title: Sersi

text: When the Avengers returned to Earth, Sersi fled to Warrior Falls, in Wakanda, trying to escape the guilt and the fear she felt due to her rash actions. The Black Knight found her and convinced her to return to Avengers Headquarters. Sersi said to her lover that she feared she was going insane. Upon her return to Avengers Headquarters, Sersi suddenly attacked her fellow Avengers. She was stopped only by the intervention of the Vision (who was secretly the Anti-Vision, a member of the Gatherers). The real Vision was being held prisoner in Proctor's Andean mountain base.


title: Sersi

text: By this time, Sersi's fellow Eternals had become aware of her unstable nature. Three of them came to her: Ikaris, Arex, and Sprite, to return her to Olympia (the Eternal capital). The Eternals feared Sersi was suffering from the "Mahd W'yry" disease, a breakdown of the mind due to the Eternals extended lives. Sersi rejected their fears as archaic and refused to accompany them back to Olympia. The Avengers also didn't want to let the Eternals take one of their members against her will. They also learned that if Sersi was found to be suffering from the "Mahd W'yry", the Eternals planned to 'cleanse' her of it by molecular disintegration, killing her. Sprite, who had learned of Sersi's relations with the Black Knight, proposed that the Knight be made her "Gann Josin". (a concept the Eternals use to describe an intimate joining of two minds as soulmates in their own personal "Uni-Mind"). Before the matter could be further discussed, Ikaris used his powers as the Prime Eternal to create the link between Sersi and The Black Knight. The Eternals then departed. The Black Knight was not happy with the result, for he had decided that he loved Crystal and not Sersi.


title: Sersi

text: The Avengers, had little time to discuss the situation because they assaulted Proctor's Andean citadel. Then they fought against the Kree suicide squad, In the Genoshan conflict, Sersi fought Exodus. The Avengers also venturing into Deviant Lemuria, in a battle against the mad priest Ghaur, an old enemy of Sersi.


title: Sersi

text: The relations between the teammates continued to worsen, and Sersi remained in her unstable state. The Avengers called on former member Hank Pym to discover the cause of her mental problems. At one point, Sersi confided in the Avengers' butler Jarvis that she had been having dreams about a strange man dressed in black, who was assaulting young men she had befriended. Jarvis probed her further, and Sersi used her powers to pull the image of "Proctor" from her mind. Neither Jarvis nor Sersi had ever seen Proctor and didn't recognize him. Around this time, two police officers questioned Sersi personally. Later, they were found dredged from a river and turned into stone. Sersi was framed for these murders.


title: Sersi

text: Sersi was surprised by this accusation. The Avengers believed her capable of the crimes. When the police attempted to arrest her, Sersi destroyed the Avengers Mansion and fled to the Brooklyn Bridge. In her maddened state, she used the "Gann Josin" link to call the Black Knight to her side, and the two of them prepared to fight the other Avengers. When Sersi threatened Crystal, the Black Knight reacted and broke the Gann Josin bond temporarily. Shocked by this, Sersi destroyed the Brooklyn Bridge.


title: Sersi

text: Confused with her state of mind, Sersi was finally approached by Proctor, who revealed the full extent of his mad plan. Capturing her, Proctor returned to his base of operations in New York and revealed that it was he who was behind her madness and seizures, and it was he who was responsible for the murders of the young men and the police officers. Now, with her full memory returned, Sersi broke free from Proctor's control long enough to stumble upon the villain's trophy room. Here laid Ute, a defeated Watcher (who Proctor used to traverse the multiverse) as well as innumerable Sersi's of other worlds that Proctor had already killed in his mad crusade. With Sersi confused, the Gatherer Rik was able to contain her once again. The Avengers were rescued by the Eternals Thena and Sprite. Based on the description Jarvis gave to them of the man in Sersi's dream, the Avengers concluded that Proctor was responsible for the crimes. They also were approached by Ute on astral form, who warned them that Proctor should be defeated, or all the reality would collapse. The Dane Whitman meanwhile, discovered by computer analysis that Proctor was a version of himself from a different reality. Proctor meanwhile, began his final gambit: using the life energies of Sersi and Ute to collapse the various realities on one another.


title: Sersi

text: The Avengers were joined by Thena and Sprite, and rushed to the scene, only to be confronted by the "Gatherers". While his fellow Avengers fought the various Gatherers, the Black Knight approached Proctor himself, only to be defeated by the Proctor and his Ebony Blade. Sersi and the Watcher looked on from the vortex that contained them as Proctor began to 'gather' the Black Knight's essence into himself, preparing to merge with him. Quicksilver, Crystal's estranged husband, stopped the villain plan. Approaching Proctor, a freed Sersi used the villain's Ebony Blade to kill him. After this, Ute (in his dying breaths) used his powers to undo the damage that had been done to Avengers Mansion, the Brooklyn Bridge, and various other locations, as well as opening a dimensional rift to another reality. Sersi, fearing that the manipulations of Proctor were irreversible, decided to enter this door between worlds, so that she may be able to live free of his madness. With his own mind clear the Black Knight decided to join Sersi in her exile. He felt responsible for the suffering Sersi had endured, and he knew that he couldn't remain in the Avengers if it meant interfering with Quicksilver's attempts to reconcile with Crystal. The two Avengers entered the dimensional rift, traveling to another universe.


title: Sersi

text: The portal brought the duo to the Ultraverse, the home of the "ultras" (a universe created by Malibu Comics). They were separated in the rift, Sersi ended up in Equatorial Africa, while Dane Whitman, found himself in Miami. In the Ultraverse, Sersi was possessed by the spirit of one of the Infinity Gems, the Ego gem.


title: Sersi

text: The Ego gem had been separated from the others many times, and now intended to use Sersi to be reunited with the others. (the gems had also been transported to the Ultraverse, for the actions of the Ultra supervillain "Rune"). Sersi's will proved too strong for the Gem, and her bond with the Black Knight caused her to seek him out. The Ego Gem, gave her one day to make peace with her past.


title: Sersi

text: The Black Knight meanwhile, had found the local Ultraforce, the mightiest heroes of the Ultraverse, like Hardcase, Prime, and Topaz. Learning of Loki's control of the Infinity Gems, the Knight attempted to contact the Avengers, but was foiled when Sersi showed up. Sersi intermediately fought with Topaz, an amazonian queen of Gwendor. The intervention of the Black Knight ended the battle. The Ego Gem, realizing that it could use the Ultraforce to reunite with its 'brothers', forced Sersi to send them after the six other Gems. The Black Knight and Ultraforce failed to wrest the Gems from Loki's control. Sersi used her remaining free will to return them to their base.


title: Sersi

text: Now completely, under the Ego Gem's control, Sersi became aware of the Grandmaster's presence in the Ultraverse. This Elder of the Universe had journeyed to the Ultraverse in an attempt to obtain the Mind gem. Realizing the opportunity, the Ego Gem forced the Grandmaster to do its bidding as well. The Grandmaster approached Loki, and proposed a game. If he won, the Grandmaster would be given the Mind Gem. If Loki won, he would be told the location of the Ego Gem. The game was called Worlds and Warriors, a simplified version of an Earth card game. Instead of cards, however, actual heroes would be used. The Grandmaster had chosen the Avengers, while Loki had chosen Ultraforce. Members of each team were pitted against members of the other. The Avengers, for their part, were told it was to stop Loki, and to save the Black Knight, while the members of Ultraforce were told that the Avengers were part of an invading force. The various battles ended in stalemates, and Loki, used claimed victory. The Grandmaster (slave to the Ego Gem's will), revealed Sersi to Loki. She launched herself at him, and was able to separate him from the Gems before he could act. At this time, the Ego Gem released Sersi from its power. Reuniting with the six other Gems, they were rendered entirely sentient, anthropomorphizing into a cosmic being calling itself Nemesis.


title: Sersi

text: Nemesis wanted to create a new world, and (joining elements from both the Avengers and Ultraforce's worlds) created an amalgam universe. There were too many conflicting elements though, and when Topaz of the Ultraverse made physical contact with Loki, elements from two wildly different continua, the structure snapped. In her panic, Nemesis teleported to the Ultra's Earth, and intended to continue creating there, even if it meant the destruction of the world that was there already. The six other Gems were resisting her though, for the being called Nemesis lacked the controlling influence that was needed to unite them. The Avengers and Ultraforce joined forces to stop her. Creating a diversion, they attacked her together, allowing the Black Knight to get close enough to separate the Gems once more. In the resulting explosion, the Avengers were returned to the Marvel Universe Earth, while Ultraforce, and the Black Knight returned to the Ultraverse. Sersi wandered in limbo until the Black Knight returned to her.


title: Sersi

text: In time, however the two Avengers found a way to return to Earth-616, but not before traveling back in time to the era of the Crusades, where they fought the villain Exodus.


title: Sersi

text: The two were separated once more on their return to their correct timeline. The Black Knight found himself in New York, but as the Avengers were dead in the wake of Onslaught, he joined the Heroes for Hire (both fictional group and 1997 limited series title). However, Sersi found herself in Lemuria; upon learning of yet another plot by Ghaur, she escaped to get aid. Also finding the Avengers dead, she turned to the Heroes for Hire. Foiling Ghaur's plot, Sersi and the Black Knight decided that they both needed some time apart after all they had been through.


title: Sersi

text: Sersi returned to Olympia, where she remained until, apart from aiding the Avengers in their battle against Morgana Le Fey, she joined "the New Breed", a group of Eternals posing as a human super team to control the Deviants, who became mindless monsters.


title: Sersi

text: Due to Sprite's attempt to become a human, Sersi lived in New York, where she planned parties for a living. There, she could neither remember her origin as an Eternal nor her powers. She was hired by Druig, currently deputy Prime Minister of Vorozheika, to publicize this small former Soviet republic by organizing a party at the Vorozheikan embassy. After the party was saved from a group of gunmen via the efforts of Mark Curry (who temporarily regained his powers, though means unknown even to him) and Iron Man, Iron Man questioned Sersi about registering, as she was a former Avenger. Sersi is shown to be perplexed by what he means, and Iron Man later is confounded when he finds that there are no longer any records of Sersi in the Avengers database. She tests her powers out and accidentally turns a cat into a dragon.


title: Sersi

text: If the Eternal known as Sprite is to be believed, the Eternals' memories of their history and lives are actually a complex illusion on his part (a possible retcon of the Eternals' origin brought to the fore in this new Comic miniseries), and Sersi is actually much closer to half a million years old rather than "just" at most five thousand years old (she has had the Eternal Makkari as an on-again, off-again lover for hundreds of thousands of years now if Sprite's story is true as stated). By the end of the series, she decides that she wants to resume her normal life, wishing to be neither an Eternal, nor lead the life as an Avenger that is offered to her by Tony Stark.


title: Sersi

text: Now retired from the world of superheroics, Sersi later appears as the head of a party planning website. She declines the Wasp's request to become an Avenger once again, but does use her powers to help the team track down Yon-Rogg.


title: Sersi

text: When the Final Host arrived on Earth, Sersi and all the other Eternals killed themselves after realizing the true purpose for which they were created. Her body was seen when Iron Man and Doctor Strange traveled to the mountains of Greece to get answers from the Eternals.


title: Sersi

text: As a member of the race of superhumans known as the Eternals, Sersi has the standard abilities of Earth's Eternals, though she has focused the majority of her power into transmutational abilities and passed it off as illusion or magic over the centuries. Sersi's psionic ability to rearrange the molecular structure of objects is far greater than that of any other Eternal; the limits on Sersi's molecular rearrangement powers are as yet unrevealed, but she once stated that even the Eternals' leader, Zuras, feared her, and Sprite claimed that she was the most powerful of all the Eternals. Sersi is the only living Fifth Level adept at matter transmutation (on a 1-5 scale). She has the ability to alter molecular and atomic structures of all matter including living organisms. However, she has expressed difficulty in rearranging sub-atomic matter.


title: Sersi

text: Sersi has many other versions in the multiverse, but many of them were apparently killed by Proctor himself.


title: Sersi

text: In Mutant X, Sersi, along with many other Eternals and Inhumans confront the murderous duo of Dracula and the Beyonder in Washington, D.C. They all perish.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: A coal-fired power station or coal power plant is a thermal power station which burns coal to generate electricity. Worldwide, there are about 8,500 coal-fired power stations totaling over 2,000 gigawatts capacity. They generate about a third of the world's electricity, but cause many illnesses and early deaths, mainly from air pollution.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: A coal-fired power station is a type of fossil fuel power station. The coal is usually pulverized and then burned in a pulverized coal-fired boiler. The furnace heat converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines that turn generators. Thus chemical energy stored in coal is converted successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Coal-fired power stations emit over 10 Gt of carbon dioxide each year, about one fifth of world greenhouse gas emissions, so are the single largest cause of climate change. More than half of all the coal-fired electricity in the world is generated in China. In 2020 the total number of plants started falling as they are being retired in Europe and America although still being built in Asia, almost all in China. Some remain profitable because costs to other people due to the health and environmental impact of the coal industry are not priced into the cost of generation, but there is the risk newer plants may become stranded assets. The UN Secretary General has said that OECD countries should stop generating electricity from coal by 2030, and the rest of the world by 2040.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: The first coal-fired power stations were built in the late 19th century and used reciprocating engines to generate direct current. Steam turbines allowed much larger plants to be built in the early 20th century and alternating current was used to serve wider areas.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Coal is delivered by highway truck, rail, barge, collier ship or coal slurry pipeline. Generating stations are sometimes built next to a mine; especially one mining coal, such as lignite, which is not valuable enough to transport long-distance; so may receive coal by conveyor belt or massive diesel-electric-drive trucks. A large coal train called a "unit train" may be 2 km long, containing 130-140 cars with around 100 tonnes of coal in each one, for a total load of over 10000 tonnes. A large plant under full load requires at least one coal delivery this size every day. Plants may get as many as three to five trains a day, especially in "peak season" during the hottest summer or coldest winter months (depending on local climate) when power consumption is high.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Modern unloaders use rotary dump devices, which eliminate problems with coal freezing in bottom dump cars. The unloader includes a train positioner arm that pulls the entire train to position each car over a coal hopper. The dumper clamps an individual car against a platform that swivels the car upside down to dump the coal. Swiveling couplers enable the entire operation to occur while the cars are still coupled together. Unloading a unit train takes about three hours.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Shorter trains may use railcars with an "air-dump", which relies on air pressure from the engine plus a "hot shoe" on each car. This "hot shoe" when it comes into contact with a "hot rail" at the unloading trestle, shoots an electric charge through the air dump apparatus and causes the doors on the bottom of the car to open, dumping the coal through the opening in the trestle. Unloading one of these trains takes anywhere from an hour to an hour and a half. Older unloaders may still use manually operated bottom-dump rail cars and a "shaker" attached to dump the coal.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: A collier (cargo ship carrying coal) may hold of coal and takes several days to unload. Some colliers carry their own conveying equipment to unload their own bunkers; others depend on equipment at the plant. For transporting coal in calmer waters, such as rivers and lakes, flat-bottomed barges are often used. Barges are usually unpowered and must be moved by tugboats or towboats.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: For start up or auxiliary purposes, the plant may use fuel oil as well. Fuel oil can be delivered to plants by pipeline, tanker, tank car or truck. Oil is stored in vertical cylindrical steel tanks with capacities as high as . The heavier no. 5 "bunker" and no. 6 fuels are typically steam-heated before pumping in cold climates.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: As a type of thermal power station, a coal-fired power station converts chemical energy stored in coal successively into thermal energy, mechanical energy and, finally, electrical energy. The coal is usually pulverized and then burned in a pulverized coal-fired boiler. The heat from the burning pulverized coal converts boiler water to steam, which is then used to spin turbines that turn generators. Compared to a thermal power station burning other fuel types, coal specific fuel processing and ash disposal is required.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by installing duplicates of the forced and induced draft fans, air preheaters, and fly ash collectors. On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided. The hundred largest coal power stations range in size from 3,000MW to 6,700MW.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Coal is prepared for use by crushing the rough coal to pieces less than 5 cm in size. The coal is then transported from the storage yard to in-plant storage silos by conveyor belts at rates up to 4,000 tonnes per hour.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: In plants that burn pulverized coal, silos feed coal to pulverizers (coal mills) that take the larger 5 cm pieces, grind them to the consistency of talcum powder, sort them, and mix them with primary combustion air, which transports the coal to the boiler furnace and preheats the coal in order to drive off excess moisture content. A 500 MW plant may have six such pulverizers, five of which can supply coal to the furnace at 250 tonnes per hour under full load.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: In plants that do not burn pulverized coal, the larger 5 cm pieces may be directly fed into the silos which then feed either mechanical distributors that drop the coal on a traveling grate or the cyclone burners, a specific kind of combustor that can efficiently burn larger pieces of fuel.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Plants designed for lignite (brown coal) are used in locations as varied as Germany, Victoria, Australia, and North Dakota. Lignite is a much younger form of coal than black coal. It has a lower energy density than black coal and requires a much larger furnace for equivalent heat output. Such coals may contain up to 70% water and ash, yielding lower furnace temperatures and requiring larger induced-draft fans. The firing systems also differ from black coal and typically draw hot gas from the furnace-exit level and mix it with the incoming coal in fan-type mills that inject the pulverized coal and hot gas mixture into the boiler.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: The ash is often stored in ash ponds. Although the use of ash ponds in combination with air pollution controls (such as wet scrubbers) decreases the amount of airborne pollutants, the structures pose serious health risks for the surrounding environment. Power utility companies have often built the ponds without liners, especially in the United States, and therefore chemicals in the ash can leach into groundwater and surface waters.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Since the 1990s, power utilities in the U.S. have designed many of their new plants with dry ash handling systems. The dry ash is disposed in landfills, which typically include liners and groundwater monitoring systems. Dry ash may also be recycled into products such as concrete, structural fills for road construction and grout.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos and stored on site in ash ponds, or transported by trucks or railroad cars to landfills,


title: Coal-fired power station

text: At the bottom of the furnace, there is a hopper for collection of bottom ash. This hopper is kept filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Arrangements are included to crush the clinkers and convey the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to on-site ash ponds, or off-site to landfills. Ash extractors are used to discharge ash from municipal solid waste–fired boilers.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: A well-designed energy policy, energy law and electricity market are critical for flexibility. Although technically the flexibility of some coal-fired power stations could be improved they are less able to provide dispatchable generation than most gas-fired power plants. The most important flexibility is low minimum load, however some flexibility improvements may be more expensive than renewable energy with batteries.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: two-thirds of coal burned is to generate electricity. In 2020 coal was the largest source of electricity at 34%. Over half coal generation in 2020 was in China. About 60% of electricity in China, India and Indonesia is from coal.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: In 2020 worldwide 2059 GW of coal power was operational, 50 GW was commissioned, and 25 GW started construction (most of these three in China); and 38 GW retired (mostly USA and EU).


title: Coal-fired power station

text: There are 4 main types of coal-fired power station in increasing order of efficiency are: subcritical, supercritical, ultra-supercritical and cogeneration (also called combined heat and power or CHP). Subcritical is the least efficient type, however recent innovations have allowed retrofits to older subcritical plants to meet or even exceed efficiency of supercritical plants.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) is a coal power generation technology that uses a high pressure gasifier to turn coal (or other carbon based fuels) into pressurized gas—synthesis gas (syngas). Converting the coal to gas enables the use of a combined cycle generator, typically achieving high efficiency. The IGCC process can also enable removal of some pollutants from the syngas prior to the power generation cycle. However, the technology is costly compared with conventional coal-fired power stations.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: As coal is mainly carbon, coal-fired power stations have a high carbon intensity. On average, coal power stations emit far more greenhouse gas per unit electricity generated compared with other energy sources (see also life-cycle greenhouse-gas emissions of energy sources). In 2018 coal burnt to generate electricity emitted over 10 Gt of the 34 Gt total from fuel combustion (the overall total greenhouse gas emissions for 2018 was 55 Gt e).


title: Coal-fired power station

text: From 2015 to 2020, although coal generation hardly fell in absolute terms, some of its market share was taken by wind and solar. In 2020 only China increased coal power generation, and globally it fell by 4%. The UN Secretary General has said that OECD countries should stop generating electricity from coal by 2030 and the rest of the world by 2040, otherwise limiting global warming to 1.5 °C, a target of the Paris Agreement, would be extremely difficult. Phasing out in Asia can be a financial challenge as plants there are relatively young: in China the co-benefits of closing a plant vary greatly depending on its location.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Ammonia has a high hydrogen density and is easy to handle. It can be used as storing carbon-free fuel in gas turbine power generation and help significantly reduce CO₂ emissions as a fuel.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: In Japan, the first major four-year test project was started in June 2021 to develop technology to enable co-firing a significant amount of ammonia at a large-scale commercial coal-fired plant. However low-carbon hydrogen and ammonia is in demand for sustainable shipping, which unlike electricity generation, has few other clean options.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Some power stations are being converted to burn gas, biomass or waste, and conversion to thermal storage will be trialled in 2023.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Retrofitting some existing coal-fired power stations with carbon capture and storage was being considered in China in 2020, but this is very expensive, reduces the energy output and for some plants is not technically feasible.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: In some countries pollution is somewhat controlled by best available techniques, for example those in the EU through its Industrial Emissions Directive. In the United States, coal-fired plants are governed at the national level by several air pollution regulations, including the Mercury and Air Toxics Standards (MATS) regulation, by effluent guidelines for water pollution, and by solid waste regulations under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Coal-fired power stations continue to pollute in lightly regulated countries; such as the Western Balkans, India, Russia and South Africa; causing over a hundred thousand early deaths each year.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Damage to health from particulates, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide occurs mainly in Asia and is often due to burning low quality coal, such as lignite, in plants lacking modern flue gas treatment. Early deaths due to air pollution have been estimated at 200 per GW-year, however they may be higher around power plants where scrubbers are not used or lower if they are far from cities.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Pollutants such as heavy metals leaching into ground water from unlined coal ash storage ponds or landfills pollute water, possibly for decades or centuries. Pollutant discharges from ash ponds to rivers (or other surface water bodies) typically include arsenic, lead, mercury, selenium, chromium, and cadmium.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Mercury emissions from coal-fired power plants can fall back onto the land and water in rain, and then be converted into methylmercury by bacteria. Through biomagnification, this mercury can then reach dangerously high levels in fish. More than half of atmospheric mercury comes from coal-fired power plants.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Coal-fired power plants also emit sulfur dioxide and nitrogen. These emissions lead to acid rain, which can restructure food webs and lead to the collapse of fish and invertebrate populations.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: local pollution in China, which has by far the most coal-fired power stations, is forecast to be reduced further in the 2020s and 2030s, especially if small and low efficiency plants are retired early.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: Coal power plants tend to serve as base load technology, as they have high availability factors, and are relatively difficult and expensive to ramp up and down. As such, they perform poorly in real-time energy markets, where they are unable to respond to changes in the locational marginal price. In the United States, this has been especially true in light of the advent of cheap natural gas, which can serve as a fuel in dispatchable power plants that substitute the role of baseload on the grid.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: In India capacity factors are below 60%. In 2020 coal-fired power stations in the United States had an overall capacity factor of 40%; that is, they operated at a little less than half of their cumulative nameplate capacity.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: If global warming is limited to well below 2 °C as specified in the Paris Agreement, coal plant stranded assets of over US$500 billion are forecast by 2050, mostly in China. In 2020 think tank Carbon Tracker estimated that 39% of coal-fired plants were already more expensive than new renewables and storage and that 73% would be by 2025. about half of China's coal power companies are losing money and old and small power plants "have no hope of making profits". India is keeping potential stranded assets operating by subsidizing them.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: The energy policy of China regarding coal and coal in China are the most important factors regarding the future of coal-fired power stations, because the country has so many. According to one analysis local officials overinvested in coal-fired power in the mid-2010s because central government guaranteed operating hours and set a high wholesale electricity price.


title: Coal-fired power station

text: In democracies coal power investment follows an environmental Kuznets curve. The energy policy of India about coal is an issue in the politics of India.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Sir John Anthony Quayle (7 September 1913 – 20 October 1989) was a British actor and theatre director. He was nominated for an Oscar and a Golden Globe for his supporting role as Thomas Wolsey in the film "Anne of the Thousand Days" (1969). He also played important roles in such major studio productions as "The Guns of Navarone" (1961), "Lawrence of Arabia" (1962), "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964), "Operation Crossbow" (1965), "QB VII" (1974) and "The Eagle Has Landed" (1976). Quayle was knighted in the 1985 New Years Honours List.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Quayle was born at 2, Delamere Road, Ainsdale, Southport, Lancashire, to solicitor Arthur Quayle, of a Manx family, and Esther Kate, née Overton.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: He was educated at the private Abberley Hall School and Rugby School and trained at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art (RADA) in London. After appearing in music hall, he joined the Old Vic in 1932. During World War II, he was a British Army officer and was made one of the area commanders of the Auxiliary Units in Northumberland.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Later he joined the Special Operations Executive (SOE) and served as a liaison officer with the partisans in Albania (reportedly, his service with the SOE seriously affected him, and he never felt comfortable talking about it). He described his experiences in a fictional form in "Eight Hours from England".


title: Anthony Quayle

text: He was an aide to the Governor of Gibraltar at the time of the air crash of General Władysław Sikorski's aircraft on 4 July 1943. He wrote of his Gibraltar experience in his second novel "On Such a Night", published by Heinemann.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: From 1948 to 1956 Quayle directed at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre, and laid the foundations for the creation of the Royal Shakespeare Company. His own Shakespearian roles included Falstaff, Othello, Benedick in "Much Ado About Nothing," Henry VIII and Aaron in "Titus Andronicus" with Laurence Olivier; he played Mosca in Ben Jonson's "Volpone"; and he also appeared in contemporary plays. He played the role of Moses in Christopher Fry's play "The Firstborn", in a production starring opposite Katharine Cornell. He also made an LP with Cornell, in which he played the role of poet Robert Browning in "The Barretts of Wimpole Street".


title: Anthony Quayle

text: His first film role was an uncredited brief appearance as an Italian wigmaker in "Pygmalion" (1938) – subsequent film roles included parts in Alfred Hitchcock's "The Wrong Man", Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger's "The Battle of the River Plate" (both 1956), "Ice Cold in Alex" (1958), "Tarzan's Greatest Adventure" (1959), "The Guns of Navarone" (1961), "H.M.S. Defiant", David Lean's "Lawrence of Arabia" (both 1962) and "The Fall of the Roman Empire" (1964). He was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role as Cardinal Wolsey in "Anne of the Thousand Days" (1969).


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Often cast as the decent British officer, Quayle drew upon his own wartime experiences, bringing a degree of authenticity to the parts absent from the performances of some non-combatant stars. One of his best friends from his days at the Old Vic was fellow actor Alec Guinness, who appeared in several films with him. He was also a close friend of Jack Hawkins and Jack Gwillim; all four actors appeared in "Lawrence of Arabia".


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Quayle made his Broadway debut in "The Country Wife" in 1936. Thirty-four years later, he won critical acclaim for his starring role in the highly successful Anthony Shaffer play "Sleuth", which earned him a Drama Desk Award.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Television appearances include the "Armchair Theatre" episode "The Scent of Fear" (1959) for ITV, the title role in the drama series "Strange Report" (ITC, 1969) and as French General Villers in the television film adaptation of "The Bourne Identity" (1988). He starred in the miniseries "Masada" (1981) as Rubrius Gallius. Also he narrated the BBC drama serial "The Six Wives of Henry VIII" (1970), and the acclaimed aviation documentary series "Reaching for the Skies" (1988). Quayle also starred in the 'Last Bottle in The World' episode of Tales of the Unexpected (TV series)


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Quayle was artist-in-residence at the University of Tennessee in the mid-70s. He came to Knoxville in spring 1974, through a partnership with the Kennedy Center, starring in Henry Denker's "The Headhunters", which rehearsed and opened at the Clarence Brown Theatre and then moved on to the Kennedy Center's Eisenhower Theatre. Quayle was appointed as professor in theatre in 1974. He taught classes as an artist in residence and served as artistic director of the Clarence Brown Company—a professional theatre company in residence at UT. He played in "Everyman" the same year.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: In 1984, he founded Compass Theatre Company, that he inaugurated with a tour of "The Clandestine Marriage", directing and playing the part of Lord Ogleby. This production had a run at the Albery Theatre, London. With the same company he subsequently toured with a number of other plays, including "Saint Joan", "Dandy Dick" and "King Lear" with himself in the title role.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Quayle married twice. His first wife was the actress Hermione Hannen (1913–1983). They divorced some time before 1947, as he married his second wife (and widow) Dorothy Hyson (1914–1996), known as "Dot" to family and friends, in that year. He and Dorothy had two daughters, Jenny and Rosanna, and a son, Christopher.


title: Anthony Quayle

text: Quayle was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 1952 Birthday Honours and knighted in the 1985 New Year Honours for services to the Theatre.


title: VCard

text: vCard, also known as VCF (Virtual Contact File), is a file format standard for electronic business cards. vCards can be attached to e-mail messages, sent via Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), on the World Wide Web, instant messaging, NFC or through QR code. They can contain name and address information, phone numbers, e-mail addresses, URLs, logos, photographs, and audio clips.


title: VCard

text: vCard is used as data interchange format in smartphone contacts, personal digital assistants (PDAs), personal information managers (PIMs) and customer relationship management (CRMs). To accomplish these data interchange applications, other "vCard variants" have been used and proposed as "variant standards", each for its specific niche: XML representation, JSON representation, or web pages.


title: VCard

text: An unofficial vCard Plus format makes use of a URL to a customized landing page with all the basic information along with a profile photo, geographic location, and other fields. This can also be saved as a contact file on smartphones.


title: VCard

text: The standard Internet media type (MIME type) for a vCard has varied with each version of the specification.


title: VCard

text: vCard information is common in web pages: the "free text" content is human-readable but not machine-readable. As technologies evolve, the "free text" (HTML) was adapting to be also machine-readable.


title: VCard

text: jCard, "The JSON Format for vCard" is a standard proposal of 2014 in . This proposal has not yet become a widely used standard. The RFC 7095 does not use real JSON objects, but rather uses arrays of sequence-dependent tag-value pairs (like an XML file).


title: VCard

text: hCard is a microformat that allows a vCard to be embedded inside an HTML page. It makes use of CSS class names to identify each vCard property. Normal HTML markup and CSS styling can be used alongside the hCard class names without affecting the webpage's ability to be parsed by a hCard parser. h-card is the microformats2 update to hCard.


title: VCard

text: MeCard is a variation of vCard made by NTT DoCoMo for smartphones using QR Codes. It uses a very similar syntax, but in a more consolidated way as the storage space on QR Codes is limited. It's also limited in the amount of data that can be stored, not just by the standard but the size of QR Codes.


title: VCard

text: This is the vCard for "Simon Perreault" (the author of RFC 6350), with their birthday (omitting the year), email address and gender.


title: VCard

text: All vCards begin with codice_1 and end with codice_2. All vCards must contain the codice_3 property, which specifies the vCard version. codice_3 must come immediately after codice_5, except in the vCard 2.1 standard, which allows it to be anywhere in the vCard. Otherwise, properties can be defined in any order.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: Nazanin Aliza Mandighomi Pimentel ( ; born September 11, 1986), known professionally as Nazanin Mandi, is an American actress, singer, model, and life coach.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: Nazanin Mandi was born on September 11, 1986, in Valencia, California. She is of Iranian, Mexican and Native American descent.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: Mandi began her modeling career at the age of 10, after being scouted by a photographer at an In-N-Out Burger. At age 15, Mandi performed Mozart's Requiem, K.626 at Carnegie Hall in New York City. During this time, Mandi attended Valencia High School, where she studied jazz and classical music as a soloist in the institution's VHS Choir. Mandi graduated from Valencia High in June 2004.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: Mandi was signed to Wilhelmina Models in Los Angeles. She has modeled in print and digital editorials for "Vogue", "MAXIM", "GQ India", "Esquire Malaysia", "COMPLEX", "", "Modeliste", "Bella Petite", "TOKSICK", "Galore", "Allure", "CosmoGirl", "Sports Illustrated", and "Seventeen". Her ad campaigns include Microsoft, Ecko Unlimited, Good American, Olay, Shiseido, PrettyLittleThing, Missguided, Savage X Fenty, CoverGirl, and Smashbox Cosmetics.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: After seeing an ad on Fox Eleven News, Mandi's mother encouraged her to audition for the inaugural season of the music competition series "American Idol". At the age of 15, she made it to the top 35 before being kicked off for not meeting the minimum age requirement of 16. Three years later, Mandi made her acting debut with a guest appearance on the Disney Channel television series "That's So Raven". In 2005, she auditioned and competed on the UPN talent competition show "R U The Girl". Vying for the opportunity to sing with TLC, Mandi made it to the top nine before being eliminated during the group performance round. Following a few stints in reality television—e.g., "Shahs of Sunset", "The Platinum Life"—and a couple guest star roles—i.e., The Young and the Restless, Twenties—Mandi made her film debut in the 2020 romantic comedy "The Last Conception". The film tells the story of an Indian-American lesbian who discovers she is the last hope of continuing her family's ancient bloodline. Mandi is also set to star in the 2021 horror film "Dreamcatcher", produced by Samuel Goldwyn Films.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: On July 25, 2019, Mandi released her debut single, "FOREVER MOOD", via "Billboard". The track was produced by Siviwe "The Code" Mngaza, and co-executive produced by Midian Mathers and her husband, Miguel.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: In 2018, Nazanin became a brand ambassador for fashion retailer, PrettyLittleThing. Two years later, she became an ambassador for online fashion label, Missguided. In July 2020, Mandi was announced as a brand ambassador for Rihanna's size-inclusive lingerie line, Savage X Fenty. In addition to modeling for the brand's Summer and Valentine's Day ad campaigns, Mandi walked and performed alongside her husband, Miguel, in the "Savage X Fenty Show Vol. 2" on October 2, 2020—which premiered on Amazon Prime Video.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: At the age of 18, Mandi met singer Miguel on the set of his first music video, "Getcha Hands Up". The two exchanged numbers after Mandi interviewed the singer for a behind-the-scenes promotional DVD. The couple announced their engagement on January 11, 2016, and married on November 24, 2018 at Hummingbird Nest Ranch, in Simi Valley, California. Monique Lhuillier designed her wedding dress. In September 2021, the couple announced their separation, which they called off in January 2022. On October 4, 2022 Mandi filed for divorce citing irreconcilable differences.


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: In addition to inspiring Miguel's Grammy-winning single, "Adorn", Mandi has stated that her debut single, "FOREVER MOOD", is a reply to Miguel's "All I Want Is You".


title: Nazanin Mandi

text: As a young adult, Mandi struggled with body dysmorphia, depression, and anxiety—with panic attacks as part of the latter. She openly discusses overcoming her mental and eating disorder, to help promote self-love and encourage inclusive conversations regarding mental health. In August 2019, Mandi was featured in BET's "Body of Work" segment where she spoke about breaking a diet pill habit and her journey towards healthy weight maintenance. In February 2020, Mandi announced she was becoming a life coach and had plans of developing a new self-empowerment platform.


title: Mark Farner

text: Mark Fredrick Farner (born September 29, 1948) is an American singer, guitarist and songwriter, best known as the lead singer and lead guitarist for the hard rock band Grand Funk Railroad, and later as a contemporary Christian musician.


title: Mark Farner

text: Farner began his career in music by playing in Terry Knight and The Pack (1965–1966), The Bossmen (1966–1967), The Pack (aka The Fabulous Pack) (1967–1968), before forming Grand Funk Railroad with Don Brewer (drums) and Mel Schacher (bass guitar) in 1969. Craig Frost (keyboards) joined the band in 1972. Farner has Cherokee ancestry from his maternal side.


title: Mark Farner

text: Farner was the guitarist and lead singer for Grand Funk Railroad as well as the songwriter for most of their material. His best-known composition is the 1970 epic "I'm Your Captain (Closer to Home)". He also wrote the 1975 hit "Bad Time", the last of the band's four singles to make the top 5 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Mark Farner

text: After Grand Funk initially disbanded in 1976, Farner released his self-titled debut solo album in 1977, and his second, "No Frills", in 1978 (both Atlantic Records). In 1981, Farner and Don Brewer launched a new Grand Funk line-up with bassist Dennis Bellinger and recorded two albums, "Grand Funk Lives" and "What's Funk?" Farner went solo again with 1988's "Just Another Injustice" on Frontline Records. His third Frontline release was 1991's "Some Kind of Wonderful", which featured a revamped Jesus version of the Grand Funk classic of the same name. Farner became a born again Christian in the late 1980s and enjoyed success with the John Beland composition "Isn't it Amazing", which earned him a Dove Award nomination and reached No. 2 on the Contemporary Christian music charts.


title: Mark Farner

text: In the 1990s, Farner formed Lismark Communications with former Freedom Reader editor Steve Lisuk. Soon after, Farner began reissuing his solo albums on his own record label, LisMark Records.


title: Mark Farner

text: From 1994 to 1995, Farner toured with Ringo Starr's Allstars, which also featured Randy Bachman, John Entwistle, Felix Cavaliere, Billy Preston, and Starr's son, Zak Starkey.


title: Mark Farner

text: In the late 1990s, Farner reunited with Grand Funk, but left after three years to resume his solo career. He currently tours with his band, Mark Farner's American Band, which plays a mixture of Grand Funk songs and Farner's solo offerings.


title: Mark Farner

text: Farner had a pacemaker installed October 22, 2012, having struggled with heart troubles for the previous eight years.


title: Mark Farner

text: Mark Farner was voted into the Michigan Rock and Roll Legends Hall of Fame as a solo artist in 2015. He had previously been inducted as a member of both Grand Funk Railroad and Terry Knight & The Pack.


title: Mark Farner

text: Farner was honored with the Lakota Sioux Elders Honor Mark in 1999. During the concert in Hankinson, North Dakota, a special presentation was held honoring Mark's Native ancestry and his contributions. Members of the Lakota Nation presented him with a hand-made ceremonial quilt. He has also been honored with the Cherokee Medal of Honor by the Cherokee Honor Society.


title: Mark Farner

text: Mark Farner is mentioned by Homer Simpson in "The Simpsons" episode, "Homerpalooza", in season 7, episode 24 of the series. As Homer drives his children and their friends to school, Grand Funk is on the car radio. The children do not like it and ask him to change the station when he responds, "you kids don't know Grand Funk? The wild, shirtless lyrics of Mark Farner. The bong-rattling bass of Mel Schacher. The competent drum work of Don Brewer?"


title: Mark Farner

text: Mark Farner was mentioned in episode 9 of season 8 of the HBO comedy series "Curb Your Enthusiasm" in September 2011.


title: Allodynia

text: Allodynia is a condition in which pain is caused by a stimulus that does not normally elicit pain. For example, bad sunburn can cause temporary allodynia, and touching sunburned skin, or running cold or warm water over it, can be very painful. It is different from hyperalgesia, an exaggerated response from a normally painful stimulus. The term is from Ancient Greek "άλλος" "állos" "other" and "οδύνη" "odúnē" "pain".


title: Allodynia

text: Allodynia is a clinical feature of many painful conditions, such as neuropathies, complex regional pain syndrome, postherpetic neuralgia, fibromyalgia, and migraine. Allodynia may also be caused by some populations of stem cells used to treat nerve damage including spinal cord injury.


title: Allodynia

text: The cell types involved in nociception and mechanical sensation are the cells responsible for allodynia. In healthy individuals, nociceptors sense information about cell stress or damage and temperature at the skin and transmit it to the spinal cord. The cell bodies of these neurons lie in dorsal root ganglia, important structures located on both sides of the spinal cord. The axons then pass through the dorsal horn to make connections with secondary neurons. The secondary neurons cross over to the other (contralateral) side of the spinal cord and reach nuclei of the thalamus. From there, the information is carried through one or more neurons to the somatosensory cortex of the brain. Mechanoreceptors follow the same general pathway. However, they do not cross over at the level of the spinal cord, but at the lower medulla instead. In addition, they are grouped in tracts that are spatially distinct from the nociceptive tracts.


title: Allodynia

text: Despite this anatomical separation, mechanoreceptors can influence the output of nociceptors by making connections with the same interneurons, the activation of which can reduce or eliminate the sensation of pain. Another way to modulate the transmission of pain information is via descending fibers from the brain. These fibers act through different interneurons to block the transmission of information from the nociceptors to secondary neurons.


title: Allodynia

text: Both of these mechanisms for pain modulation have been implicated in the pathology of allodynia. Several studies suggest that injury to the spinal cord might lead to loss and re-organization of the nociceptors, mechanoreceptors and interneurons, leading to the transmission of pain information by mechanoreceptors A different study reports the appearance of descending fibers at the injury site. All of these changes ultimately affect the circuitry inside the spinal cord, and the altered balance of signals probably leads to the intense sensation of pain associated with allodynia.


title: Allodynia

text: Different cell types have also been linked to allodynia. For example, there are reports that microglia in the thalamus might contribute to allodynia by changing the properties of the secondary nociceptors. The same effect is achieved in the spinal cord by the recruitment of immune system cells such as monocytes/macrophages and T lymphocytes.


title: Allodynia

text: There is a strong body of evidence that the so-called sensitization of the central nervous system contributes to the emergence of allodynia. Sensitization refers to the increased response of neurons following repetitive stimulation. In addition to repeated activity, the increased levels of certain compounds


title: Allodynia

text: lead to sensitization. The work of many researchers has led to the elucidation of pathways that can result in neuronal sensitization both in the thalamus and dorsal horns. Both pathways depend on the production of chemokines and other molecules important in the inflammatory response.


title: Allodynia

text: An important molecule in the thalamus appears to be cysteine-cysteine chemokine ligand 21 (CCL21). The concentration of this chemokine is increased in the ventral posterolateral nucleus of the thalamus where secondary nociceptive neurons make connections with other neurons. The source of CCL21 is not exactly known, but two possibilities exist. First, it might be made in primary nociceptive neurons and transported up to the thalamus. Most likely, neurons intrinsic to the ventral posterolateral nucleus make at least some of it. In any case, CCL21 binds to C-C chemokine receptor type 7 and chemokine receptor CXCR3 receptors on microglia in the thalamus. The physiologic response to the binding is probably the production of prostaglandin E (PGE) by cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2). Activated microglia making PGE can then sensitize nociceptive neurons as manifested by their lowered threshold to pain.


title: Allodynia

text: The mechanism responsible for sensitization of the central nervous system at the level of the spinal cord is different from the one in the thalamus. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and its receptor are the molecules that seem to be responsible for the sensitization of neurons in the dorsal horns of the spinal cord. Macrophages and lymphocytes infiltrate the spinal cord, for example, because of injury, and release TNF-alpha and other pro-inflammatory molecules. TNF-alpha then binds to the TNF receptors expressed on nociceptors, activating the MAPK/NF-kappa B pathways. This leads to the production of more TNF-alpha, its release, and binding to the receptors on the cells that released it (autocrine signalling). This mechanism also explains the perpetuation of sensitization and thus allodynia. TNF-alpha might also increase the number of AMPA receptors, and decrease the numbers of GABA receptors on the membrane of nociceptors, both of which could change the nociceptors in a way that allows for their easier activation. Another outcome of the increased TNF-alpha is the release of PGE, with a mechanism and effect similar to the ones in the thalamus.


title: Allodynia

text: Numerous compounds alleviate the pain from allodynia. Some are specific for certain types of allodynia while others are general. They include:


title: Allodynia

text: The list of compounds that can be used to treat allodynia is even longer than this. For example, many non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, such as naproxen, can inhibit COX-1 and/or COX-2, thus preventing the sensitization of the central nervous system. Another effect of naproxen is the reduction of the responsiveness of mechano- and thermoreceptors to stimuli.


title: Allodynia

text: Other compounds act on molecules important for the transmission of an action potential from one neuron to another. Examples of these include interfering with receptors for neurotransmitters or the enzymes that remove neurotransmitters not bound to receptors.


title: Allodynia

text: Endocannabinoids are molecules that can relieve pain by modulating nociceptive neurons. When anandamide, an endocannabinoid, is released, pain sensation is reduced. Anandamide is later transported back to the neurons releasing it using transporter enzymes on the plasma membrane, eventually disinhibiting pain perception. However, this re-uptake can be blocked by AM404, elongating the duration of pain inhibition.


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: Liquid paraffin, also known as paraffinum liquidum, paraffin oil, liquid paraffin oil or Russian mineral oil, is a very highly refined mineral oil used in cosmetics and medicine. Cosmetic or medicinal liquid paraffin should not be confused with the paraffin (i.e. kerosene) used as a fuel. The generic sense of paraffin meaning alkane led to regional differences for the meanings of both "paraffin" and "paraffin oil". It is a transparent, colorless, nearly odorless, and oily liquid that is composed of saturated hydrocarbons derived from petroleum.


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: The term "paraffinum perliquidum" is sometimes used to denote light liquid paraffin, while the term "paraffinum subliquidum" is sometimes used to denote a thicker mineral oil.


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: Petroleum is said to have been used as a medicine since 400 BC, and has been mentioned in the texts of classical writers Herodotus, Plutarch, Dioscorides, Pliny, and others. It was used extensively by early Arabians and was important in early Indian medicine. Its first use internally is attributed to Robert A. Chesebrough, who patented it in 1872 for the manufacture of a "new and useful product from petroleum." After Sir W. Arbuthnot Lane, who was then Chief Surgeon of Guy's Hospital, recommended it as a treatment for intestinal stasis and chronic constipation in 1913, liquid paraffin gained more popularity.


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: Liquid paraffin is primarily used as a pediatric laxative in medicine and is a popular treatment for constipation and encopresis. Because of its ease of titration, the drug is convenient to synthesize. It acts primarily as a stool lubricant, and is thus not associated with abdominal cramps, diarrhea, flatulence, disturbances in electrolytes, or tolerance over long periods of usage, side effects that osmotic and stimulant laxatives often engender (however, some literature suggests that these may still occur). The drug acts by softening the feces and coats the intestine with an oily film. Because of this it reduces the pain caused by certain conditions such as piles (haemorrhoids). These traits make the drug ideal for chronic childhood constipation and encopresis, when large doses or long-term usage is necessary.


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: Consensus has not been entirely reached on the safety of the drug for children. While the drug is widely accepted for the management of childhood constipation in North America and Australia, the drug is used much less in the United Kingdom. The drug is endorsed by the American Academy of Pediatrics and the North American Society for Gastroenterology and Nutrition, with the latter organization outlining it as a first choice for the management of pediatric constipation. The drug is suggested to never be used in cases in which the patient is neurologically impaired or has a potential swallowing dysfunction due to potential respiration complications. Lipoid pneumonia due to mineral oil aspiration is thus a recognized severe complication of this medication, and there is a need for a heightened awareness among caregivers about the potential dangers of inappropriate mineral oil use. Some go as far as saying that it should never be used with children due to this risk.


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: Liquid paraffin is also used in combination with magnesium as an osmotic laxative, sold under the trade name "Mil-Par" (among others).


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: Liquid paraffin is a hydrating and cleansing agent. Hence, it is used in several cosmetics both for skin and hair products. It is also used as one of the ingredients of after wax wipes.


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: Upon being taken orally, liquid paraffin might interfere with the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, though evidence does not seem to fully support this. It can be absorbed into the intestinal wall and may cause foreign-body granulomatous reactions in some rat species. These reactions might not occur in humans, however. Some evidence suggests that it engenders a lack of carcinogenicity. If liquid paraffin enters the lungs, it can cause lipoid pneumonia.


title: Liquid paraffin (drug)

text: In 2015, German consumer watchdog Stiftung Warentest analyzed cosmetics containing mineral oils. After developing a new detection method they found high concentrations of Mineral Oil Aromatic Hydrocarbons (MOAH) and even polyaromatics in products containing mineral oils with Vaseline products containing the most MOAH of all tested cosmetics (up to 9%). The European Food Safety Authority sees MOAH and polyaromatics as possibly carcinogenic. Based on the results, Stiftung Warentest warns not to use Vaseline or any product that is based on mineral oils for lip care.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: A marrow is a fruit used as a vegetable, the mature fruit of certain "Cucurbita pepo" cultivars. The immature fruit of the same or similar cultivars is called "courgette" (in Britain, Iran, Ireland, France, the Netherlands, Singapore, Malaysia and New Zealand) or "zucchini" (in North America, Japan, Australia, the Czech Republic, Italy, Germany and Austria). Like courgettes, marrows are oblong, green squash, but marrows have a firm rind and a neutral flavour ("overgrown when picked and insipid when cooked"), making them useful as edible casings for mincemeat and other stuffings. They can be stored for several weeks after harvest (like pumpkins and other winter squash), to be processed for food when required. They are a vegetable used in Great Britain and areas with significant British influence, though their popularity is waning in favor of immature summer squash like courgette.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: Giant marrows are grown competitively in the United Kingdom, where the term "marrow" is often restricted to the striped, thick-skinned cultivar.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: In a culinary context, marrows are treated as a vegetable; usually cooked and presented as a savory dish or accompaniment. Botanically, marrows are fruit, a type of botanical berry, being the swollen ovary of the marrow flower. Marrows, like all squash, have their ancestry in the Americas.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: According to the "Oxford English Dictionary", the first mention of vegetable marrows dates to 1822, zucchini to 1929, and courgettes to 1931. However, the word "zucchini" had already appeared in newspapers by 1916. Before the introduction of "Cucurbita" species from the New World, "marrow" signified the immature, edible fruits of "Lagenaria", a cucurbit gourd of African origin widely grown since Antiquity for eating when immature and for drying as watertight receptacles when grown to maturity.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: Marrows are commonly cultivated in the British Isles, and the term "marrow" for the plant and for the fruit is current there, especially for the striped, thicker-skinned cultivar. However, both in North America (since the 1920s) and in Britain (since the 1960s), thinner-skinned immature marrows have gained popularity due to their tender skin and distinct flavour. Hedrick (1928) in his book "The Vegetables of New York", describes the "English Vegetable Marrow" as "one of the earliest forms of marrow squash grown, but has never been exceedingly popular in this country".


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: The fashion for eating immature marrows, called in Britain "courgettes", is relatively recent in Britain. Sudell (1966) does not mention courgettes, although he has a section on "vegetable marrow", noting both trailing (vining) and bush types and saying "cut when young". Witham Fogg (1966) wrote ""Courgettes" These are really very tender baby marrows which have long been popular in France. ... Cooked and eaten with butter they form a very palatable dish." He devotes a page and a half to (vegetable) marrows and less than half a page to courgettes, which he clearly regards as something new to Britain.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: The record for the world's largest marrow is currently held by Brad Wursten of the Netherlands, who presented a giant marrow weighing 93.7 kg (206.5 pounds) at the Dutch giant vegetable championship in Sliedrecht in September 2009.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: Marrows, like zucchini, are low in food energy (approximately per 100 g fresh marrow) and contain useful amounts of folate (24 μg/100 g), potassium (261 mg/100 g) and provitamin A (200 IU [10 RAE]/100 g).


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: Members of the plant family Cucurbitaceae, which includes zucchini, marrows, pumpkins and cucumbers, can contain toxins called cucurbitacins. These are chemically classified as steroids; they defend the plants from predators, and have a bitter taste to humans. Cultivated cucurbitaceae are bred for low levels of the toxin and are safe to eat. However, ornamental pumpkins can have high levels of cucurbitacins, and such ornamental plants can cross-fertilise edible cucurbitaceae – any such cross-fertilised seeds used by the gardener for growing food in the following season can therefore potentially produce bitter and toxic fruit. Also, dry weather conditions or irregular watering can stress the plant and favour the production of the toxin, which is not destroyed by cooking.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: In August 2015, a 79-year-old German man and his wife ate a marrow grown by a neighbour. The couple noted the unusually bitter taste. Shortly afterwards they were both admitted to a Heidenheim hospital, apparently with symptoms of a gastrointestinal infection. The woman, who had eaten a smaller portion, survived, while the man died. Toxicological analysis of the meal confirmed the presence of cucurbitacin.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: "The Marrow Song", also known as "Oh! What a Beauty", was a British song published on 16 December 1952, with words and music by Edrich Siebert. The innuendo-laden song was recorded for Decca by Billy Cotton and his Band with vocals by Alan Breeze and The Bandits on 1 December that year, under the title "The Marrow Song (Oh What a Beauty)". As well as being issued on a single in January 1953, it was included on Cotton's 1955 "Saucy Songs" EP. In 2013, the recording was featured in a UK television advertisement for the Co-operative supermarket. The song was performed in the 1969 film "Kes".


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: Marrows also play an important role in the 2005 animated film "Wallace & Gromit: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit". In this film, the character of Gromit is devoted to growing a large marrow. The marrow is eventually destroyed when he uses it to lure the Were-Rabbit. The marrow also appears in the video game based on the film; Gromit can control the marrow's growth by adjusting factors such as soil pH, greenhouse temperature, and water flow, as well as by purchasing fertilizers to increase its size.


title: Marrow (vegetable)

text: Agatha Christie’s detective Hercule Poirot often expresses his desire to retire and grow vegetable marrows, accomplishing his dream briefly in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd.


title: Maná

text: Maná () is a Mexican pop rock band. The band is considered one of the best-selling Latin music artists and the most successful Latin American band of all time with over 40 million records sold worldwide. The group's current lineup consists of vocalist/guitarist Fher Olvera, drummer Alex González, guitarist Sergio Vallín and bassist Juan Calleros. Maná has earned four Grammy Awards, eight Latin Grammy Awards, five MTV Video Music Awards Latin America, six Premios Juventud awards, 19 Billboard Latin Music Awards, and 15 Premios Lo Nuestro awards.


title: Maná

text: Maná has topped the all-time lists in much of Latin America and in their native Mexico, where they set records for album sales and concert attendance. The band formed in 1986 and released its first album, "Falta Amor", in 1990. In 1992, the group released "¿Dónde Jugarán Los Niños?", which sold more than 10 million copies worldwide, (over 700,000 copies in the US alone) becoming the best selling Spanish-language rock album of all time. After several lineup changes, the group released "Cuando los Ángeles Lloran" (1995), which is noted for its stylistic departure from the band's previous work. Maná followed with "Sueños Líquidos" (1997), "Revolución de Amor" (2002), and "Amar es Combatir" (2006), which continued the group's success. The band followed up with "Drama y Luz" in April 2011. Their most recent album is "Cama Incendiada", which was released in early 2015.


title: Maná

text: The band's sound draws from pop rock, progressive rock, Latin pop, calypso, reggae, and ska music genres. They initially received international commercial success in Latin America and Spain and have since gained popularity and exposure in the US and around the world.


title: Maná

text: Maná was formed in 1986 by José Fernando "Fher" Olvera (vocals), Ulises Calleros (guitar), and Juan Calleros (bass guitar), who had been performing together in a band called Sombrero Verde since the mid-1970s and disbanded in 1983. The three placed an advertisement in the local Guadalajara newspaper looking for a drummer to complete a new band, to which 15-year-old American Alex González applied and soon joined the group. Maná's first album was titled "Maná released on 12 May 1987 on A& M Records. Maná signed to PolyGram, but became unhappy with the direction the label was taking the band and switched to Warner Music shortly before the release of the group's second album, "Falta Amor".


title: Maná

text: A year passed before the album garnered its first hit single, "Rayando el Sol". The group toured heavily in support of the album, performing more than 250 times throughout Latin America, including shows in Mexico, Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia.


title: Maná

text: In 1991, they added two new members to the group, Iván González on keyboards and César "Vampiro" López on guitar. Ulises Calleros no longer performed with the group, but became one of their managers. On 27 October 1992, the band released "¿Dónde Jugarán Los Niños?", an album that spawned several hits (including "Vivir Sin Aire", "Oye Mi Amor", and "De Pies a Cabeza"). The record sold over 3 million copies worldwide and became the best selling Spanish-language rock album of all time. The band undertook an international tour with 268 concerts in 17 countries.


title: Maná

text: In 1994, López and Iván González left the group due to musical and personal disputes. Fher Olvera and Alex González felt that their departure offered an opportunity to reinvent the group's sound, and searched throughout Mexico, Spain and Argentina to find a new guitarist.


title: Maná

text: In the meantime, Maná released the live album "Maná en Vivo" before choosing Mexican guitarist Sergio Vallín to replace Calleros and López. In 1995, the band recorded a Spanish version of Led Zeppelin's "Fool in the Rain" for the tribute album "".


title: Maná

text: On 25 April 1995, the group released "Cuando los Ángeles Lloran". The album was noted for its stylistic departure from the band's previous work, which saw the group experimenting with funk and soul music genres. Olvera explained shortly after the release of the album, "Basically, we're still the same Maná, but we're going through a funky, soulish stage. We want to have some fun and be a little louder." The initial reaction to "Cuando los Ángeles Lloran" was mixed and the first single, the funk-influenced "Déjame Entrar", failed to reach the top ten on the Mexican Singles Chart. However, the album later caught on and sold 500,000 copies in the United States alone within five months of release.


title: Maná

text: In 1997, the group released "Sueños Líquidos", an album about the highs and lows of love, with songs like "Clavado en un bar" and "En el Muelle de San Blás", recorded in Puerto Vallarta and released simultaneously in 36 countries. The recording received a Grammy Award as Best Latin Rock/Alternative Album. The group performed acoustically in Miami for Latin America's "MTV Unplugged" program. A final version of the performance was mixed at Conway Recording Studios in Hollywood, and the band released "Maná MTV Unplugged" on 14 May 1999.


title: Maná

text: In 2002, in an effort to blend their sound with that of rock and roll from the sixties and seventies, the band recorded "Revolución de Amor". They won their fourth Grammy for the album. The band released a new version of "Eres mi Religión" for the Italian market in 2003, as a duet with Italian musician Zucchero, and also performed with Zucchero in a new recording of his "Baila Morena". This same year they participated in the annual Pavarotti & Friends concert, along with Queen, Deep Purple, Ricky Martin, Andrea Bocelli, Zucchero and Bono.


title: Maná

text: In 2006, after a four-year hiatus, they released their seventh studio album, "Amar es Combatir". It reached #4 on the "Billboard" Top 200 in its first week, selling over 60,000 copies in the first week. Their first single off the album, "Labios Compartidos", rose to the top of the music charts upon its debut in July, when the group played the song live at the Premios Juventud. "Amar es Combatir" has sold over 644,000 copies, and the Amar es Combatir Tour in promotion of the album grossed more than $35 million.


title: Maná

text: In 2008, Maná released a live album entitled "Arde El Cielo", in both a CD and CD/DVD package. This release shows the band performing during the Amar es Combatir Tour in support of "Amar es Combatir".


title: Maná

text: On 12 April 2011, the band released its eighth studio album, "Drama y Luz". The record's release was delayed several times, initially scheduled for a Fall 2010 release, which was later changed to December 2010, and finally changed to April 2011. The band explained that "Drama y Luz" was not ready for fans and spent time during the delays putting the finishing touches on the record. Themes addressed on the album include love, hope, addiction, and racism. The first single from the album, "Lluvia al Corazón", became the band's sixth song to reach number one on the "Billboard" Latin Songs chart, as well as its eighth song to top the magazine's Latin Pop Songs chart.


title: Maná

text: In 2018, Mana received the Billboard Latin Music Lifetime Achievement Award and performed live on Telemundo from the Mandalay Bay Events Center in Las Vegas. Mana was honored as the Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year on 14 November 2018.


title: Maná

text: In 2019, Mana announced in February 2019 their new tour "Rayando el sol tour" that will start in the USA in September 2019. On 12 April Maná released a new version of their classic hit Rayando el sol featuring Spanish singer Pablo Alborán as the first song from their upcoming project.


title: Maná

text: In August 2021, Billboard and Telemundo announced that Maná would be honored with the icon award at the 2021 Billboard Latin Music Awards on 23 September 2021. The announcement included that the band would also perform a remake of the classic "El Reloj Cucú" ft. 12-year-old artist Mabel at the awards show.


title: Maná

text: Selva Negra Foundation ("Black Jungle Foundation") is a foundation formed by Maná in 1995. Under the direction of Mari González and Augusto Benavides, they finance and support important projects aimed at protecting the environment. With the support of Mexico's government, they also have efforts to save the sea turtle by raising 140,000 turtle eggs for release on the country's Pacific coast.


title: Maná

text: On 7 April 2008, Maná and the Selva Negra Foundation were named "Champions of Health" by the Pan American Health Organization during an observance of World Health Day 2008 at PAHO headquarters in Washington, D.C.


title: Maná

text: On 29 March 2007, Puerto Rico's Channel 4, WAPA's News program, reported that Maná publicly supported Puerto Rico's prospective independence from the United States. In an interview that followed the aforementioned news announcement, the members of Maná were interviewed by Channel 4 (WAPA) journalist, Rafael Lenín López, who asked them what they thought about Puerto Rico. Maná members confirmed that they support the Puerto Rican Independence Movement and favor greater sovereignty for the Latin American and Caribbean island-nation.


title: Maná

text: Various of their songs have political inspirations. The liner notes for "Me Voy a Convertir en Un Ave," on the album "Sueños Líquidos", for example, notes that the song is "inspired by the book "Pedro y el capitán" by Mario Benedetti and dedicated to all those who, for defending an ideal of justice, are persecuted or find themselves imprisoned. To the Zapatista Army of National Liberation communities for peace and dignity."


title: Maná

text: The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. FAO was founded on 16 October 1945 in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada. The FAO Goodwill Ambassadors Programme was initiated in 1999. Maná was nominated and appointed FAO Ambassadors on 16 October 2003. Maná emphasized that their song "Justicia, Tierra y Libertad" (in English: Justice, Land, and Liberty [Freedom]) from the "Revolución de Amor" album, is a message of hope and inspiration in the search of a world without hunger.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: A compact fluorescent lamp (CFL), also called compact fluorescent light, energy-saving light and compact fluorescent tube, is a fluorescent lamp designed to replace an incandescent light bulb; some types fit into light fixtures designed for incandescent bulbs. The lamps use a tube that is curved or folded to fit into the space of an incandescent bulb, and a compact electronic ballast in the base of the lamp.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Compared to general-service incandescent lamps giving the same amount of visible light, CFLs use one-fifth to one-third the electric power, and last eight to fifteen times longer. A CFL has a higher purchase price than an incandescent lamp, but can save over five times its purchase price in electricity costs over the lamp's lifetime. Like all fluorescent lamps, CFLs contain toxic mercury, which complicates their disposal. In many countries, governments have banned the disposal of CFLs together with regular garbage. These countries have established special collection systems for CFLs and other hazardous waste.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: The principle of operation remains the same as in other fluorescent lighting: electrons that are bound to mercury atoms are excited to states where they will radiate ultraviolet light as they return to a lower energy level; this emitted ultraviolet light is converted into visible light as it strikes the fluorescent coating, and into heat when absorbed by other materials such as glass.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: CFLs radiate a spectral power distribution that is different from that of incandescent lamps. Improved phosphor formulations have improved the perceived color of the light emitted by CFLs, such that some sources rate the best "soft white" CFLs as subjectively similar in color to standard incandescent lamps.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: White LED lamps compete with CFLs for high-efficiency lighting. General Electric has since stopped production of domestic CFL lamps in the United States in favour of LEDs.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: The parent to the modern fluorescent lamp was invented in the late 1890s by Peter Cooper Hewitt. The Cooper Hewitt lamps were used for photographic studios and industries.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Edmund Germer, Friedrich Meyer, and Hans Spanner patented a high-pressure vapor lamp in 1927. George Inman later teamed with General Electric to create a practical fluorescent lamp, sold in 1938 and patented in 1941. Circular and U-shaped lamps were devised to reduce the length of fluorescent light fixtures. The first fluorescent light bulb and fixture were displayed to the general public at the 1939 New York World's Fair.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: The spiral CFL was invented in 1976 by Edward E. Hammer, an engineer with General Electric, in response to the 1973 oil crisis. Although the design met its goals, it would have cost GE about $25 million to build new factories to produce the lamps, and thus the invention was shelved. The design was eventually copied by others.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: In 1980, Philips introduced its model SL*18, which was a screw-in or bayonet mount lamp with integral magnetic ballast. The lamp used a folded T4 tube, stable tri-color phosphors, and a mercury amalgam. Inventor of new phosphors was Louis Vrenken. This was the first successful screw-in replacement for an incandescent lamp, using new rare earth aluminum lattice phosphors to solve the problem of lumen depreciation that would normally occur quickly in such a thin tube; however, it wasn't widely adopted, because of its large size, weight (over half a kilogram), pronounced 50 Hz flicker and 3-minute warm up time. It was based on the SL1000 prototype from 1976. In 1985, Osram started selling its model Dulux EL, which was the first CFL to include an electronic ballast.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Volume was an issue in CFL development, since the fluorescent lamps had to fit in the same volume as comparable incandescent lamps. This required the development of new, high-efficacy phosphors that could withstand more power per unit area than the phosphors used in older, larger fluorescent tubes.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: In 1995, helical CFLs, manufactured in China by Shanghai Xiangshan, became commercially available. They were first proposed by General Electric, who saw difficulties bending glass tubes into spirals using automated machinery. Xiangshan solved this problem by bending the tubes by hand, made possible by the then-low labor costs in China. Since that time, sales steadily increased. The phosphor coating in spiral CFLs is uneven, being thicker at the bottom than at the top, owing to the effect of gravity during the coating process. Although their popularity varied across countries, in China CFLs were the "dominant technology in the residential segment" in 2011.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: The rise of LED lighting, however, significantly affected CFL sales and production. As a result of decreasing cost and better features, customers increasingly migrated toward LEDs. In India, "nearly 60 per cent of the lighting market in India has been taken over by LEDs" by 2018. LED prices fell well below US$5 for a basic bulb in 2015. In the United States, CFLs were also facing the possibility of proposed regulations for 2017 that would create difficulty qualifying for the Energy Star rating. In early 2016, General Electric announced it would phase out CFL production in the US.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: There are two types of CFLs — integrated and non-integrated lamps, where CFL-i denotes an integrated ballast and CFL-ni denotes a non-integrated ballast. Integrated lamps combine the tube and ballast in a single unit. These lamps allow consumers to replace incandescent lamps easily with CFLs. Integrated CFLs work well in many standard incandescent light fixtures, reducing the cost of converting to fluorescent. 3-way lamps and dimmable models with standard bases are available.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Non-integrated CFLs have the ballast permanently installed in the luminaire, and usually only the fluorescent tube is changed at its end of life. Since the ballasts are placed in the light fixture, they are larger and last longer compared to the integrated ones, and they don't need to be replaced when the tube reaches its end-of-life. Non-integrated CFL housings can be both more expensive and sophisticated. They have two types of tubes: a bi-pin tube designed for conventional ballast, e.g. with G23 or G24d plug-in base, and a quad-pin tube designed for an electronic ballast or a conventional ballast with an external starter. A bi-pin tube contains an integrated starter, which obviates the need for external heating pins but causes incompatibility with electronic ballasts.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Non-integrated CFLs can also be installed to a conventional light fixture using an adapter containing a built-in magnetic ballast. The adapter consists of a regular bulb screw, the ballast itself and a clip for the lamp's connector.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: CFLs have two main components: a magnetic or electronic ballast and a gas-filled tube (also called bulb or burner). Replacement of magnetic ballasts with electronic ballasts has removed most of the flickering and slow starting traditionally associated with fluorescent lighting, and has allowed the development of smaller lamps directly interchangeable with more sizes of incandescent light bulb.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Electronic ballasts contain a small circuit board with a bridge rectifier, a filter capacitor and usually two switching transistors, which are often insulated-gate bipolar transistors. The incoming AC current is first rectified to DC, then converted to high frequency AC by the transistors, connected as a resonant series DC to AC inverter. The resulting high frequency is applied to the lamp tube. Since the resonant converter tends to stabilize lamp current (and light emitted) over a range of input voltages, standard CFLs respond poorly in dimming applications and will experience a shorter lifespan and sometimes catastrophic failure. Special electronic ballasts (integrated or separate) are required for dimming service.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: CFL light output is roughly proportional to phosphor surface area, and high output CFLs are often larger than their incandescent equivalents. This means that the CFL may not fit well in existing light fixtures.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: To fit enough phosphor coated area within the approximate overall dimensions of an incandescent lamp, standard shapes of CFL tube are a helix with one or more turns, multiple parallel tubes, circular arc, or a butterfly.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Some CFLs are labeled not to be run base up, since heat will shorten the ballast's life. Such CFLs are unsuitable for use in pendant lamps and especially unsuitable for recessed light fixtures. CFLs designed for use in such fixtures are available. Current recommendations for fully enclosed, unventilated light fixtures (such as those recessed into insulated ceilings), are either to use "reflector CFLs" (R-CFL), cold-cathode CFLs or to replace such fixtures with those designed for CFLs. A CFL will thrive in areas that have good airflow, such as in a table lamp.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: CFLs emit light from a mix of phosphors, each emitting one band of color with some bands still in the ultraviolet range as can be seen on the light spectrum. Modern phosphor designs balance the emitted light color, energy efficiency, and cost. Every extra phosphor added to the coating mix improves color rendering but decreases efficiency and increases cost. Good quality consumer CFLs use three or four phosphors to achieve a "white" light with a color rendering index (CRI) of about 80, where the maximum 100 represents the appearance of colors under daylight or other sources of black-body radiation such as an incandescent light bulb (depending on the correlated color temperature).


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Color temperature can be indicated in kelvins or mireds (1 million divided by the color temperature in kelvins). The color temperature of a light source is the temperature of a black body that has the same chromaticity (i.e. color) as the light source. A notional temperature, the correlated color temperature, the temperature of a black body that emits light of a hue that to human color perception most closely matches the light from the lamp, is assigned.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: The color temperature is characteristic of black-body radiation; practical white light sources approximate the radiation of a black body at a given temperature, but will not have an identical spectrum. In particular, narrow bands of shorter-wavelength radiation are usually present even for lamps of low color temperature ("warm" light).


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: As color temperature increases, the shading of the white light changes from red to yellow to white to blue. Color names used for modern CFLs and other tri-phosphor lamps vary between manufacturers, unlike the standardized names used with older halophosphate fluorescent lamps. For example, Sylvania's Daylight CFLs have a color temperature of 3500 K, while most other lamps called "daylight" have color temperatures of at least 5000 K. In United States, Energy Star's specification provides a set of named color temperatures for certified luminaries.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: CFLs typically have a rated service life of 6000–15,000 hours, whereas standard incandescent lamps have a service life of 750 or 1000 hours. However, the actual lifetime of any lamp depends on many factors, including operating voltage, manufacturing defects, exposure to voltage spikes, mechanical shock, frequency of cycling on and off, lamp orientation, and ambient operating temperature, among other factors.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: The life of a CFL is significantly shorter if it is turned on and off frequently or is used in a totally enclosed fixture. In the case of a 5-minute on/off cycle the lifespan of some CFLs may be reduced to that of incandescent light bulbs. The US Energy Star program suggests that fluorescent lamps be left on when leaving a room for less than 15 minutes to mitigate this problem. CFLs emit less light later in their lives than when they are new. The light output decay is exponential, with the fastest losses being soon after the lamp is first used. By the end of their lives, CFLs can be expected to emit 70–80% of their original light output. The response of the human eye to light is logarithmic. That is, while the human eye is highly sensitive to changes in the intensity of faint light sources, it is less sensitive to changes in the intensity of brighter light sources since the pupils compensate by dilating or constricting. So, presuming the illumination provided by the lamp was ample at the beginning of its life, and the light output of a bulb gradually decreases by 25%, viewers will perceive a much smaller change in light intensity.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Fluorescent lamps get dimmer over their lifetime, so what starts out as an adequate luminosity may become inadequate. In one test by the U.S. Department of Energy, of "Energy Star" products in 2003–04, one quarter of tested CFLs no longer met their rated output after 40% of their rated service life.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Because the eye's sensitivity changes with the wavelength, the output of lamps is commonly measured in lumens, a measure of the power of light as perceived by the human eye. The luminous efficacy of lamps is the number of lumens emitted for each watt of electric power used. The luminous efficacy of a typical CFL is 50–70 lumens per watt (lm/W) and that of a typical incandescent lamp is . Compared to a theoretical 100%-efficient lamp (), CFL lamps have lighting efficiency ranges of 7–10%, versus 1.5–2.5% for incandescents.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Because of their higher efficacy, CFLs use between one-seventh and one-third of the power of equivalent incandescent lamps. Of 2010 world total lighting sales, 50 to 70 percent were incandescent. Replacing all inefficient lighting with CFLs would save per year, 2.5% of world electricity use. In the US, it is estimated that replacing all incandescents would save 80 TWh yearly. Since CFLs use much less energy than incandescent lamps (ILs), a phase-out of ILs would result in less carbon dioxide () being emitted into the atmosphere. Exchanging ILs for efficient CFLs on a global scale would achieve annual reductions of 230 Mt (million tons), more than the combined yearly emissions of the Netherlands and Portugal.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: If a building's indoor incandescent lamps are replaced by CFLs, the heat emitted due to lighting is significantly reduced. In warm climates, or in office or industrial buildings where air conditioning is often required, CFLs reduce the load on the cooling system when compared to the use of incandescent lamps, resulting in savings in electricity in addition to the energy efficiency savings of the lamps. However, in cooler climates in which buildings require heating, the heating system must replace the reduced heat from lighting fixtures. In Winnipeg, Canada, it was estimated that CFLs would only generate 17% savings in energy compared to incandescent bulbs, as opposed to the 75% savings that could have been expected without space heating considerations.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: While the purchase price of a CFL is typically 3–10 times greater than that of an equivalent incandescent lamp, a CFL lasts 8–15 times longer and uses two-thirds to three-quarters less energy. A US article stated "A household that invested $90 in changing 30 fixtures to CFLs would save $440 to $1,500 over the five-year life of the bulbs, depending on your cost of electricity. Look at your utility bill and imagine a 12% discount to estimate the savings."


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: CFLs are extremely cost-effective in commercial buildings when used to replace incandescent lamps. Using average U.S. commercial electricity and gas rates for 2006, a 2008 article found that replacing each 75 W incandescent lamp with a CFL resulted in yearly savings of $22 in energy usage, reduced HVAC cost, and reduced labour to change lamps. The incremental capital investment of $2 per fixture is typically paid back in about one month. Savings are greater and payback periods shorter in regions with higher electric rates and, to a lesser extent, also in regions with higher than U.S. average cooling requirements. However, frequent on-off cycling (turning on and off) of CFLs greatly reduces their lifespan.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: The current price of CFLs reflects the manufacturing of nearly all CFLs in China, where labour costs less. In September 2010, the Winchester, Virginia, General Electric plant closed, leaving Osram Sylvania and the tiny American Light Bulb Manufacturing Inc. the last companies to make standard incandescent bulbs in the United States. At that time, Ellis Yan, whose Chinese company made the majority of CFLs sold in the United States, said he was interested in building a United States factory to make CFL bulbs, but wanted $12.5 million from the U.S. government to do so. General Electric had considered changing one of its bulb plants to make CFLs, but said that even after a $40 million investment in converting a plant, wage differences would mean costs would be 50% higher.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: According to an August 2009 newspaper report, some manufacturers claimed that CFLs could be used to replace higher-power incandescent lamps than justified by their light output. Equivalent wattage claims can be replaced by comparison of actual light output emitted by the lamp, which is measured in lumens and marked on the packaging.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: In addition to the wear-out failure modes common to all fluorescent lamps, the electronic ballast may fail, since it has a number of component parts. Ballast failures are usually due to overheating and may be accompanied by discoloration or distortion of the ballast enclosure, odors, or smoke. The lamps are internally protected and are meant to fail safely at the end of their lives. Industry associations are working toward advising consumers of the different failure modes of CFLs compared to incandescent lamps, and to develop lamps with inoffensive failure modes. New North American technical standards aim to eliminate smoke or excess heat at the end of lamp life.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Only some CFLs are labeled for dimming control. Using a dimmer with a standard CFL is ineffective and can shorten bulb life and void the warranty. Dimmable CFLs are available. The dimmer switch used in conjunction with a dimmable CFL must be matched to its power consumption range; many dimmers installed for use with incandescent bulbs do not function acceptably below 40 W, whereas CFL applications commonly draw power in the range 7–20 W. Dimmable CFLs have been marketed before suitable dimmers are available. The dimming range of CFLs is usually between 20% and 90%, but many modern CFLs have a dimmable range of 2% to 100%, more akin to that of incandescent lights. There are two types of dimmable CFL on the market: Standard dimmable CFLs, and "switch-dimmable" CFLs. The latter use a standard light switch, and the on-board electronics chooses the light output level based on the number of times the switch is turned on and off quickly. Dimmable CFLs are not a 100% replacement for incandescent fixtures that are dimmed for "mood scenes" such as wall sconces in a dining area. Below the 20% limit, the lamp may remain at 20% or flicker or the starter circuitry may stop and restart. Above 80%, the bulb may operate at 100%. However, recent products have solved these problems so that they perform more like incandescent lamps. Dimmable CFLs are more expensive than standard CFLs due to the additional circuitry.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: Cold-cathode CFLs can be dimmed to low levels, making them popular replacements for incandescent bulbs on dimmer circuits.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: When a CFL is dimmed, its color temperature (warmth) stays the same. This is counter to incandescent light sources, where color gets redder as the light source gets dimmer. The Kruithof curve from 1934 described an empirical relationship between intensity and color temperature of visually pleasing light sources.


title: Compact fluorescent lamp

text: The input stage of a CFL is a rectifier, which presents a non-linear load to the power supply and introduces harmonic distortion on the current drawn from the supply. The use of CFLs in homes has no appreciable effect on power quality, but significant quantities of them in a large facility can have an adverse effect. The power factor of CFLs does not significantly affect their energy-saving benefits for individual consumers, but their use in large numbers, such as in commercial applications or across millions of homes in a distribution system, could require infrastructure upgrades. In such cases, CFLs with low (below 30 percent) total harmonic distortion (THD) and power factors greater than 0.9 should be selected.