental conditions tested, bottom DO has the most significant effect on moon jellyfish abundance. Moon jellyfish abundance is the highest when bottom dissolved oxygen concentration is lower than 2.0 mg L. Moon jellyfish show a strong tolerance to low DO conditions, which is why their population is still relatively high during the summer. Generally, hypoxia causes species to move from the oxygen depleted zone, but this is not the case for the moon jellyfish. Furthermore, bell contract rate, which indicates moon jellyfish feeding activity, remains constant although DO concentrations are lower than normal. During July and August it is observed that moon jellyfish aggregations of 250 individuals consumed an estimated 100% of the mesozooplankton biomass in the Seto Inland Sea. Other major fish predators that are also present in these coastal waters do not seem to show the same high tolerance to low DO concentrations that the moon jellyfish exhibit. The feeding and predatory performance of these fish significantly decreases when DO concentrations are so low. This allows for less competition between the moon jellyfish and other fish predators for zooplankton. Low DO concentrations in the coastal waters such as the Tokyo Bay in Japan and Seto Inland Sea prove to be advantageous for the moon jellyfish in terms of feeding, growth, and survival.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: "Aurelia aurita" and other "Aurelia" species feed on plankton that includes organisms such as mollusks, crustaceans, tunicate larvae, rotifers, young polychaetes, protozoans, diatoms, eggs, fish eggs, and other small organisms. Occasionally, they are also seen feeding on gelatinous zooplankton such as hydromedusae and ctenophores. Both the adult medusae and larvae of "Aurelia" have nematocysts to capture prey and also to protect themselves from predators.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: The food is caught with its nematocyst-laden tentacles, tied with mucus, brought to the gastrovascular cavity, and passed into the cavity by ciliated action. There, digestive enzymes from serous cell break down the food. Little is known about the requirements for particular vitamins and minerals, but due to the presence of some digestive enzymes, we can deduce in general that "A. aurita" can process carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: "Aurelia" does not have respiratory parts such as gills, lungs or trachea; it respires by diffusing oxygen from water through the thin membrane covering its body. Within the gastrovascular cavity, low oxygenated water can be expelled and high oxygenated water can come in by ciliated action, thus increasing the diffusion of oxygen through cell. The large surface area membrane to volume ratio helps "Aurelia" to diffuse more oxygen and nutrients into the cells.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: The basic body plan of "Aurelia" consists of several parts. The animal lacks respiratory, excretory, and circulatory systems. The adult medusa of "Aurelia", with a transparent look, has an umbrella margin membrane and tentacles that are attached to the bottom. It has four bright gonads that are under the stomach. Food travels through the muscular manubrium while the radial canals help disperse the food. There is a middle layer of mesoglea, gastrodervascular cavity with gastrodermis, and epidermis. There is a nerve net that is responsible for contractions in swimming muscles and feeding responses. Adult medusae can have diameters up to .


title: Aurelia aurita

text: The medusae are either male or female. The young larval stage, a planula, has small ciliated cells and after swimming freely in the plankton for a day or more, settles on an appropriate substrate, where it changes into a special type of polyp called a "scyphistoma", which divides by strobilation into small ephyrae that swim off to grow up as medusae. There is an increasing size from starting stage planula to ephyra, from less than 1 mm in the planula stage, up to about 1 cm in ephyra stage, and then to several cm in diameter in the medusa stage.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: A recent study has found that "A. aurita" are capable of lifecycle reversal where individuals grow younger instead of older, akin to the "immortal jellyfish" "Turritopsis dohrnii".


title: Aurelia aurita

text: There has been a study presenting that "Aurelia"s body system isn't significantly affected by artificial materials like microbeads, which can be found in cosmetic and personal care products. "Aurelia aurita" was able to recognize that microbeads were not food so there wasn't any physiological or histological harm.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: "Aurelia aurita" have high proportions of polyunsaturated fatty acids comparative to other prey types which provides vital nutritions to predators. "Aurelia aurita" are known to be eaten by a wide variety of predators, including the ocean sunfish ("Mola mola"), the leatherback sea turtle ("Dermochelys coriacea"), the scyphomedusa "Phacellophora camtschatica", and a very large hydromedusa ("Aequorea victoria"). Recently it was reported from the Red Sea that "Aurelia aurita" was seasonally preyed upon by two herbivorous fish. Moon jellies are also fed upon by sea birds, which may be more interested in the amphipods and other small arthropods that frequent the bells of "Aurelia", but in any case, birds do some substantial amount of damage to these jellyfish that often are found just at the surface of bays.


title: Aurelia aurita

text: "Aurelia" jellyfish naturally die after living and reproducing for several months. It is probably rare for these moon jellies to live more than about six months in the wild, although specimens cared for in public aquarium exhibits typically live several to many years. In the wild, the warm water at the end of summer combines with exhaustive daily reproduction and lower natural levels of food for tissue repair, leaving these jellyfish more susceptible to bacterial and other disease problems that likely lead to the demise of most individuals. Such problems are responsible for the demise of many smaller species of jellyfish. In 1997, Arai summarized that seasonal reproduction leaves the gonads open to infection and degradation.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: In phonetics, aspiration is the strong burst of breath that accompanies either the release or, in the case of preaspiration, the closure of some obstruents. In English, aspirated consonants are allophones in complementary distribution with their unaspirated counterparts, but in some other languages, notably most South Asian languages (including Indian) and East Asian languages, the difference is contrastive.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: In dialects with aspiration, to feel or see the difference between aspirated and unaspirated sounds, one can put a hand or a lit candle in front of one's mouth, and say "spin" and then "pin" . One should either feel a puff of air or see a flicker of the candle flame with "pin" that one does not get with "spin".


title: Aspirated consonant

text: In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), aspirated consonants are written using the symbols for voiceless consonants followed by the aspiration modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiceless glottal fricative . For instance, represents the voiceless bilabial stop, and represents the aspirated bilabial stop.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Voiced consonants are seldom actually aspirated. Symbols for voiced consonants followed by , such as , typically represent consonants with murmured voiced release (see below). In the grammatical tradition of Sanskrit, aspirated consonants are called voiceless aspirated, and breathy-voiced consonants are called voiced aspirated.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: There are no dedicated IPA symbols for degrees of aspiration and typically only two degrees are marked: unaspirated and aspirated . An old symbol for light aspiration was , but this is now obsolete. The aspiration modifier letter may be doubled to indicate especially strong or long aspiration. Hence, the two degrees of aspiration in Korean stops are sometimes transcribed or and , but they are usually transcribed and , with the details of voice onset time given numerically.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Preaspirated consonants are marked by placing the aspiration modifier letter before the consonant symbol: represents the preaspirated bilabial stop.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Unaspirated or tenuis consonants are occasionally marked with the modifier letter for unaspiration , a superscript equals sign: . Usually, however, unaspirated consonants are left unmarked: .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Voiceless consonants are produced with the vocal folds open (spread) and not vibrating, and voiced consonants are produced when the vocal folds are fractionally closed and vibrating (modal voice). Voiceless aspiration occurs when the vocal folds remain open after a consonant is released. An easy way to measure this is by noting the consonant's voice onset time, as the voicing of a following vowel cannot begin until the vocal folds close.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: In some languages, such as Navajo, aspiration of stops tends to be phonetically realised as voiceless velar airflow; aspiration of affricates is realised as an extended length of the frication.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Aspirated consonants are not always followed by vowels or other voiced sounds. For example, in Eastern Armenian, aspiration is contrastive even word-finally, and aspirated consonants occur in consonant clusters. In Wahgi, consonants are aspirated only when they are in final position.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: The degree of aspiration varies: the voice onset time of aspirated stops is longer or shorter depending on the language or the place of articulation.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Armenian and Cantonese have aspiration that lasts about as long as English aspirated stops, in addition to unaspirated stops. Korean has lightly-aspirated stops that fall between the Armenian and Cantonese unaspirated and aspirated stops as well as strongly-aspirated stops whose aspiration lasts longer than that of Armenian or Cantonese. (See voice onset time.)


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Aspiration varies with place of articulation. The Spanish voiceless stops have voice onset times (VOTs) of about 5, 10, and 30 milliseconds, and English aspirated have VOTs of about 60, 70, and 80 ms. Voice onset time in Korean has been measured at 20, 25, and 50 ms for and 90, 95, and 125 for .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: When aspirated consonants are doubled or geminated, the stop is held longer and then has an aspirated release. An aspirated affricate consists of a stop, fricative, and aspirated release. A doubled aspirated affricate has a longer hold in the stop portion and then has a release consisting of the fricative and aspiration.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Icelandic and Faroese have consonants with preaspiration , and some scholars interpret them as consonant clusters as well. In Icelandic, preaspirated stops contrast with double stops and single stops:


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Preaspirated stops also occur in most Sami languages. For example, in Northern Sami, the unvoiced stop and affricate phonemes , , , , are pronounced preaspirated (, , , ) in medial or final position.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Although most aspirated obstruents in the world's languages are stops and affricates, aspirated fricatives such as , or have been documented in Korean, though these are allophones of other phonemes. Similarly, aspirated fricatives and even aspirated nasals, approximants, and trills occur in a few Tibeto-Burman languages, in some Oto-Manguean languages, in the Hmongic language Hmu, and in the Siouan language Ofo. Some languages, such as Choni Tibetan, have as many as four contrastive aspirated fricatives , and .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: True aspirated voiced consonants, as opposed to murmured (breathy-voice) consonants such as the that are common among the languages of India, are extremely rare. They have been documented in Kelabit.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Aspiration has varying significance in different languages. It is either allophonic or phonemic, and may be analyzed as an underlying consonant cluster.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: In some languages, such as English, aspiration is allophonic. Stops are distinguished primarily by voicing, and voiceless stops are sometimes aspirated, while voiced stops are usually unaspirated.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: English voiceless stops are aspirated for most native speakers when they are word-initial or begin a stressed syllable. Pronouncing them as unaspirated in these positions, as is done by many Indian English speakers, may make them get confused with the corresponding voiced stop by other English-speakers. Conversely, this confusion does not happen with the native speakers of languages which have aspirated and unaspirated but not voiced stops, such as Mandarin Chinese.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: S+consonant clusters may vary between aspirated and nonaspirated depending upon if the cluster crosses a morpheme boundary or not. For instance, "distend" has unaspirated since it is not analyzed as two morphemes, but "distaste" has an aspirated middle because it is analyzed as "dis-" + "taste" and the word "taste" has an aspirated initial "t".


title: Aspirated consonant

text: In many languages, such as Armenian, Korean, Lakota, Thai, Indo-Aryan languages, Dravidian languages, Icelandic, Faroese, Ancient Greek, and the varieties of Chinese, tenuis and aspirated consonants are phonemic. Unaspirated consonants like and aspirated consonants like are separate phonemes, and words are distinguished by whether they have one or the other.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Alemannic German dialects have unaspirated as well as aspirated ; the latter series are usually viewed as consonant clusters.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: In Danish and most southern varieties of German, the lenis consonants transcribed for historical reasons as are distinguished from their fortis counterparts , mainly in their lack of aspiration.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: French, Standard Dutch, Afrikaans, Turkish, Tamil, Finnish, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Russian, Polish, Latvian and Modern Greek are languages that do not have phonetic aspirated consonants.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Standard Chinese (Mandarin) has stops and affricates distinguished by aspiration: for instance, , . In pinyin, tenuis stops are written with letters that represent voiced consonants in English, and aspirated stops with letters that represent voiceless consonants. Thus "d" represents , and "t" represents .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Wu Chinese and Southern Min has a three-way distinction in stops and affricates: . In addition to aspirated and unaspirated consonants, there is a series of "muddy consonants", like . These are pronounced with slack or breathy voice: that is, they are weakly voiced. Muddy consonants as initial cause a syllable to be pronounced with low pitch or "light" (陽 "yáng") tone.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Many Indo-Aryan languages have aspirated stops. Sanskrit, Hindustani, Bengali, Marathi, and Gujarati have a four-way distinction in stops: voiceless, aspirated, voiced, and breathy-voiced or voiced aspirated, such as . Punjabi has lost breathy-voiced consonants, which resulted in a tone system, and therefore has a distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced: .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Some of the Dravidian languages, such as Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada, have a distinction between voiced and voiceless, aspirated and unaspirated only in loanwords from Indo-Aryan languages. In native Dravidian words, there is no distinction between these categories and stops are underspecified for voicing and aspiration.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Classical and Eastern Armenian have a three-way distinction between voiceless, aspirated, and voiced, such as .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Western Armenian has a two-way distinction between aspirated and voiced: . Western Armenian aspirated corresponds to Eastern Armenian aspirated and voiced , and Western voiced corresponds to Eastern voiceless .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Ancient Greek, including the Classical Attic and Koine Greek dialects, had a three-way distinction in stops like Eastern Armenian: . These series were called , , ("psilá, daséa, mésa") "smooth, rough, intermediate", respectively, by Koine Greek grammarians.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: There were aspirated stops at three places of articulation: labial, coronal, and velar . Earlier Greek, represented by Mycenaean Greek, likely had a labialized velar aspirated stop , which later became labial, coronal, or velar depending on dialect and phonetic environment.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: The other Ancient Greek dialects, Ionic, Doric, Aeolic, and Arcadocypriot, likely had the same three-way distinction at one point, but Doric seems to have had a fricative in place of in the Classical period.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Later, during the Koine and Medieval Greek periods, the aspirated and voiced stops of Attic Greek lenited to voiceless and voiced fricatives, yielding in Medieval and Modern Greek. Cypriot Greek is notable for aspirating its inherited (and developed across word-boundaries) voiceless geminate stops, yielding the series /pʰː tʰː cʰː kʰː/.


title: Aspirated consonant

text: The term "aspiration" sometimes refers to the sound change of debuccalization, in which a consonant is lenited (weakened) to become a glottal stop or fricative .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: So-called voiced aspirated consonants are nearly always pronounced instead with breathy voice, a type of phonation or vibration of the vocal folds. The modifier letter after a voiced consonant actually represents a breathy-voiced or murmured dental stop, as with the "voiced aspirated" bilabial stop in the Indo-Aryan languages. This consonant is therefore more accurately transcribed as , with the diacritic for breathy voice, or with the modifier letter , a superscript form of the symbol for the voiced glottal fricative .


title: Aspirated consonant

text: Some linguists restrict the double-dot subscript to murmured sonorants, such as vowels and nasals, which are murmured throughout their duration, and use the superscript hook-aitch for the breathy-voiced release of obstruents.


title: Anno (video game series)

text: Anno is a real-time strategy, economic simulation video game series, conceived in 1998 by Max Design. The series focuses on players establishing colonies on a series of small islands, conducting exploration of the region, diplomacy and trade with other civilisations and traders, while managing resources and engaging in combat both on land and sea. Most games in the series take place during Renaissance and Empire-building historical periods of Earth's history, with cultures, architecture and customs based upon real-life elements from these periods, though in-game civilisations tend to be neutral from exact nations.


title: Anno (video game series)

text: Each game in the series is mainly a stand-alone title, featuring the same level of reoccurring gameplay mechanics, though with each installment amending existing gameplay mechanics and adding new features, with expansions packs adding in further content. Initial games mainly focused on two modes of gameplay, with players able to operate in single-player or multiplayer over LAN or online connections, while later titles added in a campaign mode of several missions, each featuring their own unique storyline - plots usually focus on players becoming involved in a major incident while beginning life as the ruler of a small island.


title: Anno (video game series)

text: While primarily developed for PC, the series has also included a variety of spin-off titles mainly for handheld consoles, which in turn feature more simplified game mechanics to those of the main series. Each title over the series' history has featured a variety of different developers and publishers, with the most recent entries being currently developed by Blue Byte and published by Ubisoft. Most entries in the series have received average reviews from critics. The first title, "Anno 1602", was Germany's best-selling computer game of all time as of December 2002, with sales of 2.5 million copies worldwide and 1.7 million in the German market. Its sequel broke its sales-speed record, becoming Germany's fastest full-price computer game to reach 500,000 domestic sales. It ultimately sold over one million units in German-speaking countries, and, when combined with its predecessor, reached 4.5 million sales worldwide by October 2006.


title: Moon Moon Sen

text: Moon Moon Sen, also credited as Moonmoon Sen (born Srimati Sen; 28 March 1954), is an Indian actress, known for her works in Hindi, Bengali, Malayalam, Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Marathi films. She eventually starred in Bollywood films. She has appeared in 60 films and 40 television series. She has received Andhra Pradesh state Nandi Award for Best Supporting Actress in 1987, for her role in the film "Sirivennela".


title: Moon Moon Sen

text: Moon Moon Sen was born in Calcutta (present-day Kolkata) to popular Bengali actress Suchitra Sen and Dibanath Sen. Her father, of Ballygunge Place, was the son of one of the wealthiest businessmen of Kolkata, Adinath Sen. Her great-grandfather Dinanath Sen was the Diwan or a Minister of the Maharaja of Tripura.


title: Moon Moon Sen

text: She was educated at Loreto Convent, Shillong and at Loreto House, Calcutta. She completed her graduation from Somerville College, Oxford and received her master's degree in Comparative Literature from Jadavpur University, Calcutta.